CONTENTS :-

• Introduction, Loader schemes:

1. Compile and Go
2. General Loader Scheme
3. Absolute Loaders
4. Subroutine Linkages
5. Relocating Loaders
6. Direct linking Loaders
• Overlay structure,
• Design of an Absolute Loader,
• Design of Direct linking Loader,
• Self-relocating programs,
• Static and Dynamic linking
CONTENTS :-
Sample videos :
1. Preprocessor :
https://youtu.be/JZkPEl8JjZo?list=PLhb7SOmGNUc6Fg7zmBOOS3
yN2AG0JiREp

2. Compiler execution stages :

https://youtu.be/cJDRShqtTbk?list=PLhb7SOmGNUc6Fg7zmBOOS
3yN2AG0JiREp
 Introduction
Computer : A programmable device that can store, retrieve,
and process data.(Combination of H/w & S/w )

Hardware : things which we can touch.

Software : things which we cannt touch.(Can only see)

Programming: A programming language is a set of
commands, instructions, and other syntax use to create a
software program.

Data : Information in a form a computer can use

Information : Any knowledge that can be communicated
 Introduction
Machine language : The language, made up of binary coded
instructions, that is used directly by the computer

Assembly language : A low-level programming language

in which a mnemonic is used to represent each of the
machine language instructions for a particular computer
 Introduction
Source code : Program or set of instructions written in a
high-level programming language

Object code : A machine language version of source

code.

Target code : program output in Machine code (binary

form)

,
 Introduction
Preprocessor :
A preprocessor is a program that processes its input data to produce
output that is used as input to another program.

Editor : A text editor is a type of computer program that edits plain

text. Such programs are sometimes known as "notepad" software

Compiler : A program that translates a program written in a high-

level language into machine code

Assembler : A program that translates an assembly language

program into machine code
 Introduction
Loader:-
• A loader is a program used by an operating system to load
programs from a secondary to main memory so as to be executed.

Linker :
A linker is a computer program that takes one or more object files
generated by a compiler and combines them into one, executable
program

Debugger :
Debugger is program which is used to test program or execute
program in single step execution.
INTRODUCTION TO LOADER
 Object code, or an object file, is the representation of
code that a compiler or assembler generates by
processing a source code file.
 A linker is typically used to generate an executable file
by linking object files together.
 Object files often also contain data for use by the code
at runtime, relocation information, program symbols
(names of variables and functions) for linking and/or
debugging purposes, and other debugging information.
Introduction
to
Loader
 INTRODUCTION TO LOADER
The loader loads the program into the main memory for execution of that
program. It loads machine instruction and data of related programs and
subroutines into the main memory, this process is known as loading.
The loader performs loading; hence, the assembler must provide the
loader with the object program
 FUNCTION OF LOADER
1. Allocation: It allocates memory for the program in the main
memory.

2. Linking: It combines two or more separate object programs or

modules and supplies necessary information.

3. Relocation: It modifies the object program so that it can be

loaded at an address different from the location.

4. Loading: It brings the object program into the main memory

for execution.
Source Loader Object program
Assembler ready for execution
Program

Fig.: Role of loader Memory

10/28/2023 13
 Loader is utility program which takes object
code as input prepares it for execution and loads
the executable code into the memory.

 Thus loader is actually responsible for

initiating the executions process.
10/28/2023 14
 Relocation and linking concepts

10/28/2023 15
 User defined function and library function
 Example - printf() ,scanf()

 The linking process makes address of modules known to each other so

that transfer of control takes place during execution.

 Passing of parameter is handled by the linker.

 Public variable-same address

 External variable –defined in one module and used in another module.

 Resolving of addresses of symbolic reference is handled by the

linker.
10/28/2023 16
 Linker-
1.Handled the passing of parameter
2.Resolving of address of symbolic reference

10/28/2023 17
 It is the process of modifying the addresses used
in the address sensitive instructions of a program
 So, program Can execute correctly from any
designated area of memory.
 Ex. MOVER AREG,X

Ex.:-Program A, call function F1();

 Program A and F1() must be linked with each
other.
10/28/2023 18
Case I: Address assigned to Prog. A and F1 () when they translated to
memory 0

Drawback- a lot of storage area

100
is wasted
A
250
Wasted area

400
F1
500
Fig.: General Loading scheme
10/28/2023 19
Case II: These two module cannot co-exist at same storage locations.
Main
Storage
0

100 150
A
A
250 151
F1
100
251
F1
200
Relocated address given
Translation time by the loader
address
10/28/2023 Fig.: Relocation to avoid address conflict or storage waste 20
 A loader must relocate A and F1 to avoid address
conflict or storage waste.
 Relocation refers to adjustment of address field
not to movement of a program.

10/28/2023 21
ARCHITECTURE OF LOADER

Architecture of Loader
 ARCHITECTURE OF LOADER
• Source program: This is a program written in a high-level
programming language that needs to be executed.

• Translator: This component, such as a compiler or interpreter,

converts the source program into an object program.

• Object program: This is the program in a machine-readable

form, usually in binary, that contains both the instructions and
data of the program.

• Executable object code: This is the object program that has

been processed by the loader and is ready to be executed.
 ADVANTAGES OF LOADER
• Memory management – allow separate/protected area

• Dynamic Linking – handle external references

• Relocation – to avoid conflict with other program

• Error handling – missing libraries, incompatible

instruction

• Modularity – easier to maintain and update

• Reusability – same module/libraries can be used by

other program also
DISADVANTAGES OF LOADER
• Complexity – implementation difficult due to memory
management, relocation etc.

• Overhead – take more time to process

• Limited flexibility – may not be easily portable

• Security – poor design may introduce vulnerability

• Dependency issues – may depend on external libraries

Various types of loader ,based on various functionalities
1. Compile and go loader
2. General loader scheme
3. Absolute loader
4. Subroutine linkage
5. Relocating loader
6. Direct linking loader
10/28/2023 27
 COMPILE AND GO LOADER
Compile and Go Loader :
 COMPILE AND GO LOADER
Performing the loader function is to have the assembler run in one
part of memory and place the assembled machine instructions and
data, as they are assembled, directly into their assigned memory
location. It is also called “assemble and go loader”

In this scheme, the source code goes into the translator line by line, and
then that single line of code loads into memory.

In another language, chunks of source code go into execution. Line-by-

line code goes to the translator so there is no proper object code. Because
of that, if the user runs the same source program, every line of code will
again be translated by a translator. So here re-translation happens.
ADVANTAGES COMPILE AND GO LOADER
1. It is very simple to implement.
2. The translator is enough to do the task, no subroutines are needed.
3. It is the most simple scheme of the functions of the loader
4. It provides security

Disadvantages:
1. There is no use of the assembler but it is still there so a wastage of
memory takes place.
2. When source code runs multiple times the translation is also done
every time. so re-translation is happening.
3. Difficult to produce an orderly modular program
4. Difficult to handle multiple segments like if the source program is in a
different language. eg. one subroutine is assembly language & another
subroutine is FORTRAN
 GENERAL LOADER SCHEME
General Loader Scheme :

In this loader scheme, the source program is converted to object

program by some translator (assembler). The loader accepts these
object modules and puts the machine instruction and data in an
executable form at their assigned memory. The loader occupies
the same portion of main memory.
Program modules A and B are loaded in memory after linking. It is
ready for execution

Object
Module
A
A
Loader

B
Object
Module
B

10/28/2023 Fig.: General Loading scheme 32

GENERAL LOADER SCEMES

Architecture of Loader
 GENERAL LOADER SCEMES
• Source program: This is a program written in a high-level
programming language that needs to be executed.

• Translator: This component, such as a compiler or interpreter,

converts the source program into an object program.

• Object program: This is the program in a machine-readable

form, usually in binary, that contains both the instructions and
data of the program.

• Executable object code: This is the object program that has

been processed by the loader and is ready to be executed.
ADVANTAGES OF GENERAL LOADER
1. Smaller than Assembler
2. No reassembly is needed
3. Possible to write subroutines in different languages
4. There is no wastage of memory because assembler is
not placed in memory so more memory is available to
user.
5. Avoid drawbacks of Compile and Go Loader.
 DISADVANTAGES OF GENERAL LOADER

• Some portion of memory occupied by loader

• General loader cannot handle different object model from

other computer.

• Dependenacy issues
 ABSOLUTE LOADER
Absolute Loader: It loads a program at a specific memory
location, specified in the program’s object code. This location is
usually absolute and does not change when the program is loaded
into memory.
• An Absolute loader is the simplest of all other loaders.
• It takes the output of Assembler and load into memory without
relocation.
• The output of the assembler can be stored on any machine
readable form of storage, But most commonly it is stored on
punched cards or magnetic tape, disk, or drum.
• It loads a binary program in memory for Execution .
10/28/2023 39
 Binary program is stored in a file that contains:
 Header records: Contains load Origin ,Length of
code, load time execution starting address of
program.
 Transfer record: contains entry point of execution

10/28/2023 40
 ADVANTAGES OF ABSOLUTE
LOADER
1. It is simple to implement
2. No relocation is required.
3. The process of execution is efficient.
4. The task of loader becomes simpler as it simply obeys
the instruction regarding where to place the object code
to the main memory.
5. This scheme allows multiple programs or the source
programs written in different languages.
DISADVANTAGES OF ABSOLUTE
LOADER

1. Programmer must specify the starting address to the

assembler for the program where it should be loaded.

2. so programmer must know memory management as

well as memory status at any time.

3. It is very difficult to relocate in case of multiple

subroutine.
• In absolute loader 4 loader function are
performed by,
 Allocation: by programmer
 Linking: by programmer
 Relocation: by assembler
 Loading-by loader

10/28/2023 43
 SUBROUTINE LINKAGE LOADER
Subroutine: In given program ,it is often needed to
perform a particular subtask many times on different data
values. such a subtask is usually called a subroutine.

Subroutine linkage method: The way in which a machine

makes it possible to call and return from subroutine is
referred to as its Subroutine linkage method
4. SUBROUTINE LINKAGE
 ADVANTAGES OF SUBROUTINE
LINKAGE
1. Code reuse: Subroutines can be reused in multiple parts of a
program, which can save time and reduce the amount of code
that needs to be written.

2. Modularity: Subroutines help to break complex programs

into smaller, more manageable parts, making them easier to
understand, maintain, and modify.

3. Encapsulation: Subroutines provide a way to encapsulate

functionality, hiding the implementation details from other
parts of the program.
 DISADVANTAGES OF SUBROUTINE
LINKAGE
1. Overhead: Calling a subroutine can incur some overhead, such
as the time and memory required to push and pop data on the
stack.

2. Complexity: Subroutine nesting can make programs more

complex and difficult to understand, particularly if the nesting
is deep or the control flow is complicated.

3. Side Effects: Subroutines can have unintended side effects,

such as modifying global variables or changing the state of the
program, which can make debugging and testing more difficult.
 RELOCATING LOADER

A relocating loader is a type of loader that is used in

system software to load programs into memory and
adjust their addresses. It is responsible for dynamic
loading, address translation, and using a symbol
table to adjust the addresses of a program's
instructions and data.
5. RELOCATING LOADER
 5. RELOCATING LOADER
Relocation is the process of modifying the address used by program such that
program can execute correctly.

E.g. assume that a program A calls a function F1. The program A and the
function F1 must be linked with each other. But where we have to load in main
storage? A possible solution would be to load them according to address
assigned when they were translated.

Case (I) At the time of translation A has been given storage area from 100 to
250 while F occupies area between 400 to 500. If we were to load these
programs at their translated address , a lot of storage will be wasted.
 5. RELOCATING LOADER
Case (II) at the time of translated, both A and F1 may have been translated
with the identical start address 100. A goes from 100 to 250 and F1 goes
from 100 to 200. These two modules cannot co-exist at same. The linker
must relocate A and F1 to avoid address conflict or storage waste A possible
relocation is shown in figure.

It may be noted that relocation more than simply moving a program from one are to
another in the storage. It refers to adjustment of address fields and not to movement of a
program.
 It avoid reassembling of all subroutines when
single subroutine change.
 All 4 function are performed (i.e. Allocation,
Loading, Linking & reallocation).
 Transfer vector is used to solve the problem of
linking & Program length info to solve
allocation.
10/28/2023 52
 No suited for loading external data.
 Transfer vector increase the size.
 Does not facilitate access to data segment that
can be shared.

10/28/2023 53
6. DIRECT LINKING LOADER
 It is type of Re-locatable Loader.
 It is most common type of loader.
 It allows the programmer to use multiple
procedure segments and multiple data segments.
 The assembler should give the following
information to the loader:
1.The length of the object code segment.
2.A list of all symbols which are not defined in the
current segment but can be used in the current
segment.
10/28/2023 56
3.A list of all symbols which are defined in the
current segment but can be referred in the current
segment.
4.Information about address constants.
5.Machine code translation of the source program and
relative address.
 To place the object code in the memory there are
two situations:1. Address of the object code could
be absolute.2. The address of object code can be
relative.
10/28/2023 57
 The list of symbols not defined in the current
segment but used in the current segment are stored
in a data structure called USE table.
 The lists of symbols defined in the current segment
and referred by the other segments are stored in a
data structure called DEFINITION table.
10/28/2023 58
 Assembler generates 4 types of cards in the
object desk:
 ESD:External Symbol Dictionary (ESD) record:
 TXT: (TXT) records.
 RLD: Relocation and Linkage Directory (RLD):
 END :End of object deck

10/28/2023 59
1.ESD:External Symbol Dictionary (ESD) record:
Card contain information about all symbol that are
defined in this program, but that may reference
elsewhere, and all symbol referenced in this
program but defined elsewhere.
Source object symbol Type Relative Length
record Location
no./card no.
1 MAIN SD 0 36
2 RESULT LD 32 -
3 10/28/2023
SUM ER - - 60
 Type:
 SD: segment definition: symbol in segment
 LD: Local definition: symbol is defined in this
program but it can be referenced by other
program.
 ER: External symbol: defined in some external
program.

10/28/2023 61
 2. TXT: (TEXT) records.
 Text card contains actual object code.(translated
source code).
Source object Relative Location Object code
record no.
1 0

2 32

3 -

10/28/2023 62
3. RLD: Relocation and Linkage Directory (RLD):
Card contain information about those locations in
the program whose content depend on the
address at which the program is placed
Source ESD_ID Length(in Flag + or - Relative
object Byte) address
record no.

+ sign denote that something must be added to the constant 63

4.END: card indicate the end of object code and
specifies the starting address for execution if
assembled routine is the main program.

10/28/2023 64
Allow multiple procedure and data segment.
Allow independent translation of the program.
Relocation Facility.

10/28/2023 65
 Not suitable in multitasking.
 It is necessary to allocate, relocate, link, and
load all of the subroutines each time in order
to execute a program
 loading process can be extremely time
consuming.

10/28/2023 66
  Design of direct linking loader is more complicated
than absolute loader.
 Input to loader is object module and this is divide into
4 section ESD,TXT,RLD,END
 It requires two passes to complete the linking process
 Pass I: assigns addresses to all external symbols
(Uses Global EST: GEST)
 Pass II: performs actual loading, relocation and
linking.
10/28/2023 67
 In Pass I ,a Global External Symbol table(GEST) is
prepared.
 It contain every external symbol and corresponding
absolute address value.

10/28/2023 68
 Copy of
Object object
Module records

Pass I Pass II
Main
Memory

Object GEST
Module

10/28/2023 69
 OVERLAY STRUCTURE
Overlays: The loader can load programs in chunks called
overlays, which allows programs to run in a smaller
memory space by only loading the needed parts of the
program at a time.
 OVERLAY STRUCTURE
• Program execution need not be achieved by loading all the
parts of large program in memory.
• So,that we can reduce memory requirement of such program
by loading required parts of program in memory.
• Hence some parts of program are given the same load
address during linking.
• Therefore,at any time,only one of these parts of program can
be loaded in memory because loading of other parts that has
same load address will overwrite it.

10/28/2023 71
 OVERLAY STRUCTURE
• Overlay is a part of program that has same load origin as some
other parts of the program .and the program which contains
overlays is called as overlay structured program.

• It consist of Permanently resident portion known as ROOT.

• Set of overlays that will be loaded in memory as per the

requirements.

• Overlay manager is linked with the root.

• Root is loaded in memory . 10/28/2023 72

 OVERLAY STRUCTURE
EXAMPLE

• Suppose a program consisting of five subprograms (A{20k},B{20k},

C{30k}, D{10k}, and E{20k}) that require 100K bytes of core.

• Subprogram A only calls B, D and E;

• subprogram B only calls C and E;

• subprogram D only calls E

• subprogram C and E do not call any other routines

• Note that procedures B and D are never in used the same time;
neither are C and E.

10/28/2023 73
OVERLAY STRUCTURE

10/28/2023 74
ADVANTAGES OF OVERLAY STRUCTURE
1. Increased memory utilization: Overlays allow multiple programs to share the

same physical memory space, increasing memory utilization and reducing the

need for additional memory.

2. Reduced load time: Only the necessary parts of a program are loaded into

memory, reducing load time and increasing performance.

3. Improved reliability: Overlays reduce the risk of memory overflow, which can

cause crashes or data loss.

4. Reduce memory requirement

5. Reduce time requirement 10/28/2023 75

DISADVANTAGES OF OVERLAY STRUCTURE
1. Complexity: Overlays can be complex to implement and manage, especially for
large programs.

2. Performance overhead: The process of loading and unloading overlays can

result in increased CPU and disk usage, which can slow down performance.

3. Compatibility issues: Overlays may not work on all hardware and software
configurations, making it difficult to ensure compatibility across different
systems.

4. Overlap map must be specified by programmer

5. Programmer must know memory requirement

6. Overlapped module must be completely disjoint

7. Programming design of overlays structure is complex and not possible in all cases
10/28/2023 76
What is linker? Why program relocation is required and
how is it performed?
Any usable program written in any language has to use functions /
subroutines. These functions could be either user defined functions
or they can be library functions.

For example, consider a program written in C language such a

program may contain calls to functions like printf( ). During
program execution main program calls the function
1) The linking process makes address of modules known to each
other so that transfer of control takes place.
2) Passing of parameters is handled by the linker.
3) An external variable can be defined in one module and can be
used in another module.
 SELF RELOCATING PROGRAM
Program relocatibility refers to the ability to load and execute a
given program into an arbitrary place in memory as opposed to a
fixed set of locations specified at program translation time
depending on how and when the mapping from virtual address
space to the physical address space takes place in given relocation:
(a) Static (b) Dynamic .

A self relocating program is a program which can perform the

relocation itself. Self relocating program contain the relocating
logic, so no need of a linker in that.
STATIC & DYNAMIC LINK LIBRARIES
1. Static Linking :
A static linker takes object files produced by the compiler
including library functions and produces and executable file.
The executable file contains a copy of every subroutine (user
defined or library function.) The biggest disadvantage of the
static linking is that each executable file contains its own
copy of the library routines. If many programs containing
same library routines are executed then memory is wasted.
STATIC & DYNAMIC LINK LIBRARIES
2. Dynamic Linking :
Dynamic linking defers much of the linking process until a
program starts running. Dynamic linking involves the
following steps:
1) A reference to an external module during run time causes
the loader to find the target module and load it.

2) Perform relocation during run time

Dynamic linking permits a program to load and unload

routines at run time.
STATIC & DYNAMIC LINK LIBRARIES
 LINKER VS LOADER
BASIS FOR
COMPARISON LINKER LOADER
Basic It generates the executable It loads the executable module to
module of a source the main memory.
program.
Input It takes as input, the object It takes executable module
code generated by an generated by a linker.
assembler.
Function It combines all the object It allocates the addresses to an
modules of a source code to executable module in main
generate an executable memory for execution.
module.

Type/Approac Linkage Editor, Dynamic Absolute loading, Relocatable

h linker. loading and Dynamic Run-time
loading.
THANK YOU!!!
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 REFERENCES
1. https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/basic-functions-of-loader/
2. https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/loader-in-compiler-design/
3. https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/compiler-and-go-loader/
4. https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/subroutine-subroutine-nesting-and-stack-
memory/
5. https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/overlays-in-memory-management/