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CHAPTER 7
Specific Issues in Science, Technology, and Society
Overview
This chapter deals with various issues in the society related to
science and technology. Some of these issues are climate change, impact
of the information age, nanotechnology, and genetically modified
organisms. Each lesson contains important information, activities, and
guide questions that will help students in learning STS. The development
of scientific ideas draws inspiration from the physical and natural world,
and the society is always a recipient of the positive benefits of science
and technology.

Lesson Objectives
At the end of this lesson, the students should be able to:
1. define Information Age;
2. discuss the history of Information Age; and
3. understand the factors that need to be considered in checking website
sources.

Lesson 1 Information Age

Introduction
Life is accompanied by endless transmission of information that
takes place
within and outside the human body. According to Webster’s Encyclopedic
Unabridged Dictionary, information is “knowledge communicated or
obtained concerning a specific fact or circumstances.” Hence, information
is a very important is a very important tool for survival.
The Information Age is defined as a “period starting in the last
quarter of the 20th century when information became effortlessly
accessible through publications and through the management of
information by computers and computer networks”. The means of
conveying symbolic information (e.g., writing, math, other codes) among
humans has evolved with increasing speed. The Information Age is also
called the Digital Age and the New Media Age because it was associated
with the development of computers.
According to James R. Messenger who proposed the Theory of
Information Age in 1982, “The Information Age is a true new age based
upon the interconnection of computers via telecommunications, with
these information systems operating on both a real-time and as needed
basis. Furthermore, the primary factors driving this new age forward are
convenience and user-friendliness which, in turn, will create user
dependence.”

Lesson 1.1 History

The table below traces the history and emergence of the Information
Age (United States American History, n.d.).
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Table 1. Timeline of the Information Age
Year Event
3000 BC Sumerian writing system used pictographs to represent words
2900 BC Beginnings of Egyptian hieroglyphic writing
1300 BC Tortoise shell and oracle bone writing were used
500 BC Papyrus roll was used
220 BC Chinese small seal writing was developed
100 AD Book (parchment codex)
105 AD Woodblock printing and paper was invented by the Chinese
1455 Johannes Gutenberg invented the printing press using movable
metal
type
1755 Samuel Johnson’s dictionary standardized English spelling

Table 2. Timeline of the Information Age continuation

Year Event
1802  The Library of Congress was established
 Invention of the carbon arc lamp
1824 Research on persistence of vision published
1830s  First viable design for a digital computer
 Augusta Lady Byron writes the world’s first computer
program
1837 Invention of the telegraph in Great Britain and the United States
1861 Motion pictures were projected onto a screen
1876 Dewey Decimal System was introduced
1877 Eadweard Muybridge demonstrated high-speed photography
1899 First magnetic recordings were released
1902 Motion picture special effects were used
1906 Lee DeForest invented the electronic amplifying tube (triode)
1923 Television camera tube was invented by Zvorkyn
1926 First practical sound movie
1939 Regularly scheduled television broadcasting began in the US
1940s Beginnings of information science as a discipline
1945 Vannevar Bush foresaw the invention of hypertext
1946 ENIAC computer was developed
1948 Birth of field-of-information theory proposed by Claude E.
Shannon
1957 Planar transistor was developed by Jean Hoerni
1958 First integrated circuit
1960s Library of Congress developed LC MARC (machine-readable
code)
1969 UNIX operating system was developed , which could handle
multitasking
1971 Intel introduced the first microprocessor chip
1972 Optical laserdisc was developed by Philips and MCA
1974 MCA and Philips agreed on a standard videodisc encoding
format

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1975 Altair Microcomputer Kit was released: first personal computer
for the public
1977 RadioShack introduced the first complete personal computer
1984 Apple Macintosh computer was introduced
Mid Artificial intelligence was separated from information science
1980s
1987 Hypercard was developed by Bill Atkinson recipe box metaphor
1991 Four hundred fifty complete works of literature on one CD_ROM
was
released

January RSA (encryption and network security software) Internet

1997 security code cracked for a 48-bit number

Figure 1. Evolution of Man and Information

As man evolved, information and its dissemination has also evolved

in many ways. Eventually, we no longer kept them to ourselves; instead,
we share them and manage them in different means. It started to grow at
a rate we were unprepared to handle. It was difficult to collect and
manage them starting in the 1960s and 1970s because of the abundance
of information.
During 1980s, real angst set in. Richard Wurman called it
“Information Anxiety”. In the 1990s, information became the currency in
the business world. In the present generation, there is no doubt that the
information has turned out to be a commodity, an over-developed
product, mass-produced, and unspecialized.
In his article “Truth of the Information Age” (n.d.), Robert Harris
detailed some facts on the Information Age.
1. Information must compete. There is a need for information to stand
out and be recognized in the increasing clutter.
2. Newer is equated with truer. We forgot the truth that any fact.
3. Selection is a viewpoint. Choose multiple sources for your
information if you want to receive a more balanced view of reality.
4. The media sells what the culture buys. In other words, information is
driven by cultural priorities.
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5. The early word gets the perm. The first media channel to expose an
issue often defines the context, terms, and attitudes surrounding it.
6. You are what you eat and so is your brain. Do not draw conclusions
unless all
ideas and information are presented to you.
7. Anything in great demand will be counterfeited. The demand for
incredible knowledge, scandals, and secrets is ever-present; hence,
many events are fabricated by tabloids, publicists, or other agents of
information fraud.
8. Ideas are seen as controversial. It is almost certainly impossible to
make any assertion that will not find some supporters and some
detractors.
9. Undead information walks ever on. Rumors, lies, disinformation, and
gossips
never truly die down. They persist and continue to circulate.

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 10. Media presence creates the story. People behave much
differently from the way they would if being filmed when the media
are present, especially film news or television media.
11. The medium selects the message. Television is mainly pictorial,
partially aural, and slightly textual, so visual stories are emphasized:
fires, chases, and disasters.
12. The whole truth is a pursuit. The information that reaches us is
usually selected, verbally charged, filtered, slanted, and sometimes,
fabricated. What is neglected is often even more important than
what is included.

Learning Task 1. In your own words describe Information

Age.

Lesson 1.2 Computer

Computers are among the most important contributions of advances
in the Information Age to society. A computer is an electronic device that
stores and processes data (information). It runs on a program that
contains the exact, step-by- step directions to solve a problem
(UShistory.org, 2017).
Types of Computers

Computers are associated with numerous terms and descriptions.

Most people suggest the dimensions, intended use, or the computer’s
power. While the term “computer” can apply to virtually any device that
has a microprocessor in it, most people think of a computer as a device
that receives input from the user through a mouse (hand-guided
directions tool) or keyboard, processes it in some fashion, and presents
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the result on a screen.

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 1. Personal Computer (PC)
It is a single-user instrument. PCs were first known as
microcomputers since they were a complete computer but built on a
smaller scale than the enormous systems operated by most business.
2. Desktop Computer
It is described as a PC that is not designed for portability. the
assumption with a desktop is that it will be set up in a permanent spot. A
workstation is simply a desktop computer that has a more powerful
processor, additional memory, and enhanced capabilities for performing
special group of tasks, such as 3D graphics or game development. Most
desktops offer more storage, power, and versatility than their portable
versions (UShistory.org, 2017).
3. Laptops
These are portable computers that integrate the essentials of a
desktop in a battery-powered package, which are somewhat larger than a
typical hardcover book. They are commonly called notebooks.
4. Personal Digital Assistants (PDAs)
These are tightly integrated computers that usually have no
keyboards but rely on a touch screen for user input. PDAs are typically
smaller than a paperback, lightweight, and battery-powered
(UShistory.org, 2017).
5. Server
It refers to a computer that has been improved to provide network
services to other computers. Servers usually boast powerful processors,
tons of memory, and large hard drives (UShistory.org, 2017).
6. Mainframes
These are huge computer systems that can fill an entire room. They
are used especially by large firms to describe the large, expensive
machines that process millions of transactions every day. The term
“mainframe” has been replaced by enterprise server. Although some
supercomputers are single computer systems, most comprise multiple,
high-performance, parallel computers working as a single system
(UShistory.org, 2017).
7. Wearable Computers
They involve materials that are usually integrated into cell phones,
watches, and other small objects or places. They perform common
computer applications such as databases, email, multimedia, and
schedulers (UShistory.org, 2017).

Learning Task 2. Among the types of computer which one help you
in your academic career? Why?
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 CHAPTER 8 The World Wide Web (Internet)
Several historians trace the origin of the Internet to Claude E.
Shannon, an American Mathematician who was considered as the "Father
of Information Theory." He worked at Bell Laboratories and at age 32, he
published a paper proposing that information can be quantitatively
encoded as a sequence of ones and zeroes.
The Internet is a worldwide system of interconnected networks that
facilitate data transmission among innumerable computers. It was
developed during the 1970s by the Department of Defense. In case of an
attack, military advisers suggested the advantage of being able to
operate on one computer from another terminal. In the early days, the
Internet was used mainly by scientists to communicate with other
scientists. The Internet remained under government control until 1984
(Rouse, 2014).
One early problem faced by Internet users was speed. Phone lines
could only transmit information at a limited rate. The development of
fiber-optic cables allowed for billions of bits of information to be received
every minute.
Sergey Brin and Larry Page, directors of a Stanford research project,
built a search engine that listed results to reflect page popularity when
they determined that the most popular result would frequently be the
most usable. After talking with family, friends, and other investors into
contributing $1 million, the researchers launched their company in 1998.
Google is now the world's most popular search engine, accepting
more than
200 million queries daily. Back then, new forms of communication were
also introduced. Electronic mail, or email, was a suitable way to send a
message to fellow workers, business partners, or friends. Messages could
be sent and received at the convenience of the individual. A letter that
took several days to arrive could be read in minutes.
Consequently, companies whose businesses are built on digitized
information have become valuable and powerful in a relatively short
period of time, the current Information Age has spawned its own breed of
wealthy influential brokers, f rom Microsoft's Bill Gates to Apple's Steve
Jobs to Facebook's Mark Zuckerberg.
Critics charged that the Internet created a technological divide that
increased the gap between the members of the higher class and lower
class of society. Those who could not afford a computer or a monthly
access fee were denied these possibilities. Many decried the impersonal
nature of electronic communication compared to a telephone call or a
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handwritten letter.
On one hand, the unregulated and loose nature of the Internet
allowed pornography to be broadcast to millions of homes. Protecting
children from these influences or even from meeting violent predators
would prove to be difficult. Nowadays, crimes in various forms are
rampant because of the use of social media. Cyberbullying is an issue
that poses alarm worldwide. Consequently, we need to be

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aware of the possible harm and damage due to abuse of these advances
in the Information Age.

Learning Task 3. List down at least 5 disadvantages of

using

Lesson 1.4. Applications of Computers in Science and Research

One of the significant applications of computers for science and
research is evident in the field of bioinformatics. Bioinformatics is the
application of information technology to store, organize, and analyze vast
amount of biological data which is available in the form of sequences and
structures of proteins the building blocks of organisms and nucleic acids-
the information carrier (Madan, n.d.).
Early interest in bioinformatics was established because of a need to
create databases of biological sequences. The human brain cannot store
all the genetic sequences of organisms and this huge amount of data can
only be stored, analyzed, and be used efficiently with the use of
computers.
While the initial databases of protein sequences were maintained at
individual laboratories, the development of a consolidated formal
database, known as SWISS- PROT protein sequence database, was initiated
in 1986. It now has about 70,000 protein sequences from more than
5,000 model organisms, a small fraction of all known organisms. The
enormous variety of divergent data resources is now available for study
and research by both academic institutions and industries.
Computers and software tools are widely used for generating these
databases and to identify the function of proteins, model the structure of
proteins, determine the coding (useful) regions of nucleic acid sequences,
find suitable drug compounds from a large pool, and optimize the drug
development process by predicting possible targets. Some of the software
tools which are handy in the analysis include: BLAST (used for comparing
sequences); Annotator (an interactive genome analysis tool); and Gene
Finder (tool to identify coding regions and splice sites) (Madan, n.d.).
Moreover, from the pharmaceutical industry's point of view,
bioinformatics is the key to rational drug discovery. It reduces the number
of trials in the screening of drug compounds and in identifying potential
drug targets for a particular disease using high-power computing
workstations and software like Insight. This profound application of
bioinformatics in genome sequence has led to a new area in
pharmacology Pharmacogenomics, where potential targets for drug
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development are hypothesized from the genome sequences.
In plant biotechnology, bioinformatics is found to be useful in the
areas of identifying diseases resistance genes and designing plants with
high nutrition value (Madan, n.d.).

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 Learning Task 4. With your chosen program of study, in what way can
informatics help you?
Lesson 1.5 Reliability of Web Sources
The Internet contains a vast collection of highly valuable
information but it may also contain unreliable, biased information that
mislead people.
The following guidelines can help us check the reliability of web
sources that we gather. It is noteworthy to consider and apply the
following guidelines to avoid misinformation. (Lee College Library, n.d.)
1. Who is the author of the article/site?
How to find out?
Look for an "About" or "More About the Author" link at the top, bottom, or
sidebar of the webpage. Some pages will have a corporate author rather
than a single person as an author. If no information about the author(s) of
the page is provided, be suspicious.
✓ Does the author provide his or her credentials
✓ What type of expertise does he or she have on the subject he or she
is writing about? Does he or she indicate what his or her education
is?
✓ What type of experience does he or she have? Should you
trust his or her knowledge of the subject?
Try searching on the Internet for information about the author.
✓ What kinds of websites are associated with the author's name? Is
he or she affiliated with any educational institution?
2. Who published the site?
How to find out?
✓ Look at the domain name of the website that will tell you who is
hosting the site. For instance, the Lee College Library website is:
http://www.lee.edu/ library. The domain name is "lee.edu." This tells
you that the library website is hosted by Lee College.
✓ Search the domain name at http://www.whois.sc/. The site
provides information about the owners of registered domain names.
What is the organization's main purpose? Check the organization's
main website, if it has one. Is it educational? Commercial? Is it a
reputable organization?
✓ Do not ignore the suffix on the domain name (the three-letter part
that comes after the "."). The suffix is usually (but not always)
descriptive of what type of entity hosts the website. Keep in mind that
it is possible for sites to obtain suffixes that are misleading.
Here are some examples:
.edu = educational
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.com = commercial
.mil = military

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 .gov = government
.org = nonprofit
3. What is the main purpose of the site? Why did the author write it and why
did the publisher post it?
 To sell a product?
 As a personal hobby?
 As public service?
 To further scholarship on a topic?
 To provide general information on a topic?
 To persuade you of a particular point of view?
4. Who is the intended audience?
 Scholars or the general public?
 Which age group is it written for?
 Is it aimed at people from a particular geographic area?
 Is it aimed at members of a particular profession or with specific
training?
5. What is the quality of information provided on the website?
 Timeliness: When was the website first published? Is it regularly
updated? Check for dates at the bottom of each page on the site.
 Does the author cite sources? Just as in print sources, web sources that
cite their sources are considered more reliable.
 What type of other sites does the website link to? Are they reputable
sites?
 What types of sites link to the website you are evaluating? Is the
website being cited by others?
Examples of Useful and Reliable Web Sources
1. AFA e-Newsletter (Alzheimer's Foundation of America newsletter)
2. American Memory - the Library of Congress historical digital collection.
3. Bartleby.com Great Books Online - a collection of free e-books including
fictions, nonfictions, references, and verses.
4. Chronicling America - search and view pages from American newspapers from
1880-1922
5. Cyber Bullying a free collection of e-books from ebrary plus additional
reports and documents to help better understand, prevent and take action
against this growing concern.
6. Drug information websites
 National Library of Medicine's MedlinePlus
 Drugs.com
 PDRhealth
7. Global Gateway: World Culture & Resources (from the Library of Congress)
8. Google Books
9.Googlescholar.co
m
10. History sites with primary documents:
 AMDOCS: Documents for the study of American history
 Avalon Project: Documents in Law, History and Diplomacy (Yale Law
School)
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  Internet Modern History Sourcebook: Colonial Latin America
 Teacher Oz's Kingdom of History
11. Illinois Digital Archives - the Illinois State Library working with libraries,
museums, and historical societies in Illinois provides this collection of materials
related to Illinois history.
12. Internet Archive - a digital library of Internet sites and other cultural
artifacts in digital form.

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13. Internet Archive for CARLI digitized resources
14. Internet Public Library
15. ipl2 a merger of Librarians Internet Index and Internet Public Library. Special
interest may include the "Literary Criticisms" page which can be found after
clicking on the "Special Collections" link.
16. Librarians' Internet Index
17. Making of America - a digital library of primary sources in American social
history.
18. Maps from the University of Texas at Austin collection. Includes historical and
thematic maps.
19. Nation Master - a massive central data source and a handy way to graphically
compare nations. It is a vast compilation of data from such sources as the CIA
World Factbook, UN, and OECD.
20. Nursing sites:
 AHRQ (www.ahrq.gov)
 National Guidelines Clearinghouse (www.guideline.gov)
 PubMed (www.nlm.nih.gov)
21. Project Gutenberg - the first and largest single collection of free electronic
books with currently over 20,000 e-books available.

Learning Task 5. Creative work.

Think of a device with special features that you can develop to
help improve lives of people in our society. It could be
something that you can develop to help in communication,
transportation, health, and the like.
Illustrate and label your device.
References
Harris, R. (n.d.). "Truths of the Information Age." Accessed February 26, 2017.
http://www.virtualsalt.com/infotrue.htm.

Illinois Valley Community College. (n.d.). "List of useful and reliable web sources.
Accessed August 2, 2017. https://www.ivcc.edu/ library.aspx?id=4038.

Lee College Library. (n.d.). "How Can I Tell if a Website is Reliable?" Accessed August
2, 2017. https://www.edb.utexas.edu/petrosino/ Legacy_Cycle/mf_jm/Challenge
201/website reliable.pdf. Madan, M. (n.d.).

"Bioinformatics-an aid for biological research."

Accessed August 2, 2017. http://www.mrc-Imb.cam.ac.uk/genomes
madanm/articles/bioinfo.htm.

Messenger, J. R. (1982). "The Theory of the Information Age." Accessed February 26,
2017, http://www.informationage.org/briefhistory. html.

Lesson 2 Biodiversity and the Healthy Society

Lesson Objectives:
At the end of this lesson, the students should be able to:

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1. determine the interrelatedness of society, environment, and health;

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 2. create a diagram that would show the relatedness of species in
forming up a diverse and healthy society without compromising one
another; and
3. identify everyday tasks and evaluate whether they contribute to
the wellness and health of biodiversity and society or not.

Introduction
Decrease in biodiversity is eminent worldwide. Vertebrates fell to
60% from the 1970s due to human causes. It is projected that by 2020
wildlife decline will be 67% of the present number. The World Wide Fund
for Nature and Zoological Society of London reported an annual decrease
in wildlife by 2%. A major cause is human population which has doubled
in number since 1960 to 7.4 billion. Humans have industrialized the
natural habitat of wildlife as well as marine life. Leaving these creatures
with no place to live would eventually cause their deaths. Marco
Lambertini, the General Director of WWF International, described that the
disappearance of wildlife is at an unprecedented rate. Earth might enter
the sixth mass extinction event according to experts. Mass extinction is
described as the disappearance of species at a rate of 1,000 faster than
usual. Moreover, the disappearance of species in certain environment
causes an imbalance in the ecosystem, producing more chaotic changes
that harm the entire ecosystem (Inquirer.net, 2016).
This is but pressing statement for people to know more about the
importance of our diverse environment, and how human activities can
either contribute to its growth or destruction. There is a growing
importance of studying how society, environment, and health is
interrelated to each other, that if human beings fail to recognize the
needs of one of those components, the other remaining components can
be affected and compromised. Thus, it is timely to know about the
pressing effects of species being extinct and that of our ecosystem being
imbalanced.
CHAPTER 9 Biodiversity and Ecosystem

Biodiversity is defined as the vast variety of life forms in the entire

Earth. It encompasses all kinds of life forms, from the single-celled
organisms to the largest multi-celled its definition is in the structural
and functional perspective and not
as individual species. Another

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definition of biodiversity is "the
variability among living organisms
from all sources, including
terrestrial, marine and other aquatic
ecosystems and the ecological
complexes of which they are this
includes diversity within species,
between species,

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and of ecosystems. Biodiversity is the source of the essential goods and
ecological services that constitute the source of life for all and it has
direct consumptive value in food, agriculture, medicine, and in industry."
(Villaggio Globale, 2009)

Genetic diversity is all the different genes contained in all

individual
plants, animals, fungi, and microorganism.
Species diversity is all the differences within population species,
as well as between different species.
Ecosystem diversity is all the different habitats, biological
communities, and ecological processes, as well as variation within
individual ecosystems.
Understanding biodiversity within the concept of ecosystem needs a
thorough study on the relationship of the biotic, the living organisms and
the abiotic, nonliving organisms.
Biotic and Abiotic
Biotic and abiotic are the two essential factors responsible for shaping
the ecosystem. The biotic factors refer to all the living beings present in
an ecosystem, and the abiotic factors refer to all the non-living
components like physical conditions (temperature, pH, humidity, salinity,
sunlight, etc.) and chemical agents (different gases and mineral
nutrients present in the air, water, soil, etc.) in an
ecosystem. Therefore, both the abiotic and biotic resources affect
survival and
reproduction process.
Furthermore, both these components are reliant on each other.
Suppose if one of the factors is removed or altered, its repercussions will
be faced by the entire ecosystem. Without a doubt, abiotic factors directly
affect the survival of organisms. Read on to explore what role do abiotic
and biotic resources play in the ecosystem.
Meaning of Biotic
The term “biotic” is formed by
the combination of two terms, “bio”
meaning life and “ic” meaning like.
Thus, the term means life-like and is
related to all the living entities
present in an ecosystem.

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Biotic Factors
Biotic factors relate to all the living things in the ecosystem. Their
presence and their biological by-products affect the composition of an
ecosystem. Biotic factors refer to all livisng organisms from animals and
humans, to plants, fungi, and bacteria. The

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interactions between various biotic factors are necessary for the
reproduction of each species and to fulfil essential requirements like food,
etc.

Examples of Biotic Factors

Examples of biotic resources include all the living components
present in an ecosystem. These include producers, consumers,
decomposers and detritivores.

Abiotic Meaning
The term abiotic refers to all the non-living factors present in an
ecosystem.
Sunlight, water, land, all constitute the abiotic factors.
Abiotic factors refer to all the non-living, i.e. chemical and physical
factors present in the atmosphere, hydrosphere, and lithosphere.
Sunlight, air, precipitation, minerals, and soil are some examples of
abiotic factors. These factors have a significant impact on the survival
and reproduction of species in an ecosystem.
For instance, without an adequate amount of sunlight, autotrophic
organisms may not be able to survive. When these organisms eventually
die, it will create a shortage of food for primary consumers. This effect
cascades up the food chain, affecting every organism. Consequently, it
leads to an imbalance in the ecosystem.

Examples of Abiotic Factors

Abiotic examples typically depend on the type of ecosystem. For
instance, abiotic components in a terrestrial ecosystem include air,
weather, water, temperature, humidity, altitude, the pH level of soil, type
of soil and more. Abiotic examples in an aquatic ecosystem include water
salinity, oxygen levels, pH levels, water flow rate, water depth and
temperature.
Interdisciplinary approach is needed to study the ecosystem.
Biodiversity plays a major role in this natural dynamics. For example, a
large number of golden snails in a certain area of a rice field can help
predict a low production of rice harvest, since eggs of the golden snails
are considered pest for rice plant. On a positive view, the larger number
of different species in a certain area can be a predictor of sustainable life
in that area. Sustainability of the ecosystem ensures a better survival rate
against any natural disaster. Therefore, we, as human inhabitants of the

Learning Task 6. Elaborate an example of

the interaction between abiotic and biotic
resource.
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ecosystem, must preserve and conserve the biodiversity of all creatures.
Changes in Biodiversity
Alteration in any system could bring varied effects. A change in
biodiversity could have erratic effects not only in wildlife or marine life
but also in human beings. For example, humans inhabiting the forest
would disturb the natural order of life. Trees and plants would be affected
in the land-clearing operations where the houses would

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be built. The animals, insects, and all types of life forms in the cleared
area would either be displaced or most likely be killed. The loss of these
life forms could affect the entire ecosystem governing that environment.
The food chain might be damaged. From this, we can clearly infer that
when our ecosystem is not well taken care of, biodiversity encounters
changes that may impact human health on such different levels.
Lesson 2.2 Threats to Biodiversity
There are major threats to biodiversity that were identified by the
United Nations Environment Programme (WHO, n.d.). These are the
following:
1. Habitat loss and destruction. Major contributing factor is the
inhabitation of human beings and the use of land for economic gains.
2. Alterations in ecosystem
composition. Alterations and sudden
changes, either within species groups
or within the environment, could
begin to change entire ecosystems.
Alterations in ecosystems are a
critical factor contributing to species
and habitat
loss.

3. Over-exploitation Over-hunting,
overfishing, or over-collecting of species
can quickly lead to its decline. Changing
consumption patterns of humans is often
cited as the key reason for this
unsustainable exploitation of natural
resources.
4. Pollution and contamination.
Biological systems respond slowly to changes in their
surrounding environment. Pollution and contamination cause
irreversible damage to species and varieties. Global climate
change both climate variability
and climate change cause
biodiversity loss. Species and
populations may be lost
permanently if they are not
provided with enough time to
adapt to changing climatic
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conditions.

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 Learning Task 7. Creative work.
In an A4 bond paper, create a
poster that depicts a healthy
ecosystem and healthy society. Label
and color your graphics.

Lesson 2.3 Consequences of Biodiversity Loss

Even with the improvement of technology and science at present,
we still have a lot to learn about biodiversity, more so about the
consequences of biodiversity loss. However, the basic concept about
biodiversity loss was from Charles Darwin and Alfred Russel Wallace.
Intact ecosystems function best since the organisms composing them are
specialized to function in that ecosystem to capture, transfer, utilize and,
ultimately, lose both energy and nutrients.
The particular species making up an ecosystem determine its
productivity, affect nutrient cycles and soil contents, and influence
environmental conditions such as water cycles, weather patterns, climate,
and other nonbiotic aspects. The loss of biodiversity has many
consequences that we understand, and many that we do not. It is
apparent that humankind is willing to sustain a great deal of biodiversity
loss if there are concomitant benefits to society, we hope they are net
benefits. In many cases, the benefits seem to accrue to a few individuals
only, with net societal loss. However, it is extremely difficult to estimate
the future costs of losses in biodiversity or of environmental damage
(Rainforest Conservation Fund, 2017).
As stated by Tilman, "The Earth will retain its most striking feature,
its biodiversity, only if humans have the prescience to do so. This will
occur, it seems, only if we realize the extent to which we use biodiversity
(Rainforest Conservation Fund, 2017),"
Nutritional Impact of Biodiversity
According to the World Health Organization, biodiversity is a vital
element of a human being's nutrition because of its influence to food
production. Biodiversity is a major factor that contributes to sustainable
food production for human beings. A society or a population must have
access to a sufficient variety of nutritious food as it is a determinant of
their health as human beings.
Nutrition and biodiversity are linked at many levels: the ecosystem,
with food production as an ecosystem service, the species in the
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ecosystem; and the genetic diversity within species. Nutritional
composition between foods and among varieties/cultivars/breeds of the
same food can differ dramatically, affecting micronutrient availability in
the diet. Healthy local diets, with adequate average levels of nutrients
intake, necessitates maintenance of high biodiversity levels. Intensified

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and enhanced food production through irrigation, use of fertilizer, plant
protection (pesticides), or the introduction of crop varieties and cropping
patterns affect biodiversity and thus impact global nutritional status and
human health. Habitat simplification, species loss, and species succession
often enhance communities, vulnerabilities as a function of
environmental receptivity to ill health (WHO, 2007).
Health, Biology, and Biodiversity
Almost all living organisms are dependent to their environment to
live and reproduce. Basic needs of living organisms such as air, water,
food, and habitat are provided by its environment. The evolution of
human beings was due to the improved access to these basic needs.
Advances in agriculture, sanitation, water treatment, and hygiene have
had a far greater impact on human health than medical technology.
Although the environment sustains human life, it can also cause
diseases. Lack of basic necessities is a significant cause of human
mortality. Environmental hazards increase the risk of cancer, heart
disease, asthma, and many other illnesses. These hazards can be
physical, such as pollution, toxic chemicals, and food contaminants, or
they can be social, such as dangerous work, poor housing conditions,
urban sprawl, and poverty. Unsafe drinking water and poor sanitation and
hygiene are responsible for variety of infectious diseases, such as
schistosomiasis, diarrhea, cholera, a meningitis, and gastritis. In 2015,
approximately 350,000 children under the age of five (mostly in the
developing world) died from diarrheal diseases related to unsafe drinking
water, and approximately 1.8 billion people used drinking water
contaminated with feces. More than two billion people lacked access to
basic sanitation.
The interrelation between human health and biological diversity is
considerable and complex. With the current biodiversity loss at
unprecedented rates, the delicate balance between human health and
biological diversity is at risk.

Learning Task 8. Enumerate 5 ways to prevent

biodiversity loss.
Lesson 2.4 Environment-Related Illnesses
Some human illnesses that are found to be related with its
environment include Parkinson's disease, heart disease, cancer,

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Page 30 of 56
chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, asthma, diabetes, obesity,
occupational injuries, dysentery, arthritis, malaria, and depression.
By contrast, activities that promote health and extend human life
could have adverse environmental effects. For example, food production
causes environmental damage from pesticides and fertilizers, soil
salinization, waste produced by livestock, carbon emissions from food
manufacturing and transportation, deforestation, and overfishing. Health
care facilities also have adverse environment impacts. Hospitals use large
quantities of electricity and fossil fuels and produce medical wastes.
To prevent some diseases, it may be necessary to alter the
environment. For example, malaria was eradicated in the United States
and other developed nations in the 1940s and 50s as a result of draining
wetlands and spraying DDT to kill mosquitoes. A reduction in mortality
from starvation or disease can lead to overpopulation, which stresses the
environment in many different ways-increasing use of fossil fuels, clearing
of land, generating pollution and waste, and so on (Rensik & Portier,
2017).
Interestingly, according to experts, climate change could also have a
serious impact on human health and could deteriorate farming systems
and reduce nutrients in some foods. In this case, biodiversity increases
resilience, thus helping adjust to new environmental conditions.
Safeguarding of coral reefs, for instance, is essential to reduce the risk of
floods, as this extraordinary ecosystem can reduce wave energy by 97%,
thus protecting over 100 million people all over the world.
Relationships between human health and the environment raise
many ethical, social, and legal dilemmas by forcing people to choose
among competing values. Many of the issues at the intersection of health
and the environment have to do with managing benefits and risks. For
example, pesticides play an important role in increasing crop yields, but
they can also pose hazards to human health and the environment.
Alternatives to pesticide use create trade-offs in health.
The extreme action of stopping all pesticide uses could significantly
reduce agricultural productivity, leading to food shortages and increased
food prices which would, in turn, increase starvation in some parts of the
world. Public health authorities have opted to regulate the use of
pesticides to enhance food production while minimizing damage to the
environment and human health. Energy production and use help sustain
human life, but it can also pose hazards to human health and the
environment, such as air and water pollution, oil spills, and destruction of
habitats (Rensik & Portier, 2017).

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 No issue demands greater care in balancing benefits and risks than
global warming. A significant percentage of global climate change is due
to the human production of greenhouse gases. Climate change is likely to
cause tremendous harm to the environment and human health, but
taking steps to drastically reduce greenhouse gases could have adverse
consequences for global, national, and local economies.

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 In general, people with lower socio-economic status have greater
exposure to certain harmful environmental conditions in their homes or at
work, such as lead, mercury, pesticides, toxic chemicals, or air and water
pollution. Communities and nations should wisely choose a site for a
factory, a power plant, or waste dump, or regulating safety in the
workplace to minimize impact to the society. The decision- making
process should be fair, open, and democratic, so that people who will be
affected by environmental risks have a voice in these deliberations and
can make their concerns known (Rensik & Portier, 2017).
When drafting and implementing environmental health regulations,
it is important to consider vulnerable subpopulations. A vulnerable
subpopulation is a group with an increased susceptibility to the adverse
effects of an environmental risk factor, due to their age, genetics, health
status, or some other condition. If an environmental regulation is
designed to protect average members of the population, it may fail to
adequately protect vulnerable subpopulations. Justice demands that we
take care of people who are vulnerable. However, almost everyone in the
population has an above-average susceptibility to at least one
environmental risk factor. Since providing additional protection to
everyone would be costly and impractical, protections must be meted out
carefully and the populations who are vulnerable to a particular
environmental risk factor must be defined clearly (Rensik & Portier, 2017),
In addition to this, various public health strategies pit the rights of
individuals against the good of society, such as mandatory treatment,
vaccination, or diagnostic testing; isolation and quarantine; and disease
surveillance. The owner of a coal- burning power plant must deal with
many laws concerning the operation of the plant, workplace safety and
carbon emissions.
Human rights issues also come up with research on environmental
health that involves human subjects. For such research to be ethical,
human subjects must give consent, and great care must be taken to
ensure that they understand that they can opt out of the research project.
Since the late 1990s, some pesticide companies have tested their
products on human subjects to gather data to submit to the government
for regulatory purposes. Some commentators charge that these
experiments are unethical because they place people at unacceptably
high risk without a clear benefit to society. Others have argued that the
experiments, if properly designed and implemented, could produce
important benefits to society by providing useful knowledge about the
effects of pesticides that lead to stronger regulations (Rensik & Portier,
2017).

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Learning Task 9. What are small ways that you think would promote
safekeeping our biodiversity? What do you think are the common
References
https://byjus.com/biology/biotic-and-abiotic/
Convention on Biological Diversity (n.d.). "United Nations Decade on Biodiversity."
Accessed July 31, 2017. https://www.cbd. int/2011-2020/
Convention on Biological Diversity. (2010). "United Nations COHAB Initiative:
Biodiversity and Global Health." Accessed July 31, 2017.
https://www.cbd.int/doc/health/cohab-policy-briefl-en pdf.
Inquirer.net. (2006). "Living Planet report: WWF paints dire picture for survival of the
species." Accessed July 31, 2017. http:// newsinfo.inquirer.net/841255/living-planet-
report-wwf-paintsdire- picture-for-survival-of-the-species.
Rainforest Conservation Fund. (2017). "Consequences of biodiversity loss." Accessed
July 31, 2017. http://www.rainforestconservation.
org/rainforest-primer/2-biodiversity/g-recent-losses-in biodiversity/4-consequences-of-
biodiversity-loss/.
Rainforest Conservation Fund. (2017). "Value of biodi versity." Accessed July 31, 2017.
http://www.rainforestconservation. org/rainforest-primer/2-biodiversity/g-recent-
losses-in biodiversity/4-consequences-of-biodiversity-loss/..
Rensik, D. B. & Portier, C. J. (2017). "Environment, Ethics, and Human Health." In
The Hasting Center Accessed July 31,
2017.
http://www.thehastingscenter.org/briefingbook/environmentalhealth/
Villaggio Globale. (2009). (n.d.). "Biodiversity is the Life Insuran ce of Life Itself."
Accessed July 2017, http://vglobale.it/complementari /8913-biodiversity-is-the-life-
insurance-of-life- itself.html.
World Health Organization. (n.d.). "Biodiversity." Accessed July 31, 2017
biodiversity/en/http://www.who.int/globalchange/ecosystems/

Lesson 3 Genetically Modified Organisms: Science, Health, and Politics

Lesson Objectives
At the end of this lesson, the students should be able to:
1. identify issues on genetically modified organisms (GMOs); discuss
different implications and impact of GMOs, and
2. create a research paper on the impact of GMOs in the Philippine context.

Introduction
In 2001, Rosalie Ellasus, a former overseas Filipino worker in
Singapore turned farmer, attended the Integrated Pest Management
Farmers Field School and was introduced to Bt Corn, a genetically
modified corn that is resistant to the destructive Asian com borer. Ms.
Ellasus volunteered for demo-testing in her field. Bt Corn yielded 7.2 tons
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per acre as compared to a regular yield of 4.2 tons per hectare. No
insecticide spraying was needed. This is one of the success stories of
genetically modified organisms (GMOs) (Ongkiko, 2016).

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 Genetic engineering has been with the human society since
selective breeding was introduced to humankind and when animals were
domesticated. Yet, the process of genetic alterations is all but natural.
It was in 1951 that the term genetic engineering was coined by Jack
Williamson, author science fiction novel Dragon's Island (Stableford 2004).
This was years before actual research findings on the DNA's role in
heredity and its structure, the double- helix of Watson and Crick, were
published. Through continuous search for development, genetic
engineering no longer stayed in science fiction novel. It became a reality
in science laboratories. The general process of genetic engineering is the
deliberate manipulation of the organism's genes, where it may involve
transfer of genes from other organism.
An antibiotic-resistant E. coli bacteria was created in 1973. To date,
there are ongoing researches on GMOs such as using genetically modified
male mosquitoes as pest control over female mosquito carriers of Zika
virus.
However, despite the many possibilities of creating solutions for
problems and opening doors for innovations, genetic engineering faces
much opposition. Opponents raise ethical, social, and environmental
issues related to genetic engineering and its GMOs.
Lesson 3.1 Genetically Modified Organism
Genetically modified organism (GMO) is the term used for an
organism created through genetic engineering. The World Health
Organization (WHO, 2014) defines GMO as an "organism, either plant,
animal, or microorganism, in which the genetic material (DNA) has been
altered in a way that does not occur naturally by mating or natural
recombination."
Below is a diagram of how bacterial gene is introduced through
genetic engineering to plant cells and tissues to develop and breed
genetically modified plant.

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 Figure 2. The Genetic Engineering Process on a Plant
The development of GMOs was perceived to help in the advancement of
technology for the benefit of humans in different industries like
agriculture and medicine.

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GMOs in Food and Agricultural Industries
The Center for Ecogenetics and Environmental Health (CEEH, 2013)
identified the following roles of GMOs in the food and agricultural
industries:
1. Pest resistance - genetically modified plants to resist certain pests.
An example is Bt Corn. The DNA (genome)
of the Bt Corn has been modified with the
gene of Bacillus thuringiensis, a soil bacterium
that produces proteins which is toxic to
com borers (worms).
2. Virus resistance - genetically modified
plants to resist certain viruses. An
example is GM papaya or rainbow papaya.
The papaya ringspot virus (PRSV) is known
to be detrimental to papaya plants. The
protein of PRSV was introduced to the
papaya plant through plant tissue which
turned out to be resistant to the virus
itself. The effect was like the vaccines
humans have against measles or influenza
virus.
3. Herbicide tolerance – genetically modified plants to tolerate herbicide.
An example is Roundup Ready Soybean.
Glyphosate, an herbicide for weeds, was
introduced to soybeans
making it tolerant to herbicide itself. Farmers
then can spray the herbicide killing the weeds
but not the soybeans.
4. Fortification - genetically modified plants
fortified with certain minerals. An example is
Golden Rice. Beta- Carotene, a precursor of vit A,
was introduced through biosynthesis genes to the
rice, making the rice grains fortified with vit A.
5. Cosmetic preservation – genetically modified plants
resist natural discoloration. An example is Arctic
Apple. The
apple variety was genetically modified to suppress the browning of apple
due to superficial damage.
6. Increase growth rate – a genetically modified organism that has higher
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yield in growth than normal species. An example is AquaAdvantage
salmon. A gene from an ocean pout, an eel-like fish was introduced to
Pacific Chinook salmon, making the salmon grow faster than its normal
rate.

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GMOs in Non-Food Crops and Microorganisms
Genetically Modified Organisms (GMOs) in non-food crops and some
microorganisms involved the following:
1. Flower production – GMOs
in flower production are seen
in modified color and
extended vase life of flowers.
Examples are Blue Roses.
The so called “blue” roses,
which are in reality, lilac or
purple,
contained cyaniding 3,5-diglucoside, together
with large amounts of flavonols.
2. Paper production – modified characteristics of
trees for higher yield of paper production.
Example are poplar trees.
3. Pharmaceutical productions – modified
plants to produce pharmaceutical products.
Examples are periwinkle plants. Bacterial
genes were added to the periwinkle plant to
enhance the production of vinblastine, an
alkaloid usually added to drugs for cancer
treatments like Hodgkin’s lymphoma
(Runguphan, 2010).
4. Bioremediation
– use of modified
plants
that can assist in the bioremediation of
polluted sites. An example is shrub tobacco,
Nicotiana glauca, or shrub tobacco genetically
modified with phytochelatin TaPCSI1, is used
for bioremediation. It shows high level
accumulation of zinc, lead, cadmium, nickel,
and
boron and produces high biomass. for food flavor
enhancer, is
5. Enzyme and drug production - use of
produced in
modified microorganisms that can produce
higher quantity
enzymes for food processing and medicines.
by bacterium
One example of this is CGTase.
Bacillus which
Cyclomaltodextrin
was genetically
glycosyltransferase (CGTase), an enzyme used
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modified with the gene of a thermophilic
anaerobe, Thermoanaerobacter, carrying Nicotiana glauca
CGTase (Pedersen & Jorgensen, 1995).

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6. GMOs in the medical field - genetic engineering is playing a significant
role from diagnosis to treatment of human-dreaded diseases. It helps in
the production of drugs, gene therapy, and laboratory researches.
One classic example is Humulin, the genetically engineered insulin used
by Type 1 diabetes patients who are insulin dependent. In the past,
insulin is extracted from the pancreases of pigs and cows that have
caused allergic reactions to some diabetics using it.

Figure 5. Humulin, a
sample of genetically
engineered insulin

In 1978, researchers from the City of Hope National Medical Center

and Genentech Biotechnology Company were able to produce human
insulin. The gene for insulin was inserted to bacterial DNA that was able
to produce almost exactly the same human insulin. This was a
breakthrough in the mass production of human insulin. In 1996, modified
human insulin was approved, called the Humalog.

Learning Task 10. When do you think should the pursuit of GMOs
research stop?
Lesson 3.2 Benefits of GMOs
Potential benefits of GMOs based on studies:
1. Higher efficiency in farming with the use of pesticide
resistant/herbicide-tolerant GMO crops, there will be less use for
herbicides/pesticides, and lower cost for labor and cultivation.

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2. Increase in harvest GMO crops resistant to pests and diseases means
increase in potential growth and harvest. Control in fertility controlling
the purity of the hybrid seeds (GMO seeds) ensures higher yields.
3. Increase in food processing altered characteristics of GMO crops help
ease food processing.
4. Improvement of desirable characteristics - GMOs offer longer shelf life,
enhanced color and taste, enhanced production or reduction of enzymes,
and other modified characteristics of plants, animals, and
microorganisms.
5. Nutritional and pharmaceutical enhancement - GMO crops like maize
fortified with lysine and Golden Rice fortified with vitamin A and iron.
There are now edible vaccines for viral and diarrheal diseases.
There are over 400 million acres of GMO farmlands all over the
world. The top five countries that operate GMO farmlands are the United
States, Brazil, Argentina, India, and Canada. Some of the GMO agricultural
crops that have been approved for public consumption and are already in
the market include: alfalfa, corn, papaya, soya bean, sugar beets, and
squash.
Biotech Alfalfa
Alfalfa is one of the most important legumes used in
agriculture.
Herbicide-Tolerant Alfalfa
This alfalfa works in a manner similar to other HT crops.
*Approved(for import or cultivation) in the following countries:
Argentina, Australia, Canada, Japan, Mexico, New Zealand,
Philippines, Singapore, South Korea and the USA.

Biotech Maize

Maize is one of the three most important

grains in the world. It is used as livestock
feeds, processed as cooking oil and food
additives, and currently used as feedstocks
for biofuels.

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 Herbicide-Tolerant Maize
These maize varieties work in a similar manner as herbicide-tolerant soybean.
They allow growers to have better flexibility in using certain herbicides to control
weeds that can damagecrops.
Insect-Resistant Maize
This modified maize contains a built-in insecticidal protein from a
naturally occurring soil microorganism (Bacillus thuringiensis), which gives
maize plants season-long protection from corn borers. This means most
farmers do not have to spray insecticide to protect maize from harmful
pests, which can cause significant damage and yield loss in many maize-
planting areas. Bt maize also reduces toxin contamination arising from
fungal attack on the damaged grain. The Bt protein has been used safely
as an organic insect control agent for over 50 years.
Biotech Papaya
Virus-Resistant Papaya
This Hawaiian-developed papaya contains a viral gene that
encodes for the coat protein of papayaringspot virus (PRSV),
which provides the papaya plant with built-in
protection against PRSV. This biotech
papaya works in a manner similar to virus-
resistant potato. *Approved (for import or
cultivation) in the following countries:
Canada, China, Japan, and the USA.
Biotech Soybean
Soybean is the oil crop with greatest economic relevance in
the world. Its beans contain more essential amino
acids than meat, thus making it one of the most
important food crops today. Processed soybeans
are important ingredients in many food products.

Herbicide-Tolerant Soybean
Herbicide tolerant soybean varieties contain a gene that provides resistance
to one of two broad spectrum herbicides.
This modified soybean provides better weed control and reduces crop injury. It
improves farm efficiency by optimizing yield, using arable land more efficiently,
saving time for the farmer, and increasing the flexibility of crop rotation. It also
encourages adoption of no-till farming - an important part of soil conservation
practice.
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 Insect-Resistant Soybean
This biotech soybean exhibits resistance to
lepidopteran pests through the production of Cry1Ac
protein. Insect resistant soybean was developed to
reduce or replace high insecticide applications and
maintain soybean yield potential at the same time.
Oleic Acid Soybean
This modified soybeancontainshigh levels of oleic acid, a monounsaturated fat.
According to health nutritionists, monounsaturated fats are considered “good” fats
comparedwith saturated fats found in beef, pork, cheese, and other dairy products.
Oil processed from these varieties is similar to that of peanut and olive oils.
Conventional soybeans have an oleic acid content of 24%. These new varieties have
an oleic acid content that exceeds 80%.
Biotech Squash
Virus-Resistant Squash
The biotech yellow crookneck squash can resist
watermelon mosaic virus (WMV) and zucchini yellow
mosaic virus (ZYMV). These new varieties contain the
coat protein genesof both viruses, allowing farmers to
bypass aphid control and reduce or eliminate the use
of insecticides. *Approved (for import or cultivation) in
the following countries: Canada and the USA.
Biotech Sugar Beet
Herbicide-Tolerant Sugar Beet
In 2008, a herbicide tolerant sugar beet variety was planted
in Canada and USA for the first time. The herbicide-tolerant
sugar beet allows farmers to cut the number of required
cultivations by half. *Approved (for import or cultivation) in the
following countries: Australia, Canada, China, Colombia, EU,
Japan, Mexico, New Zealand, Philippines, Russian
Federation, Singapore, South Korea, Taiwan, and the
USA.

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 Most of these GMO crops were made
to be resistant to pests. Some examples
of common food with GMOs are Kellogg's
Corn Flakes, Quaker Chewy Granola Bars,
Ultra Slim Fast, Quaker Yellow Corn Meal,
and Alpo Dry Pet Food.
In the animal industries, there
are ongoing researches like
studies on Pacific salmon that
grows twice faster than the
native salmon and chicken
resistant to H5N1 bird flu
viruses. However, these GMO
animals are all in research
laboratory and not yet
approved for public
consumption.

Learning Task 11. How would you reconcile

the advantages and disadvantages that
GMOs bring to humans?

Lesson 3.3 Potential Risks of GMOs

Despite the promising claims of GMOS, the opponents of GMOs claim
otherwise. For example, there are studies that show a link in the adaption
of pesticide- resistant GMO crops to the significant growth of super weeds
that became pesticide- resistant, too. This caused additional problem to
more than 12 million acres of farms in the United States.
Opponents of GMOs have the following major concerns:
1. Since genetic engineering is still a young branch of science, there are
inadequate studies on the effects of GMOs to humans and the
environment.
2. Genetic engineering promotes mutation in organisms which the long term
effect is
still unknown.
3. Human consumption of GMOs might have the following effects:
 More allergic reactions GMO food may trigger more allergic
reactions, more so create the gene alteration. new ones, as side
effect of
 Gene mutation-GMO food may develop abnormalities and mutation,
more than the desired product of the gene alteration.
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 Antibiotic resistance - GMO food contains antibiotic resistant genes;
this may cause disease-causing bacteria likely to be more antibiotic-
resistant too, increasing the possibility of widespread of the disease.
 Nutritional value - GMO food may have change in their nutritional
value.

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Potential Environmental Risks Caused By GMOs
Karki (2006) summarized the perceived potential environmental risks
caused by GMOs. The identified major risks are the following:
1.Risk in gene flow there is a potential risk of the modified gene to
be transferred from the GMO crop to its wild relative or organism in
the soil and human intestine (when ingested). For example, a
decaying GMO plant could possibly transfer the modified genes to
the bacteria and fungi in the soil.
Bacteria and fungi are capable of using a genetic material from their
surroundings. There are no studies yet on the effects of the
absorbed modified gene to the other organisms.
2. Emergence of new forms of resistance and secondary pests and
weed problems - GMO crops resistant to certain pesticides may
trigger new form of pest resistance while GMO herbicide tolerant
crops may lead to the over use of the herbicides which may trigger
new form of weed resistance.
3. Recombination of Virus and Bacteria to Produce New Pathogens
the modified gene can be transferred and integrated in the viral or
bacterial genes which may lead to viral or bacterial gene
modification or mutation. This living modified virus and bacteria may
then cause new disease that may affect other organisms including
human beings.
Other direct and indirect environmental risks caused by GMOS (Molfino &
Zucco, 2008):
1. Direct environmental risks are:
 introduction of the GMOs in the natural environment may cause
disruption of the natural communities through competition or
interference;
 the possibility of unexpected behavior of the GMOs in the environment
if it escapes its intended use and may post threats or become pest:
may cause harmful effects to ecosystem processes if GMOs interfere
with the natural biochemical cycles; and
 the persistence of GMO genes after its harvest which may cause
negative impacts to the consumer of GMO products.
2. Indirect environmental risks are:
 alteration of agricultural practices like managing negative impacts of
GMOs to the environment such as evolution of insects, pests, and
weeds that became resistant to GMO crops, may have impacts to
biodiversity caused by the alteration in agricultural practices; and

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 may have varied environmental impacts due to GMOS interaction and
release in the natural environment.

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Potential Human Health Risks caused by GMOs
A major concern in the use and consumption of GMOs is its effect on
human beings, primarily on human health. Some potential human health
risks are identified (Akhter, 2001), such as:
 consumption of GMOs may have adverse effects since it is not
naturally or organically produced: consumption of GMOs may alter
the balance of existing microorganisms in the human digestive
system.
 production of toxins may be detrimental to human health, and
production of allergens may have adverse effects on humans.
Worldwide, there are many groups that campaign against GMO food
consumption. They encourage people to boycott GMO products and to be
vigilant in checking if the food they buy has GMO ingredients. In the
Philippines, the Supreme Court has ruled against the use of Bt eggplant,
another genetically modified crop (Ongkiko, 2016).
Other potential risks that raise major concern are:
 Human Genome Project (HGP) Mapping of human genes to provide
framework for research and studies in the field of medicine. It was
feared that the ability to produce human genetic information would
create biases and give much power to people holding the
information and to the disadvantage of those who do not have the
genetic information.
 Mutation of genetically engineered microorganisms Genetically
modified bacteria and viruses may mutate to become more resistant
or virulent that may cause more dreadful diseases for human beings.
Cloning - The asexual reproduction of an organism using parent cell
through genetic engineering. In February 24, 1997, the first mammal,
Dolly, a sheep from Scotland, was born through cloning. With its
celebrated success came the fear of human cloning. It emerged the
ethical issue of man "playing God."
Scientists and medical practitioners would definitely continue to
search for ways to preserve lives. Genetic engineering is perceived to be
one of the keys to this venture. Gene therapy and gene alteration are
promising ways to improve human health conditions.
On the other hand, great fears loom in the process of this quest.
There are many things to be considered before a certain medical process
using genetic engineering be accepted.
Biosafety on GMOs
There are initiatives for the protection of the general human
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population regarding the issues and concerns about GMOS. International
organizations developed principles and treaties that somehow ensure
biosafety on GMOs.
Some of these initiatives are as follows:

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  The Codex Alimentarius Commission (Codex). The Food and
Agricultural Organization (FAO) together with the World Health
Organization (WHO) created The Codex Alimentarius Commission
(Codex). Codex is an intergovernmental body that develops the
Codex Alimentarius, know us the International Food Code. Codex is
responsible for the development of standards, codes of practices,
guidelines, and recommendations on food safety. With the pressing
issues and concerns on GMOs, in 2003, Codex has developed
principles for the human health risk analysis of genetically modified
(GM) food products. The principles include pre-market assessments
of GM food products and its evaluation of direct and indirect effects.
However, the Codex principles has no binding effect on national
legislation but through the sanitary and phytosanitary measures of
the World Trade Organization, national legislators are encouraged to
complement their national standards with the Codex Principles
(WHO, 2014).
 Cartagena Protocol Biosafety. Established 2003, Cartagena Protocol
international environmental treaty regulates the transboundary
movements Living Modified Organisms (LMOS). The Cartagena
Protocol requires exporters consent from importers before shipment
LMOS.
 International Trade Agreement labeling food products. The
agreement requires exporters and food products label their products
rights importing parties to reject accept products. premise this policy
that consumers know and the freedom choose GM non-GM products
(Whitman, 2000).
 The World Health Organization (WHO, 2014) claims products that are
available the international market have passed safety assessment
by national authorities. The safety assessments basically the
environmental and health risk factors and food safety usually follows
the Codex Food Code.
GMOs in Philippine Context
Introduction of GMOs our country created issues controversies
similar to other countries with GMOs. There course, proponents and
opponents of these issues.
 The GMO started the 1990s with creation National Committee
on Biosafety Philippines (NCBP) through Executive Order No.
430 of 1990.
 The NCBP developed guidelines on the planned release of
genetically manipulated organisms (GMOs) potentially harmful
exotic species 1998.
 2002, Department Agriculture released Administrative
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 importation and release into the environment GM plants
products. On that same year, of (Baumuller, 2003).
 The Philippines was marked country in Asia to approved
commercial cultivation of GMOs when GM corn planting was
approved in 2002 (Serapio & Dela Cruz, 2016).
 From December 2002 to present, there are 70 GMO
applications approved by the Department of Agriculture for the
release to the environment, 62 GMOs of which are
approved for food feed and

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 processing and the remaining 8 were approved for propagation
(Aruelo, 2016).
 In 2004, the Philippines was classified by International Service
for acquisition of agri-biotech applications as one of the
fourteen biotech mega countries which grow 50,000 hectares or
more of GMO crops annually (James, 2004). In that same year,
Senator Juan Flavier authored a bill on the mandatory labeling
of food and food products with GMOs The Senate did not pass
the bill.
 In 2006, the Philippines became part of the Cartagena Protocol
on Biosafety. In the same year, Executive Order No. 514 was
issued to address the biosafety requirements of the Cartagena
Protocol and the establishment of the National Biosafety
Framework (NBF).
 In 2010, the Organic Agriculture Act was issued, encouraging
organic agriculture than GMO-related agriculture. Prior to this
act, there are several provinces like Negros Occidental and
Negros Oriental which agreed to support organic agriculture.
There was the establishment of the Negros Organic Island
through a memorandum of agreement (MOA) between the two
provinces in 2005. With this MOA, the two provinces were able
to ban the entry of GMOs and living GMOs to their provinces
through provincial ordinance. Similar to this case, Davao City
passed the Organic Agriculture Ordinance in 2010. This city
ordinance helps the prevention of field testing of GM Bt
eggplant in the UP Mindanao Campus (Aruelo, 2016).
 In 2012, Representative Teddy Casiño, together with other
congressmen, filed a bill pushing for the mandatory labeling of
GM food and food products. To date, there is no Philippine
biosafety law, only biosafety regulations formed under NBF.
 A study on the biosafety regulations of the Philippines
concluded that the existing regulation is weak, which can be
fixed through legislation such as a republic act (Richmond,
2006).
 In December 2015, the Supreme Court ordered to put an end to
the field testing of GMO Bt eggplant and declared
Administrative Order No. 8, series of 2002 of the Department of
Agriculture as null and void. This means that any actions or
procedures related to GMO importations and propagation is
temporarily put to stop until a new administrative order is
issued in accordance with the law.
 In March 7, 2016, five government agencies namely, the
Department of Science and Technology. Department of
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Agriculture, Department of Environment and Natural Resources,
Department of Health, and Department of the Interior and Local
Government, passed a Joint Department Circular No. 1, series
of 2016 on rules and regulations for the research and
development, handling and use, transboundary movement,
release in the environment, and management of the genetically
modified plant and plant products derived from the use of
modern biotechnology.

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 This joint department circular paves way to issuance of new
permits for planting and importing GM crops in the country.

Learning Task 12. Is genetic engineering a pure scientific

process or is it indeed an act of humans playing God? Why?

References
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Gate. Accessed October 25, 2017. http://www.
researchgate.net/publication/6539067/Genetically Modified_ Foods Health and Safety
Issues.
Aruelo, L. (2016). "Philippines GMO-Free Zones: Successful Roots in Organic Policy and
Law." In GMO-Free Regions. Accessed August 1, 2017. http://www.gmo-free-
regions.org/fileadmin/files/gmo-free regions/Philippines/The_Philippines GMO
Free Zones.pdf. Baumuller, H. (2003). "Domestic Import Regulations for Genetically
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