Ancillary Control Equipment

Introduction
This unit will describe the functions of the ancillary equipment that is part of a process control
loop.

Included is a brief explanation of how these devices work to give the trainee a basic understanding
of these very important pieces of equipment.

Transmitters
A transmitter is “a device which takes a measurement and changes it into a standard signal”.

Let us look into what this statement actually means. Process variables can be sensed, measured,
and an indication given to the Process Technician - you.
 The pressure gauge indicates the pressure
 The temperature gauge indicates the temperature
 The flow meter indicates the flow
 The level gauge indicates the liquid level.

This is important information as it shows you what is happening inside the vessels in the plant.

 The instruments that control the processes need the same information.
 The information has to be in a ‘language’ that the controlling instruments can understand.
 It is the function of the transmitters to transmit that information to where it is needed.
 The transmitter does this by sending a signal.
 This signal normally goes to an instrument called a ‘controller’.
 Controllers will be dealt with in the next unit.
 The output signal from the transmitter can be either pneumatic or electrical.
 The signals are ‘standard signals’.
 This means that no matter which company makes the transmitters, the type and range of the output
signals are the same.
 In other words, they all speak the same language.

Pneumatic Output Signals = 3 to 15 psig (0.2 to 1 Bar)

Electric Output Signals = 4 to 20 mA (milli-amp)

 A transmitter has what is called a ‘live zero’.

 This allows a broken circuit to be easily detected.

 The newest transmitters are electronic and their output signals are pulsed (digital) signals.

 This is the ‘language’ of computers.

Pneumatic Transmitters

 We will look at the pneumatic pressure transmitter and a pneumatic temperature transmitter
  Because they are cheaper to install and to maintain electrical transmitters have replaced the
pneumatic transmitters in most plants.
 The transmission lines for their signals are also cheaper and easier to install.
 Electrical transmitters only need two wires. Pneumatic transmitters need expensive stainless steel
tubing and air lines.

Pneumatic Pressure Transmitter

One of the few types still in use is the Foxboro Type 11.
 The process pressure to be measured is applied to a diaphragm capsule.
 The pressure moves the capsule. This movement is applied to one end of a force bar pivoted
about the diaphragm seal.
 The force bar moves the flexible connector. The connector pulls the flapper to and from the
nozzle.

Pneumatic Pressure Transmitter - Foxboro Type 11

 The back pressure from the nozzle is amplified by the relay.

 This gives the standard output signal of 3 to 15 psig (0.2 to 1 bar)
.
-

2
Pneumatic Temperature Transmitter

 The gas filled thermal system (the bulb and capillary tube) is joined to a bellows called an element
capsule.
 This forms a closed system. Heat on the sensor produces a change in gas pressure in the thermal
system. This change in pressure makes the element capsule expand or contract.
 The force bar is pivoted at the cross flexure. It is joined to the element capsule at one end and the
flapper at the other end. It is moved by the force of expanding bellows of the element capsule.
 As it moves it adjusts the position of the flapper at the other end.

Pneumatic Temperature Transmitter

 The output pressure of the nozzle varies with the change in pressure in the bellows caused by the
change in temperature of the filled system.

 The relay amplifies the nozzle output pressure to a standard 3 to 15 psi (0.2 to 1 bar) signal.

Electrical / Electronic Transmitters

 Electrical transmitters have replaced pneumatic transmitters in most petrochemical plants.

 Modern transmitters have become ‘throw away’ items.
 If they cannot be calibrated due to an internal fault they are not serviced.
 They are thrown away as junk and replaced with a new transmitter.
 The internal boards (printed circuits) are also ‘junked’ and replaced.

3
Electrical / Electronic Transmitters

The electronic transmitters normally have two boards.

 A range board (depends on the sensor in use)
 An output board - converts the input signal from range board to the standard 4 to 20 mA output
signal.

 The following slide shows an electronic transmitter.

 When the main casing and end cap are screwed together they give an explosion proof enclosure.
This protects the electrical/electronic components inside the casing

Electrical / Electronic Transmitters

Instrument technicians can only carry out two adjustments to an Electronic transmitter.

 Set the zero point(Zero)

 Set the range (span)

Converters (also called Transducers)

 Convert means change.

 Converters are devices that change one type of standard signal to another type of standard signal:

 Pneumatic to electrical (psi to mA)
 Electrical to pneumatic (mA to psi)

 A converter allows pneumatic and electronic instruments to work together.

*******
.

4
 Control Valves
 Pressure, levels and temperatures in a vessel can be controlled by controlling the flow of fluids in
and out of the vessel.
 This controlling could be carried out manually but would require careful attention over the full
period of time.
 By installing a control valve to control the liquid flow the work load is decreased
 By having one of the variables (pressure, level or temperature) monitoring the required variable
and altering the control valve as required the workload is reduced to one of occasional monitoring
 The signal from the sensor is sent by a transmitter to a Controller where the signal is analysed.
 If a change is required it sends a signal (usually electronic) to a device called an Actuator where
a transducer converts that signal to a change in the pneumatic air pressure to the actuator.
 The actuator responds to the change in air pressure by opening or closing a Final Control Element.
 The final control element is usually a valve that opens or shuts, thereby altering the flow of fluid

Control Valve Actuators

Actuators push, pull or rotate the stems of control valves in order to open or close the valves.
Actuators can be operated by pneumatic, hydraulic, electro-mechanical or electro-hydraulic power.
There are many different types in use in our industry. We will look at some of the more common types
Control Valve Pneumatic Actuators (Diaphragm Type).

 Pneumatic Actuators are widely used in petrochemical plants.

5
  Air Pressure (pneumatic) is applied to the top of the diaphragm. When the air pressure exceeds 3
psig (0.2 bar) the diaphragm pushes down and compresses the spring.

 This moves the actuator stem and the valve plug stem downwards

.
Air to Open Control valve

The air supply to the diaphragm compresses the spring and forces the valve to the open
position. This type of control valve is said to fail-close. Control valve Pneumatic Actuators
(Diaphragm Type)

 At 15 psig (1 bar) the spring is fully compressed and the valve is fully closed.
 Any air signal pressure above 3 psig but below 15 psig will partly close the valve.
 The pressure of the air signal controls how much the control valve is open. How much the control
valve is open controls how much fluid can flow through the valve.
 A ‘fail open’ valve means that if the air signal fails the actuator will open the valve.

6
Control Valve Pneumatic Actuators (Diaphragm Type)

7
Control Valve Pneumatic Actuators (Diaphragm Type)

 The actuator can be designed to work in the opposite direction, ie air to open, (fail close). See
figure on previous slide.
 Air ‘air to open’ valve works on the same principle as an air to close valve but in the opposite
direction.
 Air pressure under the diaphragm pushes up the stem. This compresses the spring and the valve
opens.
 This is a ‘fail close’ valve so if the air signal fails the valve closes.
 There are different types of air driven actuators for control valves, but the principle is the same
Control Valve Pneumatic Actuators (Piston Type).

 The piston type pneumatic actuator can develop more force than the diaphragm type actuator.

 These actuators are used to operate butterfly or ball valves.

 The actuator rotates the valve stem to operate the valve.

Control Valve Pneumatic Actuators (Piston Type)

By studying this it can be seen that the actuator and its operation is relatively simple
.

8
9
Control Valve Actuators – Electrical Type Actuator

 Pneumatic actuators can be used on control valves because they can control the position of the
valve anywhere between fully open and fully closed.
 Electrical actuators are used mainly to open or close valves completely. They can only set the
valve in two positions.
 Fully Open
 Fully Closed

 Valves which can only be fully open or fully closed are not true control valves.

Control Valve Actuators – Electrical Type Actuator

However, electric actuators are included here because operators will use them during plant
operations.
There are two main types:

 Solenoid types
 Motor operated types

These on/off type actuators are only used on small lines.

10
Electrical Type Actuator

 These valves are used on large diameter lines. They are either open or closed.
An electric signal uses a solenoid switch to start a hydraulic pump. The hydraulic pressure produced
opens the valve by pushing a piston in the hydraulic actuator.
More force can be applied in hydraulic systems than in pneumatic systems. That is why these
actuators can be used on large valves.

11
 Other ESD’s incorporate the spring and the air piston in the one chamber as illustrated.
Instead of a hydraulic pump this type of valve has a manually operated hand-wheel which allows the
valve to be opened manually.
Note the electronic ‘dump’ valve mounted on the side. If a shutdown switch activates this dumps
the air pressure and the spring shuts the valve

Other ESD’s incorporate the spring and the air piston in the one chamber as illustrated.
Instead of a hydraulic pump this type of valve has a manually operated hand-wheel which allows the
valve to be opened manually
Note the electronic ‘dump’ valve mounted on the side. If a shutdown switch activates this dumps the air
pressure and the spring shuts the valve.

12
13
Control Valve Bodies
The control valve body is the part of the control valve through which the process fluid flows.
The single plug valve (A) is used for flow control at low pressures. The double plug system (B) is used
for flow control at high pressures (the pressures on the plug are balanced).

14
Control Valve Bodies

Most of the globe valves in use in the oil and gas industry are the plug and cage type.

15
16
 This valve (the crude pump bypass valve at Agogo) was worked on in Feb 2003. The filter mesh
on the cage was badly fouled with waste and sand. The piston was heavily etched and the sealing ring
was also damaged. The filter was cleaned, the remaining parts were replaced.

 The process fluid controlled by the valve goes through holes cut in the cage.
 The plug covers or uncovers these holes.
 The amount of the hole which is open depends on the position of the plug. The position of the
plug therefore controls the flow.
 If a lot of the hole is open then a lot of fluid can flow through the valve. If a little of the hole is
open then only a little fluid can flow through the valve.
 Pressures in the valve are balanced by drilling a small hole through the plug.
 These types of valves are normally direct acting.

Hand Jack (Hand wheel)

 Some valves are fitted with a device called a “Hand Jack” or “Side Mounted Hand Wheel”
 This is a mechanical linkage that can be used to open or close a control valve if there is a loss of
instrument air, etc.
 If the control valve is fitted with a bypass then the need for a hand jack is negated as the bypass
can be used instead
 Once a hand jack is engaged it will limit the movement of the control valve
 All side mounted handjacks can be used to stroke the valve in either direction at any point in the
actuator stem travel
 The handjacks can be positioned to limit travel in either direction – but not both at the same time
 In neutral position automatic operation is possible throughout full valve travel
 In any other position, valve travel will be restricted.

17
 Close up of hand jack indicator

.
The indicator has been checked and is reading OK. This has since been adjusted to read
correctly.
The hand jack can be rotated to the right and the valve will be ‘hand jacked’ open. The
reverse direction will shut it.

18
 When in ‘neutral’ there should be a small amount of ‘play’ in either direction Controllers.

The hand jack can be rotated to the right and the valve will be ‘hand jacked’ open. The reverse
direction will shut it.
When in ‘neutral’ there should be a small amount of ‘play’ in either direction
The hand jack can be rotated to the right and the valve will be ‘hand jacked’ open. The reverse direction
will shut it.
When in ‘neutral’ there should be a small a Operation of a Controller
The main parts of the controller are shown in the previous slide.

set point (desired value). If there is a difference it sends an error signal to the control amplifier.
amount of ‘play’ in either direction.

19
 Controllers
Operation of a Controller

Receiver
The receiver receives the signal from the transmitter. The transmitter changes the signal so
that the signal can be read by the controller operating system. It then sends this signal to the error
detector.

Error Detector
The error detector reads any difference between the measured process variable (measured
value) and the set point (desired value). If there is a difference it sends an error signal to the control
amplifier
.
 Control Amplifier – this unit adjusts the output signal to the correcting unit. The final control
unit is something which controls part of the process (eg a flow control valve).
 The correcting unit continues to correct the error until the signal from the error detector is reduced
to zero.
 A zero signal from the error detector means that the measured variable is the same as the set point.
 When there is no error the control amplifier keeps the correcting unit at a fixed position.

Operation of a Controller - Manual Control

 Sometimes, the Technician must switch the controller to ‘manual’ and adjust the output signal
from the controller by hand.

 The output signal is indicated in percentage.

Fully closed = 0%
Fully open = 100

Introduction
The aim of this unit is to introduce the function of the controller and to describe the basic pneumatic and
electronic control system
.
Function of a Controller

 In any processing plant the main process variables; flow, level, pressure and temperature must be
controlled.
 The value that we want for these variables is called the ‘set point’ value.
 For example, if the liquid in a tank must be 3 meters deep, then the set point for ‘level’ is 3
meters.
 The function of a controller is to keep the process variable at the set point value.
r
 To do this the controller compares the measured value of the process variable, to the set point
value. If these values are different then the controller must take action.

20
  The controller must make the variable return to the set point value.
 For example, if the level in a tank is too high, (eg 4 meters) the controller may close a valve to
stop liquid going into the tank.
When the level in the tank falls to the set value (eg 3 meters) the controller will open the valve
again.
.
Operation of a Controller

To see how a controller works let us look at what is inside a controller. We will do this by using
a simple block diagram.

The error detector reads any difference between the measured process variable (measured
value) and the set point (desired value). If there is a difference it sends an error signal to the control
amplifier.

 Control Amplifier – this unit adjusts the output signal to the correcting unit. The final control
unit is something which controls part of the process (eg a flow control valve).
 The correcting unit continues to correct the error until the signal from the error detector is reduced
to zero.
 A zero signal from the error detector means that the measured variable is the same as the set point.
 When there is no error the control amplifier keeps the correcting unit at a fixed position.

Operation of a Controller - Manual Control

 Sometimes, the Technician must switch the controller to ‘manual’ and adjust the output signal
from the controller by hand.

 The output signal is indicated in percentage.

Fully closed = 0%
Fully open = 100%

21
Operation of a Controller - PID Controller Sub-Systems

 A PID Controller is a Proportional Integral and Derivative Controller

 There are three main sub-systems in a PID controller.
 Each sub-system can be adjusted separately.
 On the older systems the adjustments can be made with a screwdriver.
 On the new systems the adjustments are made merely by changing the computer program.

Operation of a Controller - PID Controller Sub-Systems

The sub-systems are:

 Proportional Band (gain)
This controls how much the error signal is amplified.
 Integral (Reset)
This cancels out the final error which may be left after the proportional action has finished.
 Derivative (Rate)
This is used on slow moving control loops, eg temperature control loops. It gives the system a
quick start when an error occurs.

Operation of a Controller - PID Controller Sub-Systems

 Only Instrument Technicians can make these adjustments.

 You should be aware that the sub-systems are in the controller.

 Manual control should only be used when the process is under continuous surveillance.

The Pneumatic Controller

 Most automatic control systems are electronic, but pneumatic controllers are still used in some
places.
 Pneumatic controllers are used in remote places because they do not need an electrical supply.
 Pneumatic controllers are run on compressed air. However, they can also be run on separated
gas if there is no supply of compressed air.
 The most common pneumatic controller is made by Foxboro.
 The pneumatic controller is a completely independent unit.
The Pneumatic Controller
 The unit will indicate and control a range of process variables.
 The type of process variable it controls depends on the type of sensor and scale fitted into the
controller.
 It can be used to control all the main process variables:
 Pressure
 Temperature
 Level
 Flow

The Pneumatic Controller

This is an Indicator Controller – it does not record the process variable that it is sensing.
If it recorded the process variable it would be a Recorder Controller.

22
The Electrical Controller
In a standard electrical control loop the devices in the system are connected in series.

The system uses a 4 to 20 mA current signal for a 0 to 100% measurement range.

It also uses a 4 to 20 mA current signal to operate the final control element, (the controlling
unit).

The Electrical Controller - The IP Converter

 The final control element is normally a pneumatic control valve.
 A pneumatic control valve is operated by compressed air.

23
  Therefore, the 4 to 20 mA signal from the electrical controller must be converted (changed) into a
pneumatic signal, so that the valve will operate.
 The device which changes the electric current into a pneumatic signal is called a current to
pneumatic converter. (IP Converter)

The Electrical Controller - The IP Converter

The Control Loop

 A sensor on the equipment (in the field) measures the process variable. A transmitter sends this
value to the controller.
 The transmitter sends the value of the process variable as a signal of 4 to 20 mA.
 The controller then compares this 4 to 20mA signal with the set point. If it detects an error it
computes (decides) what action must be taken to correct the error.
 Then it sends a signal to the final control element.
 The final control element changes the signal into an action which brings the process variable back
to set point.
 The Electrical Controller - The Safety Barriers
 All the instrument signals are very low current (4 to 20mA). A very strong current could damage
a control system.
 There are two ‘safety barriers’ at the point where the signals enter and leave the control room.
 These safety barriers protect the control system from dangerous voltages in the case of a fault in
the circuit.
 Dangerous voltages could burn parts of the control system. A fire in a petrochemical plant is very
dangerous.

The Electronic Controller

 The latest systems are called ‘Smart Systems’ or ‘Digital Systems’.

24
  The following notes are given as a brief introduction to the systems in use.

 There are basically three types of electronic controllers:

 The Analog type
 The Digital type
 The Digital type – with Workstation Operation.

The Electronic Controller

The Analog type of Electronic Controller

 An example of this type of controller is the Foxboro Spec 200.

 The signals to an analog controller are changing all the time
 Analog controllers provide proportional, integral and derivative control from these continuously
changing signals.

Analog = Continuously Changing

The Electronic Controller

The Digital type of Electronic Controller

 An example of this type of controller is the Foxboro 760 series.

 This controller uses a small computer (micro-processor) to provide single loop control.
 The settings can be changed by using a keyboard on the front of the unit.
 These controllers has a pass code security system.
 This means that only people who know the pass code can change the settings of the controller.

The Electronic Controller

The Digital Type – Workstation Operation

 These are the latest type of controllers.

 These controllers can operate up to 20 control loops at the same time.
 A display for each loop is shown on a workstation screen.
 The Technician changes the loop variables using a typewriter keyboard.
 Modern control systems use these controllers.
 These control systems will be described later in this package.

**********

Control Loops
Introduction
 Process control instrumentation systems are very complex.
 The complex systems are made up of smaller, simpler systems.
 These small systems are called control loops.
 We will look at simple control loops.

25
General Symbols for Piping and Instrument Lines

Instrument Symbols

General Symbols for Flow Sensing Devices

In a process ‘Piping and Instrument Diagram(P&ID) the control valves are shown in the
‘Emergency Shut Down’ ESD position.

26
 Instrument Symbols General Symbols for Valves

The ESD position is the position the control valve goes to when the instrument signal to the
valve fails.
Most P & ID’s show the manual operation of important process valves. Other manual valves eg
drain valves, bypass valves instrument, block valves etc. do not have the manual symbol.

27
28
 Instrument Symbols [Identification (tag) number]

The first letter shows the process variable which the instrument measures eg F = flow etc.
The following letters show what the instrument does (function) eg A = Alarm. Normally the
maximum number of letters if 4.
All the instruments in the same loop eg transmitter, controller and control valve, have the
same tag number.

29
 Instrument Symbols

The letters used on a P&ID diagram to show the operation of an instrument are not always the
same in every diagram.
They can vary between companies and processing facilities. The table lists the common letters
used on P&ID’s and their meanings.

30
31
32
 Computer Symbols

 Modern control systems are controlled by computers (microprocessors).

 The recorders, indicators, alarms etc are displayed on a video screen.
 The controller is part of the microprocessor.
 To indicate this on a P & ID, it is usual to put the circles in a square box.

 Some computer operations are done separately from the computer control
system.
 This is shown by using the circle symbol with the computer function written outside, as shown
below

33
Computer Symbols

 Some computer operations are done separately from the computer control system.
 This is shown by using the circle symbol with the computer function written outside, as shown
below

Computer Symbols
The following computer symbols are reasonably standard.

34
Simple Control Loops
Simple diagrams will show the basic control loops:
 Flow Control
 Level Control
 Pressure Control
 Temperature Control
 The four process variables are all controlled by controlling the flow of liquids or vapors into or
out of the vessels.
 Where a P&ID drawing indicates an instrument as being a recorder e.g. FRC the TDC it will
indicate on the TDC as well and will record in the history module.

Flow Control Loop

35
 In the next series of slides a range of controllers are shown. The type below is a local
controller which indicates the process and allows the set point to be adjusted. If it has a chart the
controller is a recording controller, without a chart it is an ‘Indicator’ controller . For instance a TRC
would change to a TIC.

36
37
Level Control Loop

38
Pressure Control Loop

 In this diagram a PRC is holding a back pressure on the tower

 The pressure would also be indicated and recorded on the TDC
 The same would apply with the LCV (level control loop). This would be recorded in the history
module of the TDC

Temperature Control Loop

 Temperature control of processes is normally more complicated.
 Therefore the instrument loops to control temperature are more complicated.
 This is because the temperature changes take a long time.

We will look at temperature control later in this unit.

39
Cascade Control Loops

 A cascade control loop has two controllers and one control valve.
 The main purpose of a cascade control loop is to make the control system act more quickly.
 The control system must reduce the amount of time it takes to get the process variable back to the
set point.
 The next illustration shows a simple diagram of a cascade control loop.
 The tag number for the loop is 4.

40
Operation of Cascade Control

The control loop is controlling the temperature at tray

number 5 in a process distillation tower.

 The temperature is sensed at tray 5.

 The temperature transmitter (TT-4) converts the temperature into a signal.
 The temperature signal is transmitted to the temperature controller (TIC-4).
 This controller has a set point temperature that has been set by the process technician.
 This controller is known at the ’master’.

Operation of Cascade Control

 The output signal from the master controller is obtained by comparing the set point temperature
with the process temperature.
 The second controller is the ‘slave’ controller (FIC-4).

41
  The output signal from the master controller is the set point for the ‘slave’ controller.
 The output signal of the slave controller is obtained by comparing its set point (which it gets from
the master) to the amount of steam flow.
 The output signal from the slave controller is the input signal to the control valve.
 The control valve adjusts the steam flow as needed.

Operation of Cascade Control

It can be seen that a cascade control loop measures a process variable. It also measures a second
process variable which will have an effect on the first process variable (in this case the flow of steam).
In this way all the factors that affect the first process variable are used to produce the control signal for
the final control element.

This makes the final control element react more quickly to changes in the process variables.

Spilt Range Control Loops

 A split range control loop has one controller and two final control elements.
 The output range of a controller is 0 to 100%.
 The split range control part of that range acts on one final control element.
 The remainder of the range acts on a second final control element.
 This sounds complicated but it is simple.

42
Spilt Range Control Loops -refer to drawing on the previous slide

 Control loop tag No 4 is a split range control loop which controls the pressure in the depropaniser
column (C-1).
 Vapour comes off the top of the column and passes through the condenser where it is cooled.
 The vapour condenses to liquid, therefore the pressure decreases.
 The condensate then flows to the reflux drum.

Operation of Split Range Control Loops

 The vapour in the condenser is cooled by 4 fans. The fans blow air through the condensers similar
to a large car radiator.
 The angles of the fan blades are changed by the output signal from the controller (PIC-4).
 When the controller output signal goes above 50% the fan blades are at maximum pitch to provide
maximum cooling.
 The condenser fans cannot give more cooling because they are already at maximum pitch.

Operation of Split Range Control Loops

 The controller output signal then tells the control valve PCV-4 to open. This allows vapour from
the reflex drum to vent to flare.
 Venting vapour reduces the pressure in the column.
 This split range controller normally operates from 0 to 50% output signal for normal process
control which controls pitch of the Fin Fan blades.
 Over 50% output signal provides extra process control for abnormal process conditions – in this
case opens the valve to flare.

Ratio Control Loops

 Ratio control loops maintain a specific ratio between the flow of two process streams.
 On very old 2 stream control systems one stream has no flow control.
 Only flow of the second stream is controlled in order to keep the correct ratio between the two
streams.
 This kind of ratio control is old fashioned.
 The modern method is to control the flow of both process streams.
 The output signal from the flow transmitter on the first stream is used as the set point for the
controller on the second stream.
 The ratio between the flow rates of the two streams can be changed by adjusting the second
controller.
 The actual flow rates are set by adjusting the set point of the first controller.

Operation of Ratio Control Loop

 The flow rate in the first stream goes up.

 The output signal from the flow transmitter goes up.
 Therefore the set point to the second controller also goes up.
 The second controller increases the flow in the second stream to meet the new set point.
 The next slide is a typical example.

43
Operation of Ratio Control Loop

 The figure is a P&ID diagram of a Ratio Control Loop. The ratio of air to fuel gas in this loop is
2:1.
 Ratio Control is also used to maintain the correct mixture of process feed and catalyst in the
reactor vessels.

Feed Forward Control Loops

 A feed forward controller controls the process variable on the output by measuring process
variables on the point.
 If it detects changes in the inlet process variables it takes action immediately before the liquid
enters the process vessel.
 It is used on the new systems which have micro processors (computers).

 Feed forward control is often used to control centrifugal compressor systems which are driven by
large gas-turbines.

 Feed forward control systems on this kind of equipment are complex. It is simpler to understand
from the next figure
Feed Forward Control Loops
The figure shows a process liquid being heated by steam in a heat exchanger. The process variable
to be controlled is the process liquid outlet temperature T2.
Feed Forward Control Loops
The figure shows a process liquid being heated by steam in a heat exchanger. The process variable
to be controlled is the process liquid outlet temperature T2.
Feed Forward Control Loops
 The set point for the feed forward controller is therefore the same temperature as T2.
 The flow of steam F2 is controlled to control the temperature.
 The flow control valve for the steam is controlled by a standard flow controller (FC).

44
  This flow controller get it’s ‘set point’ from the feed forward controller.
 The feed forward controller receives information on the temperature, T1, and the flow rate F1 of
the process liquid as it comes in.
Feed Forward Control Loops
 This means that the system responds to changes more quickly, which, in turn gives closer control
of the controlled variable.
 The Technician adjusts the set point on the feed forward controller to give the desired process
liquid outlet temperature.

Multi-Variable Control Loops –UIC Systems

 Feed forward controllers receive information on two process variables - flow rate and
temperature in the example given.
 Very precise control can be achieved by controllers that receive information on many variables
(multi-variables).
 This can be done with modern controllers that contain micro-processors.
 A typical example is the anti-surge controller of a large centrifugal gas compressor.
Forward Control Systems
 The Inlet Separators operate on a ‘Feed Forward’ control system’
 An ‘averager’ senses the levels in the three separators and ‘averages’ their levels. It then sends a
signal forward to the feed control valves on the Stabilizers.
 The control also controls the separator feed inlets to hold the levels at approximately 55%.
 Any feed rate fluctuations are absorbed in the feed Slug Catchers.
 An override is set on the stabilizer feed control valves which limits the feed rate to avoid flooding
the towers.
 The override is set by the Technician

Multi-Variable Control Loops –UIC Systems

The output from the UIC to the recycle control valve depends on the inputs from six different
transmitters.
The controller normally uses proportional, integral and derivative control action (PID control).
These valves are set using a computer software program.

45
 Distribution Control Systems (DCS)

Programmable Logic Controllers (PLC)

Introduction

This unit will explain what is meant by DCS (Distributive Control Systems) and PLC
(Programmable Logic Controllers) in process control instrument systems
.
 You do not need to control these systems but you need to know where you, the Technician, fit into
the system.
 A DCS is a control system which allows the processes in the plant to be monitored and controlled
from different points at the same time.
 PLC’s are used in safety systems to shut down a plant in an emergency.

Distributive Control Systems (DCS)

 The control system in plant processes are becoming very efficient and have great capacity but are
also becoming more complex.
 DCS means that the control of the various process units in the plant is distributed (separated)
around the plant.
 Each processing unit has a Local Control Unit (LCU).

46
Overview
The plant in the last slide has three separate (distributed).

Local Control Units (LCU).

Gas Compression Unit

Gas Fractionation Column Unit
Steam Generation Unit

 A large processing facility will have many Local Control Units.

 The TDC systems are DCS’s
 The information that the control room operator needs is sent by a single cable (data highway)
from the Local Control Unit to the Central Control Room (CCR).
 This information is shown on the Video Display Unit (VDU) in the Central Control Room.
 The Technician in the Central Control Room can change the set points in the control loops and
open or close motor-operated valves in the plant, etc.
 He does this by sending signals back along the same data highways.

The DCS 5 Level Concept

 Different companies manufacture DCS’s.

47
  The layout of a DCS depends on which company has manufactured the system.
 However, all the big manufactures make the same type of 5 level DCS as shown in Figure 9.2

The DCS 5 Level Concept

The Control Room T.D.C. is a DCS system

 There are 5 levels at which the system can be controlled or monitored.

 The system includes everyone.
 The level 1 is the Process Technician (at the ‘sharp end’)
 Level 5 can be, if desired, the Managing Director at the other end of the scale.
Distributive Control Systems (DCS)
Level 1
 This is the field device level.
 The input devices (transmitters) and output devices (control valves) are connected to
Input/Output units (I/O units).
 The I/O units convert the signals received from the transmitters to specially coded signals.
 The signals are sent in a special code because the data bus highway must handle many signals at
the same time
.

48
  The field bus data highway is a co-axial cable like a TV antenna cable. It can transmit many
signals in two directions at the same time.
 The specially coded signals have the I/O units along the field bus data highway to level 2. The
I/O units also receive specially coded signals from level 2 on the same field bus highway.
 Those incoming signals are converted by the I/O units into output signals which can be used to
operate the final control devices.
Distributive Control Systems (DCS)
Level 1 (cont)
 The field bus data highway is a co-axial cable like a TV antenna cable. It can transmit many
signals in two directions at the same time.
 The specially coded signals have the I/O units along the field bus data highway to level 2. The
I/O units also receive specially coded signals from level 2 on the same field bus highway.
 Those incoming signals are converted by the I/O units into output signals which can be used to
operate the final control devices.

Level 2

 The data on the field bus contains all the information for each loop input and output.
 The control parameters (PID settings) for each loop are separately programmed.
 The CP controls each loop in turn eg 1,2,3,4,5;1,2,3,4 5 etc.
 It only takes milliseconds to switch from one loop to the next.
 The CP switches so rapidly that it seems as if it is controlling all the loops at the same time.

Level 3

 This is the top level of control at the plant.

 This level of control is normally located in the Central Control Room (CCR).
 The information which is needed for each loop is displayed on a Video Display Unit (VDU) at a
work station.

49
  The workstation supervisor can change the set points in the control loops or change from
automatic to manual control etc.
 The supervisor does this by using the keyboard at the workstation.
 These commands are sent to the CP’s at Level 2.
 Large control systems may have many workstations.
 These workstations display information from many Local Control Units around the plant.

 Note:
The control loops are actually controlled by the Control Processor at Level 2.

Therefore, a fault on the CCR workstation (level 3) does not mean that control of a plant unit has
been lost.

Level 4
 This is the Area Management control level.
 At this level the process can be monitored but there is no direct control.
 An applications processor (AP) at level 3 takes selected signals from the CP’s.
 The AP converts the signals into a digital code so they can be sent one way over a higher level
data highway.
 This allows information about how the plant unit is operating to be displayed on CDU’s in the
plant manager’s office.
 Level 4 gives information only.

Level 5

 This is Group Management level at Head Office.

 At this level parts of the process can be monitored but there is no direct control.
 Selected signals from the AP at level 3 are converted into a different code.
 These converted signals can then be sent by microwave link to the head office.

 The head office may be hundreds of miles away from the plant.

 This means that senior management can have displays of information to see what is happening
on the plants, as it happens.

Level 5 (cont)
 With the old control systems, the senior managers could only look at records of what happened in
the plant.

 Records can sometime be limited and sometimes do not show all the data that is required to
analyses a problem.

 With this system a VDU gives them all the information they require.

 Level 5 gives information only.

50
 Programmable Logic Controllers (PLC)

 Although a PLC is not normally regarded as a process control instrument modern day technology
is now making this possible.
 Normally their function is to control a sequence of actions.
 For instance, a processing facility cannot be shutdown by pressing one button. All the separate
processing units must be shut down in a certain order or sequence.
 PLC’s provide electronic switching operations:
 For emergency shut down procedures (ESD)
 For fire alarm systems
 For gas detection systems
 In a normal sequence PLC’s only operate the switching sequence.
 The sequence is controlled by a computer software program.
 A systems engineer is needed to design the software programmes which control the switching
sequence.
 Technicians cannot change the programs.
 In a switching sequence a PLC, once activated (starts to work) cannot be stopped.
How a PLC Works
 When everything in the plant is working normally the PLC is energized.
 When the PLC is energized an electrical digital signal holds the micro processor in the
‘operating’ mode.
 The micro processor holds all the switches in the ‘energized’ mode.
 If there is an emergency, the PLC operates the switching sequence which shuts down the plant.
 The micro processor in the PLC de-energizes the switches sequentially.
How a PLC Works
 This means that the output devices are changed to the pre-programmed shut down positions.
 When you shut down a processing plant, it takes time for some processes to stop working.
 Therefore, time delays are built into the system where necessary.
 Note: All shut down systems are designed so that they are energized when they are working
normally.

How a PLC Works

 When a shut down system is de-energized, it shuts down the process.

 It is not ‘safe’ to make a system energize for shut down.
 An electrical equipment fault or supply problem would not shut the plant down if there was an
emergency because there would be no electrical energy to energize the shut down system.

This ends this package on instrumentation.

51