4 -SAd 8 aay Oe 4 br [1] | Introduction {The microprocessor is one of the miost important componenis of a digital computer. It acts as the | ‘drain of a computer system. Before going into the detailed description of a microprocessor, let us have the basic knowledge of a digital computer. Computers are of two types: digital computers and analog computers. A digital computer makes processing of numbers. An analog computer processes analog signals. An analog signal is'a continuous quantity. NoW“a-days computers which are com- ‘Wmonly used are digital computers, When we say computer, it is understood that it is a digital com- puter. Analog computers have specific applications. They are used for some apecific scientific and ' neering purposes. Earlier, they were used tostudy, analyse and simulatescientifigand engineer- pine systems. Today these works are done using digital computers. Biss Computers are the most powerful tool man has ever created. A digital computer is a program- “male machine, Its main components are : CPU (Central Processing Unit), memory, inputdevice and output device as shown in Fig. 1.1. iyeut A oureur sevice cru gureut Le IE cwony i Fig. 1.1. Schomatic dlagram of a digital computer ‘The CPU executes instructions, The input device is used to feet programs and data to the co: puter. The memory is a storage device, It stores programs, data and result. The output device di ? ‘plays or prints programs, data and/or results according to the instruction given to the computer. The 4 central processing unit built ona single IC is called microprocessor. A digital computer in which one }, microprocessor has been provided to act as a CPU, is called microcomputer, A desktop computer and portable (or mobile) computers like laptop, notebook, palmtop, etc. contain one microprocessor toact as a CPU and hence they ‘come under the category of microcomputer. A schematic diagram of i a microgpmputer is shown in Fig. 12. The CPU of a large powerful digital computer contains more | than oné microprocessor. High-end powerful servers, mainframe computers, supercompiiters, etc :contain more than one microprocessor to act as CPU. These microprocessors placed in a CPU of aLa! FUNDAMENTAL 3 UF Merriman mets MOTE aout, CY scnornacesn [Ngee | weve : 2 1.2 Schematic diagram of a microcomputer large powerful computers*operate in parallel. A computer whose CPU contains more than one smicroprocaasonjpealled a multiprocessor systera. “Accligili{ computer was developed for complex scientific and engineering calculations and it was a programmable machine. Hence, a computer was defined as a “programmable computing machine", Today, besides computation work computers are also used for a number of noncomputa- tional work such as automatic control of industrial equipment, to control process, to measure phy, cal and electrical quantities to process text, graphics and image; to store information, to display information, to transmit information from one piace to another, to receive information, and soon and so forth. In the light of such developments, a computer now can be defined as programmable machine which can make calculations; manipulate, measure, store and display information; control process, equipment, machine and appliances; transmit and receive information, and so on and so ‘forth. : 1.1. WORD LENGTH OF A COMPUTER OR MICROPROCESSOR The word length of a computer or microprocessor is given as r-bit, where n may be 8, 16, 32 or 64. An 8-bit microprocessor (or computer) can process 8-bit data at a time. If data consists of more than 8 bits, the processor takes up 8 bits of data first and makes its processing, then the next group of 8 bits of data are taken up one by one for processing. Its ALU is designed to process §-bit data. Its general purpose registers which hold data for processing, are §-bit registers. Similarly, a 16-bit processo: handles 16-bit of data ata time, its ALU processes 16-bit data and general purpose registers hold 16-bit data. Similarly, 32-bit and 64-bit processors process 32-bitand 64-bit data ata time respec tively. A processor of longer word length is moré powerful and can process data at faster speed as comparec to a processor of shorter word length. ! 1.2 EVOLUTION OF MICROPROCESSORS The first microprocessor, Intel 4004, a 4-bit PMOS microprocessor was introduced in the year 1971 by Intel Corporation, US.A. After this a 4-bit microprocessor Intel 4040, an enhanced version of Intel 4004 was developed. Many other companies also developed 4-bit microprocessors. Examples are: Rockwell International's PPS-4, Toshiba's T3472, ete. 4-bit microcontrollers and 4-bit micro- processor-based systems were used in industrial control applications, calculators, instrumentation, commercial appliances, videogames, toys, etc. Calculatdr is nota programmable machine, and hence it is not a computer. Step by step technique is used for calculations, The user docs not prepare aINTRODUCTION io 1.4.3 Third Generation (1965-1974) The third-generation computers used ICs (SSI and MSI) in CPU, I/O processors and other electronic components. In the beginning the thisd-generation computers used magnetic core memory as main memory. There were significant improvements in the design of magnetic core memory. Is size reached about 4M bytes. Magnetic disks were used as secondary memory. Magnetic tapes were used as back-up memory. There were rapid improvements in disk technology. 100 M bytes disk drives were available. Later on Semiconductor memories (RAMs and ROMs) replaced magnetic core type main memory. Semiconductor memories used LSI technology. Cache memory was also introduced. Microprogramming, parallel processing (pipelining, multiprocessor system, etc.), multiprogramming, multiuser system (time-shared system), etc. were introduced When a CPU contains more than one functional units and each functional unit performs a part of the task independently, this technique is called pipelining. The CPU of a multiprocessor system contains rore than one processor. In multiprogramming the computer handles more than one pro- gram simultaneously. While executing a program I/O operations are involved. I/O operations are slow process. While I/O operations of one program is being performed, computer takes up another program for execution. When data becomes available, the computer goes back to the previous pro- 4 gram. Thusit handles multiple programs simultaneously. Ina multiuser system more than one user work on the different terminals of the computer simultaneously: The computer gives 20 millisecond time to the first user, then it goes to next user, In this way it goes toall users and gives 20 millisecond time to each user in turn. Then returns to the first user. It repeats the same process again and again, Examples of third-generation computers are : IBM/370 series (1970), CDC 7600 (1969), PDP 11 (1970, 16-bit computer), CDC’s CYBER-175 and STAR-100, etc. Operating systems for multiprogramming and time-shared systéms (multiuser systems) were developed. Database management, multiuser application, on-line systems like closed-loop process control, airline reservation, interactive query systems, automatic industrial control, etc. emerged during this period. {81.44 Fourth Generation (1975-present) . £0: | the fourth-generation computers use microprocessor(s) as CPU: Memory, 1/0 processors, sup- ‘porting chips, controllers, etc. also use ICs (LSI and VLSI chips). The latest microprocessors contain 3 to 20millions transistors. On-chip cache memory 8 KB to 64 KB are provided. On-chip second-level {cache 256 KB to 2 MB are provided. The processing speed, packing density, integration of many components other than CPU into a microprocessor is increasing day by day. Earlier, cache, MMU (ory Management Unit), FPU (Floating-Point Unit ie. math. processor), etc. were on separate {CS#Now-a-days all such components and CPU are packed into a single IC of the microprocessor. iMainframe computers are no longer being manufactured, Computer network is being widely used. fultifunction peripheral chips providing functions of interrupt controller, DMA controller, clock generator, timer/counters, bus controller, memory refresh controller, numeric processor control logic, ete: on a single IC have been developed. Superscalar processors, vector processors, array processors, processors for dedicated applications, single-chip microcompers, etc, using VLSI tech- ° nology have been developed. A superscalar processor executes more than one instruction per clock cyde. Vector and array processors have specially designed for vector computations. Memory chips of 256M bits capacity are available. Main memory of 1GB capacity isbeing used. Disk drives 2GB to 75GB, speed up to 15,000 xp.m. are available, Employing array of disks 100GB capacity of secondary memory has been obtained. Optical disks, CD-ROMs which store much more datas compared to magnetic disks are used in computers as read-only memory. DVD-ROMs which store 5-7 times data as compared to CD-ROMs have been developed. DVD-ROM are also optical eae42 1.10 FUNDAMENTALS OF MICROPROCESSORS AND MICROCOMPY, disks. They use shorter wavelength of light then that the CD-ROM uses. 32-bit and 64-bit Ry, (Reduced Instruction Set) and CISC (Complex Instruction Set) microprocessors are being used in ty fourth-generation computers. Clock rates in the ange of 200 MHz - 1000 MHz are being used. Su ‘ percomputers now have processing speed in gigaflops such as NEC's SX-X series-22 Gflops (1991), Gray's CSO-16 Gflops (1991), Fujitsu’s VP-2000 series-5 Gflops, Cray’s high- end supercomputer ‘T3E-900, 1.8 teraflops (1998), etc. Cray’s Y-MP/C90 uses 16 CPUs. Examples of microprocessors are : Pentium, PowerPC, Alpha, MIPS, SUNSPARG, ete. The operating systems being used are : UNIX, WINDOWS-NT, SUN'S Solaties, WINDOWS-98, HP-UX, etc. Languages like C, C**, JAVA, PROLOG, etc. are being used. 4GL languages like ORACLE, SYBASE, etc. are being used for data base management. Expert systems using artificial intelligence have been developed. ‘Today computers are widely used in industrial control, instrumentation, consumer appliances, research work, analysis and design, games, banking service, offices, military equipment, education, communication, so on and so forth. 1.4.5 Fifth Generation The fifth-generation computers are expected in the near future. The main features of these com- puters will be as follows : : (The computers will use ULSI (Ultra-Large-Scale Integration). (i) The microprocessor will contain first-level cache, second-level cache, MMU, FPU, multiple pipelines, MMX pipeline, some important functional chips like cache controller, advanced interrupt controller, etc. It will use 0.1 micron process technology. It will execute several instructions per clock cycles. . ii), Microprocessors will use ‘data flow’ architecture in place of von Neumann architecture. In _-.von Neumann model, instructions are executed in a sequential order. The processor fetches ‘one instruction at a time. If its data is available, the instruction is executed. If data is not available, the processor waits till data is obtained from the memory. Then it is executed. After this the processor proceeds to fetch the next instruction. In data flow computer the processor fetches 20 to 30 instructions in advance in sequential manner and puts them in an instruction pool. Now the processor checks the first instruction, whether it is executable or not. Suppose, its data is not available. The processor does not wait, it goes to the second 5 . instruction. Suppose, the second instruction requires the result of the first instruction. Then the processor goes to the third instruction. Suppose, data is available for the third instruction. So this instruction is executed. Then the processor takes up fourth instruction. In this way the processor executes those instructions which are executable, otherwise it goes A to the next instruction. Finally, again it checks up those instructions which were not executed for want of data. When data become available they are executed in the next turn. Thus a processor designed on data flow principle is faster than a sequential type processor. (iv) Computers will use extensive parallel processing such as pipelining, multiprocessor system, etc,3 ° (v) Natural languages will be used as source languages i.e. programmer will give commands in English or any other language. (vi) Intelligent programming will be used. In such a system the progranuner will tell the computer what to do; he will not tell how to do. This will be done by the computer. + Intelligent software will be used for this purpose. (vii) Artificial intelligence will be used. Languages like PRQLOG may be widely used. | (viii) Computers will be multimedia, knowledge based systems, and will have improved ! | human-machine interfaces, They wil] accept spdken commands as well. Images and textINTRODUCTION 17 punched cards or by manually setting counter wheels. It was intended to get the output data either printed-on paper or punched on cards. ‘The analytical engine was not completed. Babbage died in 1871. Babbage was the first man to give the concept ofa programmable machine having components similar toa modern computer, and, hence he is called Father of modern computers: Successful general-purpose mechanical computers were developed in 1930s. In Germany, -aKonard Zuse built mechanical computer, the Z1, in 1938. Unlike previous mechanical computers, the Z}.used binary number system, whereas.earlier computers used decimal number system. Konan Zuse was unaware of Babbage’s Work. Later on he ceveloped Z3 in 1941, which is believed tobe thl first general-purpose program-controlled computer. ‘The arithmetic unit of Z3 used ‘relays (electromechanical binary switches) and employed floating-point number representation. * Zuse’s work did not influence subsequent development of computers as his work was inter rupted by the second world war. Howard Aiken, a professor of Physics at Harvard University, designed a general-purpose electromechanical computer in 1937." Aiken was aware of the work of Babbage and other earlier pioneers. IBM built this computer, in 1944, It was originally called the Automatic Sequence Controlled Calculator and later the Harvard Mark I. This computer used decimal number system. It had the memory capacity of seventy-two 23-digit decimal numbers: The computer was controlled by punched paper tape. Several computers employing electromechanical relays were built in 1940s, but they were quickly superseded by faster and more reliable electronic computers. The first electronic computer using vacuum tubes was built in the late 1930s by John V. Atanasoff_\ at Iowa State University. It was a special-purpose computer for solving simultaneous linear equa- tions. It used about 300 valves. Its memory unit consisted of capacitors mounted on a rotating drum, Each capacitor stored a binary digit. It used a.number of input/output devices including a card punch and a card reader. In 1943, a much larger electronic computer called Colossus was built in England. It was developed for code breaking. The ENIAC (Electronic Numerical Integrator and Calculator) was the first general-purpose electronic computer, developed at the University of Pennsylvania under the guidance of John W. Mauchly and J. Presper Eckert. The work began in 1943 and itwas completed in 1946. It used decimal number system: Its weight was 30 tons. It contained 18000 vacuum tubes. It took 200 microseconds for addition, and 3 milliseconds for 10-digit multiplication. It had separate memories for program and data. It used 20 electronic accumulators for memory. Each accumulator stored signed 10-digit decimal number. A Anumber of computers using vacuum tubes were developed in 1940-55. In 1955-65 computers used transistors, in 1965-75 computers used ICs and after 1975 they used microprocessors in their processing units. . \ 1.4 COMPUTER GENERATIONS 2 Over the past five decades, digital computers have gone through five generations of develop- ment. The division of generations is decided:primarily by the major chariges in hardware technology and software. Most features introduced in earlier generations have been passed to the later genera- tions. The latest generation computers have inherited all the good features of computers of the earlier generations. A short description of various computer generations is given below. 1.4.1 First Generation (1946-1954) The first-generation computers used vacuum tubes as CPU components. As the high cost ofSHULUMPL 18 FUNDAMENTALS OF MICROPROCESSORS AND MIC! a . . levices such as mercy, » vacuum tubes prevented their use for main memory, less costly iu een used in the fi\ delay lines were used for memory. Electrostatic (CRT) memories constructed at MIT, was the firs generation of computers. Whirlwind I, a first generation computer, c¢ eae aniglaeeor fen computer to use ferrite core memory. First generation computers used ma : oe cd. Magnetic ly language (developed in early fifties) for programming. xed pointadthne ic are tape/magnetic drum were used as secondary memory. Subroutine linkage was i i : There was no concept of operating system at that time. Punched cards and paper tape were invente to feed programs and data, and to get results. The first electronic digital computer ENIAC was completed in 1946. It used vacuum tubes as components for CPU and memory. Punched cards were used for data entry and getting results. Separate memories were used for program and data, which made entering or altering programs an xtremely tedious task. John von Neumann proposed ‘Stored-Program Concept in 1946, according to which programs and data were to be stored in the same high-speed memory. This principle was used in other computers of the first generation. Some more examples of first generation computers are : EDVAC (Electronic Discrete Variable Computer, 1951), UNIVAC (Universal Automatic Com- puter, 1951), IBM's 701 (1953), IBM 704 (1955), IBM 709, etc. 1.4.2 Second Generation (1955-1964) The second-generation computers used transistors in CPU, I/O processors and other electronic components. The transistor was invented in 1948 at AT-and T Bell Laboratories and it gradually replaced vacuum tubes in electronic components and devices. The following are the main features of second-generation computers : (1) Transistors were used in computers in place of vacuum tubes. (2) Magnetic ferrite-core memory was used’as main memory, which is a random-access nonvolatile memory. Ferrite cores are small rings of ferrite material, which can be magnetised in either clockwise or anticlockwise direction to represent binary digit 0 to 1. = ‘The memory capacity of the second-generation computers was about 1K bytes. Magnetic disk memory was also developed during this period. Magnetic disks and magnetic tapes were used as secondary memory. » Machine independent high-level languages like FORTRAN, COBOL and ALGOL were developed and used as programming languages. Hardware for floating-point arithmetic operations was developed. Index registers were introduced which increased flexibility in programming. (7) I/O processors were introduced to supervise and control input/output operations, They relieved CPU from many time-consuming routine works, (8) Primitive supervisory programs such as batch monitors were introduced. Softwares like compilers, subroutine libraries, etc. were also supplied by computer manufacturers. (9) Punched cards continued during this period also. During this period computers were widely used in industry and commercial organisations. ‘They were used for the preparation of payroll, inventory control, marketing, production planning, general ledger system, research; scientific and engineering analysis and design, ete> Examples of second-generation computers are: IBM 1620 (1960), IBM 7090 (1960), IBM 7094 (1962), Digital Data Corporation's (DEC’s) PDP 1 (1957), PDP 5 (1963), PDP 8 (1965), Control Data Corporation's CDC 1604, ete. PDP stands for Programmed Data Transfer. IBM is International Business Machines Corporation. %LE FUNDAMENTALS OF MICROPROCESSORS AND MICROCOMPUTERS Processors. Motorola, IBM and Apple have jointly develéped 32-bit RISC processors: PowerPC601, * 603, 604 and 620. PowerPC 740 and 750 have been developed by IBM and Motorola. 32-bit micro. Processors are widely used for desktop, portable and notebook computers; workstations and ser- -' Vers, Intel has also introduced 80960, a 32-bit RISC microprocessor for embedded control applica- tions. 32-bit microprocessors contain a number of essential components of a computer besides CPU, such as‘MMU, FPU, on-chip cache memory, etc. A number of 64-bit microprocessors have also been developed. Examples are : SUN’s SPARC and ULTRASPARC, Power ?C620, DEC's Alpha 21064, 21164 and 21264; MIP’s R4000, R5000, 10000 and R 12000; Intel-H.P’s PA8000 series, HP’s 8200 and 8500 series, etc. Intel’s i860 is also 64-bit RISC processor but it did not become popular for general-purpose computers. It is used for sophisticated automatic control applications, Tables 1.1, and Table 1.2 show the summary of microprocessors of Intel Corporation and other companies. 1.3. EVOLUTION OF DIGITAL COMPUTERS General-purpose electronic computers using valves were developed in 1940s. Earlier, successful general-purpose mechanical computers were developed in 1930s. Before 1930 mechanical cal- culators:were built to perform addition, subtraction, mu.tiplication and division. The first mechani- cal calculator was designed and built in the year 1623 by Mr. Wilhelm Schickhard, professor at University of Tubingen. This machine did not become popular at that timne. A popular mechanical calculator, capable of performiing addition and subtraction, was developed by the great French philosopher and scientist Blaise Pascal in 1642. Around 1671 Pascal’s machine was extended to per- form also multiplication and division besides addition and subtraction, by German philosopher and scientist Gottfried Leibniz. : a In 1823, Charles Babbage, an English mathematician, designed a mechanical computing machine for automatic computation of mathematical tables, He called this machine difference en- gine, This was designed to accomodate sixth-degree polynomials and 20-digit numbers. The only arithmetic operation to be performed was addition. However, using only addition, a large number of useful functions can be calculated by a technique known as the method of finite differences. This machine was not completed and the project was abandoned in 1842. Later, many modest difference sengines were successfully designed and built. One of them was developed during 1837-1853 by ‘Swede Georg Scheutz, which could handle third-degree polynomials and 15-digit numbers. In 1834, Charles Babbage thought of a much more powerful mechanical computer. He called it ‘analytical engine’. This was a general purpose programmable machine. It had a mechanism for enabling a program to change the sequence ofits operations automatically. In other words there were conditional branches of instructions in the program. The condition was based on the sign of anum- ber. One sequence of operations was to be performed if the sign were positive; and the other, if nega- tive. Its components were similar to those of a modern computer. It contained the following components. i (i) An arithmetic unit which was called ‘mill’ where calculations were performed. It was capable of performing addition, subtraction, multiplication and division, (i) A memory to store data and intermediate results. It consisted of decimal counting wheels. Its capacity was of one thousand 50-digit decimal numbers. (ii) A mechanism consisting of gears and shafts to transfer data and results between store (memory) and mill (ALU). It was just like a control unit. In order to control the sequence of operations Babbage proposed to use punched cards op a (iv) Input and output devices. Babbage proposed to supply numerical information either byTable 1.2 Summary of Some Important Microprocessors ef ee aed Microprocessor Power- Power- Power - Alpha Alpha ULTRASPARC MIPS10,000 PC 601 PC 604 PC-620 21064 21168 Make Motorola, Motorola, Motorola, IBM DEC DEC ‘SUN Mies 18M and = IBM and and Apple Apple Aopt0 ' Architectural Features : Wordiength 32-bit 32-bit e4-bit eit eebit esi e4bit General-purpose/ sense sere sae arse 3282, Register arse Floating-point Registers Windows, Instruction/Data cache 32 KB 18K 0 a2 KBR2KB «BKBSKS «= SKSSKS+ IOKBNGKB 32 KBG2 KB united 16 KB 96 KB ‘Secondary Number of Instructions, 3 4 4 2 4 4 4 Issued Per Clock Cycie Number of Processing Units 3 6 6 4 4 9 s of Pipeline Stages 4/6 406 406 710 719 Oe) sr 7 ting-Point) Clock 120MHz = 250 MHz 250 MHz 200 MHz 622 MHz 200 MHz 200 MHz Number of Transistors 28 nilllions 3.6 millions 7 millions 1.7 mitions «9&3 millions_-——«-3.8 millions. 6.4 millions. ‘SPECinto2 105 160 at 225at1s3 33 at 300 MHz 275 at167 300 100 MHz; MHz MHz. \ SPECIp92 115 165 at 300 at 133 - 500 at 300-305 at 167 600 100MHz = MHz MHz MHz. Notes : () Alpha 21264 has been developed. It operates at 1000 MHz (@) KS, K6 and K7 are 32-bit microprocessors of Advanced Micro Devices. Clock 700-1000 MHz. “ ff) PowerPC 740 and 750 at 350 MHZ (1997) have been developed by IBM and Matorola.Micro: Year of Clock Romans processor Introduction : 4004 1971 16 750 KHz First Microprocessor 8085 1978 “0 36 MHz Popular &-bit Microprocessor 8086 1978 40 5-10 MHz Popular 16-bit Microprocessor | e088 1880 anepit 1M8 40 5-8 MHz Widely used in PCAKT | 0286 1982 16-bit 16 MB real, 8 6125 MHz Widely used in PCIAT | 4 GB virtual 80386 1985 82-bit 4 GB real, 132 20-33 MHz *- Contains MMU on chip 64 TB virtual 14% 14 PGA 0886 1989 s2bit 4GB real, 168 25-100 MHz Contains MMU, cache and 64 TB virtual 17% 17 PGA FPU, 12 milion vansistors Pentium 1993 seit 4GB real, 237 PGA 60-200 Contains 2 ALUs, 2 Caches, S2-bit address. . FPU, 33 million transistors, 3.3 ‘64-bit data bus Vand 5 V versions Pentium Pro 1995 s2bit 64 GB real, 387 PGA 150-200 MHz tis a data flow processor. + ‘36-bit address bus It contains second-level cache ® also, 33 V. Pentium 1997 s2bit - - 233-400 MHz All features of Pentium Pro plus MX / 33 V, 7.5 milion transistors Pentium i 1999 abit - - 600-1000 MHz It is improved version of Pentium i 180960 Before 1990 SebitRISC 44GB 168-pin PGA 16-40 MHz ‘32-bit Embedded Microprocessor ‘CA version 132-pin PGA KA version, Notes : (i) PA8000 is 64-bit RISC microproprocessor of Intel and H.P. (1997) (i) Cereton is low-cost 32-bit microprocessor of Intel (1998) based on’Pentium-Pro (p8) architecture, clock (i) Pentium Ill has 70 additional SIMO instructions to boost mutimedia performance. vbINTRODUCTION program to solve his problem. In 1972, Intel introduced the first 8-bit microprocessor, Intel 80 which also uses PMOS technology. The microprocessors using PMOS technology were slow and noy compatible with TTL logic. In 1973, Intel introduced a more powerful and faster 8-bit NMOS microprocessor, Intel 8080. The microprocessors using NMOS process technology are faster and compatible with TTL logic. The NMOS technology also provides higher density as compared to PMOS technology. The drawback of the 8080 was that it needed three power supplies. In 1975, Intel developed an improved 8-bit NMOS microprocessor, Intel 8085 which uses only one +5 V supply. It is an improved version of Intel 8080. It is still used in laboratory for students training. In the first course on microprocessor, the theory based on Intel 8085 is taught as it gives the basic concept of microprocessor, which are needed for further study of other courses'on microprocessors, micro-con- trollers and computers. S-bit microprocessors of other manufacturers are: Zilog's Z80 and 2800, National Semi- conductor's NSC800, Motorola's MC6800 and MC6809, MOS ‘Technology's 6500 series, Rockwell International's PPS-8, RCA COSMAC (it uses CMOS technology), ete. 8-bit microprocessors and 8- . bit microcontrollers are widely used in instrumentation, industrial control applications, etc. Some powerful 8-bit microprocessors were used in small general purpose computers. Generally, the memory addressing capacity of 8-bit microprocessors are 64 KB. The clock frequency for themost of B-bit microprocessors lies in the range of 1 MHz to 6 MHz. The Z800 can address more memory i.e. 500 XB and it operates at 25 MHz. The 8-bit microprocessors use LSI technology and contain 5000 to 10000 transistors. In the year 1978, Intel introduced a 16-bit microprocessor, Intel 8086. Other 16-bit microproces- sors are : Intel 80186, Intel 8088, Intel 80188, Intel 80286, Zilog’s Z8000, Motorola’s 68000, 68010, 68012; Fairchild’s 9440, National Semiconductor’s PACE and INS8900, Texas Instruments’ TMS9900 series, and so on. 12-bit microprocessors were also developed. Examples are : Toshiba’s T3190, Intersil’s IMG100, etc. The 80186 and 80188 are integrated microprocessors. Besides CPU they contain some additional components like programmable interrupt controller, two independent high-speed «DMA channels, three programmable 16-bit timer ‘counters, clock generator, programmable memo! and peripheral chip-select logic, programmable wait state generator and local bus controller. The 80286 has been designed for multiuser system. Besides CPU it contains integrated memory manage- ment unit, four-level memory protection and support for virtual memory and operating system. The 16-bit microprocessors have more powerful instruction set than that of 8-bit microprocessors. They use VLSI technology. They can directly address memory in the range of 1 MB to 16 MB. 16-bit microprocessors are designed to work in multiprocessor environment and use assembly languages and efficient high-level languages. They were used in complex industrial control applications, ‘general purpose and portable computers, etc. In 1980s, personal computers were widely used. They used 16-bit microprocessors. Very popular personal computers PC and PC/XT used Intel 8088 microprocessor. The PC/AT used 80286 microprocessor. After 1980 many manufacturers introduced 32-bitmicroprocessors. Intel introduced first 32-bit microprocessor, iAPX432 which did not become popillar and it was eventually discontinued. In the year 1985, Intel introduced a more powerful 32-bitirHiéroprocessor, Intel 80386 which became very popular and was widely used in desktop computers. In short it was called Intel 386 microprocessor. Other 32-bit microprocessor Pentium Pro, Pentium with MMX, Pentium Il, Pentium It Xeon, Celezon and Pentium III. Pentium II Xeon (1998) uses second-level cache memory 1 MB/2 MB. The Celeron (1998) is a low-cost 32-bit processor built on P6 (Pentium Pro) architecture and operates at 700 Hz. It is an entry-level 32-bit processor. Motorola's 68020, 68030, 68040 and 88100; Advanced Micro Devices’ (AMD's) K5, Ké-MMX and K7; Cyrix’s 586, 686 and 6X86MX; National Semi- conductor’s 32032, 32332 and 32C532; Zilog’s 280000; Inmos’ T414 and T800, etc. are 32-bit micro-wn commands will also be accepted. Today multimedia computers, microprocessors with data flow design, multiple pipelines, expert systems, special processors for dedicated applications are available. But all features of a fifth-generation computer are not available ina single computer. Generally, some features of next yencration computers appear in the previous generation. This is the process of technical developments. Some persons put the computers of 1991 onward in the fifth-generation. For example, Mr. Kai Hwang, the author of the book “Advanced Computer Architecture", 1993, McGraw-Hill, writes like this. 1s SINGLE-CHIP MICROCOMPUTERS (OR MICROCONTROLLERS) With the development of VLSI and ULSI technology it became possible to build a digital com- putéronasingle IC. A digital computer builtona single IC tstallecsingle-chiptnicrocompiuter:Such cOmputersare used in instrumentation, automatic industrial control, process control, consumer and home appliances, ete. It is very small and compact. It forms the part of the system which is to be controlled. As it is used for control applications it is also called microcontroller or embedded microcontroller, It contains a CPU, ROM or EPROM, RAM and I/O lines. Some more powerful ~ microcomputers may contain some ofthe features'like A/D converter, DMA channels, watch-dog timer, pulse-width ‘modulator, il duplex serial port with UART (Universal Asynchronous Receiver-Transmitter), power saving modes of operation, PTS (Peripheral Transaction Server which is a hardware interrupt processor), EPA (Event Processor Array which performs input event capture and output event generation), register-to-register architecture in which content of any register can be output to any port, high-speed input/output system, wave-generator, etc. In the year 1976, Intel introduced the 8048 series of single-chip 8-bit microcomputers. It is also known as MCS-48. Its family members are: 8048, 8748, 8041, 8042, 8049, etc. In the year 1980, Intel introduced a more powerful series of 8-bit-microcontrollers, Intel 8051. Its family members are: 80CS51BH, 80C31BH, 87C51, 8X52/54/58, BXCS1FX, 8XL52/54/58, 8XLS1FA/FB/FC, 8XCSIRA/ RB/RC, 8XC51GB, 8XC5ISL, 8XC152JA/JB/JC, etc. X is 0 for ROMless versions, X is 3 for versions - with ROM, X is 7 for versions with EPROM or OTP (One Time Programmable). The 8051 series of yimicrocontrollers are faster, have enhanced instruction set including instructions for multiplication ‘and division, full duplex serial port, power saving modes of operation, etc. It has many versions. =! Some versions have A/D converter, some pulsewidth modulator, some with watch-dog timer, some with DMA channels, sonie specifically designed for serial communications to implement integrated services digital networks (ISDN), emerging local area networks (LAN), etc. Intel has also developed 8XC151 and 8XC251 scries of microcontrollers. These are more powerful and faster as compared to 8051 series and also compatible with MCS-51 series. Other manufacturers have also developed micro-controllers. Examples are: Texas Instruments’ 4-bit microcontroller TMS1000, Motorola’s 8-bit micro-controllers 6801 and MC68HC11, Zilog’s Z8, NEC’S 7800 series, etc. In the year 1983, Intel introduced 16-bit microcontrollers, Intel 8096 series. Its family members are : B0C194, 83C194, 8XC198, 8XC196 KB/KC/KD/KR/KQ/JR/JQ/KT/NT/NP/NU/MC/MD/ MH, 80296SA, etc. These microcontrollers are more powerful compared to 8-bit microcontrollers. They are used for sophisticated real-time applications such as industfial control, instrumentation and intelligent computer peripherals. Some examples are : control of large horse-power motors, robots, guidance and control of missiles, etc. Motorola has introduced 32-bit RISC microcontroller MPCS0S. It is used in advanced com- munication devices, speech processing system, automotive modules, ctc. IBM has developed 32-bit RISC embedded microcontroller, 403GA. It is used in office automation equipment (printers, copiers, fax machines), consumer electronics and video games, tclecommunications, networking and per- sonal digital assistants (PDA).FUNDAMENTALS OF ROCESSORS ROCOMPY, NDAMENTALS OF MICROPROCESSO! ‘AND MIC! Py J Wt2 ROCESSORS . ee a developed for data control applications. They process| Embedded microprocessors have been develops Le otratier to thelaser printer. The large amount of data, for example, alaser printer. The compu rations required for printingand embedded processor which resides in the laser printer manages op rat aganumber of dots handles the data which are to be printe. The data to be handled becomes larg processed for each character of the matter. , ‘ application the memory requirement varies and hence memory is no Luarern cr rocessor chip. Depending upon the requirement memory is provide eee tem. Once programmed it manages the control functions for which it has eee ogranimed, Data control applications require multifunction control such as DI oe srocessing, data formatting, I/O control, etc. Embedded processors are quite powerful to me requirements. } Intel has developed 16-bit and 32-bit embedded processors for control applications. Examples are: 80960, embedded versions of 486 and 386 processors, 80376, different versions of 80186 and 80185 processors, etc. The 80960 or i960 is a 32-bit embedded processor. Its different versions are 80960 KB/KA/SA/SB/CA/CF/JA/JE/HA/HD/HT/MC, gig. The 80186 is 16-bit highly- tegrated processor. It contains CPU, interrupt controller, DI annels, clock generator, RAM refresh control unit, etc. Its different versions are : 80C186, 80C186XBXEA /EB/EC, etc. The 80188 has only 8 data lines whereas the 80186 has 16 data lines. Its different versions are: 80C188," 80C188XL/EA/EB/EC. a The embedded versions of 486 processor are : 486GX, 4865X, etc. The embedtied versions of 386 processor are : 386CXSA, 386CXSB, 386EX and 386SXSA. BS a. 1.7 HARDWARE, SOFTWARE AND FIRMWARE The physical devices of a computer are called hardware. A physical device may be electronic, electrical, magnetic, mechanical or an optical device. Examples are : microprocessor and other ICs, hard disk, floppy disk, printer, CD-ROM, keyboard, etc. A sequence of instructions given to a com- puter to perform certain task is called a program. A set of programs written for a computer is known as software. The term software includes both system software and user's programs. The system software includes operating system, assembler, compiler, interpreter, text editor, debugger, etc. The eperating system (or supervisory program) is a collection of programs which controls the overall ‘operation of a computer. The term monitor is used for a simple supervisory program for a smaller system. The cperating system allows users to cor:municate with a computer. It allows users to create files, use and control input/output devices, manage’memory space, schedule jobs, execute programs, store and print results, etc. Examples of operating system are: MS-DOS, UNIX, WINDOWS-NT, SUN‘s Solaries, WIN- DOWS-98, HP-UX, ete. The programs stored in ROMs, PROMs, EPROMs or EEPROMs are known as firmware. Today large number of prewritten programs are available to solve specific type of problems. Such programs are called application programs or application packages. Some application programs are of general nature such as WORDSTAR, FOXPRO, ORACLE, SYBASE, MS-OFFICE, etc. Some application programs have been developed for specific purposes such as for designing building, structures, Powe: systems, inventory control, accounting, etc. 1.8 CPU (CENTRAL PROCESSING UNIT) “os The CPU is the brain of a computer, It executes user’s programs and controls memory andINTRODU! ICTION 4.13 input/ourput devices. User’s program is stored in the memory. The CPU fetches instructions of a program from the memory sequentially. It fetches one instruction at a time, decodes it and then executes it. After decoding an instruction the CPU comes to know what operations are to be per- formed. It also comes to know whether the data to be processed arc in the memory, general purpose registers of the microprocessor or at input/output ports. If data are inthe general purpose registers, the CPU executes the program. If the data are in the memory or at the I/O ports, it reads the date from the memory or I/O port. Then it executes the instruction and stores the intermediate results, After completing the execution of one instruction, the CPU fetches the next instruction of the pro. gram. In this way the CPU fetches and ex- ecutes all the instructions of a program and gives final resuc ACCUMULATOR .. The CPU controls memory, input and output levices to receive, store and send data/result of Aw GENERALE SPECIAL . program under execution. Under its control muerese neceters ‘programs, data and results are displayed on CRT, stored in the memory or printed by the printer. eS The CPU of a microcomputer is a microproces- sor. The CPU ofa large computer such as server or TIMING ANO, supercomputer has more than one microprocessor oe : which operate in parallel. The major components of a CPU are: ALU, timing and control unit and registers. Fig, 1.3 shows the schematic diagram of a Fig. 1.3 Schematic diagram of a CPU CPU (or microprocessor). (or microprocessor) 1.8.1 ALU (Arithmetic and’ Logic Unit) ‘An ALU performs arithmetic and logic operations. Arithmetic operations performed are : addi- tin, subtraction, multiplication and division. In addition to these operations it also takes comple- ment of a number, it compares two numbers, rotates the bits of a number left or right, shifts the bits of a number left or right, increments a number or decrer..ents a number. The ALU of a simple less powerful microprocessor such as Intel 8085 does not have multiplication and division instructions. 1.82 Timing and Control Unit CY) -Gen often The timing and control unit actually acts as the brain of a computer. It controls all operations of the CPU. It also controls input, output and all other clevices connected to the CPU. It generates sig- nals which are required for all the operations to be performed by the CPU and required for the con- trol of input/output and other devices connected to CPU. ‘Such signals are also called timing signals because they have strict relation with clock signal (i.e. time) of the processor. \ 1.8.3 Registers 4 Registers include accumi:....., general-purpose registers and special-purpose registers. The ac- cumulator is a register which cor tains one of the operands @f an instruction to be executed. It also stores result after the execution of an arithmetic and logical instruction. It is true for most of the arithmetic and logical instructions. There may be some exceptions, for example, in case of Intel 8085, the result of DAD rp instruction is stored in H-L pair. ; General-purpose registers are used to store data, and hold intermediate results while executing a program. |FUNDAMENTALS OF MICROPROCESSORS AND MICROCOMPUT,, 114 : isters are used by the mici ey are eee , 7 Easincl special-purpose rogisters are : program counter, stack pointer, ee e an > status registez. They will be discussed in detail in Chapter 3 while discussing > t microprocessor. 4.9 MEMORY : dataand Memory is an essential comiponent of adigital computer. Itis needed to store programs, a results. ‘Acompuler uses a number of memory ‘devices of different technologies such as aaah tor memory, magnetic memory and optical memory. The CPU is a semiconductor device ane tt operates at a very high speed. The speed of the memory should also be very high and it mus! matey the speed of the CPU. If memory is slow, the CPU has to wait for data and instructions. This i} reduce the processing speed of the computer. To match the speed of the CPU a very fast semiconduc tor memory called cache memory is direétly connected to the CPU. It stores currently needed in- structions and data of a program being executed. Its access time is about 10 ns. It uses static RAMS. ‘The next level of memory which is used in a computer system is the main or primary memory. It is also a fast semiconductor memory. It stores programs and data which is being processed by the CPU. Its access time is about 50 ns. It is cheaper than cache memory. It uses dynamic RAMS. Since cache memory is very expensiveits capacity is kept about2 to3 percent of thecapacity of the main memory. the program are loaded into the cache memory from the main memory. Semiconductor memory is a static device. Its faster, smaller in size and lighter in weight; and consumes less power compared to other types of memory devices. The main memory of the com- puter system is volatile (cache is also volatile). It holds information (programs, data and results) as long as power supply is on. Therefore, to store programs, data, results and supervisory programs (operating system) a computer must have a permanent type of memory at 3rd level. A permanent memory such as magnetic and optical -lisks are used at 3rd level of memory. The memory which stores information permanently is called secondary or auxiliary memory. Magnetic and optical memories are cheaper than semiconductor memories and hence they are quite suitable for secondary >nemory The secondary memory is a mass storage device, It stores operating system, compilers, assemblers, application programs, etc. Programs, data and results are saved on secondary memory. The magnetic disks and optical disks are not static. They rotate during operation. They are slower than semiconductor memory. The access time of magnetic disks is about 5-10 ms. The access time of optical disks is about 80 ms. Magnetic disks are suitable for online secondary storage. Optical disks (CD-ROMs) are suitable for archival memory. Backup memory is also needed for a computer system. It is used to store copy of important programs suchas operating system, compiler, application programs, etc. These programs are usually loaded into the secondary memory but their copies are kept in backup memory so that they can be reloaded into the secondary memory in case the programs stored in the secondary memory are lost orcorrupted. Floppy disks, detachable hard disks, magnetic tapes, optical disks are suitable for back- 1p memory. : a 1 Semiconductor Memory There are two main types of semiconductor memory : RAM (Random Access Memory) and ROM (Read Only Memory). RAMs are used as read/write memory of a computer. They are volatile “memory whereas ROMs are permanent type of memory. The brief description of different types of (RAMs and ROMs are given below : RAM. The abbreviation RAM stands for Random Access Memory. Ina random access memory sroprocessor itself. They are not: accessible to users, "y The main memory is connected to the cache memory. The: currently needed instructions and data ofINTRODUCTION : 445 von // any memory location can be accessed in a random way without going through any other location. The access time is same for each and every memory location. Since information can be written into or reac from RAMs, they are used as read/write memory of a computer system. RAM is not the correct name because ROM has also random access property. The correct name of RAM should be read/write memory. Since RAM is the established name for the read/write memory, and hence, it is | usually used for it. . | —=7RAMis a volatile memory. It stores information as long as power is supplied to it. Its contents | are lost when power supply is switched off or interrupted. The user has to reload his programs and data when power supply is resumed. There are two types of RAM: Static RAM (SRAM) and dynamic RAM (DRAM). A SRAM | retains the stored information as long as power supply is on. But a DRAM loses its stored informa- tion in a few milliseconds even though its power supply is on. A DRAM stores information in the form of charge on a capacitor, which leaks away in very short time. Therefore, its contents must be periodically (usually every 2 milliseconds) refreshed by restoring the capacitor charge to its full value. It requires a refreshing and control circuitry, DRAM needs only one transistor per memory cell and hence its packing density is high. A memory cell is an electronic circuitry which stores a binary bit 0 or 1. DRAM consumes less power. It is cheaper than static RAM. It is produced in large sizes. SRAM uses conventional flip-flop circuit consisting of two cross-coupled inverters, to store binary bit 0 or 1. ARAM memory cell mustbe associated with read and write facility. Six transistors are needed to form a memory cell of SRAM. Hence, its packing density is low. It consumes more power. It is faster than DRAM. It is manufactured in smaller sizes. iRAM. It is an integrated RAM. With advances in VLSI technology it has become possible to integrate a dynamic RAM and its controller, and to build them ona single chip (IC). SDRAM (Synchronous DRAM). It uses the same clock rate as the CPU. As a result the emory chips remain ready to transfer data when the CPU e:pects them to be ready. They run at the Scessor memory bus without imposing wait states, DRAM is an asynchronous device. SGRAM (Synchronous Graphics RAM). It is synchronous RAM suitable for graphics ap- plications. EDO (Extended Data Output) is a modified DRAM. In EDO memory, any memory access (in- ‘iluding refresh) stores 256 bits‘into latches. The latches hold 256 bits of information, so in most |» ‘programs, which are sequentially executed, the data are available wero ce "9324 Error Detection and Correction in RAMS. Error detection and“Correctign circuitry are also "Jised for RAMS. The simplest technique for error detection is parity checking. A parity bit is [generated and written along with data. When data is read, parity bit is also read and checked. The parity checking can detect only single-bit errors. Itdoesnot detect multiple errors. To detect multibit errors Hamming codes are used, ICs such as Intel 8206 are available for detecting multibit errors using Hamming codes. The IC also corrects errors, 2 SIMM, Single In-Line Memory Module (SIMM) is a small ciccuit board oard plugs verticall into a single socket on the inai a te computer (mother board SIMMs of different sizes are designed to use the same size socket. Forexample, 1Mx8,4Mx5 Mx8 bit SIMM all use the same 30-pin socket. The 72-pin SIMMsare - f ps NG often organized as 1Mx32 ur 1Mx36 (with parity). Other sizes are : 2Mx32, 4Mx32 or 8Mx 32. v ‘These are also available with parity. The capacity of 4Mx36 SIMM is 16M bytes. DIMM (Double In-Line Memory Module), In DIMM circuit cards memory chips and contacts are placed on both sides of the printed circuit card.1.16 ROM (Read Only Memory). A ROM is a nt maneatly. Its contents are not lost when its powers and hence he can not write anything into it. ROM is used to store initializing programs of a computer, programs (monitor) of a microprocessor-Kit, fixed progral written at the time of its IC fabrication. It is cost-effective high cost of preparing a niask needed for writing the desired conten! ‘UNOAMENNTALS OF MICROPROCESSORS AND MICROCOMP,,| F volatile memory. It stores information Pe! sich off, It is not accessible to use,, is used to store permanent (fixed) programs. Tis microcodes of a CISC processor, supervisory ms in microcontrollers, etc. Its contents are for high-volume production because of ts into the ROM. It is simple, cheap and dense, It uses drie-transistor memory cell. Coe ee PROM (Programmable ROM). A PROM is a programmable ROM. The us gram, data Cr any other kind of information permanently into a PROM, PROM oy only i programmable ie, the user can write his program/ data intoa PROM only once. Aspecial equipmen called PROM programuer is required for writing programs into.a PROM, A PROM programmer is provided on standard microprocessor-kit. Universal PROM programmer is also available which is more powerful and provide greater facilities, and accepts a variety of PROMS. EPROM An EPROM is an erasable PROM. Its contents can be erased and it can be reprogrammed more than once. To erase its contents it is exposed to high intensity short wave ultraviolet light for about 20 minutes. To facilitate exposure of ultraviolet light the EPROM chips are ackedinapackage which has transparent window. The ultraviolet light having wavelength of 2537 is used for erasing the contents of an EPRCM. An equipment with ultraviolet source called . EPROM eraser is available for this purpose. The entire contents are erased in this process. Another isadvaittage of this technique of erasure is that the EPROM chip has to be taken out of the system i * board and placed in an EPROM eraser’s chamber. EPROMs are cheap and reliable. Hence, they are idely used. EPROMS are used to store programs, data or any other kind of information which are ‘Permanent but need updating, The programs which are at development stage, are also stored in “EPROM because they are to be modified many times. EPROMs are far more economical than PROMS “because they can be reused. It uses one-transistor memory cell and hence it has high density. EEPROM or E*PROM. EEPROM are electrically erasable PROMS. They are also called EAROM (Electrically Alterable ROM). They need not be removed from the system board for erasure. EEPROM is byte erasable. So selective erasure of its contents is possible. Its contents can be erased * and programmed on the system board itself very easily on byte by byte basis. Its disadvantage is that different voltages are,required for e rasing, writing and reading the stored information. It requires a pulse of 21 volts fop%writing or erasing, and 5 volts for read operation. It uses complex memory cell structure and therefore, it has low density. It has also high cost and lower reliability. It is used in certain applications, where byte-alterability is needed. Flash Memory. It is electrically erasable and reprogrammable. It is inherently non-volatile memory, Unlike EEPROM, flash memory uses one-transistor memory cell resulting in high packing density, lower cost and higher reliability. Its entire contents can be erased in one operation. It is not byte by byte erasable like EEPROM, Some new flash memory provides block erasure of its contents. Tt can be erased or reprogrammed on the system board itself. It possesses the feature of quick pulse Programming. Flash memory name has been given due'to fast reprogramming capability. Flash memory is suitable for storing firmware (codes) whereas conventional EEPROMS are suitable for storing parameters. When codes are updated the entire codes are rewritten to avoid errors. For up- dating firmware codes flash memor ry is quick and economical compared to an EPROM. In case of parameter updating, they are tobe rewritten individually n-line byte by byte. Hence, EEPROMs are best suited for parameter updating.INTRODUCTION 1.9.2 Magnetic Memory Thé magnetic memory is permanent memory. It is not vol memory/back-up memory ina computer system. The followin, tcday in a computer system : (i) Hard disk (i) Floppy disk % (iii) Magnetic tape. [45 whe Hard Disks. Hard disks are on-line storage device. They are used as secondary memory for mass storage of in- formatton-periianently. They store programs, data, operat- is made of aluminium (or other metal or metal alloy) base — Standard hard disk sizes are : 525,35, and 2.5 inch diameter. 1A7 latile. It is used as a secondary 1g types of magnetic memory are used ‘Finclvdisks‘are commonly used. 2.5 inch disks.are used in Fig, 4.4 Tracks and seclors ofa * portable computers. 5.25 inch disks were used earlier Digital \ information is stored one magnetic coating (film) by ap- magnetic disk plying current pulses of suitable polarity to the magnetising coil of the read/write head. The logic 1 oF 0 depends on the direction of magnetisation of the very small area of the magnetic film which Zcomes under the read/write head. There arc ing and vertical recording. Inlongitudina e along the track¥Inith types of recording technique : longitudinal record- ding the mag:retised regions are oriented parallel to i ‘ording the magnetised regions are vertical to the isk surface. The vertical recording stores many times more data as compared to longitudinal record- ing. During read operation a voltage is induced in the coil of the read/write head due to the changes in the magnetic field in the vicinity of the head. The coil now serves as a sensing coil. Fig. 1.6 shows a read/write head. Hard disks and read/write heads are placed in a sealed, air-filtered enclosure. This technique is called Winchester technology. The hard disks which use this technology are called Winchester disks. The hard disks together with read/write heads, access mechanism, driving motor fora hard disks unit form a unit called hard disk drive ynit. The whole unit is permanently installed ina computer system. This unit is fixed in a compyser’ system, and it is not removable. A platter i.e. disk can not be removed or inserted into a hard disk drive unit. Ahard disk is a surface device. Its surface is divided into a number of concentric tracks, and each track is divided into a number of sectors as shown in Fig. 1.4. Tracks and sectors do not have physical existence on the surface of a disk. They are logical things. To increase the storage capacity several hard disks, called platters, are mounted on a common drive to forma disk pack as shown in Fig. 1.5. Data bits are stored serially on each track. The set of the same numbered tracks on different disks of a disk drive unit will lie on the surface of an imaginary cylinder. The disks are addressed by drive the range of 5400-15000 np.m. The starage capacit per platter is 2-20 GB. The data transfer rate is 33.3- B/s. The ti Spearsad write Head To the specified track is called Séek time. This depends = Lsehead relative to the trad adress. ea aT reeitied Se isa semirandom device. ie Tal re (Or search pr the Read, The sum of seek time and ‘the latency time is falled access time. The access time is about 5-15 ms. The head moves to the specified track in a ran- way. To read/write information the specified sector moves under the head in serial way. Soa number, cylinder number (i.e. track number), surface number and sector number. The speed of hard aio, Ine A .The storing capacity required to move the ‘The read/write heads of a disk system are either fixed or movable. In a fixed head:system, aF MICROPROCESSORS AND MICh.-MPUTER, 1.18 FUNDAMENTALS Of Magnatizng Disk current =i Read! vit head = Magnote — me | Orncton et ammoton yy SS aaa Magnote thin fi Fig. 1.5 Hard disk pack Fig. 1.6 Read/Write hoad ty separate head is provided for each track of each surface. This type of system contains only one plat \ ter. Ina movable head type unit, there is one head per surface. All heads are mounted on an arm | which can move radially across the platters to access to individual tracks, as shown in Fig. 1.5. The sad system is commonly used. The fixed head system has faster access but it requires more electronic circuitry. On the other hand moving head system requires more complex mechanical ar- rangement for moving the heads. Due to high speed a thin air cushion of about 10 micro-inch is formed between the rotating disk and the head. When the disk is rotating, the head floats on the air cushion and remains 10 microinch off the disk surface. It does not make any physical contact with the disk surface. Hard disks must be contained in dustfree environment, because dust particles may be 10 times the thickness of the air cushion. Any dust particles or any other contamination present in the sealed container, will cause head crash. In head crash the coating of magnetic material on the disk surface is damaged where head strikes. The data of that portion of the disk surface is lost. Hard Disk Controller. Magnetic disk drive also requires controller. It from software-running on the computer to the electrical signals required to 4, The function of a disk controller is disk drive selection, track and sector selection, head loading, to issue comsnand to thé drive system to perform read/write operation, data separation, serial-to- 1+ Darallel and parallel to serial conversion of data, erro: checking etc. The data recorded on a magnetic » Gk is the combination of clock (timing information) and data, Therefore, data read must be separated from the clock information. The data processed by a CPU or stored in the main memory is ‘ in the byte form. The bytes to be recorded on a magnetic disk must be converted into serial format. i The data read froma disk is in the serial format which has to be converted to parallel format so that j itcan be sent to the CPU or stored in the main memory. PRSCSI and IDE. There are two types of hard disk controller : IDE (Integrated Drive Electronics - itisaname of standard) and SCSI (Small Computer System Interface). Actually these are not control- Jers, rather they are adapters. Tae controller is built into the drive itself. But generally people call them controller. SCSI is an intelligent adapter. It contains separate I/O bus. It can connect upto 15 1/0 devices such as hard disks, floppy disks, tape drives, optical disks, printers, scanners, etc. Itis a Gsily system. It is used with large computers, servers, etc. eee {ABA 'IDE is used for small size of disk drive unit. Itis used to interface hard disk drives. The enhanced IE (EIDE) allows up to 4 channels. Each channel can interface up to 2 devices. Thus a total of up to 8 devices cai be interfaced. EIDE, which is almost universaf on new PCs, can interface optical disks, hard disks, floppy disks‘and magnetic tapes. Another name of IDE is ATA standard. Recently Seagate has developed Ultra ATA interface technology having data transfer rate of 38.3 Mbytes/s- ee esINTRODUCTION 119 os virtually doubling the existing IDE standards. ATAPI is an extension of ATA. Itis ATA Packet Interface G 2 Removable Hard Disks. Removable hard disks are also available for backup protection, The: } aré costlier than magnetic tape backup. The capacity of SyQuest’s removable disk system is Syjet 16 Heber Tomega’s Jaz 1 GB and 2GB. 2.2IP Drive. It is a super floppy disk drive. Its.size is about 3.5 inch. Its slightly thicker than 3.5 ich foppy disk: It uses magnetic-coated Mylar Hisk, protected by hard plastic shell. runs at 3000 Ep.m. Ituses two read/write heads - one for each side of the disk. Theheads are about one-tenth the size of a floppy drive's head; closer to the size of read/write heads in a hard disk drive. The heads touch the surface of the disk very lightly compared to a floppy dive. It uses about 2000 tracks per inch. It uses special magnetic material which is not easily magnetised. As. result magnetic field from the write head affects far smaller area to write 0 or 1. Its capacity is 100 MB, 250 MB, Disk Cache. Since disk access is slower than RAM access, there is also disk caching, which i stores information the user might need, from the hard disk in faster RAM. The function of disk cache is to enhance the performance of the hard drive or other mass storage devices, for example, CD or | DVD. Modern hard disk drives are now built with their own on board cache memory of IMB o1 aMB. ! Floppy Disks. A floppy disk is made of thin plastic circular disk. The thin pl | Mylar, Itis coated with amagnetic material such as iron oxide or barium ferrite. The disk is nota hard | ‘Plate, rather itis very thin flexible plastic; and hence itis called ‘floppy’ disk. Floppy disks are also ‘ic material calléd'diskettes. They are used as secondary or backup memory. Generally, users use floppy to store their programs and important informations. Different sizes of floppies are : 5.25 inch and 3.5 inch diameter. The floppies are kept in plastic protective cover which is 5.25 inch/3.5 inch square. The protective cover of 3.5 inch floppy is hard plastic whereas that of a 5.25 inch floppy is soft plastic. The protective cover (the disk jacket) of a 5.25 inch floppy disk is usually black, On inner surface of the cover, thereis a white felt liner, The liner is designed specially to help the disk rotate smoothly. It also wipes the floppy disk clean. A floppy disk is a surface device. tis divided into concentric tracks, andl each track is divided into sectors. They use longitudinal vertical magnetisation technology. A flop- “=: py disk rotates at 20 p.m. While rotating, the read/write head makes contact with the disk surface. ‘The large oval slot provides the opening through which the read/write head touches the disk. Fig. L7 shows a schematic diagram of 5.25 inch floppy. The read/write window is oval wine shaped cut into the cover. There is a hole at the print “centre for drive spindle. A plastic hub ring is +“ Yfitted at the centre of the floppy disk to protect, "the intemal edge of the disk, otherwise the edge will come in direct contact with the drive spindle and may-be damaged. The write protect notch protects the stored information. A black orsilver adhesive tape is supplied with each floppy. It is called write protect’tab. If a tab is fixed on the notch, then the computer will not be able to write on that disk any more. It -an not erase the infor- ‘mation stored on the tisk. This technique protects the coritents of t!.v disk from accidental erasure. If someone decides to write some- i i ; ; ‘allgnmant thing on that disk or erase some information, he rutehos. can do so by removing the tab. One can not Fig. 1.7. §.25 Inch floppy drivo use transparent tape because the disk drive<= w bd FUNDAMENTALS OF MICROPROCESSORS AND MICROCOMPUTERS ect ED assembly (2. by passing light through it wimeSasiee ae eta tole Ia small ole ust ff he cont sv idesarelerence point which gives the physical beginning ofa track. The YopPs Heo 25 soft-sectored and hard-sectored disks. A soft-sectored disk contains only rained he reference point to the first sector, and the reference: of the other sectors is ok sine A hard-sectored disk contains separate hole for each sector apart ae index identification of «sector Softsectoring is common. It is more reliable than hard-sector two small cuts on either side of the read/write slot are called alignment (or stress-relief) ey help ensure that the jacket does not wrap. od Fig. 1.5 shows the schematic diagram of 3.5 inch floppy. On3.5 inch floppy read/write win aed dy a sliding metal cover (i.e. a metal shield). The disk drive pushes the cover aside when serted into the drive, The write-protect Motal shold ys a plastic button which slides ina 4] [ | att a disk is notch et Head slot e slided into the two positions, One position allows reading, writing and erasing. The | JO Indox holo other position allows only reading. When light is a Plastic hub swisible through the track, then the floppy is write- ing gptected. rive spindio pf The capa ty of a 5.25 inch floppy is 1.2 MB. rol ‘The capacity of 3.5 inch floppy is 1.44 MB. When { only one side of a disk is used to store information, \ itis called single sided. A double-sided disk stores information on both sides (surfaces) of the disk. ‘The tems single density, double density and quad 5 density are used in context with disks. A double Fig. 1.8 3.5 inch floppy disk density disk stores double informatio. per unit length of a track as compared toa single density disk. Aquad density disk stores 4 times information compared to that of a single density disk. MS-DOS stores 512 bytes of information per track. 5.25 inch double density floppy uses 48 TPI (Tracks Per Inch), and quad density 96 TPI. The 3.5 inch floppy uses 135 TPI density. Higher density disks store 024 or 2048 bytes per sector. * High-Capacity Floppy. Fujifilm company has recently developed 200 MB floppy disk. It can store 100000 pages of text. It combines Fujifilm’s film coating and magnetic media recording technol- ogy with Sony's drive hardware. It uses ATOMM (Advanced Super Thinlayer and High-Output Matel Media) technology, a dual-layer coating system. The key features of an ATOMM coated storage product are its special layers on each recording, surface. Floppy Disk Controller. A floppy disk system also requires a controller. The function of a disk controller has already been discussed while discussing hard disk controller. Intel has developed 52078, 82077AA and 82077SL floppy disk controller. These controllers will be discussed in Chapter7. Cautions In Handling Floppy Disks. A floppy disk should always be kept in a plastic box when it is not in use, It should be kept in vertical position. The exposed area of the disk surface should not be touched with fingers. A felt-tipped pen should be used for writing the label, Sharp and hard-point such as dot pen (ball point pen) should not be used. Floppy disk should be kept away from magnetic fields such as that created by electric radios, televisions, tape recorders, telephones, motors, and other electric appliances. The disk may also be damaged by heat, moisture and dust. So it should be kept away from excessive heat such as that produced from radiation or direct sun. It Witto protect notch ° ° “|INTRODUCTION 1.21 should be kept in dust and moisture free environment. The di is running. A disk should not be bent. Formatting of Magnetic Disks. Magnetic disks must be speci used firs time. This preparation i called formatting ofadisk When sree hehehe ae the tracks and sectors are marked on it, Each sector is numbered, going around cach track, from the outside track, Besides data a number of other information is recorded on the disk for correct data tsansfer between the disk and the main memory. The outermost tracks contain operating system files, disk’s main directory, information about disk space allocation, etc, Sector number zero on each track is reserved for identification purposes, rather than for storing data. Error Checking in Magnetic Disk Memory. Error detecting codes are used to check errors when data are read from a disk. The cyclic redundancy checking (CRC) method is most popular and widely used for error checking. In this technique all data bytes of a sector of a track are treated as a single large number. This binary number is divided by a constant number, The 16-bit remainder is recorded as CRC bytes and placed after the data bytes. When data are read, the data bytes as well as CRC bytes are read out. The CRC bytes are subtracted from the read out data string. The result is divided by the original constant. If the remainder of the division is zero, the data read out is correct, otherwise data read out is not correct, Magnetic Tapes. It is serial access type mass storage device, It is suitable for backup storage. Floppy disks are also used for backup storage. The difficulty with floppy disks is thata large number Of disks are required where’ the hard disk capacity is in gigabytes. Hence, floppies are used for back- up in small single user computers. Magnetic tapes are used for backup in servers, workstations and large computers. A high-speed magnetic tape is employed for hard disk backup. Only a few minutes are required to dump or load the entire contents of the hard disks to or from a magnetic tape. A magnetic tape is a low-cost device and it has large storage capacity. It can also be used as offline secondary storage. When.a large volume of information is to be processed sequentially, it can be stored on a magnetic tape. Magnetic tapes are also used for transporting data from one place to another or one computer system to another. Its main disadvantage is that it stores information se- quentially. A file or a particular information stored on a magnetic tape can not be accessed directly ona random basis as.it is done in case of a hard disk. Another disadvantage of a large commercial magnetic tape unit is that it needs a complex mechanism to keep the tape speed constant, and to start and stop the tape without breaking it. The magnetic tape is made of mylar plastic material coated with raagnetic material (iron oxide) only one side of the tape. The sizes of magnetic tapes,are 1/2:inch, 1/4 inch, 8mm and 3 mm. Earlier tapes used 9 tracks to store a byte with parity bit at a time. The newer tape system uses 18 or 36 tracks tostore a word or double word with parity bits at a time. The 1/2 inch tape are expensive and they are not commonly used. Very few companies manufacture 1/2 inch tape. The 1/2 inch tape come in reel form. Its typical length is 2400 feet, data density for 9 tracks tape is about 60,000 bits per inch, speed 200 inch/sec. and data transfer rate 1200 KB/sec. 4 “Modern magnetic tapes for hard disk backup come in cassette. These units are called cartridge tapes. The tapes are 8 mm or 3 mm wide, Their storing capacities are 250 MB, 500 MB, 2 GB, 4 GB, vetc. Reading and writing is performed by a helical scar. system operating across the tape, similar to :that used in video cassette tape drives. The helical scan records atan angle to the tape. The head spins at high speed while the tape moves. Bit density of tens of millions of bits per square inch are achiev- able. The data transfer rate is a few hundred kilobytes per second. The Digital Audio Tapes (DAT) aze the latest addition to the magnetic tape family. It uses SCSI interface. The tape length is 60 or 90 metres, capacity upto 4 GB and the data transfer rate 366 KB/sec. isk should not be removed while drive1.22 FUNDAMENTALS OF MICROPROCESSORS AND MICROC: ‘The'data on the tape are organized in the form of records separated by gaps. A gap betwee wo consecutive records is called inter-block gap (BG). A magnetic tape is divided into horizontal rows called tracks or channels and vertical columns called frames. A 9-track tape drive system is provided with 9 read/write heads. 9 bits are writ- ten/read ina vertical colunin simultaneously. 8 bits are for the binary code of a character and the 9th bit is the parity bit for error checking. A parity bit detects only single-bit errors. It can not detect multbit errors. To detect myltibit errors a second parity bit called longitudinal parity bit is intro- duced. After recording character bits in a number of columns, one column is used to record lon- gitudinal parity bits. Using both vertical and longitudinal parity check bits, both types of errors — single-bit and multibit errors ~ are detected and corrected. Magnetic Bubble Memory. It is a kind of magnetic memory. It is a solid state static device having high reliability, small size, light weight, ruggedness and limited power dissipation. It is non- volatile semirandom access type me.nory. It is nondestructive read out type’ memory. Intel had developed this type of memory such as Intel 7114 chip in 1980s. It stores 4 Mbits in a 1.76 inch x 1.65 inch package, 20-pin chip. It requires controller, current pulse generator, sense amplifier, etc. Bubble memory was a slow memory. It had applications in data acquisition, industrial control, terminals, small business computers, robots, military applications, etc where delicate rotating hard disk is not desirable. Its data transfer rate is 1.6 MB/sec which is much less than that of hard disks. Its average access time is 0.7 ms which is less than a hard disk. It is available in IC form. Magnetic Care Memory. Until the development of semiconductor memories, magnetic core memory was widely used in computer as main memory. It was random access type permanent memory. It was destructive readout type memory. It contained small rings of fine wire of ferrite material, which was called core. For read and write operation wires were passed through the rings. When current is passed through the wire, the ring is magnetised in either direction to store 1 or 0. It can work in special situations where severe temperature or radiation environment is encountered. It has become obsolete for general purpose computers: 1.9.3 Optical Disks Laser beam is used to write information to or read information from an optical disk. A laser is a highly focused, highly controlled beam of light, either visible or, more commonly in storage devices, ‘Infrared. An optical disk has very high storage density and data integrity. It is relatively inexpensive and has a long life of at least 20 years. Its drives are inherently simple and inexpensive. The read/write head does not touch the disk surface. Its several millimetres away from the disk surface. Hence, there is no disk wear and no problem of head crash. Elaborate error checking codes are used. as there is no problem of space because optical disks have very high storage capacity. The disk is removable from the computer system. The drawback of an optical disk system is its longer access time compared to hard disks. The types of optical disks are : (i) CD-ROM - Compact disk read only memory (ii) WORM - Write once read many (iii) Magneto-Optical Disks (iv) DVD-ROM, DVD-R and DVD-RAM. (v) Floptical Disks CD-ROM. It is compact disk read only memory. Manufacturers write information on CD- ROMS. The disk is made of a resin, such as polycarbonate, and coated witha highly reflective surface, usually auminium. The disk size is 5.25 inch diameter. Information is written to the disk by burning pits on tne disk surface with controlled laser beam. A typical value of track density is 16000 tracks per inch. it is very high compared to track density of hard disks. Information is read from the disk using laser bean, The reflected laser is sensed by photodiode to read data. The intensity of the reflected light of the laser changesas it encounters a pit. A it spreads the lightso that the photodiode Va