CHAPTER 3

VIRTUES:

The moral life as more than Action

 INTRODUCTION

Man attains his ultimate end through good actions, that is, those
actions that are in conformity with law and his conscience.
These good actions can be helped by good habits called virtues.

STH I-II Q. 55 a. 3
❑According to its etymology the word virtue (Latin virtus) signifies
manliness or courage. Cicero observes that: The term virtue is from
the word that signifies man (vir); a man’s chief quality is fortitude,
vigour, worth.
❑Taken in its widest sense virtue, means the excellence of perfection
of a thing, just as vice, its contrary, denotes a defect or absence of
perfection due to a thing or object.
❑In its strictest meaning, however, as used by moral theologians, it
signifies a habit superadded to a faculty of the soul, disposing it to
produce, with readiness, acts conformable to our rational nature.
❑ “Virtue”, says Augustine; “is a good habit consonant with our nature”.
From Saint Thomas’s entire Question on the essence of virtue may be
gathered his brief but complete definition of virtue: “habitus operativus
bonus”, = an operative habit essentially good, as distinguished from vice, and
operative habit essentially evil. Now a habit is a quality in itself difficult of
change, disposing well or ill the subject in which it resides, either directly in
itself or in relation to its operation

❑ An operative habit is a quality residing in a power or faculty in itself

indifferent to this or that line of action, but determined by the habit to this
rather than to that kind of acts. Virtue then has this in common with vice that
it disposes potency to a certain determined activity; but it differs specifically
from it in that it disposes it to good acts, i.e. acts in consonance with right
reason.
A virtue is a habitual and firm disposition to do the good.
It allows the person not only to perform good acts, but to
give the best of himself. The virtuous person tends
toward the good with all his sensory and spiritual powers;
he pursues the good and chooses it in concrete actions.

CCC no. 1803

As human persons we have all sorts of capacities: to eat, to make
decisions, to enjoy a good meal, to have sex, and so on. We can exercise
these capacities in numerous ways.
A virtue is a habitual inclination to use a certain capacity well, or
simply a “good habit.” Therefore, to understand a virtue it is necessary to
understand the difference between simply performing actions and
actually having a habit. A habit is an abiding disposition that inclines
one to exercise a specific capacit
y in a certain manner. It is a change of who one is, with a resulting
change in what one does.
Aristotle was making this point when he claimed that a person with a
habit is still marked by that habit even when not exercising the habit’s
activities. As a habit, a virtue is a quality that abides in us, even when it is
not being acted upon. This is not the case for sporadic actions.
A habit concerns not only exterior actions but also internal
dispositions, particularly intentions. In other words, a habit NOT
ONLY inclines a person to do certain sorts of acts, but also to do
them in a certain way and for particular reasons.

Habits incline us to act consistently, spontaneously, and with

corresponding intentions. Virtues are good habits, and vices are bad
habits. A virtuous person not only consistently and automatically
performs good actions, but also does so for the right reasons.
Virtue is the capacity and the desire to act well:
• Now, this capacity and desire to act well is a feature of a person’s
character, it is a quality in the person which perfects action. Another
way to say it is that a virtuous person is disposed to act well. A
virtue allows you to spontaneously and easily do the right thing. It is
both a skill and an inclination to use that skill properly. It's the
ability and the inclination to act beautifully, to make good choices.
Virtues are attitudes, dispositions, or character traits that enable us to
be and to act in ways that develop human potential. They enable us
to pursue the ideals we have adopted like: Honesty, courage,
compassion, generosity, fidelity, integrity, fairness, self-control,
prudence etc..
 DIVISIONS OF VIRTUES
There are three main divisions of Virtues (though much insistence is on
the first two):
a) Theological Virtues
b) Moral/Cardinal Virtues
c) Intellectual virtues

Virtues are either Infused directly to the soul by God or we acquire

them as we grow up. The supernatural virtues that come with
sanctifying grace are called infused virtues, while the natural virtues
that are acquired.
Infused Virtues (Theological Virtues): Faith; Hope; Charity
The infused virtues do not require once effort. They are directly produced
by God in the operative faculties of a man, and differ mainly from the
acquired because they do not imply the human effort which determines the
faculty to a particular kind of activity, namely facility induced by
repetition.
God Himself pours in infundere the infused virtues, not by compulsion or
overriding the free will of man, but without dependence on us, which
Augustine says, “are produced in us by God without our assistance”.
They are supernatural gifts, freely conferred through the merits of Christ,
and raise the activity of those who possess them to the divine level in the
same way that sanctifying grace elevates their nature to a share in the life
of God. They are supernatural precisely because they transcend the natural
capacities of mind and will either to acquire or operate
Acquired Virtues (Cardinal/Moral virtues): Prudence; Justice;
Fortitude; Temperance

 The infused virtues should be contrasted with the acquired habits, in

which the autonomous will of the individual plays the dominant role.

 Once consistent effort to concentrate on a given course of action,

repeating the process over a long period of time and in spite of
obstacles, gradually develops a tendency to perform the action
spontaneously and almost without reflection, yet to a degree of
perfection that someone else without the virtue cannot duplicate.

 Acquired virtues are good habits that we acquire through repeated

effort on our part to do what is right, such as the habit of telling the
truth or avoiding cheating during exams (veracity), the habit of
 The building up of the acquired habits does not come without
persevering effort, for they require a going against the selfish
inclinations of our fallen nature. But as one progresses in the acquiring
of these good habits, they bring a certain readiness and facility in the
performance of those individual virtues.
 FUNCTIONS OF VIRTUES
1. Virtues Perfect the soul and its faculties
❑The soul/spiritual reality of man is the remote principle or source of all our activities;
faculties are the proximate sources built into the soul by nature; habits are still more
immediate principles added to the faculties either by personal endeavour or by
supernatural infusion from God.

❑Habits reside in the faculties as stable dispositions or “hard to eradicate” qualities

that dispose the faculties to act in a certain way, depending on the type of habit. If
the habit is acquired it gives the faculty power to act with ease and facility; if it is
infused, it procures not readiness in supernatural activity, but the very activity itself.

❑Natural or acquired habits result from repeated acts of some kind; they give not the
power to act, but the power to act readily and with agility/skills. Thus in the natural
order, the faculty without the habit is simple power to act, the faculty with the habit is
power to act with perfection. Since custom is parent to habit, it is called second nature.
Faculty is like first nature, and habit the second.
2. Virtue assists to address disorder caused by original sin
❑In this light, the central role of virtue in the moral life can be understood as a re-
education and reordering of the faculties according to their original perfection and the
harmony that reigned among them.

❑Virtue, as a stable perfection of an operative faculty, redresses the disorder caused by

original sin. The deprivation of original holiness and justice produced by sin affects man
at three distinct levels. Three levels of disorder call for three levels of reordering by
virtues:

a) First, at the level of the faculties and passions themselves, as a person wears
corrective lenses to compensate for a defect in the visual organs, so too certain virtues
serve to correct the internal operations of the faculties.

❑The intellectual virtues such as wisdom and knowledge perfect man’s reason. Other
virtues, such as temperance and fortitude with their allied virtues, reorient and channel
the concupiscible and irascible passions.
b) Relationship among the faculties
◦ Second, at the level of the relationship among the faculties, the disorder produced
by sin, whereby the lower faculties do not submit to the guidance of reason
illuminated by faith, must be redressed. Chief among the virtues coming into play
at this level is the cardinal virtue of prudence, which perfects practical reason
and serves as a guide (auriga virtutum) for the other faculties. The prudent person
not only knows what is right and good, but is able to carry it out. This reordering
of the faculties among themselves bears the fruit of human freedom.
c) One’s relationship with other persons
◦ Third, at the level of one’s relationship with other persons, God and others.
Original sin produced a rift which also calls for virtuous correction. The properly
Christian virtue of humility allows a person to regain a correct understanding of
who he is before God and others, correcting the imbalances of disordered self-
love and self-importance. Justice, perfected by the theological virtue of charity,
directs one’s actions in accordance with love for God above all things and a love
for others that mirrors Christ’s self-sacrificing love.
 1. THEOLOGICAL VIRTUES

FAITH, HOPE, CHARITY

The virtues of Faith, Hope and Charity have God as their direct
object. By faith we know God, by Hope we trust His goodness and
promises, and by Charity we love Him.
Theological virtues are infused in man by God. These concern God
directly, and thus are obtained only with God’s grace.
In the patristic period, theological virtues were the subject of frequent writing.

The commentaries of the Fathers on St. Paul offer a complete treatise on every
phase of faith, hope and charity.

St. Augustine’s, thought on theological virtues was an epitome of the

essentials of Christianity.

However a scientific study was not made until the Middle Ages, in the great
Summa of Peter Lombard, Peter of Poitiers, William of Auxerre and a
Franciscan Alexander of Hales, terminating in the definitive work of St.
Thomas. His analysis of theological virtue remains standard, and figures
extensively in all his major writings, especially the Summa Theologica.
Theological virtues are concerned directly with God and operate in a field in
which the unaided reason cannot work.

The theological virtues are the foundation of Christian moral activity; they
animate it and give it its special character. They inform and give life to all the
moral virtues. They are infused by God into the souls of the faithful to make them
capable of acting as his children and of meriting eternal life. They are the pledge
of the presence and action of the Holy Spirit in the faculties of the human being.
They dispose Christians to live in a relationship with the Holy Trinity.

They have the One and Triune God for their origin, motive, and object. By
Faith, we believe in God and believe all that he has revealed to us and that Holy
Church proposes for our belief. By Hope we desire, and with steadfast trust
await from God, eternal life and the graces to merit it. By Charity, we love God
above all things and our neighbour as ourselves for love of God.
Necessity of Theological virtues
Aquinas argued of the necessity for theological virtues from a simple analysis
of man’s elevation to the supernatural order. Our final happiness may be
considered in two ways:
a. One is commensurate (proportional) with our human nature, and therefore a
happiness obtainable by the use of our native powers of mind and will.
b. The other is immeasurably higher, surpassing nature, and secured only from
God by the merciful communication of His own divinity.
To make it possible to attain this higher destiny in the beatific vision, we must
have new principles of activity, which are called theological virtues because
their object is God and not, as in moral virtues, merely things that lead to God;
because they are infused in the mind and will by God alone, as opposed to the
habits acquired by personal exercise; and because they would never be known
to us.
 FAITH
Natural virtue of faith is a belief on something based on the authority
on the speaker. Natural faith relates to our propensity to accept as true,
that which is spoken by someone who has more authority, as true and
useful for our living.
Faith is also thinking with assent. It is a disposition of the mind to think
with assent to accept. It is a virtue of mind in the command of the will
accepting what is proposed as true based on sufficient authority.
Supernatural faith is believing in what God has told us in revelation
based on his authority. It is act of divine truth. As an act (an act of faith or
exercise of the faith in God) it consists in:
i. Believe in God’s existence,
ii. Believing in God that His word is true,
iii. Belief and accepting His word as the rule of life and way to salvation.
The object of Belief consists in:
1. Formal object – Recognising that God is the one Speaking (Truth
Itself);
2. Material Object - God himself and things pertaining to God. i.e. All
that is proposed for our belief; Creed, the mysteries of Christ
(Incarnation, passion, resurrection, ascension) e.t.c.
a. Primary material object: God and the things of God
b. Secondary material object: Things related to the primary material
object
Faith enables us to assent to the divine truth that God
has revealed, has been defined by the First Vatican
Council as “a supernatural virtue whereby, under the
inspiration and assistance of grace, we believe those
things revealed by God to be true, not because the
intrinsic truth of these things has been perceived by the
natural light of reason, but because of the authority of
God Himself revealing them, Who can neither deceive nor
be deceived.”

Vatican Council 1, Dogmatic Constitution Dei Filius

 By its very nature, faith is imperfect and obscure; but to help correct
its imperfections as far as possible, we have the Gifts of
Understanding and Knowledge which perfect Faith to become more
penetrating, more comprehensive, more divine.

Faith resides in the intellect

Faith is the theological virtue by which we believe in God and
believe all that he has said and revealed to us, and that Holy Church
proposes for our belief, because He is truth itself. By faith “man
freely commits his entire self to God”. For this reason the believer
seeks to know and do God’s will. (CCC n. 1814)

The disciple of Christ must not only keep the faith and live on it,
but also profess it, confidently bear witness to it, and spread it.
The sins against faith are:
a. Unbelief, Disbelief: the rejection of the truths of faith.
b. Heresy: Rejection of some oracle, or aspects of the faith and morals,
or unchanging of one opinion; rejection of the right teaching.
c. Apostasy: It is full rejection of faith; It must be formal and explicit.
d. Blasphemy: It is speaking something against God, of His power,
might, Grace…
 HOPE
Hope is a divine infused virtue by which, with certain confidence,
relying on God’s goodness and promises, we expect to attain
eternal life, and the means to attain it. This virtue enables us to
live the Christian life without the uncertainty and inconstancy of
human hope, but with the unshakable support of God on Whom
we rely.
Hope resides in the will.
 ❑While faith gives light, hope gives confidence. It eliminates
discouragement from faults, temptation and aridities found in every
life. The more one advances in the Christian life the stronger hope
must be, for the struggles become more difficult, the sacrifices
greater, and the operations of grace more difficult to understand.

❑This virtue is brought to its highest perfection by the Gift of Fear

of the Lord.
❑Hope is the theological virtue by which we desire the kingdom of
heaven and eternal life as our happiness, placing our trust in Christ’s
promises and relying not on our own strength, but on the help of the
grace of the Holy Spirit. (CCC n. 1817)

❑The virtue of hope responds to the aspiration to happiness which

God has placed in the heart of every man; it takes up the hopes that
inspire men’s activities and purifies them so as to order them to the
Kingdom of heaven; it keeps man from discouragement; it sustains
him during times of abandonment; it opens up his heart in
expectation of eternal beatitude.
❑Hope contains two importants elements which include: the awaiting
of happiness and means necessary for such attainement.
❑Formal object of hope is the possession of God himself.
❑Primary material object of hope is eternal happiness
❑Secondary material object of hope is the means to attain eternal
happiness
Sins against Hope:
i. To omit an act of hope when it ought to be elicited e.g. in times of
trials, of weaknesses etc
ii. Despair: the total loss of hope in God’s divine providence, power
and goodness.
 CHARITY
Charity is the supernatural infused virtue infused by God into the will, by
which we love God for Himself above all things, and our self and
neighbour for His sake. It is the “queen of all virtues,” the one that unites all
the other virtues and makes their actions meritorious.

It is the key virtue, therefore, responsible for growth in grace which is the
measure of glory in the life to come. Charity (love of God) makes easier every
effort, and sweetens every sacrifice. It can find expression in countless ways
as St. Paul testifies. (1 Cor. 13:4-7)

Charity is the theological virtue by which we love God above all things for
his own sake, and our neighbour as ourselves for the love of God. (CCC n.
1822)

It is the heart and soul of prayer, as well as the motivating force of the spirit
of mortification. It is brought to its highest perfection by the Gift of Wisdom.
The formal object of charity is the divine goodness. This is because
charity is an object of will and will discern what is good
Why am I helping someone? Because of God’s goodness.
The material object is God and men (those I’m able to love)
Sins against charity
i. Hatred
ii. Spiritual sloth or envy
iii. Discord
iv. Contention
v. Schism
vi. Scandal
 Primacy of charity
 All the great ethical systems conceive of one virtue as the principal one, which
contains all the other virtues in itself. Whoever possesses this virtue in a perfect
way, possesses with it all the others.
According to Socrates insight or wisdom is the principal virtue. Plato regards
justice as the all-embracing virtue; and Aristotle, prudence. St. Augustine
considers love of God as the queen of virtues. St. Thomas places prudence at
the summit of the moral virtues, whilst he gives prominence to charity as the
fundamental Christian virtue. Kant proposes that the universal sense of duty is
the basic moral attitude.
In spite of the prominent place which prudence holds in the cortege of virtues,
Christian ethics never failed to exalt love or charity as the most fundamental
and universal.
This corresponds to the clear teaching of Christ and the New Testament.
According to the New Testament, the commandment of love is the first
commandment, in which the whole law and the prophets are fulfilled (Mt 22:34-
40, par; In 13:34f). Love is the greatest of virtues (1 Cor 13), “which binds
everything together in perfect harmony” (Col 3:14).

Vatican II takes up and continues this biblical teaching when it affirms that “the
first and most necessary gift is that charity by which we love God above all
things and our neighbour because of God” (LG n. 42). This agrees with the
assertion that the right fundamental option in the last analysis is love for God
and his divine will. The principal virtue is perfect only if a man also possesses
all the particular virtues comprised in the principal one.
 2. INTELLECTUAL VIRTUES
They perfect the mind in knowing truth.
❑Every virtue is ordained for the good; but any habit is called virtue for one or both
of two reasons : first, that it gives the power to act well; secondly, that with the
power is also a good use of the power. Speculative intellectual habits do not perfect
the will, but only the intellect.

❑The intellectual virtues are:

❑Undertanding ("intellectus"): perfects the intellect for knowledge of first
principles (grasping the nature of things).
❑ science/knowledge ("scientia"): perfects the intellect in the knowledge of a
particular class of reality through a consideration of its proper causes. Judging
created things as they are.
❑ wisdom ("sapientia"): perfects the intellect in the knowledge of all reality through
a consideration of its ultimate causes
❑Art: intellectual or operative virtue (not speculative): perfects right reason in
making things.
 3. THE MORAL/CARDINAL VIRTUES

We have seen that the theological virtues put us in contact with
God, enabling us to know and love Him in a supernatural way. Yet,
because of our fallen nature, those virtues are not sufficient of
themselves to enable us to live a Christian life. There is needed, in
addition, moral virtues which concern our self-control and our
relationships with others, considered as means toward that ultimate
end. There are many moral virtues, but there are four general (or
Cardinal) virtues under which all other moral virtues may be
classified: Prudence, Justice, Fortitude and Temperance.
Plato uses these four virtues to describe both the well-ordered
society and the well-ordered individual. Cicero also reduces all
virtues to these four. Saints Augustine, Gregory the Great, and
Thomas Aquinas are just a few of the Christian thinkers who appeal
to the four cardinal virtues when describing the moral life. Thus there
is a remarkably consistent emphasis in the Western tradition on the
importance of the cardinal virtues in the moral life, and this witness
extends beyond the Christian tradition.
Human virtues are firm attitudes, stable dispositions, habitual
perfections of intellect and will that govern our actions, order
our passions, and guide our conduct according to reason and
faith. They make possible ease, self-mastery, and joy in
leading a morally good life. the virtuous man is he who freely
practices the good.
The moral virtues are acquired by human effort. They are the
fruit and seed of morally good acts.

CCC n. 1804
 N.B.
Since virtues are good habits, the most obvious way they are obtained
is through repetitive, intentional action. If you want to become a
generous person, you must repeatedly, and for the right reasons,
help those in need with what resources are available to you. By
continually performing such actions, a habit develops such that you
will be disposed to do more such actions (automatically/spontaneosuly,
with proper intentions) in the future.
A) PRUDENCE
It is an moral virtue rooted in the practical intellect enabling the
individual to make correct moral decisions and carry out those
decisions in particular circumstances. It is the most important of
all the moral virtues, for it is the guide of our entire moral life. In
the light and strength it receives from the theological virtues,
prudence directs and guides all the other virtues as to the proper
means for attaining eternal life. The virtue of Prudence is brought
to its highest perfection by the Gift of Counsel.
 Prudence is the virtue that disposes practical reason to discern
our true good in every circumstance and to choose the right
means of achieving it. […] It is not to be confused with timidity or
fear. It guides the other virtues by setting rule and measure. It is
prudence that immediately guides the judgment of conscience. The
prudent man determines and directs his conduct in accordance with
this judgment. With the help of this virtue, we apply moral
principles to particular cases without error and overcome doubts
about the good to achieve and the evil to avoid.

CCC n. 1806
In all areas of life we have to make practical decisions that
guide our actions. Even if we “mean well” and have good
desires, we must choose well to effect those good desires.
Prudence is the virtue of doing practical decision-making
well. When we hear the word “prudence,” we commonly
think of being cautious and wary. At times the virtue of
prudence may indeed call for cautious hesitation but it may
also call for decisive action. In all cases, one acts prudently
when one accurately sizes up the situation at hand and
makes good practical decisions. This virtue is particularly
important, because it is required for the exercise of the
other cardinal virtues.
It is so important to the virtuous life that it has consistently been seen
in the Western tradition as pre-eminent among the cardinal virtues.

Being a prudent person is what enables one to see rightly and

translate that truthful vision into action.
Prudence is rightly said to be the virtue that moderates all other
virtues.
Prudence is “right reason in action” ( Thomas Aquinas).
 The material object of prudence are human acts. The formal
object is the relation of conformity or non-conformity of the human
acts to right reason or the divine laws, as it is to be known and
judged.
❑The Virtue Of Prudence Implies The Following Acts
a. Wise consultation: investigation of the means to be used in order to
act rightly in a particular situation
b. Right Judgement: an act of the intellect by which it decides to use
a particular means
c. Command: the act by which the intellect asks the will to follow its
judgement. Command is the most important of these acts
B) JUSTICE
It is an acquired virtue that inclines one to respect
the rights of others (whether God’s or our fellow
human’s) and to render to them their strict due. It
regards the rights of others not merely as seen from
the light of reason, but from the viewpoint of reason
enlightened by Faith and elevated by Charity, and of
our ultimate goal - eternal life with God. Justice is
brought to its highest perfection by the Gift of Piety.
Justice is the moral virtue that consists in the constant and firm
will to give their due to God and neighbour. Justice toward
God is called the “virtue of religion”. Justice toward men
disposes one to respect the rights of each and to establish in
human relationships the harmony that promotes equity with
regard to persons and to the common good.

CCC n. 1807
 Aquinas adopts a classic Latin phrase to describe justice: “suum cuique,”
which neans “to each his due”. Any act of justice gives another what they
deserve. As a virtue, justice is a steady disposition (a habit) in someone to
give other people their due. Justice reside in the will – it’s a rectitude of
will towards others.
Our lives are interdependent, such that living a good life must entail good
relationships with other people. Justice is the virtue that inclines us to
good action in our interactions and relationships with others. We may
immediately think of the courts and the law when we hear “justice,” and
such matters do indeed fall under justice. But any activity where we give
another his or her “due” is a matter of justice. Honesty, generosity,
keeping promises, respect, etc., are all matters of justice.
 The Different Species Of The Virtue Of Justice
A. Legal justice
Legal justice regards laws, their observance on the part of the subjects, and the enacting of just
laws on the part of those in authority. The subject of right in legal justice is the community. For
the good of the community as a whole, citizens owe observance to the laws. Since the common
good takes precedence over private good, legal justice occupies the first place
B. Commutative justice
It is a virtue which inclines one to give another another (physical or juridical person) what is his
due as a person distinct and independent from oneself. It is concerned with the exchange of
goods and services according to strict equality of values, unless one party voluntarily renounces
its right to full compensation (eg. Right pay to the employee from employer, paying tickets
while travelling). Commutative justice is also called individual justice or justice of equality, for
it regards the juridical relation between individuals or groups of individuals. Since rights and
claims of commutative justice are mainly based on contracts, it can be called also contractual
justice.
C. Distributive justice
regards the just distribution of honours and burdens in society. Distributive justice has to guide
those in authority, be it in the state, in the Church, in smaller communities like the religious
congregations or even in a family.
In so far as individuals and groups are not all equal in their qualifications, resources and
dedication to the common welfare. aids. burdens and honours must be distributed in proportion
to their needs, capabilities and merits. An example of this is the gradation of direct taxes
according to income.
D. Social justice
is a virtue by which men as members of the human society and the Mystical Body of Jesus
Christ, by virtue of the natural law and the evangelical solidarity, give to their fellow men,
especially the needy, those things necessary for the maintenance of their life and dignity.
Social justice aims at establishing the right social order: It aims at creating those economic,
political, moral and intellectual conditions which will allow the citizens to live a fully human
life.
C) FORTITUDE
While justice has to do with our duties toward others, fortitude helps
to control our inner life, our emotions, our desires and fears. It
helps us to steer a middle course between fear and daring, for
lacking control, these two emotions can degenerate into cowardice
on the one hand, and foolhardiness on the other. It strengthens the
soul to sustain and overcome the difficulties and dangers that
beset us in our moral lives, and keeps us from giving up when the
going is hard. It brings a strength of soul that is required for every
virtue. The ultimate act of fortitude is martyrdom, like that of Maria
Goretti, who had the courage to accept death rather than sacrifice her
virtue. This virtue is brought to its perfection by the Gift of
Fortitude.
 Fortitude is the moral virtue that ensures firmness in
difficulties and constancy in the pursuit of the good. It
strengthens the resolve to resist temptations and to overcome
obstacles in the moral life. The virtue of fortitude enables one
to conquer fear, even fear of death, and to face trials and
persecutions. It disposes one even to renounce and sacrifice his
life in defence of a just cause.

CCC n. 1808
Life in this world entails facing difficulties. Fortitude is the
cardinal virtue that enables us to face difficulty well. “Courage”
and “bravery” are synonyms of “fortitude.” In fact, since the greatest
danger we can face in this life is our own death, a willingness to
literally lay down one’s life has always been seen as the paradigmatic
act of fortitude. Yet this virtue may also be demonstrated in any
difficulty in life, such as a sick person facing the sickness well, a
student stepping up during stressful exam periods to perform well
without intention of cheating, or a person enduring pain after a hard
breakup. These are some examples of fortitude.
D) TEMPERANCE
It is a moral virtue that moderates one’s desires for pleasures of
the senses, and keeps them within the limits of reason illumined
by faith. Although temperance moderates all sense pleasures, it
refers in a special way to the pleasures of taste and touch which are
the most likely to draw the appetite beyond the rule of reason. For
this reason it is one of the most necessary virtues in the spiritual life
of the individual. Like fortitude, it brings self control. While
fortitude strengthens, temperance moderates. Between these two
virtues our entire inner life is properly ordered. Temperance is
brought to its highest perfection by the Gift of Fear of the Lord.
 Temperance is the moral virtue that moderates the
attraction of pleasures and provides balance in the use of
created goods. It ensures the will’s mastery over instincts and
keeps desires within the limits of what is honourable. The
temperate person directs the sensitive appetites toward what
is good and maintains a healthy discretion.

CCC n. 1809
 “Emotion”, “feeling”, and “desire”, are used interchangeably. The
virtue temperance concerns activities toward which we experience
very immediate, bodily longings or aversions (food, drink, and sex).
Our emotions (or feelings, desires. passions) are also generally manifest
in immediate, bodily changes. When we are overjoyed our hearts leap.
When we are angry our blood boils. When we are afraid, our hearts
race and our senses become acute. Like our desires for sex, food, and
drink, our emotions are bodily longings or aversions to things we
encounter.
We desire and act to obtain things that are pleasant to touch, taste, or
experience. Such objects of our desire include food, drink, sex, and
recreation. Any good life in this world will be marked by such
desires, but these desires must also be well ordered. Temperance is
the virtue of well-ordered desires for pleasures.
Temperance, in particular, is the virtue that inclines us to desire and
enjoy pleasures well. It enables us to regulate our actions, and even
our desires. Temperance is the virtue of desiring things in a reasonable
or moderate manner.
 CONCLUSION
A virtuous person is not simply someone who consistentlty
perfroms good actions, although that is certainly the case.
Having a virtue changes who one is. It forms one’s character.
There is a difference between being a virtuous person and
simply performing good actions.
Having a virtue –or a vice, for that matter – changes who
you are, and it is that change that leads to a greater frequency
of good acts.
Theological virtues are infused to the soul by God without
any direct contribution on our part.
We cannot acquire them or earn them on our own merits but
we can dispose/make ourselves fit to receive them.
We can also prevent them or be an obstacle through our own
unreceptiveness.
They are pure gifts, but we have the capacity to refuse these
gifts.
Theological virtues put us in direct contact with God.
The cardinal virtues may be considered requisites and conditions for
the practice of any virtue. Thus whoever would form an act of virtue
must judge rightly about it (prudence): he must have regard for law
and render everyone his due (justice): he must endure difficulties and
not give way to discouragement (fortitude); he must observe
moderation and self-control (temperance).
To be virtuous does not mean to have the “power to do good”, but to
actually “do good”.
A virtuous action is always in conformity with right reason.
The concept of virtue provides a vehicle for explaining how persons
can be transformed, and their actions subsequently impacted.
The cardinal virtues in particular concern actions in this world, and
apply to believers and nonbelievers alike. A person’s Character is
formed through living and the exercise of the virtues.
Cardinal virtues are acquired whereas theological virtues are infused.
Theological virtues have God as their direct object
The growth of virtues:
1. Habits increase extensively. This mens that it increases by the
practice of more and more new objects of operation.
2. Habits also grow intensively: this is by the force of the will applied
to the action. Greater and stronger will and more devotion.
3. They also grow by repetition of similar acts.
 MAIN REFERENCES
1. MATTISON III W. C., Introducing moral theology. True happiness
and the virtues, Brazos Press, Grand Rapids 2008.
2. PAZHYAMPALLIL T, Pastoral Guide: Fundamental Moral Theology
and Virtues, Vol.1, Theological Publication in India, Bangalore
2004.
3. THOMAS AQUINAS, Summa Theologica (Benziger Bros. edition,
1947), trans. Fathers of the English Dominican Province, in
http://dhspriory.org/thomas/summa/
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