Unit 3

CSMA (Carrier Sense Multiple Access)

--->>CSMA is a way for devices in a network to take turns using the same
communication channel so they don’t “talk over each other” and cause problems.

• Carrier Sense: The device checks if the channel is free before transmitting.
• Multiple Access: Multiple devices are competing for access to the same
communication channel.
E.g. -- In a network using CSMA, if Device A wants to send data, it first checks if the channel
is idle. If it is, Device A sends its data. Otherwise, it waits until the channel becomes idle.
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

CSMA/CD (Collision Detection):

• Used In: Wired networks (e.g., Ethernet).

• Purpose: Detect and handle collisions when multiple devices attempt to send data
simultaneously on the same channel.
• How It Works:
o A device listens to the network (carrier sensing) to check if the channel is
free.
o If the channel is idle, it sends the data.
o If another device transmits at the same time, a collision occurs.
o When a collision is detected, all devices stop transmitting and wait for a
random backoff time before trying again.
• Key Feature: Detects collisions after they occur and takes corrective action.

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
CSMA/CA (Collision Avoidance):

Used In: Wireless networks (e.g., Wi-Fi).

Purpose: Avoid collisions by preventing simultaneous transmissions on the same channel.

• How It Works:
o A device listens to the network to ensure the channel is free.
o If the channel is idle, the device waits for a short, random backoff time before
transmitting.
o Optionally, it may send a "Request to Send" (RTS) message to the intended
receiver, which replies with a "Clear to Send" (CTS) message if it is ready.
o Only after receiving CTS does the sender transmit the data.
 • Key Feature: Avoids collisions proactively by introducing delays and handshaking
mechanisms.
• --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Share
You said:

What is Socket? List & explain the socket primitives in client side & server side TCP
connection

ChatGPT said:

ChatGPT

A socket is an endpoint for sending or receiving data across a computer network. In

networking, sockets facilitate communication between a client and a server using
protocols like TCP or UDP.

Sockets provide the interface through which a program communicates with the network by
using the IP address and port number.

Socket Primitives in a TCP Connection

The socket primitives are the key functions used by client and server programs to establish
a TCP connection and communicate. Here's a list and explanation of the socket primitives
for both the client and server sides:

1. Client-Side Socket Primitives

These are the steps followed by a client to establish and use a TCP connection:

a. Socket Creation (socket)

• Purpose: Creates a socket for communication.

• Syntax:
python
Copy code
socket(AF_INET, SOCK_STREAM)

• Parameters:
o AF_INET: Specifies IPv4 addressing.
 o SOCK_STREAM: Specifies TCP connection.

b. Connect to Server (connect)

• Purpose: Establishes a connection to the server using its IP address and port
number.
• Syntax:
python
Copy code
connect(server_address)

• Parameters:
o server_address: A tuple containing the server's IP address and port
number.

c. Send Data (send or sendall)

• Purpose: Sends data to the server.

• Syntax:
python
Copy code
send(data)

d. Receive Data (recv)

• Purpose: Receives data from the server.

• Syntax:
python
Copy code
recv(buffer_size)

• Parameters:
o buffer_size: The maximum number of bytes to read at a time.
e. Close Socket (close)

• Purpose: Closes the connection.

• Syntax:
python
Copy code
close()

2. Server-Side Socket Primitives

These steps are used by the server to establish and handle TCP connections with clients:

a. Socket Creation (socket)

• Similar to the client-side, this creates a socket for the server.

b. Bind to Address (bind)

• Purpose: Assigns an IP address and port number to the server socket.

• Syntax:
python
Copy code
bind(server_address)

• Parameters:
o server_address: A tuple with the server's IP address and port number.

c. Listen for Connections (listen)

• Purpose: Sets the socket to listen for incoming connections.

• Syntax:
python
Copy code
listen(backlog)

• Parameters:
o backlog: The maximum number of queued connections.

d. Accept Connection (accept)

• Purpose: Accepts a new client connection.

• Syntax:
python
Copy code
accept()

• Returns:
o A new socket object for the connection.
o The address of the client.

e. Send and Receive Data (send, recv)

• These primitives are the same as those used on the client side.

f. Close Socket (close)

• Purpose: Closes the server socket or a specific connection.

Summary of Client-Server Communication Process

1. Server:
a. Create socket → Bind → Listen → Accept → Send/Receive → Close.
2. Client:
a. Create socket → Connect → Send/Receive → Close.

This sequence ensures a reliable, bi-directional data exchange between the client and
server using the TCP protocol.
4o

You said:

Explain Subnetting and Supernetting with example in subject called basics of network

ChatGPT said:

ChatGPT

Subnetting and supernetting are techniques used in IP addressing to divide and aggregate
networks respectively. Both are crucial concepts in the design and management of IP
networks, especially for efficient utilization of IP addresses.

1. Subnetting

Subnetting is the process of dividing a larger network into smaller, more manageable sub-
networks, or subnets. This allows network administrators to control and manage IP
addresses efficiently and enhance security, performance, and organization.

Why Subnetting is Needed:

• Efficient Use of IP Addresses: Allows the division of a large network into smaller
segments, preventing wastage of IP addresses.
• Improved Security: Subnetting isolates network segments, which can limit
unauthorized access.
• Better Traffic Management: Helps in reducing network congestion and controlling
broadcast traffic.

How Subnetting Works:

• Subnet Mask: A subnet mask is used to divide an IP address into the network and
host parts. The subnet mask defines the number of bits used for the network
address and the number of bits for the host address.

For example, for a Class C network (which has a default subnet mask of 255.255.255.0):

o IP Address: 192.168.1.0
o Subnet Mask: 255.255.255.0 (or /24 in CIDR notation)
If you want to create smaller subnets, you can borrow bits from the host portion of the
address.

Example of Subnetting:

• Suppose you have a network 192.168.1.0/24 and want to divide it into 4 subnets.
• A /24 subnet (255.255.255.0) gives you 256 IP addresses. To create 4 subnets, you
need to borrow 2 bits from the host portion, making it a /26 subnet
(255.255.255.192).

The resulting subnets would be:

o 192.168.1.0/26 (range: 192.168.1.1 - 192.168.1.62)

o 192.168.1.64/26 (range: 192.168.1.65 - 192.168.1.126)
o 192.168.1.128/26 (range: 192.168.1.129 - 192.168.1.190)
o 192.168.1.192/26 (range: 192.168.1.193 - 192.168.1.254)

Each subnet has its own range of IP addresses, increasing the number of manageable sub-
networks.

2. Supernetting

Supernetting, also called route aggregation, is the opposite of subnetting. It is the process
of combining several smaller networks (subnets) into a larger network (supernet) to
simplify routing and address management.

Why Supernetting is Needed:

• Simplified Routing: Supernetting reduces the number of entries in routing tables,

improving network efficiency and reducing administrative overhead.
• Efficient Use of Address Space: It allows the aggregation of multiple contiguous
network addresses into a single, larger network.
How Supernetting Works:

Supernetting involves taking multiple smaller networks and grouping them under a single
network address. This is done by borrowing bits from the network portion of the address
and reducing the number of bits used for subnetting.

Example of Supernetting:

• Let’s say you have the following 3 networks:

o 192.168.4.0/24
o 192.168.5.0/24
o 192.168.6.0/24

These networks can be combined into a single network 192.168.4.0/22, which covers all
the IP addresses from 192.168.4.0 to 192.168.7.255.

• Supernet: 192.168.4.0/22 (range: 192.168.4.0 - 192.168.7.255)

By using a /22 subnet mask (255.255.252.0), the three smaller subnets

192.168.4.0/24, 192.168.5.0/24, and 192.168.6.0/24 are combined into a single
supernet, which reduces the number of entries in routing tables.

Key Differences Between Subnetting and Supernetting:

• Subnetting: Divides a larger network into smaller, manageable networks.

• Supernetting: Combines several smaller networks into a larger one to simplify
routing.

Conclusion:

• Subnetting is used when you need to create multiple smaller networks within a
larger network, often for better management and optimization of IP address usage.
• Supernetting is used to combine multiple smaller networks into a single larger
network to reduce routing complexity and improve network efficiency.

Both techniques play an essential role in network management and optimization in IP

addressing.
4o mini

You said:

Subnetting and Supernetting with example in subject called basics of network

ChatGPT said:

ChatGPT

Subnetting and Supernetting in Basics of Networking

Subnetting and Supernetting are two important concepts in IP addressing that help
manage and utilize network resources efficiently.

1. Subnetting

Subnetting is the process of dividing a large network into smaller, manageable networks
(subnets). Each subnet can function independently within the larger network.

Purpose of Subnetting:

• Efficient use of IP addresses.

• Improved security by isolating segments.
• Reducing network congestion.
• Simplifying management.

Subnetting Example:

Suppose you are given a network 192.168.1.0/24 (Class C), which has 256 IP addresses
(0–255). You need to divide it into 4 smaller subnets.

Steps:

1. A /24 subnet mask (default for Class C) allows 256 addresses. To divide it into 4
subnets, borrow 2 bits from the host part.
 a. New Subnet Mask: /26 (255.255.255.192).
2. Each subnet will have:
a. 26=642^{6} = 6426=64 total addresses.
b. 64−2=6264 - 2 = 6264−2=62 usable IP addresses (subtracting network and
broadcast addresses).

Resulting Subnets:

Broadcast
Subnet ID IP Range
Address
192.168.1.0/26 192.168.1.1–62 192.168.1.63
192.168.1.64/26 192.168.1.65–126 192.168.1.127
192.168.1.128/2 192.168.1.129–
192.168.1.191
6 190
192.168.1.192/2 192.168.1.193–
192.168.1.255
6 254

2. Supernetting

Supernetting (also called route aggregation) is the process of combining multiple smaller
networks (subnets) into a larger one to reduce routing complexity and optimize address
space usage.

Purpose of Supernetting:

• Simplifies routing by reducing the number of routing table entries.

• Allows efficient allocation of IP address blocks.
• Commonly used in ISPs and large organizations.

Supernetting Example:

Suppose an ISP has three networks:

• 192.168.4.0/24
• 192.168.5.0/24
• 192.168.6.0/24
Steps:

1. Combine these networks into a single supernet.

2. The smallest common prefix for these networks is /22 (255.255.252.0), which
aggregates 4 Class C networks.

Resulting Supernet:

• Supernet Address: 192.168.4.0/22

• IP Range: 192.168.4.0–192.168.7.255
• This reduces routing table entries from 3 to 1.

Comparison: Subnetting vs. Supernetting

Feat
Subnetting Supernetting
ure
Purp
Divide a network into subnets. Combine subnets into a larger network.
ose
Mas
Increases (e.g., /24 → /26). Decreases (e.g., /24 → /22).
k
Use
Managing large networks Simplifying routing at ISPs or backbone
Cas
locally. networks.
e
Exa
Divide 192.168.1.0/24 into Combine 192.168.4.0/24 to
mpl
smaller subnets. 192.168.6.0/24 into 192.168.4.0/22.
e

Conclusion

• Subnetting: Breaks down a large network into smaller parts for efficient
management and security.
• Supernetting: Combines smaller networks to simplify routing and improve
scalability.

Both techniques are essential for managing and optimizing IP networks in modern
systems.
4o

You said:

notes of basics of computer network in savitriba phule university pune 2019 pattern
Second year IT

ChatGPT said:

ChatGPT

Here’s an overview of the Basics of Computer Network course tailored to the 2019
pattern of Savitribai Phule Pune University (SPPU) for Second-Year IT Engineering
students. The topics listed are commonly included in this curriculum:

Basics of Computer Network Notes

1. Introduction to Computer Networks

• Definition: A computer network is a group of interconnected devices that

communicate and share resources.
• Goals of Networking:
o Resource sharing
o Reliability
o Scalability
o Cost efficiency
• Types of Networks:
o LAN (Local Area Network): Covers a small geographic area.
o WAN (Wide Area Network): Spans large distances (e.g., Internet).
o MAN (Metropolitan Area Network): Covers a city or campus.
o PAN (Personal Area Network): Covers small personal spaces.

2. Network Models

• OSI Model:
 o 7 layers: Physical, Data Link, Network, Transport, Session, Presentation,
Application.
o Function of each layer.
• TCP/IP Model:
o 4 layers: Network Access, Internet, Transport, Application.
o Mapping to the OSI model.

3. Data Transmission

• Types of Communication:
o Simplex: One-way communication.
o Half-Duplex: Two-way but one direction at a time.
o Full-Duplex: Two-way simultaneous communication.
• Transmission Modes:
o Analog vs Digital
o Baseband vs Broadband
• Transmission Media:
o Wired: Twisted pair, Coaxial, Fiber optic.
o Wireless: Radio waves, Infrared, Microwaves.

4. Switching Techniques

• Circuit Switching: Dedicated communication path.

• Packet Switching: Data divided into packets.
• Message Switching: Entire message sent from node to node.

5. IP Addressing

• IPv4 Addressing:
o Classes: A, B, C, D, E.
o Subnetting and CIDR.
• IPv6 Addressing:
o Larger address space.
o Address notation and structure.
• Special IP Addresses:
 o Loopback (127.0.0.1).
o Private IPs: Reserved for internal networks.
o Broadcast IPs.

6. Protocols

• HTTP/HTTPS: Web communication.

• FTP: File Transfer Protocol.
• SMTP: Email protocol.
• DNS: Resolves domain names to IP addresses.
• TCP vs UDP:
o TCP: Reliable, connection-oriented.
o UDP: Fast, connectionless.

7. Network Devices

• Hub: Basic device for connecting multiple devices.

• Switch: Intelligent device for local area communication.
• Router: Connects different networks.
• Modem: Converts digital signals to analog and vice versa.
• Access Points: Wireless communication in LANs.

8. Network Security

• Common Threats:
o Malware, Phishing, DoS attacks.
• Security Measures:
o Firewalls, Antivirus, VPNs.
• Cryptography:
o Symmetric vs Asymmetric encryption.
o Digital signatures and certificates.
9. Network Performance Metrics

• Bandwidth: Data transfer capacity.

• Latency: Delay in transmission.
• Jitter: Variation in packet delay.
• Packet Loss: Lost packets during transmission.

10. Emerging Technologies

• IoT (Internet of Things): Connecting physical devices to the Internet.

• Cloud Computing: Internet-based storage and computation.
• 5G Networks: High-speed wireless communication.
• SDN (Software-Defined Networking): Programmable network configurations.

Study Resources

• Textbooks:
o "Data Communications and Networking" by Behrouz A. Forouzan.
o "Computer Networking: A Top-Down Approach" by Kurose and Ross.
• SPPU Question Papers:
o Review the 2019 pattern question papers for exam preparation.

Tips for Success

• Focus on the OSI and TCP/IP models, as they are foundational topics.
• Understand practical aspects like subnetting and IP addressing.
• Practice numericals on subnetting, CIDR, and routing concepts.
• Learn the functions of networking devices and protocols.

If you'd like detailed notes on a specific topic, let me know!

4o
You said:

Discuss Distance Vector Routing protocol in detail.in subject called basics of network

ChatGPT said:

ChatGPT

Distance Vector Routing Protocol

The Distance Vector Routing Protocol is a fundamental routing protocol used in

computer networks. It determines the best path to a destination based on the distance
(e.g., hop count) and direction (vector) to reach that destination.

1. Definition

A Distance Vector Routing Protocol is a type of dynamic routing protocol where each
router maintains a routing table with the best-known distance to each destination and
periodically shares this information with its neighboring routers.

2. Key Characteristics

• Periodic Updates: Routers periodically send updates to their neighbors, even if

there are no changes in the network.
• Routing by Rumor: Routers rely on information from their neighbors to build their
routing tables.
• Metric: The most common metric is hop count, but other metrics like delay or cost
can also be used.
• Simple Implementation: Easy to configure and use in small networks.

3. Algorithm Used

The Distance Vector Routing Protocol is based on the Bellman-Ford Algorithm:

 • Each router initializes its routing table with its direct neighbors' costs.
• Periodically, each router:
o Sends its routing table to its neighbors.
o Updates its table based on the information received using the formula:
Dx(y)=min⁡[C(x,v)+Dv(y)]D_x(y) = \min [ C(x,v) + D_v(y) ]Dx
(y)=min[C(x,v)+Dv (y)] Where:
▪ Dx(y)D_x(y)Dx (y): Distance from router xxx to destination yyy.
▪ C(x,v)C(x,v)C(x,v): Cost of the link from router xxx to neighbor vvv.
▪ Dv(y)D_v(y)Dv (y): Distance from neighbor vvv to destination yyy.

4. Working Mechanism

a. Initialization

• Each router knows the cost of reaching its directly connected neighbors.
• The routing table is initialized with:
o The cost to itself as 0.
o The cost to directly connected neighbors as the link cost.
o All other destinations as infinity.

b. Sharing Updates

• Routers periodically exchange their routing tables with directly connected

neighbors.

c. Updating Routing Tables

• When a router receives a neighbor's routing table:

o It compares the received distances with its own distances.
o If a shorter path is found, the routing table is updated.

d. Convergence

• Over time, all routers in the network reach a consistent view of the best paths to all
destinations.
5. Example

Consider a simple network with routers AAA, BBB, and CCC:

• Link costs:
o A↔BA \leftrightarrow BA↔B: 1
o B↔CB \leftrightarrow CB↔C: 2
o A↔CA \leftrightarrow CA↔C: 4

Step 1: Initialization

Each router's initial table:

• AAA: [A:0,B:1,C:4][A: 0, B: 1, C: 4] [A:0,B:1,C:4]

• BBB: [B:0,A:1,C:2][B: 0, A: 1, C: 2] [B:0,A:1,C:2]
• CCC: [C:0,A:4,B:2][C: 0, A: 4, B: 2] [C:0,A:4,B:2]

Step 2: Updates

• AAA receives BBB's table: [B:0,A:1,C:2][B: 0, A: 1, C: 2][B:0,A:1,C:2]

o AAA calculates A→B→CA \rightarrow B \rightarrow CA→B→C: 1+2=31 + 2
= 31+2=3
o AAA updates its route to CCC with cost 3.

6. Advantages

• Simplicity: Easy to understand and implement.

• Low Overhead: Requires less computation and memory compared to more
complex protocols.
• Suitable for Small Networks: Works well in networks with fewer routers and links.

7. Disadvantages

• Slow Convergence: Takes time for all routers to agree on the best paths, especially
after a network change.
 • Count-to-Infinity Problem: Inaccurate information can circulate indefinitely due to
lack of knowledge about the network topology.
• Limited Scalability: Not suitable for large or complex networks.

8. Solutions to Count-to-Infinity Problem

• Split Horizon: Prevents a router from advertising a route back to the neighbor from
which it learned the route.
• Route Poisoning: Sets the cost to infinity for routes that become unreachable.
• Hold-Down Timers: Temporarily suppresses updates for a route to prevent
flapping.

9. Protocol Examples

• RIP (Routing Information Protocol):

o One of the most widely used Distance Vector protocols.
o Metric: Hop count.
o Max hop count: 15 (prevents count-to-infinity issues).

10. Comparison with Link-State Routing Protocol

Feature Distance Vector Routing Link-State Routing

Routing Table Exchanged with Flooded to the entire
Updates neighbors network
Convergence Speed Slower Faster
Resource Usage Lower Higher
Example Protocols RIP OSPF, IS-IS

Conclusion

Distance Vector Routing is an essential concept in networking, laying the foundation for
routing protocols like RIP. While simple and easy to implement, its limitations (e.g., slow
convergence, count-to-infinity) have led to the development of more advanced protocols.
4o

You said:

above points in easy words

ChatGPT said:

ChatGPT

Distance Vector Routing Protocol (Simplified)

The Distance Vector Routing Protocol helps routers find the best path to send data from
one network to another. It is simple, easy to understand, and used in small networks.

1. What is Distance Vector Routing?

• It’s a way for routers to share information about how far (distance) and in which
direction (vector) a destination is.
• Each router keeps a table (called a routing table) with details of the shortest path to
every destination it knows.

2. How Does It Work?

1. Initialization:
a. Each router knows about the networks directly connected to it.
b. It assigns a cost (like distance) to these connections. For example:
i. If Router A is connected to Router B, it might set the cost to 1 hop.
2. Sharing Updates:
a. Routers send their routing tables to their neighbors regularly, even if nothing
changes.
b. Neighbors update their routing tables based on the new information.
3. Updating Routes:
a. When a router learns about a shorter path to a destination from its neighbor,
it updates its routing table.
 b. Over time, all routers in the network agree on the best paths (this is called
convergence).

3. Example

Imagine three routers AAA, BBB, and CCC:

• AAA ↔ BBB: Cost 1

• BBB ↔ CCC: Cost 2
• AAA ↔ CCC: Cost 4

Initial Table for A:

• To AAA: Cost 0 (itself)

• To BBB: Cost 1 (direct link)
• To CCC: Cost 4 (direct link)

After Updates:

• AAA learns from BBB that it can reach CCC through BBB for a total cost of 3 (1 hop to
BBB + 2 hops from BBB to CCC).
• AAA updates its table to use this shorter path.

4. Advantages

• Easy to Use: Simple to set up and understand.

• Low Resource Use: Requires less memory and processing power.
• Good for Small Networks: Works well in small, uncomplicated setups.

5. Disadvantages

• Slow Updates: It takes time for all routers to know about changes in the network
(like a broken connection).
• Count-to-Infinity Problem: Sometimes, incorrect information (like a broken route)
keeps spreading endlessly.
• Not Scalable: Doesn’t work well for large or complex networks.
6. Solutions to Problems

• Split Horizon: Don’t tell a neighbor about a route if you learned it from that
neighbor.
• Route Poisoning: Mark broken routes as unreachable (infinity).
• Hold-Down Timer: Wait before accepting updates for a route, to prevent quick,
incorrect changes.

7. Real-Life Example

• RIP (Routing Information Protocol): A real-world protocol based on Distance

Vector.
o It uses hop count as a metric (each router is 1 hop away).
o Limits: It can only handle 15 hops, which makes it unsuitable for very large
networks.

Conclusion

The Distance Vector Routing Protocol is a simple and effective way to manage routing in
small networks. However, it has limitations like slow updates and is not ideal for large or
complex systems. More advanced methods, like Link-State Routing, solve these issues.

4o

You said:

Discuss OSPF protocol. for 5 marks

ChatGPT said:

ChatGPT
OSPF (Open Shortest Path First) Protocol

OSPF (Open Shortest Path First) is a dynamic Link-State Routing Protocol used in IP
networks. It is designed to find the shortest path between routers using Dijkstra’s
algorithm.

Key Points about OSPF

1. Purpose:
a. OSPF efficiently routes data within a single Autonomous System (AS) by
finding the best path.
2. Working Mechanism:
a. Routers share information about their connected networks by flooding Link-
State Advertisements (LSAs).
b. Each router builds a map of the network and calculates the shortest path to
each destination using Dijkstra’s Algorithm.
3. Features:
a. Hierarchical Design: Uses areas (e.g., Area 0 as the backbone) to reduce
the complexity of large networks.
b. Cost Metric: Routes are chosen based on the cost (usually related to
bandwidth).
c. Convergence: Fast convergence compared to Distance Vector protocols.
4. Advantages:
a. Scalable and suitable for large networks.
b. Detects and adapts to network changes quickly.
c. Supports equal-cost multi-path (ECMP) routing for load balancing.
5. Example Use:
a. A large organization divides its network into multiple areas to use OSPF for
efficient routing and management.

Conclusion

OSPF is one of the most widely used routing protocols in modern networks due to its
scalability, fast convergence, and support for large-scale IP routing. It is ideal for
enterprise and service provider networks.
4o

You said:

above points in easy words

ChatGPT said:

ChatGPT

OSPF (Open Shortest Path First) Protocol

OSPF (Open Shortest Path First) is a routing protocol used to find the best path for data to
travel in a network. It works by understanding the entire network's structure and
calculating the shortest path.

1. What is OSPF?

• OSPF is a Link-State Routing Protocol, meaning it collects detailed information

about the network.
• It’s used to route data inside a network or a group of connected networks (called an
Autonomous System).

2. How Does OSPF Work?

• Each router creates a map of the network by sharing information with other
routers.
• It calculates the shortest path using Dijkstra’s Algorithm (a math-based way to find
the fastest route).

3. Features of OSPF

• Organized Design: Big networks are divided into smaller sections called areas
(e.g., Area 0 is the main area).
 • Cost-Based Routing: It chooses paths based on cost, which is often related to
speed (higher bandwidth = lower cost).
• Fast Updates: If the network changes (like a link fails), OSPF quickly finds a new
route.

4. Why Use OSPF?

• Good for Large Networks: Works well for complex setups with many routers.
• Handles Changes Quickly: Adapts fast when something in the network changes.
• Supports Load Balancing: Can use multiple paths with the same cost to share
traffic.

5. Example Use

• Imagine a large company with offices in different cities. OSPF divides the network
into areas and ensures data travels efficiently between all locations.

Conclusion

OSPF is a powerful and reliable routing protocol that is great for large and dynamic
networks. It is commonly used in businesses and internet service providers because it’s
fast and handles big networks easily.

4o

You said:

Write short notes on: i) IEEE 802.4 (Token Bus) ii) IEEE 802.5 (Token Ring)

ChatGPT said:

ChatGPT
i) IEEE 802.4 (Token Bus)

Token Bus is a network standard defined by IEEE 802.4 for local area networks (LANs). It
uses a bus topology but operates on the token-passing protocol for managing access to
the network.

Key Features:

• Token Passing: A special frame, called a "token," circulates among devices. Only
the device holding the token can send data, ensuring fair access and avoiding
collisions.
• Bus Topology: Devices are connected to a single cable, resembling a bus.
• Use Case: Commonly used in industrial applications where reliable and
deterministic communication is important.

Advantages:

• Prevents collisions and ensures equal access for all devices.

• Efficient for networks with heavy traffic.

Disadvantages:

• If the token is lost, the network must regenerate it, causing delays.
• Adding or removing devices disrupts the token sequence.
ii) IEEE 802.5 (Token Ring)

Token Ring is a LAN protocol defined by IEEE 802.5. It uses a ring topology and a token-
passing protocol for controlling network access.

Key Features:

• Token Passing: A token travels in a circular manner between devices. A device

must possess the token to send data.
• Ring Topology: Devices are connected in a circular arrangement, either physically
or logically.
• Use Case: Historically used in office networks before Ethernet became dominant.

Advantages:

• Avoids collisions, as only one device can send data at a time.

• Predictable performance, useful for real-time applications.

Disadvantages:

• Network failure if a single device or link in the ring fails (can be mitigated with a
fault-tolerant design).
• Slower than modern Ethernet-based networks.