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FALLACIES

The document outlines various types of logical fallacies, which are errors in reasoning that can make arguments appear valid despite being flawed. It categorizes fallacies such as Argument Against the Person, Appeal to the People, and False Cause, providing examples and explanations for each. The text emphasizes that fallacies can mislead by relying on personal attacks, popularity, unqualified authority, and emotional appeals rather than sound reasoning.

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12 views6 pages

FALLACIES

The document outlines various types of logical fallacies, which are errors in reasoning that can make arguments appear valid despite being flawed. It categorizes fallacies such as Argument Against the Person, Appeal to the People, and False Cause, providing examples and explanations for each. The text emphasizes that fallacies can mislead by relying on personal attacks, popularity, unqualified authority, and emotional appeals rather than sound reasoning.

Uploaded by

hslwork044
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
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Download as DOCX, PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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A fallacy is a mistake in reasoning that makes an argument look good even though it's actually

bad. Fallacies don’t just happen because of false facts; they happen because the way the
argument is put together is flawed.

1.Argument Against the Person (Argumentum ad


Hominem – "Personal Attack")
Instead of addressing the argument, a person attacks the speaker personally. This is unfair
because even a bad person can have a good argument.

🔹 Types:

(A) Abusive Attack (Insulting the Person)


● Example: “John’s idea is stupid because he’s an idiot!”
💡 Insulting John doesn’t prove his idea is wrong.

(B) Circumstantial Attack (Questioning Motives)


● Example: “Of course the CEO supports low wages! He just wants to make more
money.”
💡 The CEO’s motive may be selfish, but his argument still needs to be judged on facts.

(C) Tu Quoque ("You Too!") (Calling Someone a Hypocrite)


● Example:
○ Teen: “You tell me to stop smoking, but you used to smoke!”
💡 Just because someone is a hypocrite doesn’t mean their argument is
wrong. Smoking is still unhealthy.

2.Appeal to the People (Argumentum ad Populum –


"Popularity Fallacy")
This happens when someone argues that something must be true because many people
believe it or because it makes them feel included in a group.

🔹 Types:

(A) Bandwagon Fallacy (Follow the Crowd)


● Example: “Everyone is using this phone, so it must be the best!”
💡 Just because something is popular doesn’t mean it’s good or true.

(B) Appeal to Vanity (Be Like the Cool People)


● Example: “Famous celebrities wear this brand, so you should too if you want to be
admired!”
💡 Wearing the same brand as a celebrity doesn’t make you special or prove the
product is the best.

(C) Appeal to Snobbery (Only for Elite People)


● Example: “This luxury car is only for people with exceptional taste. Are you one of
them?”
💡 The argument plays on people’s ego rather than giving real reasons to buy the car.

3. Appeal to Unqualified Authority (Trusting the Wrong


Person)
This happens when someone uses an unreliable or unqualified person as an expert to
support their argument. Just because someone is an authority in one field doesn’t mean they
are an expert in another field.

🔹 Example:

● "A famous actor says this new medicine works, so it must be effective!"
💡 Just because an actor is popular doesn’t mean they know about medicine.
● "My neighbor says climate change is fake, so it must be fake."
💡 Your neighbor might be a great cook, but that doesn’t make them an expert in
climate science.

4. False Cause (Thinking One Thing Causes Another,


When It Doesn’t)
This happens when someone wrongly assumes that one event caused another, even though
they might not be connected at all.

🔹 Example:

● "Every time I wear my lucky socks, my team wins. My socks must be magical!"
💡 The socks don’t actually affect the game—it’s just a coincidence.

● "Crime rates went up after more people started using the internet. The internet
must cause crime!"
💡 Just because two things happen at the same time doesn’t mean one causes the
other.

● "Successful people have expensive watches. If I buy an expensive watch, I’ll


become successful!"
💡 Success comes from hard work, not wearing a fancy watch.
5. Hasty Generalization (Jumping to Conclusions Too
Fast)
This happens when someone makes a general statement about a whole group based on too
few examples.

🔹 Example:

● "I met two rude teenagers. All teenagers must be rude!"


💡 Just because you met two rude teens doesn’t mean all teenagers are rude.

● "I got sick after eating at that restaurant once. That restaurant must always
serve bad food!"
💡 One bad experience doesn’t mean the whole place is bad.

● "Three people got fired from this company. This company must be terrible to
work for!"
💡 You need more information before making such a big conclusion.

6. Appeal to Ignorance (Assuming Something is True or


False Just Because We Don’t Know)
This happens when someone argues that something must be true or false just because it
has not been proven otherwise.

🔹 Example:

● "No one has proven that aliens exist, so they must not exist."
💡 Just because we haven’t proven something doesn’t mean it’s false.
● "No one has ever proved ghosts aren’t real, so they must be real!"
💡 Just because something hasn’t been disproven doesn’t make it true either.

7. Argument from Ignorance (Shifting the Burden of


Proof)
This fallacy happens when someone makes a claim but does not provide any evidence. Instead,
they demand that others disprove it. In logical reasoning, the person making a claim is
responsible for proving it. If they don’t, the claim has no real weight.

Example 1:

🚫 Person A: "Unicorns exist!"


✅ Person B: "Do you have any proof?"
🚫 Person A: "No, but you can’t prove they don’t exist, so they must be real!"
Here, Person A is shifting the burden of proof. Just because something hasn’t been disproven
doesn’t mean it’s true.

8. Argument from Incredulity


This fallacy happens when someone dismisses an idea or claim just because they personally
find it hard to believe or understand. However, reality is not limited by what someone finds
believable.

Example 1:

🚫 Person A: "I don’t understand how tiny atoms can make up everything around us.
That just sounds impossible!"
✅ Person B: "Just because you don’t understand it doesn’t mean it’s not true. Science explains
how atoms form everything."

9. Argument from Possibility


This fallacy assumes that just because something is possible, it must be true. However,
possibility alone is not enough to prove something—it needs evidence.

Example 1:

🚫 Person A: "It’s possible that a secret society controls the world. So, they definitely
exist!"
✅ Person B: "Just because it’s possible doesn’t mean it’s real. Where’s the proof?"

10. Weak Analogy (Comparing Two Things That Are Not


Really Similar)
This happens when someone compares two things that seem similar but actually aren’t in a
way that matters to the conclusion.

🔹 Example:

● "My dog and my car both need gas to run."


💡 Your dog and your car are completely different—one is a living thing, and the other
is a machine!

● "John and Mark both wear glasses. John is a great singer, so Mark must be a
great singer too!"
💡 Wearing glasses has nothing to do with singing ability.

"This new laptop has the same color as my old one, so it must be just as fast."

💡 Color doesn’t affect performance

11. Equivocation (Using a Word in Two Different Ways)


This happens when a word changes meaning halfway through the argument, making it
misleading.

🔹 Example:

● "A feather is light. Light things cannot be dark. Therefore, a feather cannot be
dark."
💡 The word "light" means "not heavy" in the first sentence but "not dark" in the
second sentence.

"The sign says 'Fine for Parking Here.' That means it's fine to park here!"

💡 The word "fine" can mean "okay" or "a penalty", leading to confusion

12.False Dichotomy (False Choice or Either-Or Thinking)


This happens when an argument presents only two choices, even though more options
exist.

🔹 Example:

● "Either you’re with us, or you’re against us."


💡 What if someone agrees with some things but not others? This ignores the
middle ground.

"You either eat healthy food or you will get sick."

💡 It’s possible to eat some unhealthy food and still be healthy.

13. Golden Mean Fallacy


This fallacy happens when someone assumes that the middle ground between two opposing
viewpoints must always be the correct answer. However, sometimes one side is simply wrong,
and the truth is not "somewhere in between."

Example 1:

🚫 Person A: "Some people say vaccines are dangerous, while others say they are safe. So, the
truth must be that vaccines are somewhat dangerous."
✅ Reality: Scientific evidence shows vaccines are safe. The middle ground isn’t necessarily the
correct answer.

14. Appeal to Force (Argumentum ad Baculum – "Threat


Fallacy")
This happens when someone threatens another person to make them accept an
argument. The threat can be physical, emotional, or even financial, but it has nothing to
do with the actual argument.

🔹 Example:

● Boss to employee: “You should support my business idea, or you might lose
your job.”
● Child to friend: “If you don’t say my toy is the best, I won’t be your friend
anymore.”

💡 Why is this wrong?


The threat is used to force agreement, but it doesn’t prove that the idea or argument is
correct.

15. Appeal to Pity (Argumentum ad Misericordiam –


"Guilt Fallacy")
This happens when someone tries to win an argument by making others feel sorry for
them, instead of giving real evidence.

🔹 Example:

● Student to teacher: “Please give me a passing grade! If I fail, I’ll lose my


scholarship, and my family will be so disappointed.”
● Defendant to judge: “You can’t send me to jail! My family depends on me, and
my dog will be lonely.”

💡 Why is this wrong?


Feeling sorry for someone does not prove that they are right. The decision should be
based on facts, not emotions.

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