Module 1: Operating-System

Structures

Operating System Concepts – 8th Edition Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2009

Chapter 2: Operating-System Structures

Operating System Services
User Operating System Interface
System Calls
Types of System Calls
System Programs
Operating System Design and Implementation
Operating System Structure

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Objectives
To describe the services an operating system provides to users,
processes, and other systems

To discuss the various ways of structuring an operating system

To explain how operating systems are installed and customized and

how they boot

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 Operating System Services
Operating systems provide an environment for execution of programs and
services to programs and users
One set of operating-system services provides functions that are helpful to the
user:
User interface - Almost all operating systems have a user interface (UI).

Varies between Command-Line (CLI), Graphics User Interface
(GUI), Batch
Program execution - The system must be able to load a program into
memory and to run that program, end execution, either normally or
abnormally (indicating error)
I/O operations - A running program may require I/O, which may involve a file or
an I/O device
File-system manipulation - The file system is of particular interest.
Programs need to read and write files and directories, create and delete them,
search them, list file Information, permission management.
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Operating System Services (Cont.)

Communications – Processes may exchange information, on the
same computer or between computers over a network

Communications may be via shared memory or through message
passing (packets moved by the OS)
Error detection – OS needs to be constantly aware of possible
errors

May occur in the CPU and memory hardware, in I/O devices, in
user program

For each type of error, OS should take the appropriate action to
ensure correct and consistent computing
 
Debugging facilities can greatly enhance the user’s and
programmer’s abilities to efficiently use the system

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Operating System Services (Cont.)

Another set of OS functions exists for ensuring the efficient operation of the
system itself via resource sharing
Resource allocation - When multiple users or multiple jobs running
concurrently, resources must be allocated to each of them

Many types of resources - Some (such as CPU cycles, main memory, and
file storage) may have special allocation code, others (such as I/O devices)
may have general request and release code
Accounting - To keep track of which users use how much and what kinds of
computer resources
Protection and security - The owners of information stored in a multiuser or
networked computer system may want to control use of that information,
concurrent processes should not interfere with each other

Protection involves ensuring that all access to system resources is
controlled

Security of the system from outsiders requires user authentication, extends
to defending external I/O devices from invalid access attempts

If a system is to be protected and secure, precautions must be instituted
throughout it. A chain is only as strong as its weakest link.

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A View of Operating System

Services
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User Operating System Interface - CLI

Command Line Interface (CLI) or command interpreter allows direct
command entry

Sometimes implemented in kernel, sometimes by systems
program

Sometimes multiple flavors implemented – shells

Primarily fetches a command from user and executes it

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 User Operating System Interface - GUI
User-friendly desktop metaphor interface
Usually mouse, keyboard, and monitor
Icons represent files, programs, actions, etc
Various mouse buttons over objects in the interface cause various actions
(provide information, options, execute function, open directory (known as a
folder)
Invented at Xerox PARC

Many systems now include both CLI and GUI interfaces

Microsoft Windows is GUI with CLI “command” shell
Apple Mac OS X as “Aqua” GUI interface with UNIX kernel underneath and
shells available
Solaris is CLI with optional GUI interfaces (Java Desktop, KDE)
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System Calls
Programming interface to the services provided by the OS

Typically written in a high-level language (C or C++)

Mostly accessed by programs via a high-level Application Program

Interface (API) rather than direct system call use

Three most common APIs are Win32 API for Windows, POSIX API for
POSIX-based systems (including virtually all versions of UNIX, Linux,
and Mac OS X), and Java API for the Java virtual machine (JVM)

Why use APIs rather than system calls?

 (Note that the system-call names used throughout this text are
generic)

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Example of System Calls System call

sequence to copy the contents of one file to another file
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Example
of
Standard API
Consider the ReadFile() function in the
Win32 API—a function for reading from a file

A description of the parameters passed to ReadFile()

HANDLE file—the file to be read
LPVOID buffer—a buffer where the data will be read into and written from
DWORD bytesToRead—the number of bytes to be read into the buffer
LPDWORD bytesRead—the number of bytes read during the last read
LPOVERLAPPED ovl—indicates if overlapped I/O is being used

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 System Call Implementation
Typically, a number associated with each system call
System-call interface maintains a table indexed according to these
numbers

The system call interface invokes intended system call in OS kernel

and returns status of the system call and any return values

The caller need know nothing about how the system call is
implemented
Just needs to obey API and understand what OS will do as a result
call
Most details of OS interface hidden from programmer by API

Managed by run-time support library (set of functions built into
libraries included with compiler)
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API – System Call – OS

Relationship
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Standard C Library Example C

program invoking printf() library call, which calls write() system call

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System Call Parameter Passing

Often, more information is required than simply identity of desired
system call
Exact type and amount of information vary according to OS and call

Three general methods used to pass parameters to the OS

Simplest: pass the parameters in registers

In some cases, may be more parameters than registers
Parameters stored in a block, or table, in memory, and address of
block passed as a parameter in a register

This approach taken by Linux and Solaris
Parameters placed, or pushed, onto the stack by the program and
popped off the stack by the operating system
Block and stack methods do not limit the number or length of
parameters being passed

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Parameter Passing via Table

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 Types of System Calls
Process control
end, abort
load, execute
create process, terminate process
get process attributes, set process attributes
wait for time
wait event, signal event
allocate and free memory
File management
create file, delete file
open, close file
read, write, reposition
get and set file attributes
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Types of System Calls (Cont.)

Device management
request device, release device
read, write, reposition
get device attributes, set device attributes
logically attach or detach devices
Information maintenance
get time or date, set time or date
get system data, set system data
get and set process, file, or device attributes
Communications
create, delete communication connection
send, receive messages
transfer status information
attach and detach remote devices

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Examples of Windows and

Unix System Calls
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Example: MS-DOS
Single-tasking
Shell invoked when system booted
Simple method to run program
No process created
Single memory space
Loads program into memory, overwriting all but the kernel
Program exit -> shell reloaded

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 MS-DOS
execution

(a) At system startup (b) running a program

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Example: FreeBSD
Unix variant
Multitasking
User login -> invoke user’s choice of shell
Shell executes fork() system call to create process
Executes exec() to load program into process
Shell waits for process to terminate or continues with user commands
Process exits with code of 0 – no error or > 0 – error code
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FreeBSD Running Multiple

Programs
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System Programs
System programs provide a convenient environment for program
development and execution. They can be divided into:
File manipulation
Status information
File modification
Programming language support
Program loading and execution
Communications
Application programs

Most users’ view of the operation system is defined by system

programs, not the actual system calls

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 System Programs
Provide a convenient environment for program development and
execution
Some of them are simply user interfaces to system calls; others are
considerably more complex

File management - Create, delete, copy, rename, print, dump, list, and
generally manipulate files and directories

Status information
Some ask the system for info - date, time, amount of available
memory, disk space, number of users
Others provide detailed performance, logging, and debugging
information
Typically, these programs format and print the output to the terminal
or other output devices
Some systems implement a registry - used to store
and retrieve configuration information
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System Programs (Cont.)

File modification
Text editors to create and modify files
Special commands to search contents of files or perform
transformations of the text

Programming-language support - Compilers, assemblers, debuggers

and interpreters sometimes provided

Program loading and execution- Absolute loaders, relocatable

loaders, linkage editors, and overlay-loaders, debugging systems for
higher-level and machine language

Communications - Provide the mechanism for creating virtual

connections among processes, users, and computer systems
Allow users to send messages to one another’s screens, browse web
 pages, send electronic-mail messages, log in remotely, transfer files from

one machine to another

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Operating System Design

and Implementation

Design and Implementation of OS not “solvable”, but some approaches

have proven successful

Internal structure of different Operating Systems can vary widely

Start by defining goals and specifications

Affected by choice of hardware, type of system

User goals and System goals

User goals – operating system should be convenient to use, easy
to learn, reliable, safe, and fast
System goals – operating system should be easy to design,
 implement, and maintain, as well as flexible, reliable, error-free, and
efficient

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Operating System Design and

Implementation (Cont.)

Important principle to separate

Policy: What will be done?
Mechanism: How to do it?

Mechanisms determine how to do something, policies decide what will

be done
The separation of policy from mechanism is a very important
principle, it allows maximum flexibility if policy decisions are to be
changed later
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Simple Structure
MS-DOS – written to provide the most functionality in the least space

Not divided into modules

Although MS-DOS has some structure, its interfaces and levels of
functionality are not well separated
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MS-DOS Layer Structure

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Layered Approach
 The operating system is divided into a number of layers (levels), each
built on top of lower layers. The bottom layer (layer 0), is the
hardware; the highest (layer N) is the user interface.

With modularity, layers are selected such that each uses functions
(operations) and services of only lower-level layers

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 Traditional UNIX System
Structure
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UNIX

UNIX – limited by hardware functionality, the original UNIX operating

system had limited structuring. The UNIX OS consists of two separable
parts
Systems programs
The kernel

Consists of everything below the system-call interface and
above the physical hardware

Provides the file system, CPU scheduling, memory
management, and other operating-system functions; a large
number of functions for one level
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Layered Operating System

 Operating

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Microkernel System Structure

 Moves as much from the kernel into “user” space
Communication takes place between user modules using message
passing

Benefits:
Easier to extend a microkernel
Easier to port the operating system to new architectures
More reliable (less code is running in kernel mode)
More secure

Detriments:
Performance overhead of user space to kernel space
communication

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Mac OS X Structure
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Modules
Most modern operating systems implement kernel modules

Uses object-oriented approach

 Each core component is separate
Each talks to the others over known interfaces
Each is loadable as needed within the kernel

Overall, similar to layers but with more flexible

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Solaris Modular Approach

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Virtual Machines
A virtual machine takes the layered approach to its logical conclusion. It
treats hardware and the operating system kernel as though they were
all hardware.

A virtual machine provides an interface identical to the underlying bare

hardware.

The operating system host creates the illusion that a process has its
own processor and (virtual memory).

Each guest provided with a (virtual) copy of underlying computer.

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 Virtual
Machines (Cont.)

(a) Nonvirtual machine (b) virtual machine

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VMware Architecture
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The Java Virtual Machine

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Operating System Generation

Operating systems are designed to run on any of a class of machines;
the system must be configured for each specific computer site

SYSGEN program obtains information concerning the specific

configuration of the hardware system

Booting – starting a computer by loading the kernel

Bootstrap program – code stored in ROM that is able to locate the

kernel, load it into memory, and start its execution
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System Boot
Operating system must be made available to hardware so hardware
can start it
Small piece of code – bootstrap loader, locates the kernel, loads it
into memory, and starts it
Sometimes two-step process where boot block at fixed location
loads bootstrap loader
When power initialized on system, execution starts at a fixed
memory location

Firmware used to hold initial boot code
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End of Chapter 2
Operating System Concepts – 8th Edition Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2009