CONTENT TABLE

Sr No Topics Page No

1 Relations and Functions 02 - 20

2 Inverse Trigonometric Functions 21 - 42

3 Matrices 43 - 63

4 Determinants 64 - 80

5 Continuity and Differentiability 81 - 107

6 Application of Derivatives 108 - 122

7 Integrals 123 - 145

8 Application of Integrals 146 - 159

9 Differential Equations 160 - 176

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10 Vector 177 - 202

11 Three-Dimensional Geometry 203 - 224

12 Linear Programming 225 - 241

13 Probability
m 242 - 272
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 Chapter-1 Relations and Functions
Introduction

Recall that the notion of relations and functions, domain, co-domain, and range have been introduced in Class XI along with dif-
ferent types of specific real valued functions and their graphs. The concept of the term 'relation' in mathematics has been drawn
from the meaning of relation in English language, according to which two objects or quantities are related if there is a recogniza-
ble connection or link between the two objects or quantities. Let A be the set of students of Class XII of a school and B be the set
of students of Class XI of the same school. Then some of the examples of relations from A to B are

1. {(𝑎, 𝑏) ∈ A × B: 𝑎 is brother of 𝑏},

2. {(𝑎, 𝑏) ∈ A × B: 𝑎 is sister of 𝑏},
3. {(𝑎, 𝑏) ∈ A × B : age of 𝑎 is greater than age of 𝑏},
4. {(𝑎, 𝑏) ∈ A × B : total marks obtained by 𝑎 in the final examination is less than the total marks obtained by 𝑏 in the final
examination},
5. {(𝑎, 𝑏) ∈ A × B : 𝑎 lives in the same locality as 𝑏}. However, abstracting from this, we define mathematically a relation 𝑅 from
𝐴 to 𝐵 as an arbitrary subset of A × B.

If (𝑎, 𝑏) ∈ R, we say that 𝑎 is related to 𝑏 under the relation R and we write as 𝑎R𝑏. In general, (𝑎, 𝑏) ∈ R, we do not bother whether
there is a recognisable connection or link between 𝑎 and 𝑏. As seen in Class XI, functions are special kinds of relations.

a
In this chapter, we will study different types of relations and functions, composition of functions, invertible functions, and binary
operations.

Types of Relations
m
In this section, we would like to study different types of relations. We know that a relation in a set A is a subset of A × A. Thus,
the empty set 𝜙 and A × A are two extreme relations. For illustration, consider a relation R in the set A = {1,2,3,4} given by R =
{(𝑎, 𝑏): 𝑎 − 𝑏 = 10}. This is the empty set, as no pair (𝑎, 𝑏) satisfies the condition 𝑎 − 𝑏 = 10. Similarly, R′ = {(𝑎, 𝑏): |𝑎 − 𝑏| ≥ 0}
is the whole set A × A, as all pairs (𝑎, 𝑏) in A × A satisfy |𝑎 − 𝑏| ≥ 0. These two extreme examples lead us to the following defini-
tions.
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Definition 1 A relation R in a set A is called empty relation, if no element of A is related to any element of 𝐴, i.e., R = 𝜙 ⊂ A × A.

Definition 2 A relation R in a set A is called universal relation, if each element of A is related to every element of A, i.e., R = A × A.
Both the empty relation and the universal relation are sometimes called trivial relations.

Example 1 Let A be the set of all students at a boy’s school. Show that the relation R in A given by R = {(𝑎, 𝑏): 𝑎 is sister of 𝑏} is
the empty relation and R′ = {(𝑎, 𝑏) : the difference between heights of 𝑎 and 𝑏 is less than 3 meters } is the universal relation.
Solution Since the school is a boys’ school, no student at the school can be sister of any student at the school. Hence, R = 𝜙,
showing that R is the empty relation. It is also obvious that the difference between heights of any two students at the school must
be less than 3 meters. This shows that R′ = A × A is the universal relation.

Remark In Class XI, we have seen two ways of representing a relation, namely raster method and set builder method. However,
a relation R in the set {1,2,3,4} defined by R = {(𝑎, 𝑏): 𝑏 = 𝑎 + 1} is also expressed as 𝑎R𝑏 if and only if 𝑏 = 𝑎 + 1 by many authors.
We may also use this notation, as and when convenient.

If (𝑎, 𝑏) ∈ R, we say that 𝑎 is related to 𝑏 and we denote it as 𝑎R𝑏.

One of the most important relations, which plays a significant role in Mathematics, is an equivalence relation. To study equiva-
lence relation, we first consider three types of relations, namely reflexive, symmetric, and transitive.

Definition 3 A relation 𝑅 in a set 𝐴 is called.

1. reflexive, if (𝑎, 𝑎) ∈ R, for every 𝑎 ∈ A,
2. symmetric, if (𝑎1 , 𝑎2 ) ∈ R implies that (𝑎2 , 𝑎1 ) ∈ R, for all 𝑎1 , 𝑎2 ∈ A.
3. transitive, if (𝑎1 , 𝑎2 ) ∈ R and (𝑎2 , 𝑎3 ) ∈ R implies that (𝑎1 , 𝑎3 ) ∈ R, for all 𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , 𝑎3 ∈ A. Definition 4 A relation R in a set A is
said to be an equivalence relation if R is reflexive, symmetric, and transitive.

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Example 2 Let T be the set of all triangles in a plane with R a relation in T given by 𝑅 = {(𝑇1 , 𝑇2 ): 𝑇1 is congruent to 𝑇2 }. Show that
𝑅 is an equivalence relation.
Solution 𝑅 is reflexive since every triangle is congruent to itself. Further, (𝑇1 , 𝑇2 ) ∈ 𝑅 ⇒ 𝑇1 is congruent to 𝑇2 ⇒ 𝑇2 is congruent
to 𝑇1 ⇒ (𝑇2 , 𝑇1 ) ∈ 𝑅. Hence, 𝑅 is symmetric. Moreover, (𝑇1 , 𝑇2 ), (𝑇2 , 𝑇3 ) ∈ 𝑅 ⇒ 𝑇1 is congruent to 𝑇2 and 𝑇2 is congruent to 𝑇3 ⇒ 𝑇1
is congruent to 𝑇3 ⇒ (𝑇1 , 𝑇3 ) ∈ 𝑅. Therefore, 𝑅 is an equivalence relation.

Example 3 Let L be the set of all lines in a plane and R be the relation in L defined as R = {(L1 , L2 ): L1 is perpendicular to L2 }.
Show that R is symmetric but neither reflexive nor transitive.
Solution R is not reflexive, as a line L1 can not be perpendicular to itself, i.e., (L1 , L1 ) ∉ R. R is symmetric as (L1 , L2 ) ∈ R
⇒ L1 is perpendicular to L2
⇒ L2 is perpendicular to L1
⇒ (L2 , L1 ) ∈ R.

R is not transitive. Indeed, if L1 is perpendicular to L2 and L2 is perpendicular to L3 , then L1 can never be perpendicular to

a Fig 1.1
m
L3 . In fact, L1 is parallel to L3 , i.e., (L1 , L2 ) ∈ R, (L2 , L3 ) ∈ R but (L1 , L3 ) ∉ R.

Example 4 Show that the relation R in the set {1,2,3} given by R = {(1,1), (2,2), (3,3), (1,2), (2,3)} is reflexive but neither sym-
metric nor transitive.
Solution R is reflexive, since (1,1), (2,2) and (3,3) lie in R. Also, R is not symmetric, as (1,2) ∈ R but (2,1) ∉ R. Similarly, R is not
transitive, as (1,2) ∈ R and (2,3) ∈ R but (1,3) ∉ R.
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Example 5 Show that the relation R in the set 𝐙 of integers given by is an equivalence relation.
R = {(𝑎, 𝑏): 2 divides 𝑎 − 𝑏}
Solution R is reflexive, as 2 divides (𝑎 − 𝑎) for all 𝑎 ∈ 𝐙. Further, if (𝑎, 𝑏) ∈ R, then 2 divides 𝑎 − 𝑏. Therefore, 2 divides 𝑏 − 𝑎.
Hence, (𝑏, 𝑎) ∈ R, which shows that R is symmetric. Similarly, if (𝑎, 𝑏) ∈ R and (𝑏, 𝑐) ∈ R, then 𝑎 − 𝑏 and 𝑏 − 𝑐 are divisible by 2.
Now, 𝑎 − 𝑐 = (𝑎 − 𝑏) + (𝑏 − 𝑐) is even (Why?). So, (𝑎 − 𝑐) is divisible by 2.

This shows that R is transitive. Thus, R is an equivalence relation in 𝐙. In Example 5, note that all even integers are related to zero,
as (0, ±2), (0, ±4) etc., lie in R and no odd integer is related to 0, as (0, ±1), (0, ±3) etc., do not lie in R. Similarly, all odd integers
are related to one and no even integer is related to one. Therefore, the set E of all even integers and the set O of all odd integers
are subsets of 𝐙 satisfying following conditions:

1. All elements of E are related to each other and all elements of O are related to each other.
2. No element of E is related to any element of O and vice-versa.
3. E and O are disjoint and 𝐙 = E ∪ O.

The subset E is called the equivalence class containing zero and is denoted by [0]. Similarly, O is the equivalence class containing
1 and is denoted by [1]. Note that [0] ≠ [1], [0] = [2𝑟] and [1] = [2𝑟 + 1], 𝑟 ∈ 𝐙. Infact, what we have seen above is true for an
arbitrary equivalence relation R in a set X. Given an arbitrary equivalence relation R in an arbitrary set X, R divides X into mutually
disjoint subsets A𝑖 called partitions or subdivisions of 𝑋 satisfying:
1. all elements of A𝑖 are related to each other, for all 𝑖.
2. no element of A𝑖 is related to any element of A𝑗 , 𝑖 ≠ 𝑗.
3. ∪ A𝑗 = X and A𝑖 ∩ A𝑗 = 𝜙, 𝑖 ≠ 𝑗.

The subsets A𝑖 are called equivalence classes. The interesting part of the situation is that we can go reverse also. For example,
consider a subdivision of the set 𝐙 given by three mutually disjoint subsets A1 , A2 and A3 whose union is 𝐙 with

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 A1 = {𝑥 ∈ 𝐙: 𝑥 is a multiple of 3} = {… , −6, −3,0,3,6, … }
A2 = {𝑥 ∈ 𝐙: 𝑥 − 1 is a multiple of 3} = {… , −5, −2,1,4,7, … }
A3 = {𝑥 ∈ 𝐙: 𝑥 − 2 is a multiple of 3} = {… , −4, −1,2,5,8, … }

Define a relation R in 𝐙 given by R = {(𝑎, 𝑏): 3 divides 𝑎 − 𝑏}. Following the arguments similar to those used in Example 5, we
can show that 𝑅 is an equivalence relation. Also, A1 coincides with the set of all integers in 𝐙 which are related to zero, A2 coincides
with the set of all integers which are related to 1 and A3 coincides with the set of all integers in 𝐙 which are related to 2. Thus,
A1 = [0], A2 = [1] and A3 = [2]. In fact, A1 = [3𝑟], A2 = [3𝑟 + 1] and A3 = [3𝑟 + 2], for all 𝑟 ∈ 𝐙.

Example 6 Let R be the relation defined in the set A = {1,2,3,4,5,6,7} by R = {(𝑎, 𝑏) : both 𝑎 and 𝑏 are either odd or even }. Show
that R is an equivalence relation. Further, show that all the elements of the subset {1,3,5,7} are related to each other and all the
elements of the subset {2,4,6} are related to each other, but no element of the subset {1,3,5,7} is related to any element of the
subset {2,4,6}.
Solution Given any element 𝑎 in A, both 𝑎 and 𝑎 must be either odd or even, so that (𝑎, 𝑎) ∈ R. Further, (𝑎, 𝑏) ∈ R ⇒ both 𝑎 and
𝑏 must be either odd or even ⇒ (𝑏, 𝑎) ∈ R. Similarly, (𝑎, 𝑏) ∈ R and (𝑏, 𝑐) ∈ R ⇒ all elements 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐, must be either even or odd
simultaneously ⇒ (𝑎, 𝑐) ∈ R. Hence, R is an equivalence relation. Further, all the elements of {1,3,5,7} are related to each other,
as all the elements of this subset are odd. Similarly, all the elements of the subset {2,4,6} are related to each other, as all of them
are even. Also, no element of the subset {1,3,5,7} can be related to any element of {2,4,6}, as elements of {1,3,5,7} are odd, while
elements of {2,4,6} are even.

Types of Functions

a
The Notion of a function along with some special functions like identity function, constant function, polynomial function, rational
function, modulus function, signum function etc. along with their graphs have been given in Class XI.

Addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division of two functions have also been studied. As the concept of function is of para-
m
mount importance in mathematics and among other disciplines as well, we would like to extend our study about function from
where we finished earlier. In this section, we would like to study different types of functions.

Consider the functions 𝑓1 , 𝑓2 , 𝑓3 and 𝑓4 given by the following diagrams.

In Fig 1.2, we observe that the images of distinct elements of X1 under the function 𝑓1 are distinct, but the image of two distinct
elements 1 and 2 of 𝑋1 under 𝑓2 is same, namely 𝑏. Further, there are some elements like 𝑒 and 𝑓 in X2 which are not images of
any element of 𝑋1 under 𝑓1 , while all elements of 𝑋3 are images of some elements of 𝑋1 under 𝑓3 . The above observations lead to
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the following definitions:

Definition 5 A function 𝑓: X → Y is defined to be one-one (or injective), if the images of distinct elements of X under 𝑓 are distinct,
i.e., for every 𝑥1 , 𝑥2 ∈ X, 𝑓(𝑥1 ) = 𝑓(𝑥2 ) implies 𝑥1 = 𝑥2 . Otherwise, 𝑓 is called many-one.

The function 𝑓1 and 𝑓4 in Fig 1.2 (i) and (iv) are one-one and the function 𝑓2 and 𝑓3 in Fig 1.2 (ii) and (iii) are many-one.

Definition 6 A function 𝑓: X → Y is said to be onto (or surjective), if every element of 𝑌 is the image of some element of X under
𝑓, i.e., for every 𝑦 ∈ Y, there exists an element 𝑥 in X such that 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑦.

The function 𝑓3 and 𝑓4 in Fig 1.2 (iii), (iv) are onto and the function 𝑓1 in Fig 1.2 (i) is not onto as elements 𝑒, 𝑓 in X2 are not the
image of any element in X1 under 𝑓1 .

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 Fig 1.2 (i) to (iv)
Remark 𝑓: X → Y is onto if and only if Range of 𝑓 = Y.

Definition 7 A function 𝑓: X → Y is said to be one-one and onto (or bijective), if 𝑓 is both one-one and onto.
The function 𝑓4 in Fig 1.2 (iv) is one-one and onto.

a
Example 7 Let A be the set of all 50 students of Class X in a school. Let 𝑓: A → 𝐍 be function defined by 𝑓(𝑥) = roll number of the
student 𝑥. Show that 𝑓 is one-one but not onto.
Solution No two different students of the class can have same roll number. Therefore, 𝑓 must be one-one. We can assume without
any loss of generality that roll numbers of students are from 1 to 50. This implies that 51 in 𝐍 is not roll number of any student
of the class, so that 51 cannot be image of any element of X under 𝑓. Hence, 𝑓 is not onto.
m
Example 8 Show that the function 𝑓: 𝐍 → 𝐍, given by 𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥, is one-one but not onto.
Solution The function 𝑓 is one-one, for 𝑓(𝑥1 ) = 𝑓(𝑥2 ) ⇒ 2𝑥1 = 2𝑥2 ⇒ 𝑥1 = 𝑥2 . Further, 𝑓 is not onto, as for 1 ∈ 𝐍, there does not
exist any 𝑥 in 𝐍 such that 𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥 = 1.
Example 9 Prove that the function 𝑓: 𝐑 → 𝐑, given by 𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥, is one-one and onto. Solution 𝑓 is one-one, as 𝑓(𝑥1 ) = 𝑓(𝑥2 ) ⇒
𝑦 𝑦 𝑦
2𝑥1 = 2𝑥2 ⇒ 𝑥1 = 𝑥2 . Also, given any real number 𝑦 in R, there exists in R such that 𝑓 ( ) = 2. ( ) = 𝑦. Hence, 𝑓 is onto.
2 2 2
F=

Fig 1.3
Example 10 Show that the function 𝑓: 𝐍 → 𝐍, given by 𝑓(1) = 𝑓(2) = 1 and 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 − 1, for every 𝑥 > 2, is onto but not one-
one.
Solution 𝑓 is not one-one, as 𝑓(1) = 𝑓(2) = 1. But 𝑓 is onto, as given any 𝑦 ∈ 𝐍, 𝑦 ≠ 1, we can choose 𝑥 as 𝑦 + 1 such that 𝑓(𝑦 +
1) = 𝑦 + 1 − 1 = 𝑦. Also, for 1 ∈ 𝐍, we have 𝑓(1) = 1.
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Example 11 Show that the function 𝑓: 𝐑 → 𝐑, defined as 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 , is neither one-one nor onto.
Solution Since 𝑓(−1) = 1 = 𝑓(1), 𝑓 is not oneone. Also, the element -2 in the co-domain 𝐑 is not image of any element 𝑥 in the
domain 𝐑 (Why?). Therefore 𝑓 is not onto.

Example 12 Show that 𝑓: 𝐍 → 𝐍, given by

𝑥 + 1, if 𝑥 is odd
𝑓(𝑥) =
𝑥 − 1, if 𝑥 is even

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 Fig 1.4
The image of 1 and -1 under 𝑓 is 1.is both one-one and onto.
Solution Suppose 𝑓(𝑥1 ) = 𝑓(𝑥2 ). Note that if 𝑥1 is odd and 𝑥2 is even, then will have 𝑥1 + 1 = 𝑥2 − 1, i.e., 𝑥2 − 𝑥1 = 2 which is
impossible. Similarly, the possibility of 𝑥1 being even and 𝑥2 being odd can also be ruled out, using the similar argument. There-
fore, both 𝑥1 and 𝑥2 must be either odd or even. Suppose both 𝑥1 and 𝑥2 are odd. Then 𝑓(𝑥1 ) = 𝑓(𝑥2 ) ⇒ 𝑥1 + 1 = 𝑥2 + 1 ⇒ 𝑥1 =
𝑥2 . Similarly, if both 𝑥1 and 𝑥2 are even, then also 𝑓(𝑥1 ) = 𝑓(𝑥2 ) ⇒ 𝑥1 − 1 = 𝑥2 − 1 ⇒ 𝑥1 = 𝑥2 . Thus, 𝑓 is one-one. Also, any odd
number 2𝑟 + 1 in the co-domain 𝐍 is the image of 2𝑟 + 2 in the domain 𝐍 and any even number 2𝑟 in the co-domain 𝐍 is the
image of 2𝑟 − 1 in the domain 𝐍. Thus, 𝑓 is onto.

a
Example 13 Show that an onto function 𝑓: {1,2,3} → {1,2,3} is always one-one.
Solution Suppose 𝑓 is not one-one. Then there exists two elements, say 1 and 2 in the domain whose image in the co-domain is
same. Also, the image of 3 under 𝑓 can be only one element. Therefore, the range set can have at the most two elements of the co-
domain {1,2,3}, showing that 𝑓 is not onto, a contradiction. Hence, 𝑓 must be one-one.
m
Example 14 Show that a one-one function 𝑓: {1,2,3} → {1,2,3} must be onto.
Solution Since 𝑓 is one-one, three elements of {1,2,3} must be taken to 3 different elements of the co-domain {1,2,3} under 𝑓.
Hence, 𝑓 has to be onto.

Remark The results mentioned in Examples 13 and 14 are also true for an arbitrary finite set X, i.e., a one-one function 𝑓: X → X
is necessarily onto and an onto map 𝑓: X → X is necessarily one-one, for every finite set X. In contrast to this, Examples 8 and 10
F=
show that for an infinite set, this may not be true. In fact, this is a characteristic difference between a finite and an infinite set.

Composition of Functions and Invertible Function

Definition 8 Let 𝑓: A → B and 𝑔: B → C be two functions. Then the composition of 𝑓 and 𝑔, denoted by 𝑔𝑜𝑓, is defined as the
function 𝑔𝑜𝑓: A → C given by
𝑔 ∘ 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑔(𝑓(𝑥)), ∀𝑥 ∈ A.

Fig 1.5
Example 15 Let 𝑓: {2,3,4,5} → {3,4,5,9} and 𝑔: {3,4,5,9} → {7,11,15} be functions defined as 𝑓(2) = 3, 𝑓(3) = 4, 𝑓(4) = 𝑓(5) = 5
and 𝑔(3) = 𝑔(4) = 7 and 𝑔(5) = 𝑔(9) = 11. Find 𝑔𝑜𝑓.
Solution We have 𝑔o𝑓(2) = 𝑔(𝑓(2)) = 𝑔(3) = 7, 𝑔 ∘ 𝑓(3) = 𝑔(𝑓(3)) = 𝑔(4) = 7, 𝑔 ∘ 𝑓(4) = 𝑔(𝑓(4)) = 𝑔(5) = 11 and 𝑔 ∘
𝑓(5) = 𝑔(5) = 11.

Example 16 Find gof and 𝑓𝑜𝑔, if 𝑓: 𝐑 → 𝐑 and 𝑔: 𝐑 → 𝐑 are given by 𝑓(𝑥) = cos 𝑥 and 𝑔(𝑥) = 3𝑥 2 . Show that 𝑔𝑜𝑓 ≠ 𝑓𝑜𝑔.

6
Solution We have 𝑔o𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑔(𝑓(𝑥)) = 𝑔(cos 𝑥) = 3(cos 𝑥)2 = 3cos2 𝑥. Similarly, 𝑓o𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑔(𝑥)) = 𝑓(3𝑥 2 ) = cos (3𝑥 2 ).
Note that 3cos2 𝑥 ≠ cos 3𝑥 2 , for 𝑥 = 0. Hence, 𝑔o𝑓 ≠ 𝑓𝑜𝑔.

Definition 9 A function 𝑓: X → Y is defined to be invertible if there exists a function 𝑔: Y → X such that 𝑔o𝑓 = IX and 𝑓o𝑔 = IY .
The function 𝑔 is called the inverse off and is denoted by 𝑓 −1 .
Thus, if 𝑓 is invertible, then 𝑓 must be one-one and onto and conversely, if 𝑓 is one-one and onto, then 𝑓 must be invertible. This
fact significantly helps for proving a function 𝑓 to be invertible by showing that 𝑓 is one-one and onto, specially when the actual
inverse of 𝑓 is not to be determined.

Example 17 Let 𝑓: 𝐍 → Y be a function defined as 𝑓(𝑥) = 4𝑥 + 3, where, Y = {𝑦 ∈ 𝐍: 𝑦 = 4𝑥 + 3 for some 𝑥 ∈ 𝐍}. Show that 𝑓 is
invertible. Find the inverse. Solution Consider an arbitrary element 𝑦 of Y. By the definition of Y, 𝑦 = 4𝑥 + 3, for some 𝑥 in the
(𝑦−3) (𝑦−3) (4𝑥+3−3)
domain 𝐍. This shows that 𝑥 = . Define 𝑔: Y → 𝐍 by 𝑔(𝑦) = . Now, 𝑔o𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑔(𝑓(𝑥)) = 𝑔(4𝑥 + 3) = = 𝑥 and
4 4 4

(𝑦−3) 4(𝑦−3)
𝑓o𝑔(𝑦) = 𝑓(𝑔(𝑦)) = 𝑓 ( )= + 3 = 𝑦 − 3 + 3 = 𝑦. This shows that 𝑔 ∘ 𝑓 = IN
4 4

and 𝑓o𝑔 = IY , which implies that 𝑓 is invertible and 𝑔 is the inverse of 𝑓.

Miscellaneous Examples

Example 18 If 𝑅1 and 𝑅2 are equivalence relations in a set 𝐴, show that 𝑅1 ∩ 𝑅2 is also an equivalence relation.

a
Solution Since R1 and R 2 are equivalence relations, (𝑎, 𝑎) ∈ R1 , and (𝑎, 𝑎) ∈ R 2 ∀𝑎 ∈ A. This implies that (𝑎, 𝑎) ∈ R1 ∩ R 2 , ∀𝑎,
showing R1 ∩ R 2 is reflexive. Further, (𝑎, 𝑏) ∈ R1 ∩ R 2 ⇒ (𝑎, 𝑏) ∈ R1 and (𝑎, 𝑏) ∈ R 2 ⇒ (𝑏, 𝑎) ∈ R1 and (𝑏, 𝑎) ∈ R 2 ⇒ (𝑏, 𝑎) ∈
R1 ∩ R 2 , hence, R1 ∩ R 2 is symmetric. Similarly, (𝑎, 𝑏) ∈ R1 ∩ R 2 and (𝑏, 𝑐) ∈ R1 ∩ R 2 ⇒ (𝑎, 𝑐) ∈ R1 and (𝑎, 𝑐) ∈ R 2 ⇒ (𝑎, 𝑐) ∈
R1 ∩ R 2 . This shows that R1 ∩ R 2 is transitive. Thus, R1 ∩ R 2 is an equivalence relation.
m
Example 19 Let R be a relation on the set A of ordered pairs of positive integers defined by (𝑥, 𝑦)R(𝑢, 𝑣) if and only if 𝑥𝑣 = 𝑦𝑢.
Show that R is an equivalence relation.
Solution Clearly, (𝑥, 𝑦)R(𝑥, 𝑦), ∀(𝑥, 𝑦) ∈ A, since 𝑥𝑦 = 𝑦𝑥. This shows that R is reflexive. Further, (𝑥, 𝑦)R(𝑢, 𝑣) ⇒ 𝑥𝑣 = 𝑦𝑢 ⇒
𝑢𝑦 = 𝑣𝑥 and hence (𝑢, 𝑣)R(𝑥, 𝑦). This shows that R is symmetric. Similarly, (𝑥, 𝑦)R(𝑢, 𝑣) and (𝑢, 𝑣)R(𝑎, 𝑏) ⇒ 𝑥𝑣 = 𝑦𝑢 and 𝑢𝑏 =
𝑎 𝑎 𝑏 𝑎
𝑣𝑎 ⇒ 𝑥𝑣 = 𝑦𝑢 ⇒ 𝑥𝑣 = 𝑦𝑢 ⇒ 𝑥𝑏 = 𝑦𝑎 and hence (𝑥, 𝑦)R(𝑎, 𝑏). Thus, R is transitive. Thus, R is an equivalence relation.
𝑢 𝑢 𝑣 𝑢
F=
Example 20 Let 𝑋 = {1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9}. Let 𝑅1 be a relation in 𝑋 given by R1 = {(𝑥, 𝑦): 𝑥 − 𝑦 is divisible by 3} and R 2 be another
relation on X given by R 2 = {(𝑥, 𝑦): {𝑥, 𝑦} ⊂ {1,4,7}} or {𝑥, 𝑦} ⊂ {2,5,8} or {𝑥, 𝑦} ⊂ {3,6,9}}. Show that R1 = R 2 .
Solution Note that the characteristic of sets {1,4,7}, {2,5,8} and {3,6,9} is that difference between any two elements of these sets
is a multiple of 3. Therefore, (𝑥, 𝑦) ∈ R1 ⇒ 𝑥 − 𝑦 is a multiple of 3 ⇒ {𝑥, 𝑦} ⊂ {1,4,7} or {𝑥, 𝑦} ⊂ {2,5,8} or {𝑥, 𝑦} ⊂ {3,6,9} ⇒
(𝑥, 𝑦) ∈ R 2 . Hence, R1 ⊂ R 2 . Similarly, {𝑥, 𝑦} ∈ R 2 ⇒ {𝑥, 𝑦} ⊂ {1,4,7} or {𝑥, 𝑦} ⊂ {2,5,8} or {𝑥, 𝑦} ⊂ {3,6,9} ⇒ 𝑥 − 𝑦 is divisible by
3 ⇒ {𝑥, 𝑦} ∈ R1 . This shows that R 2 ⊂ R1 . Hence, R1 = R 2 .

Example 21 Let 𝑓: X → Y be a function. Define a relation R in X given by R = {(𝑎, 𝑏): 𝑓(𝑎) = 𝑓(𝑏)}. Examine whether R is an
equivalence relation or not.
Solution For every 𝑎 ∈ X, (𝑎, 𝑎) ∈ R, since 𝑓(𝑎) = 𝑓(𝑎), showing that R is reflexive. Similarly, (𝑎, 𝑏) ∈ R ⇒ 𝑓(𝑎) = 𝑓(𝑏) ⇒ 𝑓(𝑏) =
𝑓(𝑎) ⇒ (𝑏, 𝑎) ∈ R. Therefore, R is symmetric. Further, (𝑎, 𝑏) ∈ R and (𝑏, 𝑐) ∈ R ⇒ 𝑓(𝑎) = 𝑓(𝑏) and 𝑓(𝑏) = 𝑓(𝑐) ⇒ 𝑓(𝑎) = 𝑓(𝑐) ⇒
(𝑎, 𝑐) ∈ R, which implies that R is transitive. Hence, R is an equivalence relation.

Example 22 Find the number of all one-one functions from set A = {1,2,3} to itself.
Solution One-one function from {1,2,3} to itself is simply a permutation on three symbols 1,2,3. Therefore, total number of one-
one maps from {1,2,3} to itself is same as total number of permutations on three symbols 1,2,3 which is 3! = 6.

Example 23 Let A = {1,2,3}. Then show that the number of relations containing (1,2) and (2,3) which are reflexive and transitive
but not symmetric is three.
Solution The smallest relation R1 containing (1,2) and (2,3) which is reflexive and transitive but not symmetric is
{(1,1), (2,2), (3,3), (1,2), (2,3), (1,3)}. Now, if we add the pair (2,1) to 𝑅1 to get 𝑅2 , then the relation 𝑅2 will be reflexive, transitive
but not symmetric. Similarly, we can obtain R 3 by adding (3,2) to R1 to get the desired relation. However, we can not add two
pairs (2,1), (3,2) or single pair (3,1) to R1 at a time, as by doing so, we will be forced to add the remaining pair in order to maintain
transitivity and in the process, the relation will become symmetric also which is not required. Thus, the total number of desired
relations is three.

7
Example 24 Show that the number of equivalence relation in the set {1,2,3} containing (1,2) and (2,1) is two.
Solution The smallest equivalence relation R1 containing (1,2) and (2,1) is {(1,1), (2,2), (3,3), (1,2), (2,1)}. Now we are left with
only 4 pairs namely (2,3), (3,2), (1,3) and (3,1). If we add anyone, say (2,3) to R1 , then for symmetry we must add (3,2) also and
now for transitivity we are forced to add (1,3) and (3,1). Thus, the only equivalence relation bigger than 𝑅1 is the universal
relation. This shows that the total number of equivalence relations containing (1,2) and (2,1) is two.

Example 25 Consider the identity function IN : 𝐍 → 𝐍 defined as IN (𝑥) = 𝑥∀𝑥 ∈ 𝐍. Show that although IN is onto but IN + IN : 𝐍 →
𝐍 defined as
(IN + IN )(𝑥) = IN (𝑥) + IN (𝑥) = 𝑥 + 𝑥 = 2𝑥 is not onto.
Solution Clearly IN is onto. But IN + IN is not onto, as we can find an element 3 in the co-domain 𝐍 such that there does not exist
any 𝑥 in the domain 𝐍 with (IN + IN )(𝑥) = 2𝑥 = 3.

𝜋 𝜋
Example 26 Consider a function 𝑓: [0, ] → 𝐑 given by 𝑓(𝑥) = sin 𝑥 and 𝑔: [0, ] → 𝐑 given by 𝑔(𝑥) = cos 𝑥. Show that 𝑓 and 𝑔
2 2
are one-one, but 𝑓 + 𝑔 is not one-one.
𝜋
Solution Since for any two distinct elements 𝑥1 and 𝑥2 in [0, ] , sin 𝑥1 ≠ sin 𝑥2 and cos 𝑥1 ≠ cos 𝑥2 , both 𝑓 and 𝑔 must be one-
2
𝜋 𝜋 𝜋
one. But (𝑓 + 𝑔)(0) = sin 0 + cos 0 = 1 and (𝑓 + 𝑔) ( ) = sin + cos = 1. Therefore, 𝑓 + 𝑔 is not one-one.
2 2 2

a
m
F=

8
 Multiple Choice Questions
1. Which of these is not a type of relation?
A. Reflexive B. Surjective
C. Symmetric D. Transitive
Answer: B
Explanation:
Surjective is not a type of relation. It is a type of function. Reflexive, Symmetric and Transitive are types of relations.

2. Which of the following relations is symmetric but neither reflexive nor transitive for a set A = {1, 2, 3}.
A. R = {(1, 2), (1, 3), (1, 4)} B. R = {(1, 2), (2, 1)}
C. R = {(1, 1), (2, 2), (3, 3)} D. R = {(1, 1), (1, 2), (2, 3)}
Answer: B
Explanation:
A relation in a set A is said to be symmetric if (a 1, a2) ∈R implies that (a1, a2) ∈R, for every a1, a2∈R.
Hence, for the given set A= {1, 2, 3}, R= {(1, 2), (2, 1)} is symmetric. It is not reflexive since every element is not related to itself
and neither transitive as it does not satisfy the condition that for a given relation R in a set A if (a 1, a2) ∈R and (a2, a3) ∈R implies
that (a1, a3) ∈ R for every a1, a2, a3∈R.

3. Which of the following relations is transitive but not reflexive for the set S= {3, 4, 6}?

a
A. R = {(3, 4), (4, 6), (3, 6)} B. R = {(1, 2), (1, 3), (1, 4)}
C. R = {(3, 3), (4, 4), (6, 6)} D. R = {(3, 4), (4, 3)}
Answer: A
Explanation:
For the above given set S = {3, 4, 6}, R = {(3, 4), (4, 6), (3, 6)} is transitive as (3,4) ∈R and (4,6) ∈R and (3,6) also belongs to R . It
m
is not a reflexive relation as it does not satisfy the condition (a, a) ∈R, for every a∈A for a relation R in the set A.

4. Let R be a relation in the set N given by R= {(a, b): a+b=5, b>1}. Which of the following will satisfy the given relation?
A. (2,3) ∈ R B. (4,2) ∈ R
C. (2,1) ∈ R D. (5,0) ∈ R
Answer: A
Explanation:
F=
(2,3) ∈ R as 2+3 = 5, 3>1, thus satisfying the given condition.
(4,2) doesn’t belong to R as 4+2 ≠ 5.
(2,1) doesn’t belong to R as 2+1 ≠ 5.
(5,0) doesn’t belong to R as 0⊁1.

5. Which of the following relations is reflexive but not transitive for the set T = {7, 8, 9}?
A. R = {(7, 7), (8, 8), (9, 9)} B. R = {(7, 8), (8, 7), (8, 9)}
C. R = {0} D. R = {(7, 8), (8, 8), (8, 9)}
Answer: A
Explanation:
The relation R= {(7, 7), (8, 8), (9, 9)} is reflexive as every element is related to itself i.e. (a, a) ∈ R, for every a∈A. and it is not
transitive as it does not satisfy the condition that for a relation R in a set A if (a 1, a2)∈R and (a2, a3)∈R implies that (a1, a3) ∈ R for
every a1, a2, a3 ∈ R.

6. Let I be a set of all lines in a XY plane and R be a relation in I defined as R = {(I 1, I2): I1 is parallel to I2}. What is the type of
given relation?
A. Reflexive relation B. Transitive relation
C. Symmetric relation D. Equivalence relation
Answer: D
Explanation:
This is an equivalence relation. A relation R is said to be an equivalence relation when it is reflexive, transitive, and symmetric.
• Reflexive: We know that a line is always parallel to itself. This implies that I 1 is parallel to I1 i.e. (I1, I2) ∈R. Hence, it is a
reflexive relation.

9
• Symmetric: Now if a line I1 || I2 then the line I2 || I1. Therefore, (I1, I2) ∈R implies that (I2, I1) ∈R. Hence, it is a symmetric
relation.
• Transitive: If two lines (I1, I3) are parallel to a third line (I2) then they will be parallel to each other i.e., if (I1, I2) ∈R and (I2,
I3) ∈R implies that (I1, I3) ∈R.

7. Which of the following relations is symmetric and transitive but not reflexive for the set I = {4, 5}?
A. R = {(4, 4), (5, 4), (5, 5)} B. R = {(4, 4), (5, 5)}
C. R = {(4, 5), (5, 4)} D. R = {(4, 5), (5, 4), (4, 4)}
Answer: D
Explanation:
R= {(4, 5), (5, 4), (4, 4)} is symmetric since (4, 5) and (5, 4) are converse of each other thus satisfying the condition for a symmetric
relation and it is transitive as (4, 5) ∈R and (5, 4) ∈R implies that (4, 4) ∈R. It is not reflexive as every element in the set I is not
related to itself.

8. (a, a) ∈ R, for every a ∈ A. This condition is for which of the following relations?
A. Reflexive relation B. Symmetric relation
C. Equivalence relation D. Transitive relation
Answer: A
Explanation:
The above is the condition for a reflexive relation. A relation is said to be reflexive if every element in the set is related to itself.

9. (a1, a2) ∈R implies that (a2, a1) ∈ R, for all a1, a2∈A. This condition is for which of the following relations?

a
A. Equivalence relation B. Reflexive relation
C. Symmetric relation D. Universal relation
Answer: C
Explanation:
m
The above is a condition for a symmetric relation.
For example, a relation R on set A = {1,2,3,4} is given by R= {(a, b):a+b=3, a>0, b>0}
1+2 = 3, 1>0 and 2>0 which implies (1,2) ∈ R.
Similarly, 2+1 = 3, 2>0 and 1>0 which implies (2,1) ∈R. Therefore both (1, 2) and (2, 1) converse with each other and is a part of
the relation. Hence, they are symmetric.

10. The following figure depicts which type of function?

F=

A. one-one B. onto
C. many-one D. both one-one and onto
Answer: A
Explanation:
The above function is one – one. A function f:X→Y is said to be one – one if each of the elements in X has a distinct image in Y.
The condition for a one-one function is for every x1, x2 ∈X, f(x1)=f(x2)⇒x1=x2.

11. The following figure represents which type of function?

A. one-one B. onto
C. many-one D. neither one-one nor onto

10
Answer: B
Explanation:
The above function is onto our surjective. A function f:X→Y is said to be surjective or onto if, every element of Y is the image of
some elements in X.
The condition for a surjective function is for every y∈Y, there is an element in X such that f(x)=y.

12. A function f∶N→N is defined by f(x)=x2+12. What is the type of function here?
A. bijective B. surjective
C. injective D. neither surjective nor injective
Answer: C
Explanation:
The above function is an injective or one-one function.
Consider f(x1) =f(x2)
∴ x12+12=x22+12
⇒x1=x2
Hence, it is an injective function.

13. A function f: R→R is defined by f(x)=5x3-8. The type of function is _________________

A. one -one B. onto
C. many-one D. both one-one and onto
Answer: C
Explanation:

a
The above is a many -one function.
Consider f(x1) =f(x2)
∴5x13-8=5x23-8
5x13=5x23
m
⇒x1 = ±x2. Hence, the function is many – one.

14. The following figure depicts which type of function?

F=

A. injective B. bijective
C. surjective D. neither injective nor surjective
Answer: B
Explanation:
The given function is bijective i.e., both one-one and onto.
one – one: Every element in the domain X has a distinct image in the codomain Y. Thus, the given function is one- one.
onto: Every element in the co- domain Y has a pre- image in the domain X. Thus, the given function is onto.

15. Let A= {1,2,3} and B= {4,5,6}. Which one of the following functions is bijective?
A. f= {(2,4), (2,5), (2,6)} B. f= {(1,5), (2,4), (3,4)}
C. f= {(1,4), (1,5), (1,6)} D. f= {(1,4), (2,5), (3,6)}
Answer: D
Explanation:
f= {(1,4), (2,5), (3,6)} is a bijective function.
One-one: It is a one-one function because every element in set A= {1,2,3} has a distinct image in set B= {4,5,6}.
Onto: It is an onto function as every element in set B= {4,5,6} is the image of some element in set A= {1,2,3}.
f= {(2,4), (2,5), (2,6)} and f= {(1,4), (1,5), (1,6)} are many-one onto.
f= {(1,5), (2,4), (3,4)} is neither one – one nor onto.

16. Let P= {10,20,30} and Q= {5,10,15,20}. Which one of the following functions is one – one and not onto?
A. f= {(10,5), (10,10), (10,15), (10,20)} B. f= {(10,5), (20,10), (30,15)}

11
 C. f= {(20,5), (20,10), (30,10)} D. f= {(10,5), (10,10), (20,15), (30,20)}
Answer: B
Explanation:
The function f= {(10,5), (20,10), (30,15)} is one -one and not onto. The function is one-one because element is set P= {10,20,30}
has a distinct image in set Q= {5,10,15,20}. The function is not onto because every element in set Q= {5,10,15,20} does not have
a pre-image in set P= {10,20,30} (20 does not have a pre-image in set P).
f= {(10,5), (10,10), (10,15), (10,20)} and f= {(10,5), (10,10), (20,15), (30,20} are many – one onto.
f= {(20,5), (20,10), (30,10)} is neither one – one nor onto.

17. Let M= {5,6,7,8} and N= {3,4,9,10}. Which one of the following functions is neither one-one nor onto?
A. f= {(5,3), (5,4), (6,4), (8,9)} B. f= {(5,3), (6,4), (7,9), (8,10)}
C. f= {(5,4), (5,9), (6,3), (7,10), (8,10)} D. f= {(6,4), (7,3), (7,9), (8,10)}
Answer: A
Explanation:
The function f= {(5,3), (5,4), (6,4), (8,9)} is neither one -one nor onto.
The function is not one – one 8 does not have an image in the codomain N and we know that a function can only be one – one if
every element in the set M has an image in the codomain N. A function can be onto only if each element in the co-domain has a
pre-image in the domain X. In the function f= {(5,3), (5,4), (6,4),(8,9)}, 10 in the co-domain N does not have a pre- image in the
domain X.
f= {(5,3), (6,4), (7,9), (8,10)} is both one-one and onto.
f= {(5,4), (5,9), (6,3), (7,10), (8,10)} and f= {(6,4),(7,3),(7,9),(8,10)} are many – one onto.

a
18. If f: R→R, g(x)=3x2+7 and f(x)=√x, then gοf(x) is equal to _______
A. 3x-7 B. 3x-9
C. 3x+7 D. 3x-8
Answer: C
Explanation:
Given that, g(x)=3x2+7 and f(x)=√x
m
∴ gοf(x)=g(f(x)) =g(√x) =3(√x)2+7=3x+7.
Hence, gοf(x)=3x+7.

19. If f: R→R is given by f(x)=(5+x4)1/4, then 𝑓o𝑔(𝑥) is _______

A. x B. 10+x4
F=
C. 5+x4 D. (10+x4)1/4
Answer: D
Explanation:
Given that f(x)=(5+x4)1/4
∴ fοg(x)=f(f(x)) =(5+{(5+x4)1/4}4)1/4
=(5+(5+x4))1/4=(10+x4)1/4.

20. If 𝑓: 𝑅 → 𝑅𝑓(𝑥) = cos 𝑥 and 𝑔(𝑥) = 7𝑥 3 + 6, then 𝑓o𝑔(𝑥) is

A. cos (7𝑥 3 + 6) B. cos 𝑥
C. cos (𝑥 3 ) D. cos (
𝑥 3 +6
)
7
Answer: A
Explanation:
Given that, 𝑓: 𝑅 → 𝑅, 𝑓(𝑥) = cos 𝑥 and 𝑔(𝑥) = 7𝑥 3 + 6 Then, 𝑓o𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑔(𝑥)) = cos (𝑔(𝑥)) = cos (7𝑥 3 + 6).

21. A function is invertible if it is ____________

A. surjective B. bijective
C. injective D. neither surjective nor injective
Answer: B
Explanation:
A function is invertible if and only if it is bijective i.e., the function is both injective and surjective. If a function f: A→B is bijective,
then there exists a function g: B→A such that f(x)=y⇔g(y)=x, then g is called the inverse of the function.

22. If f: N→N, g: N→N and h: N→R is defined f(x)=3x-5, g(y)=6y2 and h(z)=tan z, find ho ( 𝑓o𝑔(𝑥)).
A. tan (6(3x-5)) B. tan (6(3x-5)2)

12
 C. tan (3x-5) D. 6 tan (3x-5)2
Answer: B
Explanation:
Given that, f(x)=3x-5, g(y)=6y2 and h(z)=tan z,
Then, ho(gof)=hο(g(f(x)) =h(6(3x-5)2) =tan (6(3x-5)2)
∴ ho(gof)=tan (6(3x-5)2)

23. Let M= {7,8,9}. Determine which of the following functions is invertible for f:M→M.
A. f = {(7,7), (8,8), (9,9)} B. f = {(7,8), (7,9), (8,9)}
C. f = {(8,8), (8,7), (9,8)} D. f = {(9,7), (9,8), (9,9)}
Answer: A
Explanation:
The function f = {(7,7), (8,8), (9,9)} is invertible as it is both one – one and onto. The function is one – one as every element in the
domain has a distinct image in the co – domain. The function is onto because every element in the codomain M = {7,8,9} has a pre
– image in the domain.

24. Let 𝑓: 𝑅+ → [9, ∞) given by 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 + 9. Find the inverse of 𝑓.

A. √𝑥 − 9 B. √9 − 𝑥
C. 2
√𝑥 − 9 D. 𝑥2 + 9
Answer: A
Explanation:

a
The function 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 + 9 is bijective.
Therefore, 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 + 9
i.e. 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 + 9
𝑥 = √𝑦 − 9
⇒ 𝑓 −1 (𝑥) = √𝑥 − 9.
m 9+3𝑥
25. Let the function 𝑓 be defined by 𝑓(𝑥) = , then 𝑓 −1 (𝑥) is
7−2𝑥
9−3𝑥 7𝑥−9
A. B.
7+2𝑥 2𝑥+3
2𝑥−7 2𝑥−3
C. D.
3𝑥+9 7𝑥+9
Answer: B
F=
Explanation:
9+3𝑥
The function 𝑓(𝑥) = is bijective.
7−2𝑥
9 + 3𝑥
∴ f(x) =
7 − 2𝑥
9 + 3𝑥
i.e. y =
7 − 2𝑥
7y − 2xy = 9 + 3x
7y − 9 = x(2y + 3)
7𝑦 − 9
x=
2𝑦 + 3
7𝑦 − 9
⇒ f −1 (x) =
2𝑥 + 3

26. Let a binary operation ‘*’ be defined on a set A. The operation will be commutative if ________
A. A×b=b×a B. (a×b) c=a(b×c)
C. (b ο c) a=(b×a) ο (c×a) D. A×b=a
Answer: A
Explanation:
A binary operation ‘*’ defined on a set A is said to be commutative only if ab=ba, ∀a, b∈A.
If (a×b)c=a(b×c), then the operation is said to associative ∀ a, b∈ A.
If (b ο c) a=(b×a) ο (c×a), then the operation is said to be distributive ∀ a, b, c ∈ A.

27. Let ‘*’ be a binary operation on N defined by a*b=a-b+ab2, then find 4*5.
A. 9 B. 88
C. 98 D. 99

13
Answer: D
Explanation:
The binary operation is defined by a×b=a-b+ab2.
∴4×5=4-5+4(52) =-1+100=99.

28. Let ‘*’ be defined on the set N. Which of the following are both commutative and associative?
A. a×b=a+b B. a×b=a-b
C. a×b=ab2 D. a*b=ab
Answer: A
Explanation:
The binary operation ‘*’ is both commutative and associative for a*b=a+b.
The operation is commutative on a×b=a+b because a+b=b+a.
The operation is associative on a×b=a+b because (a+b) +c=a+(b+c).

29. Let ‘&’ be a binary operation defined on the set N. Which of the following definitions is commutative but not associative?
A. a & b=a-b B. a & b=a+b
C. a & b=ab – 8 D. a & b=ab
Answer: C
Explanation:
The binary operation ‘&’ is commutative but not associative for a*b=ab-8.
For Commutative: a & b=ab-8 and b & a=ba-8
ab-8=ba-8. Hence, a & b=ab-8 is commutative.

a
For Associative: (a &b) & c=(ab-8) & c=(ab-8) c-8=abc-8c-8=abc-8c-8.
a& (b &c) =a&(bc-8)=a(bc-8)-8=abc-8a-8.
⇒(a&b) & c≠a& (b& c). Hence, the function is not associative.

30.
m
Let ‘*’ be a binary operation defined by a*b=4ab. Find (a×b) a.
A. 4a2 b B. 16a2 b
C. 16ab2 D. 4ab2
Answer: B
Explanation:
Given that, a×b=4ab.
Then, (a×b) a=(4ab) *a
F=
=4(4ab) (a)=16a2 b.

Question/Answer
Very Short Questions:
1. If R = {(x, y) : x + 2y = 8} is a relation in N, write the range of R.
Ansewr: Range of R = {1, 2, 3}.
[∵ When x = 2, then y = 3, when x = 4, then y = 2, when x = 6, then y = 1]

2. Show that a one-one function:

a. f {1, 2, 3} → {1, 2, 3} must be onto.
Ansewr:
Since ‘f’ is one-one,
∴ under ‘f’, all the three elements of {1, 2, 3} should correspond to three different elements of the co-domain {1, 2, 3}.
Hence, ‘f’ is onto.

|x − 1|
3. What is the range of the function f(x) = ?
x−1
Ansewr:
When x > 1,
x−1
than f(x) = = 1.
x−1
When x < 1,
−(x − 1)
than f(x) = = -1
x−1

14
Hence, Rf = {-1, 1}.

4. Show that the function f: N → N given by f(x) = 2x is one-one but not onto.
Ansewr:
Let x1, x2 ∈ N.
Now, f(x1) = f(x2)
⇒ 2x1 = 2x2
⇒ x1 = x2
⇒ f is one-one.
Now, f is not onto.
∵ For 1 ∈ N, there does not exist any x ∈ N such that f(x) = 2x = 1.
Hence, f is ono-one but not onto.

5. If f: R → R is defined by f(x) = 3x + 2 find f(f(x)).

Ansewr:
Solution:
f(f(x)) = 3 f(x) + 2
= 3(3x + 2) + 2 = 9x + 8.

x
6. If f(x) = , x ≠1 then find fof.
x−1
Ansewr:

a
f(x)
fof(x) = f(f(x)) =
f(x) − 1
x
x
= x 1 =
x −
−1 x − x +1
x−1
x
= = x.
1
m
7. If f: R → R is defined by f(x) = (3 - x3)1/3, find fof (x)
Ansewr:
fof(x) = f(f(x)) = (3-(f(x))3)1/3
= (3 – ((3 – x3)1/3)3)1/3
= (3 – (3 – x3))1/3 = (x3)1/3 = x.
F=
8. Are f and q both necessarily onto, if gof is onto?
Ansewr:
Consider f: {1, 2, 3, 4} → {1, 2, 3, 4}
and g: {1, 2, 3,4} → {1,2.3} defined by:
f(1) = 1, f(2) = 2, f(3) = f(4) = 3
g (1) = 1, g (2) = 2, g (3) = g (4) = 3.
∴ gof = g (f(x)) {1, 2,3}, which is onto
But f is not onto.
[∵ 4 is not the image of any element]

Short Questions:
1. Let A be the set of all students at a Boys’ school. Show that the relation R in each by:
R = {(a, b): a is sister of b} is an empty relation and the relation R’ given by:
R’ = {(a, b): the difference between heights of a and b is less than 3 metres} is a universal relation.
Ansewr:
(i) Here R = {(a, b): a is sister of b}.
Since the school is a Boys’ school,
∴ no student at the school can be the sister of any student at the school.
Thus R = Φ Hence, R is an empty relation.
(ii) Here R’ = {(a, b): the difference between heights of a and b is less than 3 metres}.
Since the difference between heights of any two students at the school is to be less than 3 metres,
∴ R’ = A x A. Hence, R’ is a universal relation.

15
2. Let f: X → Y be a function. Define a relation R in X given by:
R = {(a, b): f(a) = f(b)}.
Examine, if R is an equivalence relation.
Ansewr:
For each a ∈ X, (a, a) ∈ R.
Thus, R is reflexive. [∵ f (a) = f(a)]
Now (a, b) ∈ R
⇒ f(a) = f(b)
⇒ f(b) = f (a)
⇒ (b, a) ∈ R.
Thus, R is symmetric.
And (a, b) ∈ R
and (b, c) ∈ R
⇒ f(a) = f(b)
and f(b) = f(c)
⇒ f(a)= f(c)
⇒ (a, c) ∈ R.
Thus, R is transitive.
Hence, R is an equivalence relation.

3. Let R be the relation in the set Z of integers given by:

R = {(a, b): 2 divides a – b}.

a
Show that the relation R is transitive. Write the equivalence class [0].
Ansewr:
Let 2 divide (a – b) and 2 divide (b – c), where a,b,c ∈ Z
⇒ 2 divides [(a – b) + (b – c)]
⇒ 2 divides (a – c).
Hence, R is transitive.
m
And [0] = {0, ± 2, ± 4, ± 6,].

4. Show that the function:

f: N → N
given by f (1) = f (2) = 1 and f(x) = x -1, for every x > 2 is onto but not one-one.
F=
Ansewr:
Since f(1) = f(2) = 1,
∴ f(1) = f(2), where 1 ≠ 2.
∴ ‘f’ is not one-one.
Let y ∈ N, y ≠ 1,
we can choose x as y + 1 such that f(x) = x – 1
= y + 1 – 1 = y.
Also 1 ∈ N, f (1) = 1.
Thus ‘f’ is onto.
Hence, ‘f’ is onto but not one-one.

5. Find gof and fog, if:

f: R → R and g: R → R are given by f (x) = cos x and g (x) = 3x2. Show that gof ≠ fog.
Ansewr:
We have:
f(x) = cos x and g(x) = 3x2.
∴ gof (x) = g (f(x)) = g (cos x)
= 3 (cos x)2 = 3 cos2 x
and fog (x) = f (g (x)) = f(3x2) = cos 3x2.
Hence, gof ≠ fog.

4x + 3 2
6. If f(x) = , x ≠ find fof(x)
6x − 4 3
Ansewr:
4x + 3
We have: … (1)
6x − 4

16
∴ fof(x) - f (f (x))
4f(x) + 3
=
6f(x) − 4
4x + 3
4( )+3
= 6x − 4 [ Using (1)]
4x + 3
6( )−4
6x − 4
16x + 12 + 18x − 12
=
24x + 18 − 24x + 16
34x
= = x.
34

7. Let A = N x N be the set of ail ordered pairs of natural numbers and R be the relation on the set A defined by (a, b)
R (c, d) iff ad = bc. Show that R is an equivalence relation.
Ansewr:
Given: (a, b) R (c, d) if and only if ad = bc.
(I) (a, b) R (a, b) iff ab – ba, which is true.
[∵ ab = ba ∀ a, b ∈ N]
Thus, R is reflexive.
(II) (a, b) R (c, d) ⇒ ad = bc
(c, d) R (a, b) ⇒ cb = da.
But cb = be and da = ad in N.
∴ (a, b) R (c, d) ⇒ (c, d) R (a, b).

a
Thus, R is symmetric.
(III) (a, b) R (c, d)
⇒ ad = bc … (1)
(c, d) R (e, f)
⇒ cf = de … (2)
m
Multiplying (1) and (2), (ad). (cf) – (be), (de)
⇒ af = be
⇒ (a, b) = R(e, f).
Thus, R is transitive.
Thus, R is reflexive, symmetric and transitive.
Hence, R is an equivalence relation.
F=
8. Let f: R → R be the Signum function defined as:

a. and g: R → R be the Greatest Integer Function given by g (x) = [x], where [x] is greatest integer less than or
equal to x. Then does fog and gof coincide in (0,1]?
Ansewr:
For x ∈ (0,1].
(f ∘ g)(x) = f(g(x)) = f([x])
f(0); if 0 < x < 1
={
f(1); if x = 1
0; if 0 < x < 1
⇒ f(g(x)) = {
1; if x = 1
And (gof) (x) = g(f(x)) = g (1)
[∵ f(x) = 1 ∀ x > 0]
= [1] = 1
⇒ (gof) (x) = 1 ∀ x ∈ (0, 1] … (2)
From (1) and (2), (fog) and (gof) do not coincide in (0, 1].

Long Questions
1. Show that the relation R on R defined as R = {(a, b): a ≤ b}, is reflexive and transitive but not symmetric.
Ansewr:
We have: R = {(a, b)} = a ≤ b}.
Since, a ≤ a ∀ a ∈ R,

17
∴ (a, a) ∈ R,
Thus, R reflexive.
Now, (a, b) ∈ R and (b, c) ∈ R
⇒ a ≤ b and b ≤ c
⇒a≤c
⇒ (a, c) ∈ R.
Thus, R is transitive.
But R is not symmetric.
[∵ (3, 5) ∈ R but (5, 3) ∉ R as 3 ≤ 5 but 5 > 3]
Solution:
Let x1, x2 ∈ N.
Now, f(x1) = f(x2)
⇒ x12 + x1 + 1 = x22 + x2 + 1
⇒ x12 + x1 = x22 + x2
⇒ (x12 − x22 ) + (x1 − x2 ) = 0
⇒ (x1 − x2 ) + (x1 + x2 + 1) = 0
⇒ x1 − x2 = 0 [∵ x1 + x2 + 1 ≠ 0]
⇒ x1 = x2 .
Thus, f is one-one.
Let y ∈ N, then for any x,
f(x) = y if y = x 2 + x + 1
1 3

a
⇒ y = (x 2 + x + ) +
4 4
1 2 3
⇒ y = (x + ) +
2 4
1 3
= ±√y −
⇒ x+
2 4
m
√4y − 3 1
⇒ x=± −
2 2
±√4y − 3 − 1
⇒ x=
2
√4y − 3 − 1
⇒ x=
F=
2
−√4y − 3 − 1
[ ∉ N for any value of y]
2
3 1
Now, for y = , x = − ∉ N.
4 2
Thus, f is not onto.
⇒ f(x) is not invertible.
√4y−3−1
Since, x > 0, therefore, >0
2
⇒ √4y − 3 > 1
⇒ 4y − 3 > 1
⇒ 4y > 4
⇒ y > 1.
Redefining, f: (0, ∞) → (1, ∞) makes f(x) = x 2 + x + 1 on onto function.
Thus, f(x) is bijection, hence f is invertible and f −1 : (1, ∞) → (1,0)
√4y − 3 − 1
f −1 (y) =
2

2. Prove that function f: N → N, defined by f(x) = x2 + x + 1 is one-one but not onto. Find inverse of f: N → S, where S
is range of f.
Ansewr:
We have:
R = {(a, b): a, b ∈ A; |a – b| is divisible by 4}.
(1) Reflexive: For any a ∈ A,
∴ (a, b) ∈ R.
|a – a| = 0, which is divisible by 4.

18
Thus, R is reflexive.
Symmetric:
Let (a, b) ∈ R.
⇒ |a – b| is divisible by 4.
⇒ |b – a| is divisible by 4
Thus, R is symmetric.
Transitive: Let (a, b) ∈ R and (b, c) ∈ R
⇒ |a – b| is divisible by 4 and |b – c| is divisible by 4
⇒ |a – b| = 4λ
⇒ a – b = ±4λ …………. (1)
and |b – c| = 4µ
⇒ b – c = ± 4µ …………. (2)
Adding (1) and (2),
(a-b) + (b-c) = ±4(λ + µ)
⇒ a – c = ± 4 (λ + µ)
⇒ (a, c) ∈ R.
Thus, R is transitive.
Now, R is reflexive, symmetric and transitive.
Hence, R is an equivalence relation.
(ii) Let ‘x’ be an element of A such that (x, 1) ∈ R
⇒ |x – 1| is divisible by 4
⇒ x – 1 = 0,4, 8, 12, …

a
⇒ x = 1, 5, 9, 13, …
Hence, the set of all elements of A which are related to 1 is {1, 5, 9}.
(iii) Let (x, 2) ∈ R.
Thus |x – 2| = 4k, where k ≤ 3.
∴ x = 2, 6, 10.
m
Hence, equivalence class [2] = {2, 6, 10}.

3. Let A = (x ∈Z: 0 ≤ x ≤ 12}.

Show that R = {(a, b): a, b ∈ A; |a – b| is divisible by 4} is an equivalence relation. Find the set of all elements related
to 1. Also write the equivalence class [2].
Ansewr:
F=
Let y ∈ R.
For any x, f(x) = y if y = 9x 2 + 6x − 5
⇒ y = (9x 2 + 6x + 1) − 6
= (3x + 1)2 − 6
⇒ 3x + 1 = ±√y + 6
±√y + 6 − 1
⇒ x=
3
√y + 6 − 1
⇒ x=
3
−√y + 6 − 1
[∵ ∉ [0, ∞) for any value of y]
3
1
For y = −6 ∈ R, x = − ∉ [0, ∞).
3
Thus, f(x) is not onto.
Hence, f(x) is not invertible.

4. Prove that the function f: [0, ∞) → R given by f(x) = 9x2 + 6x – 5 is not invertible. Modify the co-domain of the
function f to make it invertible, and hence find f-1.
Ansewr:
√y + 6 − 1
Since, x ≥ 0, ∴ ≥0
3
⇒ √y + 6 − 1 ≥ 0
⇒ √y + 6 ≥ 1
⇒ y+6 ≥ 1
⇒ y ≥ −5.

19
We redefine, f: [0, ∞) → [−5, ∞),
which makes f(x) = 9x 2 + 6x − 5 an onto function.
Now, x1 , x2 ∈ [0, ∞) such that f(x1 ) = f(x2 )
⇒ (3x1 + 1)2 = (3x2 + 1)2
⇒ [(3x1 + 1) + (3x2 + 1)][(3x1 + 1) − (3x2 + 1)]
⇒ [3(x1 + x2 ) + 2][3(x1 − x2 )] = 0
⇒ x1 = x2
[∵ 3(x1 + x2 ) + 2 > 0]
Thus, f(x) is one-one.
∴ f(x) is bijective, hence f is invertible and f −1 : [−5, ∞) → [0, ∞)
√y + 6 − 1
f −1 (y) =
3

a
m
F=

20
 Chapter-2 Inverse Trigonometric Functions
Introduction

In Chapter 1, we have studied that the inverse of a function 𝑓, denoted by 𝑓 −1 , exists if 𝑓 is one-one and onto. There are many
functions which are not one-one, onto or both and hence we cannot talk of their inverses. In Class XI, we studied that trigonomet-
ric functions are not one-one and onto over their natural domains and ranges and hence their inverses do not exist. In this chapter,
we shall study the restrictions on domains and ranges of trigonometric functions which ensure the existence of their inverses
and observe their behaviour through graphical representations. Besides, some elementary properties will also be discussed.

The inverse trigonometric functions play an important role in calculus for they serve to define many integrals. The concepts of
inverse trigonometric functions are also used in science and engineering.

Basic Concepts

In Class XI, we have studied trigonometric functions, which are defined as follows: sine function, i.e., sine : 𝐑 → [−1,1]
cosine function, i.e., cos: 𝐑 → [−1,1]
𝜋
tangent function, i.e., tan: 𝐑 − {𝑥: 𝑥 = (2𝑛 + 1) , 𝑛 ∈ 𝐙} → 𝐑
2

a
cotangent function, i.e., cot: 𝐑 − {𝑥: 𝑥 = 𝑛𝜋, 𝑛 ∈ 𝐙} → 𝐑
𝜋
secant function, i.e., sec: 𝐑 − {𝑥: 𝑥 = (2𝑛 + 1) , 𝑛 ∈ 𝐙} → 𝐑 − (−1,1)
2
cosecant function, i.e., cosec: 𝐑 − {𝑥: 𝑥 = 𝑛𝜋, 𝑛 ∈ 𝐙} → 𝐑 − (−1,1)

We have also learnt in Chapter 1 that if 𝑓: 𝑋 → 𝑌 such that 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑦 is one-one and onto, then we can define a unique function
m
𝑔: Y → X such that 𝑔(𝑦) = 𝑥, where 𝑥 ∈ X and 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥), 𝑦 ∈ Y. Here, the domain of 𝑔 = range of 𝑓 and the range of 𝑔 = domain
of 𝑓. The function 𝑔 is called the inverse of 𝑓 and is denoted by 𝑓 −1 . Further, 𝑔 is also one-one and onto and inverse of 𝑔 is 𝑓.
Thus, 𝑔−1 = (𝑓 −1 )−1 = 𝑓. We also have and

(𝑓 −1 of 𝑓)(𝑥) = 𝑓 −1 (𝑓(𝑥)) = 𝑓 −1 (𝑦) = 𝑥

F=
(𝑓 O𝑓 −1 )(𝑦) = 𝑓(𝑓 −1 (𝑦)) = 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑦

Since the domain of sine function is the set of all real numbers and range is the closed interval [−1,1]. If we restrict its domain to
−𝜋 𝜋
[ , ], then it becomes one-one and onto with range [−1,1]. Actually, sine function restricted to any of the intervals
2 2
−3𝜋 𝜋 −𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 3𝜋
, ,[ , ],[ , ] etc., is one-one and its range is [−1,1]. We can, therefore, define the inverse of sine function in each of these
2 2 2 2 2 2
intervals. We denote the inverse of sine function by sin−1 (arc sine function). Thus, sin−1 is a function whose domain is [−1,1]
−3𝜋 −𝜋 −𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 3𝜋
and range could be any of the intervals [ , ],[ , ] or [ , ], and so on. Corresponding to each such interval, we get a branch
2 2 2 2 2 2
−𝜋 𝜋
of the function sin−1 . The branch with range [ , ] is called the principal value branch, whereas other intervals as range give
2 2
different branches of sin−1 . When we refer to the function sin−1 , we take it as the function whose domain is [−1,1] and range is
−𝜋 𝜋 −𝜋 𝜋
[ , ].We write sin−1 : [−1,1] → [ , ]
2 2 2 2

𝜋 𝜋
From the definition of the inverse functions, it follows that sin (sin−1 𝑥) = 𝑥 if −1 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 1 and sin−1 (sin 𝑥) = 𝑥 if − ≤ 𝑥 ≤ .
2 2
In other words, if 𝑦 = sin−1 𝑥, then sin 𝑦 = 𝑥.

Remarks

i. We know from Chapter 1, that if 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) is an invertible function, then 𝑥 = 𝑓 −1 (𝑦). Thus, the graph of sin−1 function can
be obtained from the graph of original function by interchanging 𝑥 and 𝑦 axes, i.e., if (𝑎, 𝑏) is a point on the graph of sine
function, then (𝑏, 𝑎) becomes the corresponding point on the graph of inverse of sine function. Thus, the graph of the function
𝑦 = sin−1 𝑥 can be obtained from the graph of 𝑦 = sin 𝑥 by interchanging 𝑥 and 𝑦 axes. The graphs of 𝑦 = sin 𝑥 and 𝑦 =
sin−1 𝑥 are as given in Fig 2.1 (i), (ii), (iii). The dark portion of the graph of 𝑦 = sin−1 𝑥 represent the principal value branch.

21
 ii. It can be shown that the graph of an inverse function can be obtained from the corresponding graph of original function
as a mirror image (i.e., reflection) along the line 𝑦 = 𝑥. This can be visualised by looking the graphs of 𝑦 = sin 𝑥 and
𝑦 = sin−1 𝑥 as given in the same axes (Fig 2.1 (iii)).

Fig 2.1 (i)

a
m
F=

Fig 2.1 (ii) 𝒚 = 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒙 and 𝒚 = 𝐬𝐢𝐧−𝟏 𝒙

Fig 2.1 (iii)

Like sine function, the cosine function is a function whose domain is the set of all real numbers and range is the set [−1,1]. If we
restrict the domain of cosine function to [0, 𝜋], then it becomes one-one and onto with range [−1,1]. Actually, cosine function
restricted to any of the intervals [−𝜋, 0], [0, 𝜋], [𝜋, 2𝜋] etc., is bijective with range as [−1,1]. We can, therefore, define the inverse
of cosine function in each of these intervals. We denote the inverse of the cosine function by cos −1 (arc cosine function). Thus,
cos−1 is a function whose domain is [−1,1] and range could be any of the intervals [−𝜋, 0], [0, 𝜋], [𝜋, 2𝜋] etc. Corresponding to
each such interval, we get a branch of the function cos−1 . The branch with range [0, 𝜋] is called the principal value branch of the
function cos −1 . We write.

cos −1 : [−1,1] → [0, 𝜋]

The graph of the function given by 𝑦 = cos−1 𝑥 can be drawn in the same way as discussed about the graph of 𝑦 = sin−1 𝑥. The
graphs of 𝑦 = cos 𝑥 and 𝑦 = cos−1 𝑥 are given in Fig 2.2 (i) and (ii).

22
 Fig 2.2 (i)

a
m
F=

Fig 2.2 (ii)

Let us now discuss cosec −1 𝑥 and sec −1 𝑥 as follows:

1
Since, cosec 𝑥 = , the domain of the cosec function is the set {𝑥: 𝑥 ∈ 𝐑 and 𝑥 ≠ 𝑛𝜋, 𝑛 ∈ 𝐙} and the range is the set {𝑦: 𝑦 ∈
sin 𝑥
𝐑, 𝑦 ≥ 1 or 𝑦 ≤ −1} i.e., the set 𝐑 − (−1,1). It means that 𝑦 = cosec 𝑥 assumes all real values except −1 < 𝑦 < 1 and is not de-
𝜋 𝜋
fined for integral multiple of 𝜋. If we restrict the domain of cosec function to [− , ] − {0}, then it is one to one and onto with its
2 2
−3𝜋 −𝜋 −𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 3𝜋
range as the set 𝐑 − (−1,1). Actually, cosec function restricted to any of the intervals [ , ] − {−𝜋}, [ , ] − {0}, [ , ] − {𝜋}
2 2 2 2 2 2
etc., is bijective and its range is the set of all real numbers 𝐑 − (−1,1). Thus cosec −1 can be defined as a function whose domain
−3𝜋 −𝜋 −𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 3𝜋
is 𝐑 − (−1,1) and range could be any of the intervals , − {−𝜋}, , − {0}, [ , ] − {𝜋} etc. The function corresponding to
2 2 2 2 2 2
−𝜋 𝜋
the range [ , ] − {0} is called the principal value branch of cosec −1 . We thus have principal branch as
2 2

−𝜋 𝜋
cosec −1 : 𝐑 − (−1,1) → [ , ] − {0}
2 2

The graphs of 𝑦 = cosec 𝑥 and 𝑦 = cosec −1 𝑥 are given in Fig 2.3 (i), (ii).

23
 Fig 2.3 (i) Fig 2.3 (ii)

1 𝜋
Also, since sec 𝑥 = , the domain of 𝑦 = sec 𝑥 is the set 𝐑 − {𝑥: 𝑥 = (2𝑛 + 1) , 𝑛 ∈ 𝐙} and range is the set 𝐑 − (−1,1). It
cos 𝑥 2
𝜋
means that sec (secant function) assumes all real values except −1 < 𝑦 < 1 and is not defined for odd multiples of . If we restrict
2

a
𝜋
the domain of secant function to [0, 𝜋] − { }, then it is one-one and onto with its range as the set 𝐑 − (−1,1). Actually, secant
2
−𝜋 𝜋 3𝜋
function restricted to any of the intervals [−𝜋, 0] − { } , [0, 𝜋] − { } , [𝜋, 2𝜋] − { } etc., is bijective and its range is 𝐑 − {−1,1}.
2 2 2
Thus sec −1 can be defined as a function whose domain is 𝐑 − (−1,1) and range could be any of the intervals [−𝜋, 0] −
−𝜋 𝜋 3𝜋
{ } , [0, 𝜋] − { } , [𝜋, 2𝜋] − { } etc. Corresponding to each of these intervals, we get different branches of the function sec −1 . The
2 2
𝜋
2
m
branch with range [0, 𝜋] − { } is called the principal value branch of the function sec −1 . We thus have
2

𝜋
sec −1 : 𝐑 − (−1,1) → [0, 𝜋] − { }
2

The graphs of the functions 𝑦 = sec 𝑥 and 𝑦 = sec −1 𝑥 are given in Fig 2.4 (i), (ii).
F=

Fig 2.4 (i) Fig 2.4 (ii)

Finally, we now discuss tan−1 and cot −1

𝜋
We know that the domain of the tan function (tangent function) is the set {𝑥: 𝑥 ∈ 𝐑 and 𝑥 ≠ (2𝑛 + 1) , 𝑛 ∈ 𝐙} and the range is
2
𝜋 −𝜋 𝜋
𝐑. It means that tan function is not defined for odd multiples of . If we restrict the domain of tangent function to ( , ), then it
2 2 2
−3𝜋 −𝜋 −𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 3𝜋
is one-one and onto with its range as 𝐑. Actually, tangent function restricted to any of the intervals ( , ),( , ),( , ) etc.,
2 2 2 2 2 2
is bijective and its range is 𝐑. Thus tan−1 can be defined as a function whose domain is 𝐑 and range could be any of the intervals

24
 −3𝜋 −𝜋 −𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 3𝜋 −𝜋 𝜋
( , ),( , ),( , ) and so on. These intervals give different branches of the function tan−1 . The branch with range ( , )
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
is called the principal value branch of the function tan−1 .
We thus have
−𝜋 𝜋
tan−1 : 𝐑 → ( , )
2 2

The graphs of the function 𝑦 = tan 𝑥 and 𝑦 = tan−1 𝑥 are given in Fig 2.5 (i), (ii).

Fig 2.5 (i)

a Fig 2.5 (ii)

We know that domain of the cot function (cotangent function) is the set {𝑥: 𝑥 ∈ 𝐑 and 𝑥 ≠ 𝑛𝜋, 𝑛 ∈ 𝐙} and range is 𝐑. It means that
m
cotangent function is not defined for integral multiples of 𝜋. If we restrict the domain of cotangent function to (0, 𝜋), then it is
bijective with and its range as 𝐑. In fact, cotangent function restricted to any of the intervals (−𝜋, 0), (0, 𝜋), (𝜋, 2𝜋) etc., is bijective
and its range is 𝐑. Thus cot −1 can be defined as a function whose domain is the 𝐑 and range as any of the intervals
(−𝜋, 0), (0, 𝜋), (𝜋, 2𝜋) etc. These intervals give different branches of the function cot −1 . The function with range (0, 𝜋) is called
the principal value branch of the function cot −1 . We thus have

cot −1 : 𝐑 → (0, 𝜋)
F=
The graphs of 𝑦 = cot 𝑥 and 𝑦 = cot −1 𝑥 are given in Fig 2.6 (i), (ii).

Fig 2.6 (i) Fig 2.6 (ii)

25
The following table gives the inverse trigonometric function (principal value branches) along with their domains and ranges.
𝜋 𝜋
sin−1 : [−1,1] → [− , ]
2 2

cos−1 : [−1,1] → [0, 𝜋]

𝜋 𝜋
cosec −1 : 𝐑 − (−1,1) → [− , ] − {0}
2 2
𝜋
sec −1 : 𝐑 − (−1,1) → [0, 𝜋] − { }
2
−𝜋 𝜋
tan−1 : 𝐑 → ( , )
2 2

cot −1 : 𝐑 → (0, 𝜋)

Note
1
1 sin−1 𝑥 should not be confused with (sin 𝑥)−1 . In fact, (sin 𝑥)−1 = and similarly for other trigonometric functions.
sin 𝑥
2 Whenever no branch of an inverse trigonometric function is mentioned, we mean the principal value branch of that function.
3 The value of an inverse trigonometric function which lies in the range of principal branches is called the principal value of
that inverse trigonometric function.

a
We now consider some examples:
1
Example 1 Find the principal value of sin−1 ( ).
√2

1 1
Solution Let sin−1 ( ) = 𝑦. Then, sin 𝑦 = .
√2
m √2

−𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 1 1
We know that the range of the principal value branch of sin−1 is , and sin ( ) = . Therefore, principal value of sin−1 ( )
2 2 4 √2 √2
𝜋
is
4

−1
Example 2 Find the principal value of cot −1 ( )
√3
F=
−1
Solution Let cot −1 ( ) = 𝑦. Then,
√3
−1 𝜋 𝜋 2𝜋
cot 𝑦 = = −cot ( ) = cot (𝜋 − ) = cot ( )
√3 3 3 3

2𝜋 −1 −1 2𝜋
We know that the range of principal value branch of cot −1 is (0, 𝜋) and cot ( ) = . Hence, principal value of cot −1 ( ) is
3 √3 √3 3

Properties of Inverse Trigonometric Functions

In this section, we shall prove some important properties of inverse trigonometric functions. It may be mentioned here that these
results are valid within the principal value branches of the corresponding inverse trigonometric functions and wherever they are
defined. Some results may not be valid for all values of the domains of inverse trigonometric functions. In fact, they will be valid
only for some values of 𝑥 for which inverse trigonometric functions are defined. We will not go into the details of these values of
𝑥 in the domain as this discussion goes beyond the scope of this textbook.

Let us recall that if 𝑦 = sin−1 𝑥, then 𝑥 = sin 𝑦 and if 𝑥 = sin 𝑦, then 𝑦 = sin−1 𝑥. This is equivalent to

−𝜋 𝜋
sin (sin−1 𝑥) = 𝑥, 𝑥 ∈ [−1,1] and sin−1 (sin 𝑥) = 𝑥, 𝑥 ∈ [ , ]
2 2

For suitable values of domain similar results follow for remaining trigonometric functions. We now consider some examples.

26
Example 3 Show that.
1 1
(i) sin−1 (2𝑥√1 − 𝑥 2 ) = 2sin−1 𝑥, − ≤𝑥≤
√2 √2
1
(ii) sin−1 (2𝑥√1 − 𝑥 2 ) = 2cos−1 𝑥, ≤𝑥≤1
√2

Solution
(i) Let 𝑥 = sin 𝜃. Then sin−1 𝑥 = 𝜃. We have
sin−1 (2𝑥√1 − 𝑥 2 ) = sin−1 (2sin 𝜃√1 − sin2 𝜃)
= sin−1 (2sin 𝜃cos 𝜃) = sin−1 (sin 2𝜃) = 2𝜃
= 2sin−1 𝑥

(ii) Take 𝑥 = cos 𝜃, then proceeding as above, we get, sin−1 (2𝑥√1 − 𝑥 2 ) = 2cos−1 𝑥

cos 𝑥 3𝜋 𝜋
Example 4 Express tan−1 ,− < 𝑥 < in the simplest form.
1−sin 𝑥 2 2
Solution We write.
𝑥 𝑥
cos 𝑥 cos2 − sin2
tan−1 ( ) = tan−1 [ 2 2
1 − sin 𝑥 2 𝑥 2 𝑥 𝑥 𝑥]
cos + sin − 2sin cos
2 2 2 2
𝑥 𝑥 𝑥 𝑥
(cos + sin ) (cos − sin )
= tan−1 [ 2 2 2 2 ]
𝑥 𝑥 2
(cos − sin )

a
2 2
𝑥 𝑥 𝑥
cos + sin 1 + tan
= tan−1 [ 2 2 −1 2]
𝑥 𝑥] = tan [ 𝑥
cos 2 − sin 2 1 − tan 2
𝜋 𝑥 𝜋 𝑥
= tan−1 [tan ( + )] = +

1
m 4 2 4 2

Example 5 Write cot −1 ( ) , 𝑥 > 1 in the simplest form.

√𝑥 2 −1

Solution Let 𝑥 = sec 𝜃, then √𝑥 2 − 1 = √sec 2 𝜃 − 1 = tan 𝜃

1
Therefore, cot −1 = cot −1 (cot 𝜃) = 𝜃 = sec −1 𝑥, which is the simplest form.
√𝑥 2 −1
F=

27
 Multiple Choice Question
1. What will be the value of x + y + z if cos-1 x + cos-1 y + cos-1 z = 3π?
A. -1/3 B. 1
C. 3 D. -3
Answer: D
Explanation:
The equation is cos-1 x + cos-1 y + cos-1 z = 3π
This means cos-1 x = π, cos-1 y = π and cos-1 z = π
This will only be possible when it is in maximum.
As, cos-1 x = π so, x = cos-1 π = -1 similarly, y = z = -1
Therefore, x + y + z = -1 -1 -1
So, x + y + z = -3.

2. Which value is similar to sin-1sin (6 π/7)?

A. sin-1(π/7) B. cos-1(π/7)
C. sin-1(2π/7) D. coses-1(π/7)
Answer: A
Explanation:
sin-1sin(6 π/7)

a
Now, sin(6 π/7) = sin(π – 6 π/7)
= sin(2π + 6 π/7) = sin(π/7)
= sin(3π – 6 π/7) = sin(20π/7)
= sin(-π – 6 π/7) = sin(-15π/7)
= sin(-2π + 6 π/7) = sin(-8π/7)
= sin(-3π – 6 π/7) = sin(-27π/7)
m
Therefore, sin-1sin(6 π/7) = sin-1(π/7).

3. What is the value of sin-1(-x) for all x belongs to [-1, 1]?

A. -sin-1(x) B. sin-1(x)
C. 2sin-1(x) D. sin-1(-x)/2
Answer: A
F=
Explanation:
Let, θ = sin-1(-x)
So, -π/2 ≤ θ ≤ π/2
=> -x = sinθ
=> x = -sinθ
=> x = sin(-θ)
Also, -π/2 ≤ -θ ≤ π/2
=> -θ = sin-1(x)
=> θ = -sin-1(x)
So, sin-1(-x) = -sin-1(x)

4. What is the value of sin-1(sin 6)?

A. -2π – 6 B. 2π + 6
C. either -2π + 6 or 2π + 6 D. 2π – 6
Answer: C
Explanation:
We know that sin(x) = sin(2A * π + x) where A can be positive or negative integer.
If A is -1, then sin(6) = sin(-2π + 6);
If A is 1, then sin(6) = sin(2π + 6);

5. What is the value of cos-1(-x) for all x belongs to [-1, 1]?

A. cos-1(-x) B. π – cos-1(x)
C. π – cos-1(-x) D. π + cos-1(x)
Answer: B

28
Explanation:
Let, θ = cos-1(-x)
So, 0 ≤ θ ≤ π
=> -x = cosθ
=> x = -cosθ
=> x = cos(-θ)
Also, -π ≤ -θ ≤ 0
So, 0 ≤ π -θ ≤ π
=> -θ = cos-1(x)
=> θ = -cos-1(x)
So, cos-1(x) = π – θ
θ = π – cos-1(x)
=> cos-1(-x) = π – cos-1(x)

6. The given graph is for which equation?

a
m
A. y = sinx B. y = sin-1x
C. y = cosecx D. y = secx
Answer: B
F=
Explanation:
The following graph represents 2 equations.

The pink curve is the graph of y = sinx

The blue curve is the graph for y = sin-1x
This curve passes through the origin and approaches to infinity in both positive and negative axes.

7. The given graph is for which equation?

29
 A. cosec-1x B. secx
C. cos-1x D. cotx
Answer: C
Explanation:
There are 2 curves.

a
m
F=
The green curve is the graph of y = cos x
The red curve is the graph for y = cos-1x
This curve origin from some point before π/3 and approaches to infinity in both positive y axis by intersecting at a point near 1.5
in y axis.

8. The given graph is for which equation?

A. y = cos-1x B. y = cot-1x
C. y = cosec-1x D. y = tan-1x
Answer: D
Explanation:
There are 2 curves.

30
The blue curve is the graph of y = tanx
The red curve is the graph for y = tan-1x
This curve passes through the origin and approaches to infinity in the direction of x axis only.
This graph lies below –x axis and above +x axis.

9. The given graph is for which equation?

a
m
A. y = cot-1x B. y = tan-1x
C. y = cotx D. y = cosec-1x
F=
Answer: A
Explanation:
There are 2 curves.

The black curve is the graph of y = cotx

The red curve is the graph for y = cot-1x
This curve does not pass through the origin but approaches to infinity in the direction of x axis only.
The part of the curve that lies in the (x, y) coordinate gradually meets to the x-axis.
This graph lies above +x axis and –x axis.

31
10. The given graph is for which equation?

A. y = sinx B. y = log|sinx|
C. y = |sinx| D. y = |cosx|
Answer: C
Explanation:
The given form of equation can be written as,

a
m
The green curve is the graph of y = sinx
The blue curve is the graph for y = |sinx|
As sinx is enclosed by a modulus so the curve that lies in the negative y axis will come to the positive y axis.

11. tan−1 √3 + sec −1 2 − cos−1 1 is equal to

F=
A. 0 B.
2𝜋
3
𝜋 𝜋
C. D.
3 4
Answer: B
Explanation:
𝜋 𝜋
tan−1 √3 = , sec −1 2 = , cos −1 1 = 0
3 3
𝜋 𝜋 2𝜋
∴ tan−1 √3 + sec −1 2 − cos −1 1 = + − 0 = .
3 3 3

2
12. What is the principal value of sec −1 ( ).
√3
𝜋 𝜋
A. B.
6 3
𝜋 𝜋
C. D.
4 2
Answer: A
Explanation:
2
Let sec −1 ( ) = y
√3
2
sec 𝑦 =
√3
𝜋
sec 𝑦 = sec
6
𝜋
⇒𝑦=
6

1 1
13. What is the value of tan1 − sin−1 1 + cos−1 is
√3 2
A. 2𝜋

32
 𝜋
B.
2
C. 𝜋 D. 0
Answer: C
Explanation:
1 𝜋 𝜋 1 𝜋
tan−1 = , sin−1 1 = , cos −1 =
√3 6 2 2 3
1 1 𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 + 3𝜋 + 2𝜋 6𝜋
tan1 − sin−1 1 + cos−1 = + + = = =𝜋
√3 2 6 2 3 6 6

14. [−1,1] is the domain for which of the following inverse trigonometric functions?
A. sin−1 𝑥 B. cot −1 𝑥
C. tan 𝑥−1
D. sec −1 𝑥
Answer: A
Explanation:
[−1,1] is the domain for sin−1 𝑥.
The domain for cot −1 𝑥 is (−∞, ∞).
The domain for tan−1 x is (−∞, ∞).
The domain for sec −1 x is (−∞, −1] ∪ [1, ∞).

15. The domain of sin−1 (3𝑥) is equal to

A. [−1,1] B. [
−1 1
, ]

a
3 3
C. [−3,3] D. [−3𝜋, 3𝜋]
Answer: B
Explanation:
The domain of 𝑦 = sin−1 𝑥 is −1 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 1.

⇒[ ≤𝑥≤ ]
1
m
∴ the domain of y = sin−1 3x is-1 ≤ 3x ≤ 1
−1
3 3
−1 1
Hence, [ , ].
3 3
Take Mathematics - Class 12 Tests Now!

1 −1
16. What is the value of 5cos−1 + 7sin−1 ( ) ?
F=
2 2
𝜋
A. − B. 𝜋
2
𝜋 17𝜋
C. D.
2 6
Answer: C
Explanation:
1 𝜋 −1 (− 1) 𝜋
cos−1 ( ) = andsin =−
2 3 2 6
1 1 𝜋 𝜋
∴ 5cos−1 + 7sin−1 (− ) = 5 ( ) + 7 (− )
2 2 3 6
5𝜋 7𝜋 10𝜋 − 7𝜋 3𝜋 𝜋
= − = = =
3 6 6 6 2

4𝜋
17. Find the value of sin−1 (sin ) is
3
𝜋
A. 𝜋 B.
3
4𝜋 𝜋
C. D. −
3 3
Answer: D
Explanation:
𝜋 𝜋
sin−1 (sin 𝑥) = x, x ∈ [− , ]
2 2
4𝜋 𝜋 −𝜋 𝜋
∴ sin−1 (sin ) = sin−1 (sin (𝜋 + )) = sin−1 (sin ( )) = − .
3 3 3 3

√3
18. Find the value of cos (sin−1 ) is
2

33
 1
A.
√3 B.
2 4

C.
1 D. 0
2
Answer: C
Explanation:
𝜋 √3
sin =
3 2
√3 𝜋
∴ sin−1 =
2 3
√3 𝜋 1
⇒ cos (sin−1 ) = cos ( ) = .
2 3 2

19. If cos −1 𝑥 = 𝑦, then which of the following is correct?

A. 0 ≤ 𝑦 ≤ 𝜋 B. 0 < 𝑦 < 𝜋
𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 𝜋
C. − ≤ 𝑦 ≤ D. − < 𝑦 <
2 2 2 2
Answer: A
Explanation:
Given that, cos −1 𝑥 = 𝑦
The range of principle values for the inverse trigonometric function cos−1 is [0, 𝜋]. Hence, 0 ≤ 𝑦 ≤ 𝜋.

20. sin−1 𝑥 in terms of cos −1 is

a
A. cos−1 √1 + 𝑥 2 B. cos−1 √1 − 𝑥 2
C. cos−1 𝑥 D. cos−1
1
𝑥
Answer: B
Explanation:
Let sin−1 x = y
⇒ x = sin y
m
⇒ 𝑥 = √1 − cos2 𝑦
⇒ 𝑥 2 = 1 − cos2 𝑦
⇒ cos2 𝑦 = 1 − 𝑥 2
∴ 𝑦 = cos −1 √1 − 𝑥 2 = sin−1 𝑥.
F=
21. What is sec −1 𝑥 in terms of tan−1 ?
A. tan−1 √1 + 𝑥 2 B. tan−1 1 + 𝑥 2
C. tan−1 𝑥 D. tan−1 √𝑥 2 − 1
Answer: D
Explanation:
Let sec −1 x = y
⇒ x = sec y
⇒ x = √1 + tan2 𝑦
⇒ x 2 − 1 = tan2 y
∴ y = tan−1 √𝑥 2 − 1 = sec −1 x.

4
22. What is the value of cos (tan−1 ( )) ?
5
5 5
A. B.
4 √41
4
C.
√41 D.
5 5
Answer: B
Explanation:
From △ ABC, we get.

34
 5
=
√41
4 5
tan−1 ( ) = cos−1 ( )
5 √41
4 5
cos (tan−1 ( ) = cos (cos−1 ( ))
5 √41
5
=
√41

23. What is the solution of cot (sin−1 𝑥) ?

√1−𝑥 2 B. 𝑥
A.

a
𝑥
C. √1 − 𝑥 2 D. √1 + 𝑥 2
Answer: A
Explanation:
Let sin−1 𝑥 = 𝑦. From △ 𝐴𝐵𝐶, we get
m
F=

√1 − 𝑥 2
𝑦 = sin−1 𝑥 = cot −1 ( )
𝑥

√1 − 𝑥 2 √1 − 𝑥 2
∴ cot (sin−1 𝑥) = cot (cot −1 ( )) =
𝑥 𝑥

24. Which of the following formulas is incorrect?

A. sin−1 𝑥 + sin−1 𝑦 = sin−1 {𝑥√1 − 𝑦 2 + B. sin−1 𝑥 − sin−1 𝑦 = sin−1 {𝑥√1 + 𝑦 2 +
𝑦√1 − 𝑥 2 } 𝑦√1 + 𝑥 2 }
C. 2tan−1 𝑥 = tan−1 (
2𝑥
) D. 2cos−1 𝑥 = cos−1 (3𝑥 − 4𝑥 3 )
1−𝑥 2
Answer: B
Explanation:
The formula sin−1 𝑥 − sin−1 𝑦 = sin−1 {𝑥√1 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑦√1 + 𝑥 2 } is incorrect. The correct formula is sin−1 x − sin−1 𝑦 = sin−1 {
𝑥√1 + 𝑦 2 − 𝑦√1 − 𝑥 2 }

5 3
25. Find the value of sin−1 ( ) + cos −1 ( ).
13 5

35
 A. sin−1 ( )
63 B. sin−1 1
65
C. 0 D. sin−1 ( )
64
65
Answer: A
Explanation:
From △ 𝐴𝐵𝐶, we get

3 4
cos−1 ( ) = sin−1 ( )
5 5
5 3 5 4
∴ sin ( ) + cos ( ) = sin−1 ( ) + sin−1 ( )
−1 −1
13 5 13 5

a
5 4 2 4 5 2
= sin−1 ( √1 − ( ) + √1 − ( ) )
13 5 5 13
5 3 4 12 15 + 48 63
= sin−1 ( × + × ) = sin−1 ( ) = sin−1 ( ) .
13 5 5 13

1
m 65

1
65

26. Find the value of tan−1 ( ) + tan−1 ( ) + tan−1 (lfrac {1}⟨7})[/ latex ]
3 5
4 9
A. tan−1 ( ) B. tan−1 ( )
7 7

C. tan−1
7
( ) D. tan−1 1
9
Answer: C
F=
Explanation:
𝑥+𝑦
Using the formula tan−1 𝑥 + tan−1 𝑦 = tan−1 , we get
1−𝑥𝑦
1 1
1 1 +
tan−1 ( ) + tan−1 ( ) = tan−1 ( 3 5 )
3 5 1 1
1− ×
3 5
8
8 15 4
= tan−1 ( 15 ) = tan−1 ( × ) = tan−1 ( )
14 15 14 7
15
1 1 1 4 1
= tan−1 ( ) + tan−1 ( ) + tan−1 ( ) = tan−1 ( ) + tan−1 ( )
3 5 7 7 7
4 1 5
+ 5 49
= tan−1 ( 7 7 ) = tan−1 ( 7 ) = tan−1 ( × )
4 1 5 7 45
1− ×
7 7 4
7
= tan−1 ( ) .
9

3 4 √3
27. Find the value of sin−1 ( ) + sin−1 ( ) + cos−1 ( ).
5 5 2
𝜋 4𝜋
A. C.
3 3
2𝜋 𝜋
B. D.
3 4
Answer: B
Explanation:
Using the formula sin−1 𝑥 + sin−1 𝑦 = sin−1 𝑥√1 − 𝑦 2 + 𝑦√1 − 𝑥 2 , we get

36
 3 4 3 4 2 4 3 2
sin−1 ( ) + sin−1 ( ) = sin−1 { √1 − ( ) + √1 − ( ) }
5 5 5 5 5 5
3 3 4 4 25 𝜋
= sin−1 ( × + × ) = sin−1 ( )=
5 5 5 5 25 2
3 4 √3 𝜋 𝜋 3𝜋 + 𝜋 2𝜋
∴ sin−1 ( ) + sin−1 ( ) + cos−1 ( )= + = = .
5 5 2 2 6 6 3

28. What is the value of 2tan−1 𝑥 in terms of sin−1 ?

A. sec −1 𝑥 B. 2sec −1 𝑥
C. 2sec −1 (√1 + 𝑥 2 ) D. sec −1 (√1 + 𝑥 2 )
Answer: C
Explanation:
Let 2tan−1 x = y
𝑦
⇒ tan−1 𝑥 =
2
From △ ABC, we get

a
m
𝑦
⇒ tan−1 x = sec −1 √1 + 𝑥 2 = ⇒ y = 2sec −1 (√1 + 𝑥 2 )
2

29. sin−1 𝑥 + cos−1 𝑥 =

𝜋
A. B. 𝜋
F=
2
𝜋
C. D. 2𝜋
3
Answer: A
Explanation:
𝜋
sin−1 𝑥 + cos −1 𝑥 = ; 𝑥 ∈ [−1,1]
2

30. The principal value of tan-1(tan 3π/5) is

A. 2π/5 B. -2π/5
C. 3π/5 D. -3π/5
Answer: B
Explanation:
tan-1 (tan 3π/5)
This can be written as:
tan-1 (tan 3π/5) = tan-1 (tan [π – 2π/5])
= tan-1 (- tan 2π/5) {since tan (π – x) = -tan x}
= –tan-1 (tan 2π/2)
= –2π/5

37
 Question/Answer
Very Short Questions
1
1. Find the principal value of sin-1 ( ).
2
Answer:
1 π π π
sin−1 ( ) = ∈ [− , ]
2 6 2 2
1 π
Hence, the principal value of sin−1 ( ) is |
2 6

2. What is the principal value of:

2π 2π
cos-1 (cos + sin-1 (sin )?
3 3
Answer:
2π 2π
cos−1 (cos ) + sin−1 (sin )
3 3
1 √3 2π π
= cos −1 (− ) + sin−1 ( ) = + = π.
2 2 3 3

3. Find the principal value of:

tan-1 (√3)- sec-1 (-2).

a
Answer:
π π π
tan−1 (√3) = ∈ (− , )
3 2 2
−1
2π π π
sec (−2) = ∈ [0, ] − { } .
3 2 2
∴ tan−1 (√3) −sec −1 (−2)
π 2π π
m
= − =− .
3 3 3

1
4. Evaluate: tan-1 (2 cos (2 sin-1 ( )))
2
Answer:
1
tan−1 [2cos (2sin−1 )]
F=
2
−1
π
= tan [2cos (2 ⋅ )]
6
π 1
= tan [2cos ] = tan−1 (2 ⋅ )
−1
3 2

5. Find the value of tan-1(√3) - cot-1(-√3).

Answer:
tan−1 (√3) − cot −1 (−√3)
π π π
= − (π − ) = −
3 6 2

1 π
6. If sin-1 ( ) + cos-1 x = , then find x.
3 2
Answer:
1 π
sin−1 ( ) + cos−1 x =
3 2
⇒ x = 1/3
π
[sin−1 x + cos−1 x =
2

π
7. If sec-1 (2) + cosec-1 (y) = , then find y.
2
Answer:
π
sec −1 (2) + cosec −1 (y) =
2

38
 π
⇒ y = 2 [∵ sec −1 x + cosec −1 x = ]
2

π 1
8. Write the value of sin [ - sin-1 (- ) ]
3 2
Answer:
π −1
sin [ − sin−1 ( )]
3 2
π −1
1
= sin [ + sin ( )]
3 2
[∵ sin−1 (−x) = −sin−1 x]
π π π
= sin ( + ) = sin = 1
3 6 2

9. Prove the following:

Answer:
3 3
LHS = cos (sin−1 + cot −1 )
5 2
4 3
= cos (cos−1 + cos −1
)
5 √13

a
4 3 16 9
= cos [cos −1 ( ⋅ − √1 − √1 − )]
5 √13 25 13
12 3 2 6
= − ⋅ = = RHS.
5√13 5 √13 5√13

π
m
10. If tan-1 x + tan-1 y = , xy < 1, then write the value of the x + y + xy.
4
Answer:
π
We have tan−1 x + tan−1 y =
4
x+y π x+y π
⇒ tan−1 = ⇒ = tan
1 − xy 4 1 − xy 4
x+y
F=
⇒ = 1 ⇒ x + y = 1 − xy.
1 − xy
Hence x + y + xy = 1.

Short Questions
1. Express sin-1

π π
Where - < x < , in the simple’s form.
4 4
Answer:
sin 𝑥 + cos 𝑥 𝜋 𝜋
sin−1 ( ) if − < 𝑥 <
√2 4 4
1 1 𝜋 𝜋
= sin−1 (sin 𝑥 ⋅ + ) if − < 𝑥 <
√2 √2 4 4
𝜋 𝜋
= sin−1 (sin 𝑥cos + cos 𝑥sin ) if
4 4
𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 𝜋
= sin (sin (𝑥 + )) if 0 < (𝑥 + ) < < + < +
−1
4 4 4 4 4 4
𝜋
= 𝑥 + . i.e. principal value
4

2. Prove that:

Answer:

39
Let LHS = θ.
12 3
Then sin θ = sin (cos −1 ( ) + sin−1 ( ))
13 5
12 3
= sin (cos −1 ( )) cos (sin−1 ( ))
13 5
12 3
+ cos (cos −1 ( )) sin (sin−1 ( ))
13 5

144 9 12 3
= √1 − √1 − + ×
169 25 13 5
5 4 12 3 20 36 56
= × + × = + =
13 5 13 5 65 65 65
56
⇒ θ = sin−1 .
65
12 3 56
Hence, cos −1 + sin−1 = sin−1 .
13 5 65

3. Prove that:

Answer:
8 4
L.H.S = sin−1 + cos−1
17 5

a
8 3
= tan−1 + tan −1
15 4
8 3
+
= tan−1 15 4 = tan−1 77 = cot −1 (36)
8 3 36 77
1− ×
15 4
= R.H.S
m
4. Solve the following equation:

Answer:
x+1 x−1
tan−1 ( ) + tan−1 ( ) = tan−1 (−7)
x−1 x
F=
x+1 x−1
+
⇒ tan [ x − 1
−1 x ] = tan−1 (−7)
x+1 x−1
1− ×
x−1 x
x(x + 1) + (x − 1)2
⇒ = −7
x(x − 1) − (x 2 − 1)
⇒ 2x 2 − 8x + 8 = 0
⇒ x 2 − 4x + 4 = 0
⇒ (x − 2)2 = 0
Hence, x = 2.

5. Solve the following equation:

Answer:
2tan−1 (sin x) = tan−1 (2sec x)
2sin x
⇒ tan−1 = tan−1 (2sec x)
1 − sin2 x
2sin x
⇒ tan−1 ( 2 ) = tan−1 (2sec x)
cos x
⇒ tan−1 (2sec xtan x) = tan−1 (2sec x)
⇒ 2sec xtan x = 2sec x
tan x = 1[∵ sec x ≠ 00
π
Hence, x =
2

6. Solve the following equation:

40
Answer:
We have:
3
cos (tan−1 x) = sin (cot −1 )
4
−1 −1
4
cos (tan x) = sin (sin )
5
4
cos (tan−1 x) =
5
−1 −1
4
tan x = cos
5
−1 −1
3
⇒ tan x = tan
4

7. Prove that:

Answer:
Put x = cos θ in RHS
As 1/2 ≤ x ≤ 1
RHS = cos−1 (4cos3 θ − 3cos θ),
= cos −1 (cos 3θ) = 3θ = 3cos−1 x = L.H.S

a
Long Questions
1. prove that,
m
Answer:
𝑥 √3 − 3𝑥 2
LHS = cos −1 𝑥 + cos −1 [ + ]
2 2
1 √3
= cos −1 𝑥 + cos −1 [ ⋅ 𝑥 + ⋅ √1 − 𝑥 2 ]
2 2
F=
𝜋 𝜋
= 𝜃 + cos −1 [cos ⋅ cos 𝜃 + sin ⋅ sin 𝜃]
3 3
[ Putting 𝑥 = cos 𝜃 so that √1 − 𝑥 = sin 𝜃]
2

𝜋
= 𝜃 + cos −1 [cos ( − 𝜃)]
3
𝜋 𝜋
= 𝜃 + ( − 𝜃) = = RHS.
3 3

2. Find the value of:

Answer:
𝑥 𝑥−𝑦
tan−1 ( ) − tan−1 ( )
𝑦 𝑥+𝑦
𝑥 𝑥−𝑦
−
−1 𝑦 𝑥+𝑦
= tan [ 𝑥 𝑥 − 𝑦]
1+ ⋅
𝑦 𝑥+𝑦
𝑥(𝑥 + 𝑦) − 𝑦(𝑥 − 𝑦)
= tan−1 [ ]
𝑦(𝑥 + 𝑦) + 𝑥(𝑥 − 𝑦)
𝑥 2 + 𝑥𝑦 − 𝑥𝑦 + 𝑦 2
= tan−1 [ ]
𝑥𝑦 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑥 2 − 𝑥𝑦

41
3. Prove that:

Answer:
𝑥 2 + 𝑦2 𝜋
= tan−1 ( 2 ) = tan−1 (1) = .
𝑥 + 𝑦2 4

4.
Answer:
1 1 1
LHS = (tan−1 ( ) + tan−1 ( )) + tan−1 ( )
2 5 8
1 1
+ 1
= tan−1 2 5 + tan−1 ( )
1 1 8
1−2×
5
5+2 1
= tan−1 + tan−1 ( )
10 − 1 8
7 1
7 1 +
−1 −1
= tan ( ) + tan ( ) = tan −1 9 8
9 8 7 1
1− ×
9 8
56 + 9 65 𝜋
= tan−1 = tan−1 ( ) = tan−1 (1) =

a
72 − 7 65 4
= RHS.
m
F=

42
 Chapter-3 Matrices
Introduction

Definition of Matrix
A matrix is a rectangular array of numbers, symbols, or expressions, organized in rows and columns. You will get a complete
matrix introduction following all the parts:

• Introduction to matrix algebra

• Introduction to matrices and determinants
• Introduction of eigenvalues and eigenvectors
• Introduction to matrix algebra

All these are introductions to matrices with applications in statistics. So, now at first, it's important to get a brief introduction
about matrices.

In mathematics, a matrix is also known as matrices. It is a rectangular array of numbers, figures, or expressions, organized in
rows and columns. Matrices are usually written in box brackets. In matrices, the horizontal and vertical lines of entries are rows
and columns. The size of a matrix is determined by the number of rows and columns that it holds. A matrix with m rows and n

a
columns is named an m × n matrix or M-by-N matrix, while m and n are described in its dimensions. The dimensions of the
resulting matrix are 2 × 3 up (read “two by three”) as there are 2 rows and 3 columns.

𝐴 = [19 −20 13]

[1 5 −6]
m
The individual parts that are the numbers, symbols, or expressions in a matrix are named as their entries.

Given that they are the equivalent size-means having the same number of rows and the equal number of columns), 2 matrices
can be plus or minus part by part. The rule for matrix multiplication, though, is that 2 matrices can be multiplied only when the
number of columns in the 1st matches the number of rows in the second. Any matrix can be multiplied partwise by a scalar from
F=
its related area.

Matrices that have a singular row are named row vectors, and those which have a single column are described as column vectors.
A matrix that has an equal number of rows and columns is defined as a square matrix. In some connections, like computer-based
algebra programs, it is helpful to study a matrix with no rows or no columns, named an empty matrix.

This was just a small matrix introduction and an intro to matrices. Now let's talk about the different applications of matrices.
Several operations can be used to change matrices like matrix addition, subtraction, and scalar multiplication. These form the
basic methods to work with matrices.

These methods can be used in estimating totals, differentiation, and information of products. Take an example of sodas that come
in 3 different flavors: lime, orange, and berry, and two different packages: bottle and can. Two tables summing the total sales
within last month and this month are recorded to show the amounts. Matrix plus, minus, and scalar multiply can be used to find
such things as the sales of the end month and the sales of the present month, the average sales for all flavors, and the packaging
of soda in the 2 months.

Introduction to Matrix Algebra: Addition, Subtraction, and Multiplication

Here, we will go through an introduction to matrices with applications in statistics and basic mathematics.

43
Adding and Subtracting Matrices Concepts

We use matrices to list information or to represent systems. Because the entries are numbers, we can apply methods on matrices.
We plus or minus matrices by adding or subtracting corresponding entries.

To do this, the entries must correspond. Therefore, the plus and minus of matrices are only applicable when the matrices have
equal dimensions. Adding matrices is very simple. Just add each element in the first matrix to the corresponding element in the
second matrix. One of the basic methods that can be done on matrices is the addition process. Just as we plus two or more integers,
two or more matrices can also be added similarly. This is identified as the Addition of Matrices.

Multiplying Matrices Concepts

When the number of columns of the 1st matrix should match the number of rows of the 2nd matrix. In other words, to multiply
an m × n matrix by an n × p matrix, the ns need to be the equivalent, and the result is an m × p matrix.

(m × n) × (n × p) → m × p

Scalar multiplication is usually multiplying a value through all the parts of a matrix, whereas matrix multiplication is multiplying
every part of each row of the first matrix times every element of each column in the second matrix. Scalar multiplication is much
more manageable than matrix multiplication; though, a pattern does exist.

a
When multiplying matrices, the parts of the rows in the 1st matrix are multiplied with corresponding columns in the 2nd matrix.
Each note of the resultant matrix is estimated one at a time.

Introduction to Matrices and Determinants

m
Now let's understand the concept of matrices and determinants, and their relation. A determinant seems very much like a ma-
trix, but it is, really, pretty different. Unlike a matrix, a determinant isn’t simply an array of numbers. It also has a value, which
can be determined using methods. The other major difference to take note of now is that even though in a matrix, the number of
rows does not have to equal the number of columns. In a determinant, they need to be equal. In short, all determinants are
square.
F=
Concept of Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors

Here’s a short introduction to eigenvalues and eigenvectors with matrix – For a square matrix B, and Eigenvector and Eigenvalue
make equation as:

B×x=λ×x

That is just a basic purpose that you can use with eigenvalues and eigenvectors with matrices.

• It is an ordered rectangular array of collection of numbers or functions arranged in rows and columns is called matrix.
𝑥 𝑦
• The numbers or functions are known as the elements or entries of the matrix. E.g. - [ ]
1 2

Row and Column of a Matrix

• The horizontal arrangement of elements or entries are said to form the row of a matrix.
• The vertical arrangement of elements or entries are said to form the Column of a matrix.

𝑥 𝑦
E.g. - [ ], This matrix has two rows and two columns.
1 2

44
Order of Matrix

• It tells us about the number of rows and columns of a matrix.

• It is represented by a × b means a matrix has a rows and b columns.

2 8 3
For example: 𝐴 = [1 9 8], there are 3 rows and 3 columns therefore the order of matrix 𝐴 is 3 × 3
0 7 0

Types of Matrices

a. Row Matrix: A matrix containing only one row is known as row matrix.
𝑎
For E.g. - [𝑏 ]
𝑐
The order of row matrix is 1 × 𝑏

b. Column Matrix: A matrix containing only one column is known as column matrix.

For E.g. - [1 2 3 −2]

a
The order of column matrix is a × 1

c. Square Matrix: The number of rows and numbers of columns are equal in the matrix.
1 1 2
For E.g. - [2 3 5]
3 6 8
m
The order of square matrix is always a × a, where a can be any natural number

d. Diagonal Matrix: If the diagonal elements are non-zero and all the nondiagonal elements of a matrix are zero, then such
type of matrix is known as Diagonal Matrix.
F=
1 0 0
For E.g. - [0 2 0]
0 0 5

e. Scalar Matrix: It is a type of diagonal matrix in which all diagonal elements are equal.
4 0 0
𝑥 0
For E.g. - [ ] , [0 4 0] etc.
0 𝑥
0 0 4

f. Identity Matrix: It is a type of diagonal matrix in which all diagonal elements are equal to 1.

1 0 0
For E.g. - [0 1 0]
0 0 1

g. Zero Matrix: In it all the elements are zero and this is also known as null matrix.

0 0 [
For E.g. - [ ], 0 0 0] etc.
0 0

Equality of Matrices

Two matrices are equal if and only if the order of both the matrices are equal and element of one matrix is equal to the corre-
sponding element of another matrix.

45
 1 8 1 8
For E.g. - A = [ ] and B = [ ]
8 4 2×2 8 4 2×2

All the elements of matrix 𝐴 is equal to the corresponding elements of matrix 𝐵 and order of both matrix is same. Hence, 𝐴 = 𝐵.

Operations in Matrices

a. Addition of matrices:
• The addition of two matrices can be done only when they have the same order.
• Addition can be done by adding the corresponding entries of the two matrices.

For e.g. -
1 0 2 1
𝐴=[ ] and 𝐵 =[ ]
7 4 3 5
C= A+B
1 0 2 1
𝐶=[ ]+[ ]
7 4 3 5
3 1
𝐶=[ ]
10 9

b. Multiplication of a matrix by a scalar:

When a matrix is multiplied by scalar, then each element of matrix is multiplied by the scalar quantity and a new matrix is ob-

a
tained.

For E.g. –
4 5
2[ ]
6 7

4×2 5×2
m
[ ]
6×2 7×2

8 10
[ ]
12 14

c. Negative of a matrix:
F=
Multiplying a matrix by −𝟏 gives negative of that matrix
1 −1
For E.g. - A = [ ]
−1 −2
Negative of Matrix A is.

−A = (−1)A
1 −1
−A = (−1) [ ]
−1 −2
−1 1
−A = [ ]
1 2

d. Difference of Matrices:
• Two matrices can be subtracted only when they have the same order.
• Subtraction can be done by subtracting the corresponding entries of the two matrices.

For e.g. -
1 6 2 1
A=[ ] and B = [ ]
7 4 7 9
C=A−B
1 6 2 1
C=[ ]−[ ]
7 4 7 9
−1 5
C=[ ]
0 −5

46
Properties of Matrix Addition

1 Commutative Law: Matrix addition is commutative i.e., 𝐴 + 𝐵 = 𝐵 + 𝐴.

2 Associative Law: Matrix addition is associative i.e., (A + B) + C = A + (B + C).
3 Existence of Additive Identity: Zero matrix O is the additive identity of a matrix because adding a matrix with zero
matrix leaves it unchanged i.e., X + O = O + X = X.
4 Existence of Additive Inverse: Additive inverse of a matrix is a matrix which on adding with another matrix yield 0 i.e.,
X + (−X) = (−X) + X = 0

Multiplication of Matrices

Multiplication of two matrices A and B is defined when number of columns of 𝐴 is equal to the number of rows of 𝐵. - Entries in
rows are multiplied by corresponding entries in columns i.e., entries in first row are multiplied by entries in first column and
similarly for other entries.

2 1 0 2 1
E.g. - 𝐴 = [ ] and 𝐵 = [ ]
1 2 1 1 1

Product of 𝐀 and 𝐁 is.

a
2(0) + 1(1) 2(2) + 1(1) 2(1) + 1(1)
AB =[ ]
1(0) + 2(1) 1(2) + 2(1) 1(1) + 2(1)
1 5 3
AB =[ ]
2 4 3
m
Properties of Matrix Multiplication

1 Non-Commutative Law: Matrix multiplication is not commutative i.e., AB ≠ BA but not in the case of diagonal matrix.
2 Associative Law: Matrix multiplication follow associative law i.e., 𝐴(𝐵𝐶) = (𝐴𝐵)𝐶
3 Distributive Law: Matrix multiplication follow distributive law i.e.,
F=
a) 𝐴(𝐵 + 𝐶) = 𝐴𝐵 + 𝐴𝐶
b) (𝐴 + 𝐵)𝐶 = 𝐴𝐶 + 𝐵𝐶
4 Existence of Multiplicative Identity: Identity matrix I is the multiplicative identity of a matrix because multiplying a
matrix with I leaves it unchanged.

Transpose of a Matrix

• It is the matrix obtained by interchanging the rows and columns of the original matrix.
• It is denoted by P ′ or P T if original matrix is P.

For E.g. -
1 2
𝑃=[ ]
3 4
1 3
𝑃 𝑇 or 𝑃′ = [ ]
2 4

Properties of Transpose of Matrix

1 (A′ )′ = A
2 (kA)′ = kA ' (Where, k is any constant) 3. (A + B)′ = A′ + B′
3 (AB)′ = B′ A′

47
Special Types of Matrices

Symmetric Matrices: It is a square matrix in which the original matrix is equal to its transpose.
For E.g. -
1 −1 3
𝑃 = [−1 2 7]
3 7 3

1 −1 3
Transpose of Matrix P, P T = [−1 2 7]
3 7 3
∵ P = PT
Therefore, it is a Symmetric Matrix.

Skew-Symmetric Matrices: It is a square matrix in which the original matrix is equal to the negative of its transpose.

For E.g. -
9 2 −3
P = [−2 0 7]
3 −7 0
9 2 −3
Transpose of Matrix P, P T = (−1) [−2 0 7]

a
3 −7 0
∵ P T = −P
Therefore, it is a Skew-Symmetric Matrix.

Elementary Operation (Transformation) of a Matrix

m
Elementary operations can be performed in three ways.
a. By interchanging any two rows or two columns.
• Interchange of 𝑖 th and 𝑗 th rows is denoted as 𝑅𝑖 ↔ 𝑅𝑗
• Interchange of 𝑖 th and 𝑗 th columns is denoted by 𝐶𝑖 ↔ 𝐶𝑗 .
F=
b. By multiplying any scalar to each element of any row or column of matrix. - It is denoted as R i ↔ kR j for rows and Ci ↔ kCj for
columns

c. By multiplying any scalar to each element of any row or column and then adding the result to any other row or column.
It is denoted as 𝑅𝑖 ↔ 𝑅𝑖 + 𝑘𝑗 for rows and Ci ↔ Ci + 𝑘𝐶𝑗 for column.

Invertible Matrix:
• A matrix A is invertible only when there exists another matrix B such that AB = BA = I, where I is identity matrix.
• It is a property of square matrix.
• The inverse of matrix is always unique.
3
2 3 −1
For E.g. - Let us consider two matrices 𝐴 = [ ] and B = [ 2 ]
2 2 1 −1
Now,
3
2 3 −1
𝐴𝐵 = [ ][ 2]
2 2
1 −1
1 0
=[ ]
0 1
=I
And
3
2 3 1 0
BA = [−1 2 ] [2 ]=[ ]
2 0 1
1 −1
=I

Hence, B is inverse of A

48
Inverse Of a Matrix by Elementary Operations

• The inverse of a matrix can be obtained by using elementary operations.

• We know that 𝐴 = 𝐼𝐴 on using elementary operation on A only which is on the left side of equal to keeping right side one as
it is and on I then the identity matrix I will become inverse of A

3 2
For example: Inverse of 𝐴 = [ ] using elementary operation is
1 4

We know that A = IA

3 2 1 0
[ ]=[ ]𝐴
1 4 0 1
R1
R1 →
3
2 1
[1 0] A
3 ] = [3
1 4 0 1

R 2 → R 2 − R1

2 1
1 0

a
[ 3 ]=[ 3 ]𝐴
10 −1
0 1
3 3

3
R2 → R2 ×
10
m
1
2 0
[1 3 ] = [ 3 ]A
−1 3
0 1
10 10

2
F=
R1 → R1 − R 2
3

2 −1
1 0
[ ]=[ 5 5 ]𝐴
0 1 −1 3
10 10

Since, I = A−1 A

2 −1
5 5
Therefore, 𝐴−1 = [−1 3 ]
10 10

49
 Multiple Choice Question
2 3
1. Which among the following is inverse of the matrix 𝐴 = [ ]?
5 1
1 3 −1 3

A. [13
5
13
−2] B. [ 13
5
13
−2]
13 13 13 13
−1 3 −1 3

C. [ 13 13
−2] D. [ 13
5
13
]
1 −2
13 13
Answer: B
Explanation:
2 3
Consider the matrix 𝐴 = [ ]
5 1
Using elementary row operation, we write 𝐴 = 𝐼𝐴.
2 3 1 0
[ ]=[ ]𝐴
5 1 0 1
−13 0 1 −3 (
[ ]=[ ] A Applying R1 → R1 − 3R 2 )
5 1 0 1
−1 3 𝑅1
1 0
[ ] = [ 13 13] A (Applying 𝑅1 → − )
5 1 13

a
0 1
−1 3
1 0
[ ] = [ 13 13 ] 𝐴 (Applying 𝑅2 → 𝑅2 − 5𝑅1 )
0 1 5 −2
13 13
−1 3
𝐴 = [ 13 13 ] .
−1
m
5 −2
13 13

2. Which of the following matrices will not have an inverse?

2 4 1 5 2
A. [ ]
−1 1 B. [6 4 2]
F=
1 3 2
1 2 1 2 5
C. [ ] D. [ ]
1 1 3 6 4
Answer: D
Explanation:
1 2 5
The matrix 𝐴 = [ ] will not have an inverse as it is a rectangular matrix. The rectangular matrix does not possess an
3 6 4
inverse matrix.

1 2 4
3. The inverse of the matrix 𝐴 = [5 2 4] is
3 6 2
−1 1 −1 1
0 1
4 4 4 4
1 −1 1 1 −1 1
A. 40 8 5
B. 40 8 5
3 −1 3 −1
[ 40 1 0
10 ] [ 40 10 ]
−1 1 −1 1
0 − 0
4 4 4 4
1 −1 1 1 1 −1
C. 40 8 5
D. 40 8 5
3 −1 3 −1
[ 40 0 0
10 ] [ 40 10 ]
Answer: C
Explanation:
1 2 4
Consider the matrix 𝐴 = [5 2 4]
3 6 2

50
Using the elementary row operation, we write 𝐴 = 𝐼𝐴
1 2 4 1 0 0
[5 2 4 ] = [0 1 0 ] A
3 6 2 0 0 1

Applying 𝑅1 → 𝑅1 − 𝑅2
𝑅1
𝑅1 →
−4
−1 1
1 0 0 0
[5 2 4 ] = [ 4 4 ]A
0 1 0
3 6 2
0 0 1

Applying 𝑅2 → 𝑅2 − 5𝑅1 and 𝑅3 → 𝑅3 − 3𝑅1

−1 1
0
4 4
1 0 0 5 −1
[0 2 4 ] = 0 A
0 6 2 4 4
3 −3
[4 1]
4

𝑅2
Applying R 2 → R 2 − 2R 3 and 𝑅2 →
−10
−10
−1 1

a
0
4 4
1 0 0 1 −5 1
[0 1 0] =
0 6 2 40 40 5
3 −3
[4 1]
4

Applying R 3 → R 3 − 6R 2 and 𝑅2 → 2
m 𝑅
2
−1 1
0
4 4
1 0 0 1 −1 1
[0 1 0 ] = 𝐴
0 0 1 40 8 5
3 −1
[ 40 0 10 ]
F=
−1 1
0
4 4
1 −1 1
𝐴−1 = .
40 8 5
3 −1
[ 40 0 10 ]

8 1
4. Which of the following is the inverse of the matrix 𝐴 = [ ]?
1 2
2 1 1 1
− −
A. [15
1
15
8 ] B. [ 15
1
15
1 ]
−
15 15 15 15
2 1 2 1
−
15 15
C. [ 1 8 ] D. [15
1
15
4]
−
15 15 15 15
Answer: C
Explanation:
8 1
Consider the matrix 𝐴 = [ ]
1 2
Using the elementary row operation, we write 𝐴 = 𝐼𝐴
Applying 𝑅2 → 8𝑅2 − 𝑅1 and 𝑅2 → 𝑅2 /15, we get
1 0
8 1
[ ]=[ 1 8 ]A
0 1 −
15 15
Applying 𝑅1 → 𝑅1 − 𝑅2 and 𝑅1 → 𝑅1 /8, we get

51
 2 1
−
1 0 15 15
[ ]=[ ]A
0 1 1 8
−
15 15
2 1
−
𝐴−1 =[ 15 15 ].
1 8
−
15 15
5
1 −
8
5. Which among the below matrices has the inverse 𝐴−1 = [ 1 ]
0
8
1 5 1 5
A. [ ] B. [ ]
0 8 −1 8
1 5 1 8
C. [ ] D. [ ]
0 16 0 8
Answer: A
Explanation:
1 5
Consider the matrix 𝐴 = [ ]
0 8
Using the elementary column operations, we write A = Al
1 5 1 0
[ ] = A[ ]
0 8 0 1

Applying C2 → C2 − 5C1

a
1 0 1 −5
[ ] = A[ ]
0 8 0 1

Applying C2 → C2 /8
5
[
1 0
0 1
] = A[
1 −
1
8]
m
0
8
5
1 −
𝐴−1 = [ 8]
1
0
8
F=
5 1 3
6. Find the inverse of matrix 𝐴 = [4 2 6]
5 4 2
1 1 1
0 − 0 − 0
6 3 6
11 1 3 11 1 3
A. − 30 12 10
B. − 30 12 10
1 1 1 1 1 1
[− 10 4
−
10] [− 10 4
−
10]
1 1 1 1
− 0 0
3 6 3 6
11 3 11 1 3
C. −
30
1
10
D. 30 12 10
1 1 1 1 1 1
[− 10 4
−
10] [− 10 4 10]
Answer: B
Explanation:
5 1 3
Consider the matrix 𝐴 = [4 2 6]
5 4 2

Using the elementary row operations, we write A = IA

5 1 3 1 0 0
[4 2 6 ] = [0 1 0 ] A
5 4 2 0 0 1

Applying 𝑅2 → 5𝑅2 − 4𝑅1 and 𝑅3 → 𝑅3 − 𝑅1

5 1 3 1 0 0
[0 6 18 ] = [−4 5 0] A
0 3 −1 −1 0 1

52
Applying 𝑅1 → 𝑅2 − 6𝑅1 and 𝑅3 → 𝑅2 − 2𝑅3
−30 0 0 −10 5 0
[ 0 6 18] = [ −4 5 0 ] A
0 0 20 −2 5 −2

Applying R 2 → 20R 2 − 18R 3

−30 0 0 −10 5 0
[ 0 120 0 ] = [−44 10 36 ] A
0 0 20 −2 5 −2

Applying 𝑅1 → 𝑅1 /(−30), 𝑅2 → 𝑅2 /120, 𝑅3 → 𝑅3 /20

1 1
− 0
3 6
1 0 0 11 1 3
[0 1 0 ] = − A
0 0 1 30 12 10
1 1 1
[− 10 4 − 10]
1 1
− 0
3 6
11 1 3
A−1 = − .
30 12 10
1 1 1
[− 10 4 − 10]

7.

C. (𝐴𝐵) = 𝐵 𝐴
−1 −1 −1

a
Which of the following is not a property of invertible matrices if 𝐴 and 𝐵 are matrices of the same order?
A. (𝐴𝐵)−1 = 𝐴−1 𝐵−1 B. (𝐴𝐴−1 ) = (𝐴−1 𝐴) = 1
D. 𝐴𝐵 = 𝐵𝐴 = 1
Answer: A
Explanation:
m
(𝐴𝐵)−1 = 𝐴−1 𝐵−1 is incorrect. The correct formula is (𝐴𝐵)−1 = 𝐵 −1 𝐴−1 ⋅ 𝐵−1 𝐴−1 ≠ 𝐴−1 𝐵−1 as matrix multiplication is not com-
mutative.
5 3
8. Find the inverse of 𝐴 = [ ].
4 1
1 3 1 3
− −
7 7
A. [ 4 5] B. [ 4 7 75]
F=
−
7 7 7 7
1 3 3
− − 0
7 7 7
C. [ 4 5] D. [4 5]
−
7 7 7 7
Answer: A
Explanation:
5 3
Consider the matrix 𝐴 = [ ]
4 1
By using the elementary row operations, we write 𝐴 = 𝐼𝐴
5 3 1 0
[ ]=[ ]𝐴
4 1 0 1

Applying 𝑅1 → 𝑅1 − 3𝑅2 and 𝑅1 → 𝑅1 /(−7), we get

1 3
1 0
[ ] = [− 7 7]
4 1
0 1

Applying 𝑅2 → 𝑅2 − 4𝑅1 , we get

1 3
−
1 0
[ ] = [ 7 7 ]𝐴
0 1 4 5
−
7 7
1 3
−
⇒ 𝐴−1 = [ 7 7 ]
4 5
−
7 7

53
9. The matrix which follows the conditions 𝑚 = 𝑛 is called?
A. Square matrix B. Rectangular matrix
C. Scalar matrix D. Diagonal matrix
Answer: A
Explanation:
A square matrix is a matrix in which the number of rows(m) is equal to the number of columns(n). Therefore, the matrix which
follows the condition 𝑚 = 𝑛 is a square matrix.

4 6 9
10. Consider the matrix 𝐴 = [ ]. What is the type of matrix?
12 11 10
A. Row matrix B. Column matrix
C. Horizontal matrix D. Vertical matrix
Answer: C
Explanation:
The matrix in which the number of rows is smaller than the number of columns is called is called a horizontal matrix. In the given
4 6 9
matrix A= [ ] , 𝑚 = 3 and 𝑛 = 2 i.e.
12 11 10
3 < 2. Hence, it is a horizontal matrix.

4
11. The matrix 𝐴 = [12] is.
36
A. row matrix B. scalar matrix

a
C. horizontal matrix D. column matrix
Answer: D
Explanation:
4
The given matrix 𝐴 = [12] is of the order 3 × 1. The matrix has only one column (𝑛 = 1). Hence, it is a column matrix.
36
m
12. The matrix which follows the condition 𝑚 > 𝑛 is called as
A. vertical matrix B. horizontal matrix
C. diagonal matrix D. square matrix
Answer: A
Explanation:
F=
The matrix in which the number of columns is greater than the number of rows is called a vertical matrix. There is the matrix
which follows the condition 𝑚 > 𝑛 is a vertical matrix.

𝑎+𝑏 𝑐 3 2
13. Find the value of 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐, 𝑑 if [ ]=[ ].
𝑎−𝑏 2𝑐 + 𝑑 1 6
A. 3,2,1,4 B. 3,2,1,6
C. 2,2,2,2 D. 2,1,2,2
Answer: D
Explanation:
𝑎+𝑏 𝑐 3 2
The two matrices [ ] and [ ] are equal matrices. Comparing the two matrices, we get 𝑎 − 𝑏 = 3, 𝑐 = 2, 𝑎 − 𝑏 =
𝑎−𝑏 2𝑐 + 𝑑 1 6
1,2𝑐 + 𝑑 = 6
Solving the above equations, we get 𝑎 = 2, 𝑏 = 1, 𝑐 = 2, 𝑑 = 2.

14. Which of the following is a diagonal matrix.

0 2 1 5 1 0
A. 𝐴 = [2 0 1] B. 𝐴 = [0 5 0]
2 1 0 0 0 5
4 0 0 2 2 2
C. 𝐴 = [0 5 0] D. 𝐴 = [3 3 3]
0 0 9 4 4 4
Answer: C
Explanation:
The matrix is said to be a diagonal matrix if the elements along the diagonal of the matrix are non - zero.
i.e., 𝑎𝑖𝑗 = 0 for 𝑖 ≠ 𝑗 and 𝑎𝑖𝑗 ≠ 0 for 𝑖 = 𝑗.

54
 4 0 0
Therefore, the matrix 𝐴 = [0 5 0] is a diagonal matrix.
0 0 9

15. Which of the following is a scalar matrix?

2 0 0 1 1 1
A. 𝐴 = [0 2 0] B. 𝐴 = [1 1 1]
0 0 2 1 1 1
7 0 0 2 1 5
C. 𝐴 = [0 2 0] D. 𝐴 = [8 1 2]
0 0 5 2 4 8
Answer: A
Explanation:
A matrix is called a scalar matrix if the elements along the diagonal of the matrix are equal and are non-zero i.e., 𝑎ij = 𝑘 for 𝑖 = 𝑗
and 𝑎ij = 0 for 𝑖 ≠ 𝑗.
2 0 0
Therefore, the matrix 𝐴 = [0 2 0] is a scalar matrix.
0 0 2

16. Which of the following is not a type of matrix?

A. Scalar matrix B. Diagonal matrix
C. Symmetric matrix D. Minor matrix
Answer: D

a
Explanation:
Minor matrix is not a type of matrix. Scalar, diagonal, symmetric are various type of matrices.

𝑎 𝑏+𝑐 3 2
17. Find 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐, 𝑑 if [ ]=[ ] are equal matrices.
𝑐+𝑑 𝑏 3 −1
A. 3,0,1, −1
C. 3, −1,3,0
m B. 1, −3,0,3
D. 3,3, −1, −1
Answer: C
Explanation:
𝑎 𝑏+𝑐 3 2
The two matrices [ ] and [ ] are equal matrices. Comparing the two matrices, we get 𝑎 = 3, 𝑏 + 𝑐 = 2, 𝑐 + 𝑑 =
𝑐+𝑑 𝑏 3 −1
3, 𝑏 = −1
Solving the above equations, we get 𝑎 = 3, 𝑏 = −1, 𝑐 = 3, 𝑑 = 0.
F=
1 2 3 0 5 0
18. If 𝐴 = [ ] and 𝐵 = [ ], then find 𝐴 + 𝐵.
9 10 11 5 0 5
1 7 3 1 7 3
A. 𝐴 + 𝐵 = [ ] B. 𝐴 + 𝐵 = [ ]
11 10 16 14 11 13
1 7 3 1 5 3
C. 𝐴 + 𝐵 = [ ] D. 𝐴 + 𝐵 = [ ]
14 10 16 14 10 16
Answer: C
Explanation:
1 2 3 0 5 0 1+0 2+5 3+0 1 7 3
Given that, 𝐴 = [ ] and 𝐵 = [ ] Then 𝐴 + 𝐵 = [ ]=[ ]
9 10 11 5 0 5 9 + 5 10 + 0 11 + 5 14 10 16

3 4 1 5
19. If 𝐴 = [ ] and 𝐵 = [ ], find 2𝐴 − 3𝐵.
1 2 2 3
3 7 −3 −7
A. [ ] B. [ ]
−4 5 −4 −5
3 7 3 −7
C. [ ] D. [ ]
−4 −5 −4 −5
Answer: D
Explanation:
3 4 1 5
Given that, 𝐴 = [ ] and 𝐵 = [ ]
1 2 2 3
3 4 6 8 1 5 3 15
⇒ 2𝐴 = 2 [ ]=[ ] and 3𝐵 = 3 [ ]=[ ]
1 2 2 4 2 3 6 9
6 8 3 15 3 −7
∴ 2A−3B = [ ]−[ ]=[ ].
2 4 6 9 −4 −5

55
 6 7 2 5
20. If 𝐴 + 𝐵 = [ ] and 𝐴 = [ ]. Find the matrix 𝐵.
5 0 1 −1
4 1 4 2
A. 𝐵 = [ ] B. 𝐵 = [ ]
2 4 4 1
4 1 4 4
C. 𝐵 = [ ] D. 𝐵 = [ ]
4 2 4 2
Answer: B
Explanation:
6 7 2 5
Given that, 𝐴 + 𝐵 = [ ] and 𝐴 = [ ]
5 0 1 −1
6 7 2 5
⇒ 𝐵 = (𝐴 + 𝐵) − 𝐴 = [ ]−[ ]
5 0 1 −1
4 2
𝐵=[ ]
4 1

5 6 4 5
21. Find the matrix M and N, if M + N = [ ],M − N = [ ].
7 8 6 8
9 11 1 1 5 6 4 5
A. 𝑀 = 1/2 [ ] , 𝑁 = 1/2 [ ] B. 𝑀 = [ ],N = [ ]
13 16 1 0 7 8 8 6
9 2 1 1 4 5 1 2
C. 𝑀 = 1/2 [ ] , 𝑁 = 1/2 [ ] D. 𝑀 = 1/2 [ ] , N = 1/2 [ ]
13 16 2 5 1 2 1 2
Answer: A
Explanation:
5 6 4 5
𝑀+𝑁 =[ ]-(1) and 𝑀 − 𝑁 = [ ] − (2)
7 8 6 8

a
5 6 4 5
Adding equation (1) and equation (2), (M + N) + (M − N) = 2M = [ ]+[ ]
7 8 6 8
9 11 1 1
𝑀 = 1/2 [ ] N = 1/2 [ ]
13 16 1 0

5 𝑥 −4 1 6 3
22.
A. 𝑥 = −1, 𝑦 = 9
m
Find the value of 𝑥 and 𝑦 if 2 [
𝑦−4 6
]+[
3 2
]=[
10 14
]?
B. 𝑥 = −1, 𝑦 = −9
C. 𝑥 = 1, 𝑦 = −9 D. 𝑥 = 1, 𝑦 = 9
Answer: D
Explanation:
5 𝑥 −4 1 6 3 2(5) − 4 2𝑥 + 1 6 3
Given that, 2 [ ]+[ ]=[ ]⇒[ ]=[ ]
𝑦−4 6 3 2 10 14 2(𝑦 − 4) + 3 2(6) + 2 10 14
F=
Comparing the two matrices, 2𝑥 + 1 = 3,2𝑦 − 8 = 10
Solving the two equations we get, 𝑥 = 1, 𝑦 = 9.
1 2 1 5
23. Find 𝐴𝐵 if 𝐴 = [ ] and 𝐵 = [ ].
3 4 3 2
15 23 9 7
A. 𝐴𝐵 = [ ] B. 𝐴𝐵 = [ ]
9 7 23 15
7 9 7 9
C. AB = [ ] D. 𝐴𝐵 = [ ]
15 23 23 15
Answer: C
Explanation:
1 2 1 5 1 2 1 5 1×1+2×3 1×5+2×2 7 9
Given that, 𝐴 = [ ] and 𝐵 = [ ] Then, 𝐴𝐵 = [ ][ ]=[ ]=[ ].
3 4 3 2 3 4 3 2 3×1+4×3 3×5+4×2 15 23

3 −5 2
24. Let 𝐴 = [−4 −6 2]. Find the additive inverse of 𝐴.
7 1 5
−3 5 −2 3 −5 2
A. [−4 6 2 ] B. [−4 −6 2]
7 1 5 7 1 5
−3 5 −2 −3 5 2
C. [ 4 6 −2] D. [−4 6 −2]
−7 −1 −5 −7 −1 5
Answer: C
Explanation:
Additive inverse of matrix A is the negative of A i.e. -A.
−3 5 −2
Therefore, −𝐴 = [ 4 6 −2]
−7 −1 −5

56
25. Which of the following conditions is incorrect for matrix multiplication?
A. 𝐴(𝐵𝐶) = (𝐴𝐵)𝐶 B. 𝐴(𝐵 + 𝐶) = 𝐴𝐵 + 𝐴𝐶
C. 𝐴𝐵 = 0 if either 𝐴 or 𝐵 is 0 D. 𝐴𝐵 = 𝐵𝐴
Answer: D
Explanation:
Matrix multiplication is never commutative i.e., 𝐴𝐵 ≠ 𝐵𝐴. Therefore, the condition 𝐴𝐵 = 𝐵𝐴 is incorrect.

26. Which of the following is not the property of transpose of a matrix?

A. (𝐴′ )′ = A B. (𝐴 + 𝐵)′ = 𝐴′ + 𝐵′
C. (𝐴𝐵) = (𝐵𝐴)
′ ′
D. (𝐾𝐴)′ = 𝐾𝐴′
Answer: C
Explanation:
(𝐴𝐵)′ = (𝐵𝐴)′ is incorrect. We know that matrix multiplication is not commutative i.e., AB 𝐴𝐵𝐴. Hence, its transpose will also not
be commutative.
(𝐴𝐵)′ = 𝐵′ 𝐴′

1 −2
27. Find the transpose of 𝐴 = [ ].
−1 5
−1 −2 1 2
A. 𝐴 = [ ] B. 𝐴 = [ ]
−1 −5 1 5
−1 2 1 −1
C. 𝐴 = [ ] D. 𝐴 = [ ]
−1 5 −2 5
Answer: D

a
Explanation:
1 −2
𝐴=[ ]. To find the transpose of the matrix, interchange the rows with columns and columns with rows. Hence, 𝐴′ =
−1 5
1 −1
[ ].
−2 5

2
m
28. If 𝐴 = [7] , 𝐵 = [−3 4 1], find (𝐴𝐵).
8
−6 −21 −24 −6 8 2
A. (𝐴𝐵)′ = [ 8 28 32 ] B. (𝐴𝐵)′ = [−21 −28 7]
2 7 8 −24 32 8
6 21 24 −6 8 −21
F=
C. (𝐴𝐵)′ = [−8 28 7 ] D. (𝐴𝐵)′ = [ 8 2 7 ]
−2 7 −8 −24 8 2
Answer: A
Explanation:
2
Given that, A = [7] , B = [−3 4 1]
8

2 −6 8 2
𝐴𝐵 = [7] [−3 4 1] = [−21 28 7]
8 −24 32 8

∴ To find (AB) ', interchange the rows with columns and columns with rows of the matrix 𝐴𝐵

−6 −21 −24
(𝐴𝐵)′ = [ 8 28 32 ]
2 7 8

8 2 9 5
29. If 𝐴′ = [ ] and 𝐵′ = [ ]. Find (𝐴 + 2𝐵)′ .
6 4 7 3
26 20 26 12
A. [ ] B. [ ]
10 12 20 10
26 10 26 20
C. [ ] D. [ ]
20 12 12 10
Answer: B
Explanation:
8 2 9 5 8 6 9 7
Given that 𝐴′ = [ ] and 𝐵′ = [ ] Calculating the transpose of 𝐴′ and 𝐵′ , we get A = [ ] and B = [ ]
6 4 7 3 2 4 5 3

57
 8 6 9 7
⇒ (𝐴 + 2𝐵) = [ ] + 2[ ]
2 4 5 3
8 + 18 6 + 14 26 20
=[ ]=[ ]
2 + 10 4 + 6 12 10

26 12
Hence, (𝐴 + 2𝐵)′ = [ ].
20 10

cos 𝑥 −sin 𝑥 −cos 𝑥

30. If A = [ ]. Find A′ A.
sin 𝑥 −cos 𝑥 sin 𝑥
1 0 0 1 0 1
A. [0 1 0] B. [1 0 1]
0 0 1 1 0 1
1 0 1 1 0 0
C. [0 1 0] D. [1 1 0]
1 0 1 1 1 1
Answer: D
Explanation:
cos 𝑥 −sin 𝑥 cos 𝑥
Given that, A = [ ]
sin 𝑥 cos 𝑥 sin 𝑥
cos 𝑥 sin 𝑥
∴ A′ = [−sin 𝑥 cos 𝑥]
cos 𝑥 sin 𝑥

cos 𝑥 sin 𝑥
cos 𝑥 −sin 𝑥 cos 𝑥

a
⇒ A′ A = [−sin 𝑥 cos 𝑥] [ ]
sin 𝑥 cos 𝑥 sin 𝑥
cos 𝑥 sin 𝑥

cos2 𝑥 + sin2 𝑥 −sin 𝑥cos 𝑥 + sin 𝑥cos 𝑥

= [−sin 𝑥cos 𝑥 + sin 𝑥cos 𝑥 sin2 𝑥 + cos2 𝑥 ]
cos2 𝑥 + sin2 𝑥
m
−cos 𝑥sin 𝑥 + sin 𝑥cos 𝑥
cos2 𝑥 + sin2 𝑥
−sin 𝑥cos 𝑥 + cos 𝑥sin 𝑥

cos2 𝑥 + sin2 𝑥
1 0 1
= [0 1 0 ]
1 0 1
F=
Question/Answer
Very Short Questions
1. If a matrix has 8 elements, what are the possible orders it can have.
Answer:
1 × 8,8 × 1,4 × 2,2 × 4,

2. Identity matrix of orders 𝑛 is denoted by.

Answer: ln

3. Define square matrix.

Answer: A matrix in which the no. of rows is equal to no. of columns i.e., m = n

4. The no. of all possible metrics of order 3 × 3 with each entry 0 or 1 is.
Answer: 512 = 29

5. Write (1) a33, a12 (ii) what is its order.

1 4 7
𝐴 = [2 5 8 ]
3 6 9
Answer: (i) a33 = 9, a12 = 4
(ii) 3 × 3

58
6. Two matrices A = aij and 𝐵 = 𝑏𝑖𝑗 are said to be equal if
Answer: They are of the same order.

7. Define Diagonal matrix.

Answer: A square matrix in which every non - diagonal element is zero is called diagonal matrix.

8. Every diagonal element of a skew symmetric matrix is:

Answer: Zero.

cos 𝛼 −sin 𝛼
9. If 𝐴 = [ ], then 𝐴 + 𝐴′ = 𝐼 Find 𝛼
sin 𝛼 cos 𝛼
Answer:
cos α −sin α cos α sin α
A + A′ = [ ]+[ ]
sin α cos α −sin α cos α
2cos α 0
=[ ]
0 2cos α
A + A = I( Given )
′

2cos α 0 1 0
[ ]=[ ]
0 2cos α 0 1
2cos α = 1
1
cos α =
2
𝜋
cos 𝛼 = cos
3

a
𝜋
𝛼=
3

1 5
10. 𝐴 = [ ] Find 𝐴 + 𝐴′
6 7
Answer:
A + A′ = [
1 5
]+[
1 6
]
m
6 7 5 7
2 11
=[ ]
11 14

Short Questions:
|𝑖−𝑗|
1. Write the element 𝑎23 of a 3 × 3 matrix 𝐴 = [𝑎𝑖𝑗 ] whose elements atj are given by:
F=
2
|i−j|
Answer: We have [aij ] =
2
|2 − 3| | − 1| 1
∴ a23 = = =
2 2 2

2. For what value of 𝑥 is

1 2 0 0
[1 2 1] [2 0 1] [2] = 0 ?
1 0 2 𝑥
Answer: We have
1 2 0 0
[1 2 1] [2 0 1] [2] = 0
1 0 2 x
0
[1 + 4 + 12 + 0 + 00 + 2 + 2] [2] = 0
x
0
[624] [2] = 0
x
⇒ [0 + 4 + 4x] = 0
⇒ [4 + 4x] = [0]
⇒ 4 + 4x = 0.
Hence, x = −1.

3. Find a matrix 𝐴 such that 2𝐴 − 3𝐵 + 5𝐶 = 0,

−2 2 0 2 0 −2
Where 𝐵 = [ ] and 𝐶 = [ ]
3 1 4 7 1 6
Answer:

59
Here, 2A − 3B + 5C = 0
⇒ 2A = 3B − 5C
−2 2 0 2 0 −2
⇒ 2A = 3 [ ]− 5[ ]
3 1 4 7 1 6
−6 6 0 −10 0 10
=[ ]+[ ]
9 3 12 −35 −5 −30
−6 − 10 6 + 0 0 + 10
=[ ]
9 − 35 3 − 5 12 − 30
−16 6 10
=[ ].
−26 −2 −18
−8 3 5
Hence, A = [ ].
−13 −1 −9

cos 𝛼 − sin 𝛼
4. If 𝐴 = ( ), then for what value of ' 𝛼 ' is 𝐴 an identity matrix?
sin 𝛼 − cos 𝛼
Answer:
cos α − sin α
Here A = ( )
sin α − cos α
1 0
Now A = I = ( ) when
0 1
cos a = 1 and sin a = 0.
Hence, a = 0.

5. Find the values of 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 and 𝑡, if:

𝑥 𝑧 1 −1 3 5

a
2 [𝑦 𝑡 ] + 3 [ ] = 3[ ]
0 2 4 6
Answer:
We have:
x z 1 −1 3 5
2 [y t ] + 3 [ ] = 3[ ]
0 2 4 6
⇒ [
2x 2z
2y 2t
]+[
3 −3
0 6
]=[
9 15
12 18
m ]
2x + 3 2z − 3 9 15
⇒ [ ]=[ ]
2y 2t + 6 12 18
⇒ 2x + 3 = 9 … … … (1)
2z − 3 = 15 … … … (2)
2y = 12 … … … (3)
2t + 6 = 18
F=
From (1), ⇒ 2x = 9 − 3
⇒ 2x = 6
⇒ x = 3.
From (3) 2y = 12
⇒ y = 6.
From (2), ⇒ 2z − 3 = 15
⇒ 2z = 18
⇒ z = 9.
From (4), 2t + 6 = 18
⇒ 2t = 12
⇒ t = 6.
Hence, x = 3, y = 6, z = 9 and t = 6.

2 0 1
6. If 𝐴 = [2 1 3], then find (𝐴2 − 5𝐴).
1 −1 0
Answer:
2 0 1
We have A = [2 1 3] Then A2 = AA
1 −1 0
2 0 1 2 0 1
= [2 1 3 ] [2 1 3]
1 −1 0 1 −1 0
4+0+1 0+0−1 2+0+0
= [4 + 2 + 3 0 + 1 − 3 2 + 3 + 0 ]
2−2+0 0−1−0 1−3+0

60
 5 −1 2
= [9 −2 5]
0 −1 −2
5 −1 2 2 0 1
∴ 𝐴2 − 5𝐴 = [9 −2 5 ] − 5 [2 1 3]
0 −1 −2 1 −1 0
5 − 10 −1 − 0 2−5
= [9 − 10 −2 − 5 5 − 15]
0 − 5 −1 + 5 −2 − 0
−5 −1 −3
= [−1 −7 −10]
−5 4 −2

3 1 1 0
7. If 𝐴 = [ ] and 𝐼 = [ ], find 𝑘 so that 𝐴2 = 5𝐴 + 𝑏𝑘 ∣
−1 2 0 1
Answer:
3 1
We have : A = [ ].
−1 2
3 1 3 1
∴ A2 = AA = [ ][ ]
−1 2 −1 2
9−1 3+2 8 5
=[ ]=[ ]
−3 − 2 −1 + 4 −5 3
3 1 15 5
Also, 5A = 5 [ ]=[ ]
−1 2 −5 10
1 0 k 0
and kI = k [ ]=[ ]
0 1 0 k

a
∴ A2 = 5A + kI
8 5 15 5 k 0
⇒[ ]=[ ]+[ ]
−5 3 −5 10 0 k
8 5 15 + k 5
⇒[ ]=[ ]
−5 3 −5 10 + k
m
⇒ 8 = 15 + k and 3 = 10 + k(1), (2)&(3)]
⇒ k = −1 and k = −7.
Hence, k − (−7).

8. If 𝐴 and 𝐵 are symmetric matrices, such that 𝐴𝐵 and 𝐵𝐴 are both defined, then prove that 𝐴𝐵 − 𝐵𝐴 is a skew symmetric
matrix.
Answer:
Since A and B are symmetric matrices,
F=
∴ A′ = A and B′ = B … (1)
Now, (AB − BA)′ = (AB)′ − (BA)′
= B′ A′ − A′ B′
= BA − AB[ Using (1)]
= −(AB − BA).
Hence, AB − BA is a skew-symmetric matrix.

Long Questions
1. Find the values of 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 and 𝑑 from the following equation:
2𝑎 + 𝑏 𝑎 − 2𝑏 4 −3
[ ]=[ ]
5𝑐 − 𝑑 4𝑐 + 3𝑑 11 24
Answer:
We have
2a + b a − 2b 4 −3
[ ]=[ ]
5c − d 4c + 3d 11 24
Comparing the corresponding elements of two given matrices, we get:
2a + b = 4 … (1)
a − 2b = −3 … (2)
5c − d = 11 … (3)
4c + 3d = 24 … (4)
Solving (1) and (2):
From (1),
b = 4 − 2a … (5)
Putting in (2), a - 2 (4-2a) = −3

61
⇒ a − 8 + 4a = −3
⇒ 5a = 5
⇒ a = 1.
Putting in (5),
b = 4 − 2(1) = 4 − 2 = 2.
Solving (3) and (4):
From (3),
d = 5c − 11f(6)

Putting in (4),
4c + 3(5c − 11) = 24
⇒ 4c + 15c − 33 = 24
⇒ 19c = 57
⇒ c = 3.
Putting in (6),
d = 5(3) − 11 = 15 − 11 = 4.
Hence, a = 1, b = 2, c = 3 and d = 4.

9 −1 4 1 2 −1
2. If [ ]= 𝐴+[ ] then find the matrix A.
−2 1 3 0 4 9
Answer:
a11 a12 a13
Let A = [a ].
21 a22 a23
9 −1 4
Then [ ]

a
−2 1 3
a11 a12 a13 1 2 −1
= [a u22 a23 ] + [0 4 9 ]
2
9 −1 4
∴[ ]
−2 1 3
a11 + 1 a12 + 2 a13 − 1
=[
a21 + 0 a22 + 4 a23 + 9
Comparing:
m].

9 = a11 + 1 − 1 = a12 + 2,
4 = 113 − 1, −2 = a21
1 = a22 + 4, and 3 = a23 + 9
a11 = 8, a12 = −3,
a13 = 5, a21 = −2
a22 = −3, and a23 = −6.
F=
8 −3 5
Hence, A = [ ]
−2 −3 −6

2 2 6 2
3. If 𝐴 == [−3 1] 𝐵 = [1 3] find the matrix 𝐶 such that 𝐴 + 𝐵 + 𝐶 is a zero matrix.
4 0 0 4
Answer:
c11 c12
Let C = [c21 c22 ].
c31 c32
Then A + B + C = O
2 2 6 2 c11 c12 0 0
⇒ [−3 1] + [1 3] + [c21 c22 ] = [0 0]
4 0 0 4 c31 c32 0 0
2+6 2+2 c11 c12 0 0
⇒ [−3 + 1 1 + 3] + [c21 c22 ] = [0 0]
4+0 0+4 c31 c32 0 0
2 + 6 + c11 2 + 2 + c12 0 0
⇒ [−3 + 1 + c21 1 + 3 + c22 ] = [0 0]
4 + 0 + c31 0 + 4 + c32 0 0
8 + c11 4 + c12 0 0
⇒ [−2 + c21 4 + c22 ] = [0 0] .
4 + c31 4 + c32 0 0
Comparing:
8 + c11 = 0 ⇒ c11 = −8,
4 + C12 = 0 ⇒ C12 = −4,
−2 + C21 = 0 ⇒ C21 = 2

62
4 + C22 = 0 ⇒ C22 = −4,
4 + c31 = 0 ⇒ C31 = −4 and 4 + c32 = 0 ⇒ C32 = −4.
−8 −4
Hence, C = [ 2 −4]
−4 −4

8 0 2 −2
4. If 𝐴 = [4 −2] 𝐵 = [ 4 2] then find the matrix ' 𝑋 ', of order 3 × 2, such that 2𝐴 + 3X = 5B ⋅
3 6 −5 1
Answer:
We have: 2A + 3X = 5B
⇒ 2A + 3X − 2A = 5B − 2A
⇒ 2A − 2A + 3X = 5B − 2A
⇒ (2A − 2A) + 3X = 5B − 2A
⇒ 0 + 3X = 5B − 2A
[∵ −2A is the inverse of 2A]
⇒ 3X = 5B − 2A.
[∵ −2A is the inverse of 2A]
⇒ 3X = 5B − 2A.
[ ∵ 0 is the additive identity]
1
Hence, X = (5B − 2A)
3
1 2 −2 8 0
= (5 [ 4 2] − 2 [4 −2])

a
3
−5 1 3 6
1 10 −10 −16 0
= ([ 20 10] + [ −8 4])
3
−25 5 −6 −12
1 10 − 16 −10 + 0
= [ 20 − 8 10 + 4])
3
−25 − 6 5 − 12
−2 −10/3
m
1 −6 −10
= [ 12 14] = [ 4 14/3]
3
−31 −7 −31/3 −7/3
F=

63
 Chapter-4 Determinants
Introduction

We will study the fundamentals of determinants and the calculation of determinants of a matrix along with the representation of
a matrix. We will take examples to understand the fundamentals of determinants. We will discuss the minors and cofactors of a
determinant. and learn about the minor and cofactor calculation by examples. We will also study the properties of determinants
like reflection property, triangle property, all zero property, sum property, scalar multiple property, factor property, property of
multiplication, property of power, and property of proportionality.

Definition of Determinants

A number associated with a square matrix of order ‘n’ is known as the determinant of the given matrix. This number can be a real
number as well as a complex number depending upon the entries of the square matrix. In other words, we can define a determi-
nant as a scalar value which can be calculated from the elements/entries of a square matrix. The determinant method is very
useful in finding the solution of simultaneous linear equations, area of a triangle, etc.

Recollecting concepts

a
When a system of algebraic equations is given to us as:
a1 x + b1 y = c1
a2 x + b2 y = c2
Then we can express them in the form of matrices as:
a
[ 1
b1 x
a2 b2 y
c1
] [ ] = [c ]
2
m
To get the solution of system of linear equations, we find all the values of the variables satisfying all the linear equations in the
system.

• We can define determinant of a matrix as a scalar value that can be calculated from the elements of a square matrix.
F=
𝑎 𝑏1
• The scalar value for a square matrix [ 1 ] is given by 𝑎1 𝑏2 − 𝑎2 𝑏1 .
𝑎2 𝑏2
• It is represented as |𝐴| or det⁡(A) or Δ.
a b1 a b1
• For a matrix [ 1 ], the determinant is written as | 1 |.
a2 b2 a2 b2
• Square matrices are those matrices that have same number of rows and columns. Only such matrices have determinants.

Types of Determinants

1 First order determinant - It is the determinant of a matrix of order one. The element of the matrix will be the determinant
value.
For example,
[2] ⇒ |2| ⇒ 2

2. Second order determinant - It is the determinant of a matrix of order two.

𝑎 𝑏1 𝑎 𝑏1
If [ 1 ], then | 1 | = 𝑎1 𝑏2 − 𝑎2 𝑏1 .
𝑎2 𝑏2 𝑎2 𝑏2

For example,
1 3 1 3
[ ]⇒| |
5 3 5 3
⁡⇒ (1 × 3) − (3 × 5) ⇒ 3 − 15 ⇒ −12

3. Third order determinant - It is the determinant of a matrix of order three.

64
 𝑎1 𝑏1 𝑐1
Let us consider [𝑎2 𝑏2 𝑐2 ]. We have six ways to write the determinant, i.e., three ways to expand along rows and three ways
𝑎3 𝑏3 𝑐3
to expand along columns.
Let us consider the expansion along the first row, which is the most common method. So, first we consider the first element, a11
and delete the row 1 and column 1 . We end up with a second order matrix and so we apply the determinant for this and multiply
with a11 and also (−1)sum of coefficients of 𝑎11 ⇒ (−1)1+1 , here sum of coefficients indicates the sum i + j for element 𝑎ij.

(−1)2 ⋅ a1 ⋅ (b2 c3 − b3 c2 )

Then we move onto element a12 and delete the row 1 and column 2. Again, we end up with a second order matrix and so we apply
the determinant for this and multiply with a12 and also (−1)sum of coefficients of a12 ⇒ (−1)1+2 .

(−1)3 ⋅ 𝑏1 ⋅ (𝑎2 𝑐3 − 𝑎3 𝑐2 )

At last, we move onto element 𝑎13 and delete the row 1 and column 3. Again, we end up with a second order matrix and so we
apply the determinant for this and multiply with a13 and also (−1)sum of coefficients of a13 ⇒ (−1)1+3 .

(−1)4 ⋅ 𝑐1 ⋅ (𝑎2 𝑏3 − 𝑎3 𝑏2 )
𝑎1 𝑏1 𝑐1
Now, we add them up to get the determinant of matrix [𝑎2 𝑏2 𝑐2 ] as a1 ( b2 c3 − b3 c2 ) − b1 (a2 c3 − a3 c2 ) + c1 (a2 b3 − a3 b2 ).
𝑎3 𝑏3 𝑐3

kind of expansion we opt for.

a
In the same manner, we can expand along other rows and columns. We will get the same value of determinant irrespective of the

A tip to keep in mind while choosing the expansion method would be to go for the row or column containing maximum number
m
of zeroes. If zeroes are not present, then one. This will make calculations easier.

Another interesting point to keep in mind is that if we have two square matrices 𝐴 and 𝐵 of order 𝑛 and 𝐴 = 𝑘𝐵, then |𝐴| = 𝑘 𝑛 |𝐵|,
where 𝑛 = 1,2,3, …..

Properties of Determinants
F=
The below properties are true for determinants of all orders.
1 Property 1 - The value of the determinant remains unchanged if its rows and columns are interchanged. Let us verify with
1 2 1
the help of an example, The determinant |3 4 1| is 1(12 − 2) − 2(9 − 1) + 1(6 − 4) ⇒ 10 − 16 + 2 ⇒ −4.Exchanging
1 2 3
1 3 1
rows and columns, we get |2 4 2|. The value of this determinant is 1(12 − 2) − 3(6 − 2) + 1(2 − 4) ⇒ 10 − 12 − 2 ⇒
1 1 3
−4. Hence verified.
• It follows from above property that if 𝐴 is a square matrix, then det⁡(A) = det⁡(A′ ). Here, A′ is transpose of A.
• For interchange of row and columns, say R i = ith row and Ci = ith column, we represent it symbolically as Ci ↔ R i .

2. Property 2 - If any two rows (or columns) of a determinant are interchanged, then sign of determinant changes. Let us verify
1 2 1
with the help of an example, The determinant |3 4 1| is 1(12 − 2) − 2(9 − 1) + 1(6 − 4) ⇒ 10 − 16 + 2 ⇒ −4. Inter-
1 2 3
3 4 1
changing first and second rows, we get |1 2 1|. The value of this determinant is 3(6 − 2) − 4(3 − 1) + 1(2 − 2) ⇒ 12 −
1 2 3
8 + 0 ⇒ 4. Hence verified.
• For interchange of two rows/columns, say R i and R j rows or Ci and Cj columns, we represent it symbolically as 𝑅𝑖 ↔ 𝑅𝑗 or
𝐶𝑖 ↔ 𝐶𝑗 .

65
3 Property 3 - If any two rows (or columns) of a determinant are identical (all corresponding elements are same), then value
of determinant is zero. Let us verify with the help of an example, The value of the determinant with identical columns
1 3 1
|3 4 3| is1(4 − 6) − 3(3 − 3) + 1(6 − 4) ⇒ −2 + 0 + 2 ⇒ 0. Hence verified.
1 2 1

4 Property 4 - If each element of a row (or a column) of a determinant is multiplied by a constant 𝑘, then its value gets multi-
1 2 3
plied by 𝑘. Let us verify with the help of an example, Consider the determinant |1 3 3|. The value of this determinant is
1 2 1
1(3 − 6) − 2(1 − 3) + 3 ⇒ −3 + 4 − 3 ⇒ −2.Now, first row of the same determinant is multiplied by a constant 2 to get
2 4 6
|1 3 3|. The value of this determinant is 2(3 − 6) − 4(1 − 3) + 6(2 − 3) ⇒ −6 + 8 − 6 ⇒ −4, which is 2[−2]. Hence ver-
1 2 1
ified.

5 Property 5 - If some or all elements of a row or column of a determinant are expressed as sum of two (or more) terms, then
the determinant can be expressed as sum of two (or more) determinants. Let us verify with the help of an example, Consider
1 2 3
the determinant |1 3 3|. The value of this determinant is 1(3 − 6) − 2(1 − 3) + 3(2 − 3) ⇒ −3 + 4 − 3 ⇒ −2 Now, we
1 2 1
2+1 2+2 1+3
add terms to the terms in the first row of the same determinant and get | 1 3 3 |. The value of this determinant
1 2 1

a
1 2 3 2 2 1
is3(3 − 6) − 4(1 − 3) + 4(2 − 3) ⇒ −9 + 8 − 4 ⇒ −5The value of this determinant is |1 3 3| + |1 3 3| [1(3 − 6) −
1 2 1 1 2 1
2(1 − 3) + 3(2 − 3)] + [2(3 − 6) − 2(1 − 3) + 1(2 − 3)] ⇒ [−3 + 4 − 3] + [−6 + 4 − 1] ⇒ [−2] + [−3] ⇒ −5 which is
2+1 2+2 1+3
same as determinant value for | 1 3 |.Hence verified.
m 1
3
2 1

6 Property 6 - If, to each element of any row or column of a determinant, the equimultiples of corresponding elements of
other row (or column) are added, then value of determinant remains the same, i.e., the value of determinant remain same if
we apply the operation R i → R i + kR j or Ci → Ci + 𝑘𝐶j . Let us verify with the help of an example, Consider the determinant
1 2 3
|1 3 3|. The value of this determinant is 1(3 − 6) − 2(1 − 3) + 3(2 − 3) ⇒ −3 + 4 − 3 ⇒ −2. Now, we add term which
F=
1 2 1
2+2 2+4 1+2
is a multiple of third row to the terms in the first row of the same determinant and get | 1 3 3 |. By using the
1 2 1
1 2 3 2 4 2
property 5, this can be expressed as |1 3 3| + |1 3 3|. By using property 3 , since we have the first and third row as
1 2 1 1 2 1
2+2 2+4 1+2
proportional, the second determinant would be zero. The value of determinant | 1 3 3 | would be the same as
1 2 1
1 2 3
determinant |1 3 3|. Hence verified.
1 2 1
0 12 −7
7 Property 7 - If each element of a row (or column) of a determinant is zero, then its value is zero. For example, |0 8 1 |.
0 −5 13
If we expand this along first column, then the value will be zero.

8 Property- 8 In a determinant, if all the elements on one side of the principal diagonal are zeroes, then the value of the
3 −3 2
determinant is equal to the product of the elements in the principal diagonal. For example, the determinant |0 8 1|
0 0 1
expanded along first column has value as 3(8 − 0) = 24. The product of the elements in principal diagonal is 3 × 8 × 1 = 24.
Hence, verified.

66
Area of a triangle

• Consider a triangle with vertices as (x1 , y1 ), (x2 , y2 ) and (x3 , y3 ). We know that the area of the triangle can be found as 𝐴 =
1
[𝑥1 (𝑦2 − 𝑦3 ) + 𝑥2 (𝑦3 − 𝑦1 ) + 𝑥3 (𝑦1 − 𝑦2 )].
2
x1 y1 1
1
• We can represent the same using determinants as Δ = |x2 y2 1|.
2
x 3 y3 1
• We always take the absolute value of the determinant while computing the area as it is a positive quantity.
• We use both positive and negative values of the determinant in case the area is given.
• We know that three collinear points cannot form a triangle and hence we can say that the area of the triangle formed by
three collinear points is zero.

Minors

• If we delete the ith row and jth column of a determinant in which the element aij lies, then we get the minor of that element.
• Minor is represented as Mij .
• Minor of an element of a determinant of order 𝑛(𝑛 ≥ 2) is a determinant of order n − 1.
1 −4 0
−4 0
• If we have to find 𝑀21 of determinant | 2 5 3|, then we get it as 𝑀21 = | | ⇒ 𝑀21 = −4
2 1
−1 2 1

Cofactors

• We denote the cofactor of an element aij as 𝐴ij .

a
•
•
m
Multiplying the minor of an element with a factor (−1)𝑖+𝑗 gives the cofactor.
It can be defined as Aij = (−1)i+j Mij, where Mij is minor of aij .
• When the elements of a row/column are multiplied with the cofactors of any other row/column, then their sum is zero.
1 −4 0
• If we have to find 𝐴11 of determinant | 2 5 3|, then we get it as
−1 2 1
5 3
A11 = (−1)1+1 | | ⇒ A11 = 1. (5 − 6) ⇒ A11 = −1
F=
2 1

Adjoint of a matrix

• The matrix obtained after taking the transpose of the matrix of cofactors of the given matrix is called the adjoint of that
matrix.
a b c a d g
• For example, if we have the cofactor matrix as [𝑑 𝑒 f ], then the adjoint would be [ b e h]
g h i c f i

Theorem 1 - If 𝐴 be any given square matrix of order 𝑛, then 𝐴(adj⁡ 𝐴) = (adj⁡ 𝐴)𝐴 = |𝐴|𝐼, where 𝐼 is the identity matrix of order
𝑎 𝑏 𝑒 𝑓
𝑛.If we have a matrix [ ] and its adjoint as [ ], then we can say that the sum of product of elements of a row/column with
𝑐 𝑑 𝑔 ℎ
|𝐴| 0
corresponding cofactors is equal to |A| and otherwise zero. So, we can write 𝐴(adj⁡ 𝐴) = [ ] = |𝐴|𝐼
0 |𝐴|

• Singular matrices - If the determinant of a square matrix is zero, then it is said to be a singular matrix.
• Non-singular matrices - If the determinant of a square matrix is a non-zero value, then it is said to be a non-singular matrix.

Theorem 2 - If A and B are non-singular matrices of the same order, then AB and BA are also non-singular matrices of the same
order.

Theorem 3 - The determinant of the product of matrices is equal to product of their respective determinants. It can be written
as 𝐴𝐵 = |𝐴||𝐵|, where 𝐴 and 𝐵 are square matrices of the same order.

67
This can be verified as shown below:
|A| 0
From Theorem 1, we have 𝐴(adj⁡ 𝐴) = [ ] Now taking the determinant value of matrices on both sides,
0 | A|
|A| 0
⁡|A(adj⁡ A)| = | |
0 ∣A
1 0
⁡|A||(adj⁡ A)| = |A|2 | |
0 1
2
⁡|A||(adj⁡ A)| = |A| I
⁡|(adj⁡ A)| = |A|1

Hence verified. This leads us to the general conclusion that if A is a square matrix of order 𝑛, then |(adj⁡ 𝐴)| = |𝐴|𝑛−1 .

Theorem 4 - A square matrix is invertible if and only if it is a non-singular matrix.

1
So, for a non-singular matrix A, we can write the inverse of the matrix as A−1 = (adj⁡ A)
| A|
Looking into the proof,
Let 𝐴 be an invertible matrix of order 𝑛. Let I be the identity matrix of order 𝑛. Then, there exists a square matrix 𝐵 of order 𝑛
such that 𝐴𝐵 = 𝐵𝐴 = 𝐼.
So, we have 𝐴𝐵 = 𝐼. We can write |𝐴𝐵| = 𝐼. Since |𝐼| = 1, |𝐴𝐵| = |𝐴||𝐵|, it can be written as |A||B| = 1.

This gives |𝐴| ≠ 0 and hence 𝐴 is non-singular.

Conversely, if we let 𝐴 as a non-singular matrix, then |𝐴| ≠ 0.

|𝐴|

a
From Theorem 1, A (adj⁡ 𝐴) = (adj⁡ 𝐴)𝐴 = |𝐴|𝐼. Rearranging terms,
1 1
𝐴 [ (adj⁡ 𝐴)] = [(adj⁡ 𝐴) ] A = I
|𝐴|
m
It is same as AB = BA = I. So, here 𝐵 =
1
|𝐴|
(adj⁡ 𝐴), which is the inverse of matrix 𝐴.

Applications of Determinants and Matrices

• They can be used for solving system of linear equations in two or three variables. They can also be used for checking the
F=
consistency of system of linear equations.
• Consistent system is a system of equations whose solution (one or more) exists.
• Inconsistent system is a system of equations whose solution does not exist.
• We can say that the determinant is a number that determines the uniqueness of the solution of a system of linear equations.

Solution of a system of linear equations using inverse of matrix

Let us consider system of equations with three variables as

a1 x + b1 y + c1 z = d1
a2 x + b2 y + c2 z = d2
a3 x + b3 y + c3 z = d3

Writing it in matrix form, we have

𝑎1 𝑏1 𝑐1 𝑥 𝑑1
[𝑎2 𝑏2 𝑐2 ] [𝑦] = [𝑑2 ]
𝑎3 𝑏3 𝑐3 𝑧 𝑑3

This can be expressed as AX = B.

Now, we look at two cases:

Case 1: If 𝑨 is a non-singular matrix, then its inverse exists.
From AX = B, we premultiply by A−1 ,
𝐴−1 (𝐴𝑋) = 𝐴−1 𝐵

68
Using associative property,
(𝐴−1 𝐴)𝑋 = 𝐴−1 𝐵
IX = A−1 B
X = A−1 B
The above matrix equation provides unique solution for the system of equations as we know that the inverse of a matrix is unique.
We call this method as Matrix Method.

Case 2: If 𝑨 is a singular matrix, then |𝐴| = 0.

For this case, first we calculate (adj⁡ 𝐴)𝐵.

If ( adj⁡ 𝐴)𝐵 is a non-zero matrix, then solution does not exist and the system of equations is called inconsistent.

If (adj⁡ 𝐴)𝐵 is a zero matrix, then system of equations may be either consistent (with infinitely many solutions) or inconsistent
(with no solution).

a
m
F=

69
 Multiple Choice Questions
2 5
1. Evaluate | |
−1 −1
A. 3 B. -7
C. 5 D. -2
Answer: A
Explanation:
Expanding along 𝑅1 , we get
Δ = 2(−1) − 5(−1) = −2 + 5
= 3.

5 −4
2. Evaluate | |.
1 √3
A. 4√3 + 4 B. 4√3 + 5
C. 5√3 + 4 D. 5√3 − 4
Answer: C
Explanation:
Evaluating along 𝑅1 , we get Δ = 5(√3) − (−4)1 = 5√3 + 4.

−sin⁡ 𝜃 −1

a
3. Evaluate | |
1 sin⁡ 𝜃
A. cos ⁡ 𝜃
2
B. −cos2 ⁡ 𝜃
C. cos⁡ 2𝜃 D. cos⁡ 𝜃
Answer: A
Explanation:
m
Expanding along 𝑅1 , we get Δ = −sin⁡ 𝜃(sin⁡ 𝜃) − (−1)1 = −sin2 ⁡ 𝜃 + 1 = cos2 ⁡ 𝜃.

𝑖 −1
4. Evaluate | |
−1 −𝑖
A. 4 B. 3
C. 2 D. 0
Answer: D
F=
Explanation:
Expanding along R1 , we get Δ = −𝑖(𝑖) − (−1)(−1) = −𝑖 2 − 1 = −(−1) − 1 = 0.

1 1 −2
5. Evaluate | 3 4 5 |.
−1 2 1
A. -6 B. -34
C. 34 D. 22
Answer: B
Explanation:
1 1 −2
Δ=| 3 4 5 |
−1 2 1
Expanding along the first row, we get
4 5 3 5 3 4
Δ = 1| |− 1| |− 2| |
2 1 −1 1 −1 2
⁡= 1(4 − 5(2)) − 1(3 − 5(−1)) − 2(6 − 4(−1))
⁡= (4 − 10) − (3 + 5) − 2(6 + 4)
⁡= −6 − 8 − 20 = −34.

5 4 3
6. Evaluate |3 4 1|
5 6 1
A. 4 B. -24
C. -8 D. 8
Answer: C
Explanation:

70
Expanding along the first row, we get
4 1 3 1 3 4
Δ = 5| |− 4| | +3| |
6 1 5 1 5 6
⁡= 5(4 − 6) − 4(3 − 5) + 3(18 − 20)
⁡= 5(−2) − 4(−2) + 3(−2) = −10 + 8 − 6 = −8.

8𝑥 + 1 2𝑥 − 2
7. Evaluate | 2 |
𝑥 − 1 3𝑥 + 5
A. −2𝑥 3 − 26𝑥 2 + 45𝑥 + 3 B. −2𝑥 3 + 26𝑥 2 + 45𝑥 + 3
C. −2𝑥 3 + 26𝑥 2 + 45𝑥 − 3 D. −2𝑥 3 − 26𝑥 2 − 45𝑥 + 3
Answer: B
Explanation:
Expanding along the first row, we get
Δ = 8𝑥 + 1(3𝑥 + 5) − (2𝑥 − 2)(𝑥 2 − 1)
⁡= (24𝑥 2 + 43𝑥 + 5) − (2𝑥 3 − 2𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 + 2)
⁡= −2𝑥 3 + 26𝑥 2 + 45𝑥 + 3

2 5 9
8. If 𝐴 = [6 1 3], find |𝐴|.
4 8 2
A. 352 B. 356
C. 325 D. 532
Answer: A

a
Explanation:
2 5 9
Given that, 𝐴 = [6 1 3]
4 8 2
2 5 9
⇒ |A| = |6 1 3|
4 8 2
m
Evaluating along the first row, we get
1 3 6 3 6 1
Δ = 2| |− 5| | +9| |
8 2 4 2 4 8
Δ = 2(2 − 24) − 5(12 − 12) + 9(48 − 4)
Δ = 2(−22) − 0 + 9(44)
Δ = −44 + 9(44) = 44(−1 + 9) = 352
F=
9. Evaluate | √3 √2 |.
−1 2√3
A. 6 − 3√2 B. 6 − √2
C. 6 + 3√2 D. 6 + √2
Answer: D
Explanation:

Δ = | √3 √2 |
−1 2√3
Δ = (√3 × 2√3) + √2
Δ = 6 + √2.

3 𝑥 5 3
10. Find the value of 𝑥 if | |=| |.
2 𝑥2 3 2
1 1
A. 𝑥 = 1, − B. 𝑥 = −1, −
3 3
1 1
C. 𝑥 = 1, D. 𝑥 = −1,
3 3
Answer: A
Explanation:
3 𝑥 5 3
Given that | |=| |
2 𝑥2 3 2
2
⁡⇒ 3x − 2x = 5(2) − 3(3)
⁡⇒ 3x 2 − 2x = 1
1
Solving for 𝑥, we get 𝑥 = 1, − .
3

71
 3 −1 3
11. Evaluate |6 −5 4|
3 −2 3
A. 100 B. 223
C. 240 D. 230
Answer: C
Explanation:
Expanding along 𝑅1 , we get
3 −1 3
Δ = |6 −5 4|
3 −2 3
−5 45 6 4 6 −5
Δ = 3| | − (−1) | | +3| |
−2 3 3 3 3 −2
Δ = 3(−15 + 90) + (18 − 12) + 3(−12 + 15)
Δ = 3(75) + 6 + 9 = 240.

1 0 1
12. Evaluate |0 0 1|.
1 0 1
A. 2 B. 0
C. 1 D. -1
Answer: B
Explanation:
1 0 1

a
Δ = |0 0 1 |
1 0 1
0 1 0 1 0 0
Δ = 1| |− 0| | +1| |
0 1 1 1 1 0
Δ = 1(0 − 0) − 0(0 − 1) + 1(0 − 0)
Δ=0−0+0=0
m
7 4
13. Evaluate |𝐴|2 − 5|𝐴| + 1, if 𝐴 = [ ]
5 5
A. 161 B. 251
C. 150 D. 151
Answer: D
Explanation:
F=
7 4
Given that, 𝐴 = [ ]
5 5
⁡|𝐴| = (7(5) − 5(4)) = 35 − 20 = 15
⁡|𝐴|2 − 5|𝐴| + 1 = (15)2 − 5(15) + 1 = 225 − 75 + 1 = 151

sin⁡ 𝑦 0 sin⁡ 𝑦
14. Evaluate |cos⁡ 𝑦 1 cos⁡ 𝑥|
sin⁡ 𝑦 1 sin⁡ 𝑦
A. sin⁡ 𝑦(cos⁡ 𝑦 − cos⁡ 𝑥) B. sin⁡ 𝑥(cos⁡ 𝑦 − cos⁡ 𝑥)
C. sin⁡ 𝑥(cos⁡ 𝑥 − cos⁡ 𝑦) D. sin⁡ 𝑦(cos⁡ 2𝑦 − cos⁡ 𝑥)
Answer: A
Explanation:
sin⁡ 𝑦 0 sin⁡ 𝑦
Δ = |cos⁡ 𝑦 1 cos⁡ 𝑥|
sin⁡ 𝑦 1 sin⁡ 𝑦
1 cos⁡ 𝑥 cos⁡ 𝑦 cos⁡ 𝑥 cos⁡ 𝑦 1
Δ = sin⁡ y | | − 0 | sin⁡ 𝑦 sin⁡ 𝑦 | + sin⁡ y | |
1 sin⁡ 𝑦 sin⁡ 𝑦 1
Δ = sin⁡ y(sin⁡ y − cos⁡ x) − 0 + sin⁡ y(cos⁡ y − sin⁡ y)
Δ = sin2 ⁡ y − sin⁡ ycos⁡ x + sin⁡ ycos⁡ y − sin2 ⁡ y = sin⁡ y(cos⁡ y − cos⁡ x)

2 5 𝑥 −1
15. Find the value of x, if | |=| |.
3 𝑥 5 3
A. 20 B. -20
C. 30 D. -30
Answer: B
Explanation:

72
 2 5 𝑥 −1
| |=| |
3 𝑥 5 3
⁡⇒ 2𝑥 − 15 = 3x + 5
⁡⇒ x = −20

16. Find the value of x, if |

1 −1
| = |𝑥 𝑥 2 |.
3 −5 3 5
1 1
A. 𝑥 = 2, − B. 𝑥 = −1, −
3 3
1 1
C. 𝑥 = −2, − D. 𝑥 = 0, −
3 3
Answer: A
Explanation:
Given that, |
1 −1
| = |𝑥 𝑥 2 | − 5 − (−3) = 5𝑥 − 3𝑥 2
3 −5 3 5
⁡−2 = 5𝑥 − 3𝑥 2
3𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 − 2 = 0
Solving for 𝑥, we get
1
𝑥 = 2, − .
3

17. Which of the following matrices will not have a determinant?

4 2 1 5 4
A. [ ]
5 4 B. [3 6 2]
4 8 7

a
5 8 9 1 2
C. [ ] D. [ ]
3 4 6 5 4
Answer: C
Explanation:
5 8 9
Determinant of the matrix 𝐴 = [ ] is not possible as it is a rectangular matrix and not a square matrix. Determinants can
3 4 6
m
be calculated only if the matrix is a square matrix.

9 8
18. Find the determinant of the matrix 𝐴 = [ ]
7 6
A. -1 B. 1
C. 2 D. -2
Answer: D
F=
Explanation:
9 8
Given that, 𝐴 = [ ]
7 6
9 8
⇒Δ=| | = 9(6) − 7(8) = 54 − 56 = −2
7 6

−cos⁡ 𝜃 −tan⁡ 𝜃
19. Find the determinant of the matrix A = [ ].
cot⁡ 𝜃 cos⁡ 𝜃
A. sin2 ⁡ 𝜃 B. sin⁡ 𝜃
C. −sin⁡ 𝜃 D. −sin2 ⁡ 𝜃

Answer: A
Explanation:
−cos⁡ 𝜃 −tan⁡ 𝜃
Given that, A = [ ]
cot⁡ 𝜃 cos⁡ 𝜃
−cos⁡ 𝜃 −tan⁡ 𝜃
⁡|𝐴| = | |
cot⁡ 𝜃 cos⁡ 𝜃
⁡|𝐴| = −cos⁡ 𝜃(cos⁡ 𝜃) − cot⁡ 𝜃(−tan⁡ 𝜃)
⁡|𝐴| = −cos2 ⁡ 𝜃 + 1 = sin2 ⁡ 𝜃.

5 0 5
20. Evaluate |1 4 3|.
0 8 6
A. 20 B. 0
C. -40 D. 40
Answer: B
Explanation:

73
 5 0 5
Δ = |1 4 3|
0 8 6

Expanding along 𝑅1 , we get

4 3 1 3 1 4
Δ = 5| |− 0| | +5| |
8 6 0 6 0 8
Δ = 5(24 − 24) − 0 + 5(8 − 0)
Δ = 0 − 0 + 40 = 40.

0 𝑝−𝑞 𝑎−𝑏
21. What will be the value of |𝑞 − 𝑝 0 𝑥 − 𝑦| ?
𝑏−𝑎 𝑦−𝑥 0
A. 0 B. 𝑎 + 𝑏
C. 𝑥 + 𝑦 D. 𝑝 + 𝑞

Answer: A
Explanation:
The above matrix is a skew symmetric matrix, and its order is odd And we know that for any skew symmetric matrix with odd
order has determinant = 0 Therefore, the value of the given determinant = 0.

22. Which of the following is not a property of determinant?

A. The value of determinant changes if all of its rows B. The value of determinant changes if any two rows

a
and columns are interchanged or columns are interchanged
C. The value of determinant is zero if any two rows D. The value of determinant gets multiplied by k, if
and columns are identical each element of row or column is multiplied by k
Answer: A
Explanation:
m
The value of determinant remains unchanged if all of its rows and columns are interchanged i.e. |A|=|A’|, where A is a square
matrix and A’ is the transpose of the matrix A.

1 𝑥 𝑦
23. Find the determinant of the matrix A = [1 𝑥 −𝑦].
1 −𝑥 2 𝑦2
A. (𝑥 + 1) B.
F=
−2𝑥𝑦(𝑥 + 1)
C. 𝑥𝑦(𝑥 + 1) D. 2𝑥𝑦(𝑥 + 1)
Answer: B
Explanation:
1 𝑥 𝑦
Given that, A = [1 𝑥 −𝑦]
1 −𝑥 2 𝑦 2
1 𝑥 𝑦
Δ = |1 𝑥 −𝑦|
1 −𝑥 2 𝑦 2
1 1 1
Taking 𝑥 common 𝐶2 and 𝑦 common from 𝐶3 , we get Δ = 𝑥𝑦 |1 1 −1|
1 −𝑥 𝑦
Expanding along 𝑅1 , we get
Δ = 𝑥𝑦{1(𝑦 − 𝑥) − 1(𝑦 + 1) + 1(−𝑥 − 1)}
Δ = 𝑥𝑦(𝑦 − 𝑥 − 𝑦 − 1 − 𝑥 − 1)
Δ = 𝑥𝑦(−2𝑥 − 2) = −2𝑥𝑦(𝑥 + 1)

𝑥2 𝑥3 𝑥4
24. Evaluate | 𝑥 𝑦 𝑧|
𝑥2 𝑥3 𝑥4
A. 0 B. 1
C. 𝑥𝑦𝑧 D. 𝑥 2 𝑦𝑧 3
Answer: A
Explanation:

74
 𝑥2 𝑥3 𝑥4
Δ=|𝑥 𝑦 𝑧|
𝑥2 𝑥3 𝑥4
If the elements of any two rows or columns are identical, then the value of determinant is zero. Here, the elements of row 1 and
row 3 are identical. Hence, its determinant is 0.

cos⁡ 𝜃 −cos⁡ 𝜃 1
25. Evaluate |sin2 ⁡ 𝜃 cos2 ⁡ 𝜃 1|
sin⁡ 𝜃 −sin⁡ 𝜃 1
A. sin⁡ 𝜃 + cos2 ⁡ 𝜃 B. −sin⁡ 𝜃 − cos2 ⁡ 𝜃
C. −sin⁡ 𝜃 + cos2 ⁡ 𝜃 D. sin⁡ 𝜃 − cos2 ⁡ 𝜃
Answer: D
Explanation:
cos⁡ 𝜃 −cos⁡ 𝜃 1
Δ = |sin2 ⁡ 𝜃 cos2 ⁡ 𝜃 1|
sin⁡ 𝜃 −sin⁡ 𝜃 1

Applying C1 → C1 + C2
cos⁡ 𝜃 − cos⁡ 𝜃 −cos⁡ 𝜃 1 0 −cos⁡ 𝜃 1
Δ = |sin2 ⁡ 𝜃 + cos2 ⁡ 𝜃 cos2 ⁡ 𝜃 1 | = |1 cos2 ⁡ 𝜃 1|
sin⁡ 𝜃 − sin⁡ 𝜃 −sin⁡ 𝜃 1 0 −sin⁡ 𝜃 1

Expanding along 𝐶1 , we get

a
0 − 1(cos2 ⁡ 𝜃 + sin⁡ 𝜃) = sin⁡ 𝜃 − cos2 ⁡ 𝜃.

𝑏−𝑐 𝑏 𝑐
26. Evaluate | 𝑎 𝑐−𝑎 𝑐 |
𝑎 𝑏 𝑎−𝑏
A. 2𝑎𝑏𝑐 B. 2𝑎{(𝑏 − 𝑐)(𝑐 − 𝑎 + 𝑏)}
C. 2𝑏{(𝑎 − 𝑐)(𝑎 + 𝑏 + 𝑐)}
m D. 2𝑐{(𝑏 − 𝑐)(𝑎 − 𝑐 + 𝑏)}
Answer: B
Explanation:
𝑏−𝑐 𝑏 𝑐
Δ=| 𝑎 𝑐−𝑎 𝑐 |
𝑎 𝑏 𝑎−𝑏
F=
Applying C2 → C2 − C3
𝑏−𝑐 𝑏−𝑐 𝑐
Δ=| 𝑎 −𝑎 𝑐 |
𝑎 −𝑎 𝑎 − 𝑏

Applying C1 → C1 − C2
0 𝑏−𝑐 𝑐
Δ = |2𝑎 −𝑎 𝑐 |
2𝑎 −𝑎 𝑎 − 𝑏

Applying 𝑅2 → 𝑅2 − 𝑅3
0 𝑏−𝑐 𝑐
Δ=|0 0 𝑐 − 𝑎 + 𝑏|
2𝑎 −𝑎 𝑎−𝑏

Expanding along 𝐶1 , we get Δ = 2a{(b − c)(c − a + b)}

1 3
27. If 𝐴 = [ ], then
2 1
A. |2𝐴| = 4|𝐴| B. |2𝐴| = 2|𝐴|
C. |𝐴| = 2|𝐴| D. |𝐴| = |4𝐴|
Answer: A
Explanation:
1 3
Given that, 𝐴 = [ ]
2 1

75
 1 3 2 6
2 A = 2[ ]=[ ]
2 1 4 2
2 6
⁡|2 A| = | | = (4 − 24) = −20
4 2
1 3
4| A| = 4 | | = 4(1 − 6) = 4(−5) = −20
2 1
⁡∴ |2 A| = 4| A|.

−𝑎 𝑏 𝑐
28. Evaluate |−2𝑎 + 4𝑥 2𝑏 − 4𝑦 2𝑐 + 4𝑧|
𝑥 −𝑦 𝑧
A. 0 B. 𝑎𝑏𝑐
C. 2𝑎𝑏𝑐 D. -1
Answer: A
Explanation:
−𝑎 𝑏 𝑐
Δ = |−2𝑎 + 4𝑥 2𝑏 − 4𝑦 2𝑐 + 4𝑧|
𝑥 −𝑦 𝑧

Using the properties of determinants, the given determinant can be expressed as a sum of two determinants.
−𝑎 𝑏 𝑐 −𝑎 𝑏 𝑐
Δ = |−2𝑎 2𝑏 2𝑐| + | 4𝑥 −4𝑦 4𝑧|
𝑥 −𝑦 𝑧 𝑥 −𝑦 𝑧
−𝑎 𝑏 𝑐 −𝑎 𝑏 𝑐

a
Δ = 2 |−𝑎 𝑏 𝑐 | + 4 | 𝑥 −𝑦 𝑧|
𝑥 −𝑦 𝑧 𝑥 −𝑦 𝑧

Since two rows are similar in each of the determinants, the determinant is 0.

29.
m 𝑐2
Find the determinant of A = [𝑎𝑏
𝑐𝑏
𝑎2
𝑐𝑎
−𝑎𝑐 ]
𝑎𝑏 𝑏𝑐 −𝑏 2
A. 𝑎𝑏𝑐(𝑎3 + 𝑏 3 + 𝑐 3 + 𝑎𝑏𝑐) B. 𝑎𝑏𝑐(𝑎3 + 𝑏 3 + 𝑐 3 − 𝑎𝑏𝑐)
C. 𝑎𝑏𝑐(𝑎3 + 𝑏 3 + 𝑐 3 + 𝑎𝑏𝑐) D. (𝑎3 − 𝑏 3 + 𝑐 3 − 𝑎𝑏𝑐)
Answer: B
Explanation:
F=
𝑐 2 𝑐𝑏 𝑐𝑎
Given that, A = [𝑎𝑏 𝑎2 −𝑎𝑐 ]
𝑎𝑏 𝑏𝑐 −𝑏 2

Taking c a, b common from 𝑅1 , 𝑅2 , 𝑅3 respectively, we get

𝑐 𝑏 𝑎
Δ = 𝑎𝑏𝑐 [𝑏 𝑎 −𝑐 ]
𝑎 𝑐 −𝑏
Δ = 𝑎𝑏𝑐{(𝑐(−𝑎𝑏 + 𝑐 2 ) − 𝑏(−𝑏 2 + 𝑎𝑐) + 𝑎(𝑏𝑐 − 𝑎2 )
Δ = 𝑎𝑏𝑐(−𝑎𝑏𝑐 + 𝑐 3 + 𝑏 3 − 𝑎𝑏𝑐 + 𝑎𝑏𝑐 − 𝑎3 )
Δ = 𝑎𝑏𝑐(𝑎3 + 𝑏 3 + 𝑐 3 − 𝑎𝑏𝑐).

1+𝑚 𝑛 𝑞
30. Evaluate | 𝑚 1+𝑛 𝑞 |
𝑛 𝑚 1+𝑞
A. −1(1 + 𝑚 + 𝑛 + 𝑞) B. 1 + 𝑚 + 𝑛 + 𝑞
C. 1 + 2𝑞 D. 1 + 𝑞
Answer: A
Explanation:
1+𝑚 𝑛 𝑞
Given that, Δ = | 𝑚 1+𝑛 𝑞 |
𝑛 𝑚 1+𝑞

Applying C1 → C1 + C2 + C3

76
 1+𝑚+𝑛+𝑞 𝑛 𝑞 1 𝑛 𝑞
Δ = |1 + 𝑚 + 𝑛 + 𝑞 1+𝑛 𝑞 | = (1 + m + n + q) |1 1 + 𝑛 𝑞 | Applying 𝑅1 → 𝑅2 − 𝑅1
1+𝑚+𝑛+𝑞 𝑚 1+𝑞 1 𝑚 1+𝑞

0 1 0
Δ = (1 + m + n + q) |1 1 + 𝑛 𝑞 |
1 𝑚 1+𝑞

Expanding along the first row, we get

Δ = (1 + 𝑚 + 𝑛 + 𝑞)(0 − 1(1 + 𝑞 − 𝑞) + 0)
Δ = −1(1 + 𝑚 + 𝑛 + 𝑞).

Question/Answer
Very Short Questions
1. Find the co-factor of the element a23 of the determinant:
5 3 8
|2 0 1 |
1 2 3
Answer:
Co-factor of a23 = (-1)2 + 3

a
= (-1)5 (5 x 2 – 1 x 3)
= (-1) (10-3)
= (-1) (7) = -7.

1
2. If A and B are invertible matrices of order 3, |A| = 2 and |(AB)−1 | = − Find |B|.
Answer:
m 6
F=

n+m m+n n+l

3. Check whether (1 + m + n) is a factor of the determinant ∣ or not. Given reason.
2 2 m
Answer:
Given

Hence, (l + m + n) is a factor of given determinant.

4. If A is a square matrix of order 3, with |A| = 9, then write the value of ∣ 2 adj. A ∣.
Answer:
| 2 – adj. A| = 23 | A |3-1
= 8(9)2
= 648.

5. If A and B are square matrices of the same order 3, such that |A| = 2 and AB = 2I, write the value of IBI.

77
Answer:
We have: AB = 2I
∴ |AB| = |2I|
⇒ |A||B| = |2I|
⇒ 2|B|= 2(1).
Hence, |B| = 1.

6. A is a square matrix with |A| = 4. Then find the value of ∣ A. (adj. A) |.

Answer:
|A. (adj. A) | = |A|n
= 4n or 16 or 64.

5 3 8
7. If Δ = |2 0 1| write:
1 2 3
i. the minor of the element a23
ii. the co-factor of the element a32.
Answer:
5 3
(i) 𝑎23 = | |
1 2
⁡= (5)(2) − (1)(3)
⁡= 10 − 3 = 7.
5 8

a
(ii) 𝑎32 = (−1)3+ | |
2 1
⁡= (−1)5 [(5)(1) − (2)(8)]
⁡= (−1)5 (5 − 16)
⁡= (−1)(−11) = 11.

8.
m
Find the adjoint of the matrix A = [
2
4
−1
3
]
Answer:
2 −1
Here |𝐴| = [ ]
4 3
Now 𝐴11 = Co-factor of 2 = 3,
𝐴12 = Co-factor of − 1 = −4,
𝐴21 = Co-factor of 4 = 1
F=
and 𝐴22 = Co-factor of 3 = 2
3 −4
⁡∴ Co-factor matrix = [ ]
1 2
3 −4 3 1
Hence, adj. 𝐴 = [ ]=[ ]
1 2 −4 2

2 −3
9. Given A = [ ] compute A−1 and show that 2A−1 = 9I − A.
−4 7
Answer:
2 −3
(i) We have: 𝐴 = [ ]
−4 7
2 −3
⁡∴ |𝐴| = | |
−4 7
⁡= (2)(7) − (−4)(−3)
⁡= 14 − 12 = 2 ≠ 0.
⁡∴ 𝐴−1 exists and
1 1 7 3
𝐴−1 = adj 𝐴 = [ ]
|𝐴| 2 4 2
(ii) 𝑅𝐻𝑆 = 91 − 𝐴
1 0 2 −3
⁡= 9 [ ]−[ ]
0 1 −4 7
9 0 −2 3
⁡= [ ]+[ ]
0 9 4 −7
9−2 0+3 7 3
⁡= [ ]=[ ]
0+4 9−7 4 2
1 7 3
⁡= 2 × [ ]
2 4 2
⁡= 2𝐴 = LHS.
−1

78
 5−x x+1
10. [ ]⁡or what value of ' x ', the matrix 2 4 is singular?
2 4
Answer:
5−𝑥 𝑥+1
The matrix [ ] is singular
2 4
5−𝑥 𝑥+1
⁡⇒ [ ]=0
2 4
⁡⇒ 4(5 − 𝑥) − 2(𝑥 + 1) = 0
⁡⇒ 20 − 4𝑥 − 2𝑥 − 2 = 0
⁡⇒ 18 − 6𝑥 = 0
⁡⇒ 6𝑥 = 18.

Long Questions
1. Using properties of determinants, prove the following:
a+b+c −c −b
| −c a+b+c −a |
−b −a a+b+c
= 2(a + b)(b + c)(c + a).
Answer:
𝑎+𝑏+𝑐 𝑎+𝑏 𝑎+𝑐
LHS = | −𝑐 𝑎+𝑏 −(𝑎 + 𝑐)|
−𝑏 −(𝑎 + 𝑏) 𝑎+𝑐
[Operating 𝐶2 → 𝐶2 + 𝐶1 and
𝐶3 → 𝐶3 + 𝐶1 ]

a
𝑎+𝑏+𝑐 1 1
⁡= (𝑎 + 𝑏)(𝑎 + 𝑐) | −𝑐 1 −1|
−𝑏 −1 1
𝑎+𝑏+𝑐 1 2
⁡= (𝑎 + 𝑏)(𝑎 + 𝑐) | −𝑐 1 0|
−𝑏 −1 0
[Operating 𝐶3 → 𝐶3 + 𝐶2 ]
⁡= (𝑎 + 𝑏)(𝑎 + 𝑐)(2)[𝑐 + 𝑏]
m
⁡= 2(𝑎 + 𝑏)(𝑏 + 𝑐)(𝑐 + 𝑎) = RHS

a −1 0
2. If f(x) = | ax a −1|, using properties of determinants, find the value.
2015) ax a
F=
Answer:
We have
𝑎 −1 0
𝑓(𝑥) ⁡= | 𝑎𝑥 𝑎 −1|
𝑎𝑥 2 𝑎𝑥 𝑎
1 −1 0
⁡= 𝑎 | 𝑥 𝑎 −1|
𝑥 2 𝑎𝑥 𝑎
[Taking a common from 𝐶𝑙 ]
1 0 0
= 𝑎| 𝑥 𝑎 + 𝑥 −1|
𝑥 2 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑥 2 𝑎
[Operating 𝐶2 → 𝐶2 + 𝐶1 ]
⁡= 𝑎[(𝑎 + 𝑥)𝑎 + (𝑎𝑥 + 𝑥 2 )]
⁡= 𝑎[𝑎2 + 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑥 2 ]
⁡= 𝑎(𝑥 2 + 2𝑎𝑥 + 𝑎2 )
⁡= 𝑎(𝑥 + 𝑎)2
𝑓(2𝑥) = 𝑎(2𝑥 + 𝑎)2
𝑓(2𝑥) − 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎[(2𝑥 + 𝑎)2 − (𝑥 + 𝑎)2 ]
⁡= 𝑎[(4𝑥 2 + 4𝑎𝑥 + 𝑎2 ) − (𝑥 2 + 2𝑎𝑥 + 𝑎2 )]
⁡= 𝑎(3𝑥 2 + 2𝑎𝑥)
⁡= 𝑎𝑥(3𝑥 + 2𝑎).

3. Using properties of determinants, prove that:

1 1 1 + 3x
|1 + 3y 1 1 | = 9(3xyz + xy + yz + zx)
1 1 + 3z 1

79
Answer:
1 1 1 + 3x
LHS = |1 + 3y 1 1 |
1 1 + 3z 1
1 0 3x
⁡= |1 + 3y −3y −3y|
1 3z 0
[Operating C2 → C2 − C1 and C3 → C3 − C1 ]
−3y −3y 1 + 3y −3y
= 1. | | + 3x | |
3z 0 1 3z
[Expanding by R l ]
⁡(0 + 9yz) + 3x(3z + 9yz + 3y)
⁡= 9(3xyz + xy + yz + zx) = RHS

4. Using properties of determinants, prove that:

a b−c c+b
|a + c b c − a| = (a + b + c)(a2 + b2 + c 2 )
a−b b+a c
Answer:
a b−c c+b
LHS = | a + c b c − a|
a−b b+a c
2
1 a b − c c + b
⁡= | a2 + ac b c − a|
a 2

a
a − ab b + a c
[Operating C1 → aC1 ]
2 2 2 b−c c+b
1 a +b +c
= |a2 + b2 + c 2 b c − a|
a 2
a + b2 + c 2 b + a c
[Operating C1 → C1 + bC2 + cC3 ]
1 1 b−c c+b
m
= (a2 + b2 + c 2 ) |1 b c − a|
a
1 b+a c
[Taking (a2 + b2 + c 2 ) common from C, ]
1 2 1 b−c c+b
= (a + b2 + c 2 ) |0 c −a − b|
a
0 a+c −b
F=
[Opertating R 2 → R 2 − R l &R 3 → R 3 − R1 ]
1 2
= (a + b2 + c 2 )(1) | c −a − b
|
a a+c −b
2 2 2
a +b +c
= [−bc + a2 + ac + ba + bc]
a
(a2 + b2 + c 2 )
= (a)(a + b + c)
a
= ⁡(a + b + c)(a + b2 + c 2 ) = RHS.
2

80
 Chapter-5 Continuity and Differentiability
Introduction

Differentiability and Continuity is one of the most important topics and it helps students to understand various concepts like
continuity at a certain point, derivative of functions, and continuity on a given interval.

What is Continuity

Continuity of a function states the characteristics of the function and its functional value. A function is said to be continuous if the
curve has no missing points or breaking points in a given interval or domain, that is the curve is continuous at every point in its
domain.

What is Differentiability

Function f(x) is said to be differentiable at the point x = a and if the derivative of the function f ‘(a) exists at every point in its given
domain.

a
A function 𝑓(x) is said to be continuous at x = a; where a ∈ domain of 𝑓(x), if
lim𝑥→𝑎− 𝑓(𝑥) = lim𝑥→𝑎+ 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑎)
i.e., LHL = RHL = value of a function at x = a
or lim𝑥→𝑎 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑎)

Reasons of discontinuity
m
If 𝑓(x) is not continuous at x = a, we say that 𝑓(x) is discontinuous at 𝑥 = 𝑎 There are following possibilities of discontinuity:
1 lim𝑥→𝑎− 𝑓(𝑥) and lim𝑥→𝑎+ 𝑓(𝑥) exist but they are not equal.
2 lim𝑥→𝑎− 𝑓(𝑥) and lim𝑥→𝑎+ 𝑓(𝑥) exists and are equal but not equal to 𝑓(𝑎)
3 𝑓(𝑎) is not defined.
F=
4 At least one of the limits does not exist. The graph of the function will show a break at the location of discontinuity from a
geometric standpoint.

The graph as shown is discontinuous at 𝑥 = 1,2 and 3.

Properties of Continuous Functions

Let 𝑓(x) and 𝑔(x) be continuous functions at x = a. Then,

1 𝑐𝑓(𝑥) is continuous at x = a, where c is any constant.
2 𝑓(x) ± 𝑔(x) is continuous at x = a.
3 𝑓(𝑥) ⋅ 𝑔(𝑥) is continuous at 𝑥 = 𝑎.
4 𝑓(x)/g(x) is continuous at x = a, provided 𝑔(a) ≠ 0.-

81
5 Assuming 𝑓(x) be continuous on [a,b] in such a way that the function 𝑓(a) and 𝑓 ( b) will be at opposite signs, then there will
exists at least one solution of equation 𝑓(𝑥) = 0 in the open interval (𝑎, 𝑏)

The Intermediate Value Theorem

Suppose 𝑓(x) is continuous on an interval I, and a and b are any two points of 𝐼. Then if 𝑦0 is a number between 𝑓(𝑎) and 𝑓(𝑏),
their exits a number 𝑐 between 𝑎 and 𝑏 such that 𝑓(𝑐) = 𝑦0

The Function 𝑓, being continuous on (𝑎, 𝑏) takes on every value between 𝑓(𝑎) and 𝑓(𝑏)

Note:
That a function 𝑓 which is continuous in [a, b] possesses the following properties: (i) If 𝑓(𝑎) and 𝑓(𝑏) possess opposite signs,
then there exists at least one solution of the equation 𝑓(𝑥) = 0 in the open interval (𝑎, 𝑏)

(ii) If 𝐾 is any real number between 𝑓(𝑎) and 𝑓(𝑏), then there exists at least one solution of the equation 𝑓(x) = K in the open
interval (a, b)

Continuity in an Interval

(a) A function 𝑓 is said to be continuous in (a, b) if 𝑓 is continuous at each and every point ∈ (a, b)

a
(b) A function 𝑓 is said to be continuous in a closed interval [𝑎, 𝑏] if:
(1) 𝑓 is continuous in the open interval (𝑎, 𝑏) and
(2) 𝑓 is right continuous at 'a' i.e., Limit 𝑥→𝑎+ 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑎) = a finite quantity
(3) 𝑓 is left continuous at 'b'; i.e., Limit 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑏) = 𝑎 finite quantity

A List of Continuous Functions

m
Function 𝒇(𝒙) Interval in which f(x)is continuous
1 constant c (−∞, ∞)
2 𝑥 n , n is an integer ⩾ 0 (−∞, ∞)
3 x −n , n is a positive integer (−∞, ∞)
F=
4 |𝑥 − 𝑎| (−∞, ∞)
5 P(x) = a0 x 𝑛 + a1 x 𝑛−1 + ⋯ … + an (−∞, ∞)
𝑝(𝑥)
6 where 𝑝(𝑥) and (−∞, ∞) − {𝑥; 𝑞(𝑥) = 0}𝑞(𝑥) are polynomial in 𝑥
𝑞(𝑥)
7 Sin 𝑥 (−∞, ∞)
8 cos 𝑥 Interval in which 𝑓(𝑥) is continuous (−∞, ∞)
𝜋
9 tan 𝑥 (−∞, ∞) − {(2𝑛 + 1) : 𝑛 ∈ 𝐼}
2
10 cot 𝑥 (−∞, ∞) − {𝑛𝜋: 𝑛 ∈ 𝐼}

11 sec 𝑥 (−∞, ∞) − {(2𝑛 + 1)

12 cosec 𝑥 𝜋/2: 𝑛 ∈ 𝐼}

13 𝑒 𝑥 (−∞, ∞) − {𝑛𝜋: 𝑛 ∈ 𝐼}

14 log 𝑐 𝑥 (−∞, ∞)(0, ∞)

Types of Discontinuities

Type-1: (Removable type of discontinuities)

In this case, Limit 𝑓(𝑥) exists but it will not equal to 𝑓 (c). As a result, the function is said to have a removable discontinuity or
discontinuity of the first kind. In such scenario, we can redefine the function such that Limit 𝑥→𝑐 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑐) and make it contin-
uous at x = c. It can be further categorised as:

82
(a) Missing Point Discontinuity:
Where Limit 𝑓(𝑥) exists finitely but 𝑓(𝑎) is not defined.
𝑥→𝑎
(1−𝑥)(9−𝑥 2 ) sin x
E.g., 𝑓(𝑥) = will have a missing point discontinuity at 𝑥 = 1, and 𝑓(x) = will have a missing point discontinuity at
(1−𝑥) x
x=0

missing point discontinuity at 𝑥 = 𝑎

(b) Isolated Point Discontinuity:
Where Limit 𝑥→𝑎 𝑓(𝑥) exists 𝑓 (a) also exists but;
Limit 𝑥→𝑎 ≠ 𝑓(𝑎)

𝑥 2 −16
E.g., 𝑓(𝑥) = , 𝑥 ≠ 4 and 𝑓(4) = 9 will have an isolated point discontinuity at 𝑥 = 4

a
𝑥−4
0 if 𝑥 ∈ 𝐼
In the same way 𝑓(𝑥) = [𝑥] + [−𝑥] = [ will have an isolated point discontinuity at all 𝑥 ∈ 𝐼.
−1 if 𝑥 ∉ 𝐼
m
F=

Isolated point discontinuity at 𝑥 = 𝑎

Type-2: (Non-Removable type of discontinuities)

In case, Limit 𝑓(𝑥) does not exist, then it is not possible to make the function continuous by redefining it. Such discontinuities are
known as non-removable discontinuity or discontinuity of the 2nd kind. Non-removable type of discontinuity can be further
classified as:

non - removable discontinuity at 𝑥 = 𝑎

(a) Finite Discontinuity:
1 1
E.g., 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 − [𝑥] at all integral 𝑥; 𝑓(𝑥) = tan−1 at 𝑥 = 0 and 𝑓(𝑥) = 1 at 𝑥 = 0
𝑥 1+2𝑥
(Note that 𝑓(0+ ) = 0; 𝑓(0− ) = 1)1 + 2− )

83
(b) Infinite Discontinuity:
1 1
E.g., 𝑓(𝑥) = or 𝑔(𝑥) = at 𝑥 = 4; 𝑓(𝑥) = 2tan 𝑥
𝑥−4 (𝑥−4)2

𝜋 cos 𝑥
at 𝑥 = and 𝑓(𝑥) = at 𝑥 = 0
2 𝑥

(c) Oscillatory Discontinuity:

1
E.g., 𝑓(𝑥) = sin at 𝑥 = 0
𝑥

In all these cases the value of 𝑓(𝑎) of the function at 𝑥 = 𝑎 (point of discontinuity) may or may not exist but Limit 𝑥→𝑎 does not
exist.

a
From the adjacent graph note that
−𝑓 is continuous at 𝑥 = −1
m
−𝑓 has isolated discontinuity at x = 1
−𝑓 has missing point discontinuity at 𝑥 = 2
-f has non-removable (finite type) discontinuity at the origin.

Note:
F=
a) In case of dis-continuity of the second kind the nonnegative difference between the value of the RHL at x = a and LHL at x =
a is called the jump of discontinuity. A function having a finite number of jumps in a given interval is called a piece wise
continuous or sectionally continuous function in this interval.

b) All Polynomials, Trigonometrical functions, exponential and Logarithmic functions are continuous in their domains.

c) If 𝑓(x) is continuous and 𝑔(x) is discontinuous at x = a then the product function 𝜙(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥) ⋅ 𝑔(𝑥) is not necessarily be
𝜋
sin 𝑥≠0
discontinuous at 𝑥 = 𝑎. e.g.,𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 and 𝑔(𝑥) = [ 𝑥
0 𝑥=0

d) If 𝑓(x) and 𝑔(x) both are discontinuous at x = a then the product function 𝜙(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥) ⋅ 𝑔(𝑥) is not necessarily be discon-
1 𝑥⩾0
tinuous at x = a. e.g 𝑓(𝑥) = −𝑔(𝑥) = [
−1 𝑥 < 0

e) Point functions are to be treated as discontinuous., 𝑓(𝑥) = √1 − 𝑥 + √𝑥 − 1 is not continuous at 𝑥 = 1

f) A continuous function whose domain is closed must have a range also in closed interval.

g) If 𝑓 is continuous at 𝑥 = 𝑎 and 𝑔 is continuous at 𝑥 = 𝑓 (a) then the composite 𝑔[𝑓(x)] is continous at x = a

𝑥sin 𝑥 𝑥sin 𝑥
h) E.g., 𝑓(𝑥) = and 𝑔(𝑥) = |𝑥| are continuous at 𝑥 = 0, hence the composite (𝑔 ∘ 𝑓)(𝑥) = | | will also be continuous
𝑥 2 +2 𝑥 2 +2
at 𝑥 = 0.

84
Differentiability

Let 𝑓(x) bea real valued function defined on an open interval (𝑎, 𝑏) where 𝑐 ∈ (𝑎, 𝑏). Then 𝑓(𝑥) is said to be differentiable or
derivable at 𝑥 = 𝑐

𝑓(𝑥)−𝑓(𝑐)
if, lim𝑥→𝑐 exists finitely.
(𝑥−𝑐)

d
This limit is called the derivative or differentiable coefficient of the function 𝑓(𝑥) at 𝑥 = 𝑐, and is denoted by 𝑓 ′ (c) or (𝑓(x))x=c
dx

a
𝑓(a+h)−𝑓(a)
Slope of Right-hand secant = as h → 0, P → A and secant (AP) → tangent at A
h
𝑓(a+h)−𝑓(a)
⇒ Right hand derivative = Limh→0 ( )
h
= Slope of tangent at A (when approached from right) 𝑓 ′ (a+ )
m
𝑓(a−h)−𝑓(a)
Slope of Left-hand secant = as h → 0, Q → A and secant AQ → tangent at A
−h
𝑓(𝑎−ℎ)−𝑓(𝑎)
⇒ Left hand derivative = Limℎ→0 ( )
−ℎ
= Slope of tangent at A (when approached from left) 𝑓 ′ (a− )

Thus, 𝑓(𝑥) is differentiable at x = c.

F=
𝑓() − 𝑓(c)
⇔ lim exists finitely
→𝑐 (−c)
𝑓() − 𝑓(c) 𝑓() − 𝑓(c)
⇔ lim− = lim+
→𝑐 (−c) →c (−c)
𝑓(c − h) − 𝑓(c) 𝑓(c + h) − 𝑓(c)
⇔ lim = lim
h→0 −h h→0 h

𝑓(𝐱)−𝑓(𝐜) 𝑓(𝐜−𝐡)−𝐟(𝐜)
Hence, lim𝑥→𝑐 − = lim𝐡→0 is called the left hand derivative of 𝑓(𝑥) at 𝑥 = 𝑐 and is denoted by 𝑓 ′ (c − )or 𝑓 ′ (c)
(𝐱−𝐜) −𝐡
𝐟(𝐱)−𝐟(𝐜) 𝐟(𝐜+𝐡)−𝐟(𝐜)
While, lim𝐱→c+ = lim𝐡→0 is called the right hand derivative of 𝑓(𝑥) at 𝑥 = 𝑐 and is denoted by 𝑓 ′ (c + )or R𝑓 ′ (c)
𝐱−𝐜 𝐡

If 𝑓 ′ (c − ) ≠ 𝑓 ′ (c + ), we say that 𝑓(x) is not differentiable at 𝑥 = 𝑐.

Differentiability in a Set

1 A function 𝑓(𝑥) defined on an open interval (𝑎, 𝑏) is said to be differentiable or derivable in open interval (𝑎, 𝑏), if it is
differentiable at each point of (𝑎, 𝑏)
2 A function 𝑓(𝑥) defined on closed interval [a, b] is said to be differentiable or derivable. "If f is derivable in the open interval
(a, b) and also the end points a and b, then 𝑓 is said to be derivable in the closed interval [a, b]"
𝑓()−𝑓(𝑎) 𝑓()−𝑓(𝑏)
i.e., lim→𝑎+ and lim→𝑏− , both exist.
−𝑎 −𝑏

A function 𝑓 is said to be a differentiable function if it is differentiable at every point of its domain.

85
Note:
1 If 𝑓(𝑥) and 𝑔(𝑥) are derivable at 𝑥 = a then the functions 𝑓(𝑥) + 𝑔(𝑥), 𝑓(𝑥) − 𝑔(𝑥), 𝑓(𝑥) ⋅ 𝑔(𝑥) will also be derivable at 𝑥 =
𝑎 and if 𝑔(𝑎) ≠ 0 then the function 𝑓(x)/g(x) will also be derivable at 𝑥 = 𝑎

2 If 𝑓(𝑥) is differentiable at 𝑥 = 𝑎 and 𝑔(𝑥) is not differentiable at x = a, then the product function F(x) = 𝑓(x) ⋅ 𝑔(x) can still
be differentiable at x = a. E.g., 𝑓(x) = x and 𝑔(x) = |x|

3 If 𝑓(𝑥) and 𝑔(x) both are not differentiable at x = a then the product function; 𝐹(x) = 𝑓(x) ⋅ 𝑔(x) can still be differentiable
at 𝑥 = a. E.g., 𝑓(x) = |x| and 𝑔(x) = |x|

4 If 𝑓(𝑥) and 𝑔(𝑥) both are not differentiable at x = a then the sum function 𝐹(x) = 𝑓(x) + 𝑔(x) may be a differentiable func-
tion. E.g., 𝑓(𝑥) = |𝑥| and 𝑔(x) = −|x|

5 If 𝑓(𝑥) is derivable at 𝑥 = 𝑎
⇒ 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) is continuous at 𝑥 = 𝑎.

2 if ≠ 0
e.g., 𝑓(𝑥) = [
0 if = 0

Relation B/W Continuity & Differentiability

a
We learned in the last section that if a function is differentiable at a point, it must also be continuous at that point, and therefore
a discontinuous function cannot be differentiable. The following theorem establishes this fact.

Theorem: If a function is differentiable at a given point, it must be continuous at that same point. However, the inverse is not
always true.
m
or 𝑓(𝑥) is differentiable at 𝑥 = 𝑐
⇒ 𝑓(x) is continuous at x = c

Converse: The reverse of the preceding theorem is not always true, i.e., a function might be continuous but not differentiable at
a given point.
F=
E.g., The function 𝑓(𝑥) = |𝑥| is continuous at 𝑥 = 0 but it is not differentiable at x = 0

Note:
(a) Let 𝑓 ′+ (𝑎) = 𝑝; 𝑓 ′− (𝑎) = 𝑞 where 𝑝𝑞 are finite then
⇒ 𝑓 is derivable at 𝑥 = 𝑎
⇒ 𝑓 is continuous at 𝑥 = 𝑎

(ii) p ≠ q ⇒ 𝑓 is not derivable at x = a. It is very important to note that f may be still continuous at 𝑥 = 𝑎
In short, for a function f :

Differentiable ⇒ Continuous;
Not Differentiable ≠ Not Continuous
(i.e., function may be continuous)
But,
Not Continuous ⇒ Not Differentiable.

(b) If a function f is not differentiable but is continuous at 𝐱 = a it geometrically implies a sharp corner at 𝐱 = 𝐚

Theorem 2: Let 𝑓 and 𝑔 be real functions such that fog is defined if 𝑔 is continuous at 𝑥 = 𝑎 and 𝑓 is continuous at 𝑔

(a), show that fog is continuous at 𝑥 = 𝑎.

86
Differentiation

Definition
(a) Let us consider a function y = 𝑓(x) defined in a certain interval. It has a definite value for each value of the independent
variable 𝑥 in this interval.

Now, the ratio of the function's increment to the independent variable's increment,

Δ𝑦 𝑓(𝑥 + Δ𝑥) − 𝑓(𝑥)

=
Δ𝑥 Δ𝑥

Δy 𝑑𝑦
Now, as Δx → 0, Δy → 0 and → finite quantity, then derivative 𝑓(𝑥) exists and is denoted by 𝑦 ′ or 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) or Thus, 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) =
Δx 𝑑𝑥
Δ𝑦 𝑓(𝑥+Δ𝑥)−𝑓(𝑥)
lim𝑥→0 ( ) = limΔ𝑥→0 (if it exits) for the limit to exist,
Δ𝑥 Δ𝑥
𝑓(x + h) − 𝑓(x) 𝑓(x − h) − 𝑓(x)
lim = lim
h→0 h h→0 −h

(Right Hand derivative) (Left Hand derivative)

(b) The derivative of a given function f at a point x = a of its domain is defined as:
𝑓(𝑎+ℎ)−𝑓(𝑎)
Limit ℎ→0 , provided the limit exists is denoted by 𝑓 ′ (a)
ℎ

Note that alternatively, we can define

𝑓 ′ (a) = Limit x→a

𝑓(x)−𝑓(a)
x−a
, provided the limit exists.

a
m
This method is called first principle of finding the derivative of 𝑓(𝑥)

Derivative of Standard Function

𝑑
(i) (𝑥 𝑛 ) = 𝑛 ⋅ 𝑥 𝑛−1 ; 𝑥 ∈ 𝑅, 𝑛 ∈ 𝑅, 𝑥 > 0
𝑑𝑥
F=
𝑑
(ii) (𝑒 x ) = ex
𝑑𝑥

d
(iii) (ax ) = ax ⋅ ln a(a > 0)
dx

d 1
(iv) (ln |x|) =
dx x

d 1
(v) (log a |x|) = log a e
dx x

𝑑
(vi) (sin 𝑥) = cos 𝑥
𝑑𝑥

𝑑
(vii) (cos 𝑥) = −sin 𝑥
𝑑𝑥

𝑑 𝑑
(viii) (tan 𝑥) = sec 2 𝑥 (ix) (sec 𝑥) = sec 𝑥 ⋅ tan 𝑥
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

d
(x) (cosec 𝑥) = −cosec 𝑥 ⋅ cot 𝑥
dx

𝑑
(xi) (cot 𝑥) = −cosec 2 𝑥
𝑑𝑥

d
(xii) ( constant ) = 0
dx

87
 d 1
(xiii) (sin−1 x) = , −1<x<1
dx √1−x2

d −1
(xiv) (cos−1 x) = , −1<x<1
dx √1−x2

𝑑 1
(𝑥𝑉) (tan−1 𝑥) = , 𝑥∈𝑅
𝑑𝑥 1 + 𝑥2

d −1
(xvi) (cot −1 x) = , x∈R
dx 1+x2

d 1
(xvii) (sec −1 x) = , |x| > 1
dx |x|√x2−1

d −1
(xviii) (cosec −1 x) = , |x| > 1
dx |x|√x2 −1

(xix) Results:

If the inverse functions 𝑓(𝑔) are defined by 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥); 𝑥 = 𝑔(𝑦). Then

𝑔(𝑓(𝑥)) = 𝑥 ⇒ 𝑔′ (𝑓(𝑥)) ⋅ 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 1

a
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 dx 𝑑𝑦 dy dx dy dx dx
This result can also be written as, if exists and ≠ 0, then = 1/ ( ) or ⋅ = 1 or = 1/ ( ) [ ≠ 0]
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 dy 𝑑𝑥 dx dy dx dy dy

Theorems on Derivatives
m
If 𝑢 and 𝑣 are derivable functions of 𝑥, then,

d du dv
(i) Term by term differentiation: (u ± v) = ±
dx dx dx

d du
(ii) Multiplication by a constant (Ku) = K , where K is any constant
F=
dx dx

d d𝑣 du
(iii) "Product Rule" (u.v) = u +v known as in general,
dx dx dx

(a) If 𝑢1 , 𝑢2 , 𝑢3 , 𝑢4 , … , 𝑢𝑛 are the functions of 𝑥, then

d
(u ⋅ u ⋅ u ⋅ u … un )
dx 1 2 3 4

𝑑1 du2
= ( ) (u2 u3 u4 … un ) + ( ) (u1 u3 u4 … un )
𝑑𝑥 dx

𝑑𝑢3 𝑑𝑢4
+( ) (𝑢1 𝑢2 𝑢4 … 𝑢𝑛 ) + ( ) (𝑢1 𝑢2 𝑢3 𝑢5 … 𝑢𝑛 )
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑢𝑛
+⋯+ ( ) (𝑢1 𝑢2 𝑢3 … 𝑢𝑛−1 )
𝑑𝑥

(iv) Quotient Rule

𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑣
𝑑 𝑢 𝑣( )−𝑢( )
( )= 𝑑𝑥
2
𝑑𝑥
where v ≠ 0 known as
𝑑𝑥 𝑣 𝑣

𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑤
(b) Chain Rule: If 𝑦 = 𝑓(u), u = 𝑔(w), w = ℎ(x) then = ⋅ ⋅
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑤 𝑑𝑥
dy
or = 𝑓 ′ (u) ⋅ 𝑔′ ( ) ⋅ ℎ′ (x)
dx

88
Note:
dy du
In general, if y = 𝑓(u) then = 𝑓 ′ (u) ⋅
dx dx

Methods of Differentiation

Derivative by using Trigonometrical Substitution

The use of trigonometrical transforms before differentiation greatly reduces the amount of labour required. The following are
some of the most significant findings:
2tan 𝑥
(i) sin 2𝑥 = 2sin 𝑥cos 𝑥 =
1+tan2 𝑥

1−tan2 𝑥
(ii) cos 2𝑥 = 2cos2 𝑥 − 1 = 1 − 2sin2 𝑥 =
1+tan2 𝑥

2tan 𝑥 1−cos 2𝑥
(iii) tan 2𝑥 = , tan2 𝑥 =
1−tan2 𝑥 1+cos 2𝑥

(iv) sin 3𝑥 = 3sin 𝑥 − 4sin3 𝑥

(v) cos 3𝑥 = 4cos3 𝑥 − 3cos 𝑥

a
3tan 𝑥−tan3 𝑥
(vi) tan 3𝑥 =
1−3tan2 𝑥

𝜋 1+tan 𝑥
(vii) tan ( + 𝑥) =
4 1−tan 𝑥

𝜋
(viii) tan ( − 𝑥) =
4
1−tan 𝑥
1+tan 𝑥
m
𝑥 𝑥
(ix) √(1 ± sin 𝑥) = |cos ± sin |
2 2

𝑥±𝑦
(x) tan−1 𝑥 ± tan−1 𝑦 = tan−1 ( )
1∓𝑥𝑦
F=
(xi) sin−1 𝑥 ± sin−1 𝑦 = sin−1 {𝑥√1 − 𝑦 2 ± 𝑦√1 − 𝑥 2 }

(xii) cos−1 𝑥 ± cos−1 𝑦 = cos−1 {𝑥𝑦 ∓ √1 − 𝑥 2 √1 − 𝑦 2 }

(xiii) sin−1 𝑥 + cos−1 𝑥 = tan−1 𝑥 + cot −1 𝑥 = sec −1 𝑥 + cosec −1 𝑥 = 𝜋/2

(xiv) sin−1 𝑥 = cosec −1 (1/𝑥); cos −1 𝑥 = sec −1 (1/𝑥); tan−1 𝑥 = cot −1 (1/𝑥)

Note:
Some standard substitutions:
Expressions Substitutions

89
 √(a2 − x 2 )x = asin 𝜃 or acos 𝜃
√(a2 + x 2 )x = atan 𝜃 or acot 𝜃
√(x 2 − a2 )x = asec 𝜃 or acosec 𝜃
a+x a−x
√( ) or √( ) x = acos 𝜃 or acos2𝜃
a−x a+x
√(a − x)(x − b) or x = acos2 𝜃 + bsin2 𝜃
𝑎−𝑥 𝑥−
√( ) or √( )
𝑥−𝑏 𝑎−𝑥
√(𝑥 − 𝑎)(𝑥 − 𝑏) or 𝑥 = 𝑎sec 2 𝜃 − 𝑏tan2 𝜃
𝑥−𝑎 𝑥−
√( ) or √( )
𝑥−𝑏 𝑥−𝑎
√(2𝑎𝑥 − 𝑥 2 )𝑥 = 𝑎(1 − cos 𝜃)

Logarithmic Differentiation

To find the derivative of:

a
If y = {𝑓1 (x)}𝑓2 (𝑥) or y = 𝑓1 (x) ⋅ 𝑓2 (x) ⋅ 𝑓3 (x) …
𝑓1 (𝑥)⋅𝑓2 (𝑥)⋅𝑓3 (𝑥)…
or 𝑦 = then it's easier to take the function's logarithm first and then differentiate. This is referred to as the loga-
𝑔1 (𝑥)⋅𝑔2 (𝑥)⋅𝑔3 (𝑥)…
rithmic function's derivative.

Important Notes (Alternate methods)

m
1 If y = {𝑓(x)}𝑔(x) = e 𝑔(x)ln 𝑓(x) (( variable )varable ){∵ x = eln x }

dy d d
∴ = e 𝑔(x)ln (x) ⋅ {𝑔(x) ⋅ ln 𝑓(x) + ln 𝑓(x) ⋅ 𝑔(x)}
dx dx dx
F=
𝑓 ′ (x)
= {𝑓(x)}𝑔(x) ⋅ {𝑔(x) ⋅ + ln 𝑓(x) ⋅ 𝑔′ (x)}
𝑓(x)
2 If y = {𝑓(x)}𝑔(x)
dy
3 ∴ = Derivative of y treating 𝑓(x) as constant + Derivative of y treating 𝑔(x) as constant
dx
d d
= {𝑓(x)}𝑔(x) ⋅ ln 𝑓(x) ⋅ 𝑔(x) + 𝑔(x){𝑓(x)}𝑔(x)−1 ⋅ 𝑓(x)
dx dx
= {𝑓(x)}𝑔(x) ⋅ ln 𝑓(x) ⋅ 𝑔′ (x) + 𝑔(x) ⋅ {𝑓(x)}𝑔(x)−1 ⋅ 𝑓 ′ (x)

Implicit Differentiation: 𝜙(𝑥, 𝑦) = 0

(i) To get dy / dx with the use of implicit function, we differentiate each term w.r.t. 𝑥 , regarding y as a function of x& then collect
terms in dy/dx together on one side to finally find dy/dx.

(ii) In answers of 𝑑𝑦/𝑑𝑥 in the case of implicit function, both 𝑥 and 𝑦 are present.
Alternate Method: If 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) = 0

∂𝑓
𝑑𝑦 ( ) diff of 𝑓 w.r.t. 𝑥 treating 𝑦 as constant
then =− ∂𝑥
∂𝑓 =−
𝑑𝑥 ( ) diff . of 𝑓 w.r.t. 𝑦 treating 𝑥 as constant
∂𝑦

Parametric Differentiation

If y = 𝑓(t); x = 𝑔(t) where t is a Parameter, then

𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦/𝑑𝑡
=
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥/𝑑𝑡
Note:

90
 dy dy dt
1. = ⋅
dx dt dx

d2 y d dy d dy dt dy
2 = ( )= ( )⋅ (∵ in terms of t)
dx2 dx dx dt dx dx dx

d 𝑓′ (t) 1
= ( )⋅ { From (1) }
dt 𝑔′ (t) 𝑓′ (t)

𝑓 ′′ (t)𝑔′ (t) − 𝑔′′ (t)𝑓 ′ (t)

=
{𝑓 ′ (t)}

Derivative of a Function w.r.t. another Function

dy dy/dx 𝑓′ (x)
Let y = 𝑓(x); z = 𝑔(x) then = =
dz dz/dx 𝑔′ (x)

Derivative of Infinite Series

When one or more terms are removed from an infinite series, the series stays unaltered. as a result.

a
(A) If 𝑦 = √𝑓(𝑥) + √𝑓(𝑥) + √𝑓(𝑥) + ⋯ … ∞

then y = √𝑓(x) + y ⇒ (y 2 − y) = 𝑓(x)

Differentiating both sides w.r.t. 𝑥, we get (2𝑦 − 1)

m 𝑑𝑦
𝑑𝑥
= 𝑓 ′ (𝑥)

𝑓(𝑥))−1
(B) If y = {f(x)}{f(x)} then y = {𝑓(x)}y ⇒ y = eyln 𝑓(x)

Differentiating both sides w.r.t. 𝑥, we get

F=
𝑑𝑦 𝑦{𝑓(𝑥)}𝑦−1 ⋅ 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) 𝑦 2 𝑓 ′ (𝑥)
= =
𝑑𝑥 1 − {𝑓(𝑥)}𝑦 ⋅ ℓln 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑓(𝑥){1 − 𝑦ln 𝑓(𝑥)}

Derivative of Order Two & Three

Let us assume a function y = 𝑓(x) be defined on an open interval (𝑎, 𝑏). It's derivative, if it exists on (𝑎, 𝑏), is a certain function
𝑓 ′ (x) [ or (dy/dx) or y ′ ] is called the first derivative of 𝑦 w.r.t. 𝑥. If it occurs that the first derivative has a derivative on (𝑎, 𝑏) then
this derivative is called the second derivative of y w.r.t. 𝑥 is denoted by 𝑓 ′′ (𝑥) or (𝑑2 𝑦/𝑑𝑥 2 ) or 𝑦 ′′ .

d3 y d d2 y
Similarly, the 3rd order derivative of 𝑦 w.r.t. 𝑥, if it exists, is defined by = ( ) it is also denoted by 𝑓 ′′ (x) or y ′′′ Some
dx dx dx2
Standard Results:

dn m!
(i) (ax + 𝑏)m = ⋅ an ⋅ (ax + 𝑏)m−n , m ⩾ n
dxn (m−n)!

𝑑𝑛
(ii) 𝑥 n = 𝑛!
𝑑𝑥𝑥 𝑛

𝑑𝑛
(iii) (𝑒 𝑚𝑥 ) = 𝑚𝑛 ⋅ 𝑒 𝑚𝑥 , 𝑚 ∈ 𝑅
𝑑𝑥 𝑛

𝑑n n𝜋
(iv) (sin (𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏)) = an sin (ax + b + ),n ∈ N
dxn 2

dn n𝜋
(v) (cos (𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏)) = an cos (ax + b + ),n ∈ N
dxn 2

91
 dn
(vi) {eax sin (bx + c)} = r n ⋅ eax ⋅ sin (bx + c + n𝜙), n ∈ N
dxn

where 𝑟 = √(𝑎2 + 𝑏 2 ), 𝜙 = tan−1 (𝑏/𝑎)

𝑑𝑛
(vii) {𝑒 ax ⋅ cos (bx + c)} = r n ⋅ eax ⋅ cos (bx + c + n𝜙), n ∈ N
𝑑𝑥 𝑛
where 𝑟 = √(𝑎2 + 𝑏 2 ), 𝜙 = tan−1 (𝑏/𝑎)

Differentiation of Determinants

𝑓(x) 𝑔(x) ℎ(x)

If 𝐹(X) = |ℓ(x) 𝑚(x) 𝑛(x) | where 𝑓, 𝑔, ℎ, ℓ, 𝑚, 𝑛, 𝑢, 𝑣, 𝑤 are differentiable function of 𝑥 then
𝑢(x) 𝑣(x) 𝑤(x)

𝑓 ′ (𝑥) 𝑔′ (𝑥) ℎ′ (𝑥) 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑔(𝑥) ℎ(𝑥)

𝐹 ′ (𝑥)= | ℓ(𝑥) 𝑚(𝑥) 𝑛(𝑥) | + |ℓ′ (𝑥) 𝑚′ (𝑥) 𝑛(𝑥) |
𝑢(𝑥) 𝑣(𝑥) 𝑤(𝑥) 𝑢(𝑥) 𝑣(𝑥) 𝑤(𝑥)
𝑓(𝑥) 𝑔(𝑥) ℎ(𝑥)
+ | ℓ(𝑥) 𝑚(𝑥) 𝑛(𝑥) |
𝑢′ (𝑥) 𝑣 ′ (𝑥) 𝑤 ′ (𝑥)

L' Hospital's Rule

If 𝑓(𝑥) and 𝑔(𝑥) are functions of 𝑥 such that:

a
m
(i) lim𝑥→𝑎 𝑓(𝑥) = 0 = lim𝑥→𝑎 𝑔(𝑥) or lim𝑥→𝑎 𝑓(𝑥) = ∞ = lim𝑥→𝑎 𝑔(𝑥)𝑓(𝑥) and

(ii) Both 𝑓(𝑥) and 𝑔(𝑥) are continuous at 𝑥 = 𝑎 and

(iii) Both 𝑓(𝑥) and 𝑔(𝑥) are differentiable at 𝑥 = 𝑎 and

𝑓(𝑥) 𝑓′ (𝑥) 𝑓′′ (𝑥)

F=
(iv) Both 𝑓(𝑥) and 𝑔(𝑥) are continuous at x = a, Then Limit 𝑥→𝑎 𝑔(𝑥) = Limit 𝑥→𝑎 𝑔′ (𝑥) = Limit 𝑥→𝑎 𝑔′′ (𝑥) & so on till determinant
form vanishes.

92
 Multiple Choice Question
1. What is the mathematical expression for the definition of continuity?
A. limx→cf (x) = f (c) ∀ c ∈ a B. limx→cf (x) = f (c) ∀ c ∈ (a,b)
C. limx→cf (x) = f (c) ∀ c ∈ b D. limx→af (x) = f (c) ∀ c ∈ (a,b)
Answer: B
Explanation:
A function f defined on (a,b) is said to be continuous on (a,b) if it is continuous at every point of (a,b) i.e., if lim x→cf(x)=f(c) ∀ c ∈
(a,b).

2. What is the mathematical expression for f is continuous on (a,b)?

A. limx→cf (x) = f(c) ∀ c ∈ a B. limx→cf (x) = f(c) ∀ c ∈ (a,b)
C. limx→cf (x) = f(c) ∀ c ∈ b D. limx→af (x) = f(c) ∀ c ∈ (a,b)
Answer: B
Explanation:
A function f defined on (a,b) is said to be continuous on (a,b) if it is continuous at every point of (a,b) i.e., if lim x→cf (x) = f (c) ∀ c ∈
(a,b).

3. What is the mathematical expression for f is right continuous on (a,b)?

A. limx→a+f (x) = f (a) B. limx→a+f (x) = f (b)

a
C. limx→b+f (x) = f (a) D. limx→a-f (x) = f (a)
Answer: A
Explanation:
A function is said to be continuous when it is both left continuous and right continuous. Mathematical expression for a function f
is right continuous on (a,b) is limx→a+f (x) = f(a).

4.
m
What is the mathematical expression for f is left continuous on (a,b)?
A. limx→a-f (x)=f(a) B. limx→b-f (x)=f(b)
C. limx→a+f (x)=f(b) D. limx→b+f (x)=f(b)
Answer: B
Explanation:
A function is said to be continuous when it is both left continuous and right continuous. The mathematical expression for the
F=
function f is left continuous on (a,b) is limx→a+f (x) = f (a).

5. What are the kinds of discontinuity?

A. Minor and major kinds B. Increment and decrement kinds
C. First and second kinds D. Zero and one kinds
Answer: C
Explanation:
Kinds of discontinuity are classified as follows.
i. Discontinuity of the first kind: Removable and jump discontinuities.
ii. Discontinuity of the second kind: Oscillating and infinite discontinuities.

6. What is/are conditions for a function to be continuous on (a,b)?

A. The function is continuous at each point of (a,b) B. The function is right continuous
C. The function is left continuous D. Right continuous, left continuous, continuous at
each point of (a,b)
Answer: D
Explanation:
The three conditions required for a function f is said to be continuous on (a,b) if f is continuous at each point of (a,b), f is right
continuous at x = a, f is left continuous at x = b.

7. Find the derivative of f(x) = sin(x2).

A. -sin(x2) B. 2xcos(x2)
C. -2xcos(x2) D. -2xsin(x2)
Answer: B

93
Explanation:
Differentiation of the function f(x) = sin(x2) is done with chain rule. First, we differentiate sin function which becomes cos and
then differentiate the inner (x2) which becomes 2x, hence it comes out to be 2xcos(x2).

8. What is derivative of xn?

A. n B. nxn
C. nxn-1 D. nxn-2
Answer: C
Explanation:
It is a standard rule for derivative of a function of this form in which the original power comes in front and the value in the power
is decreased by one. Therefore, the only option of this form is nxn-1 from the given options.

9. Find derivative of tan(x+4).

A. sec2(x+4) B. sec2(x+4)
C. 4x sec (x+4)
2 D. sec2(x)
Answer: A
Explanation:
We know that derivative of tanx is sec2(x), now in the above question we get tan(x+4), hence its derivative comes out to be
sec2(x+4), as the inside expression (x+4) is differentiated into 1.
Therefore, the answer is sec2(x+4).

10. Value after differentiating cos (sinx) is _________

a
A. sin (sinx). cosx B. -sin (sinx). cosx
C. sin (sinx) D. sin (cosx). cosx
Answer: B
Explanation:
m
We differentiate the given function with the help of chain rule, so we first differentiate the outer function which becomes –sin
and then we differentiate the inner function sinx which is differentiated and comes out to be cosx, hence the differentiated func-
tion comes out to be -sin (sinx). cosx.

11. Value after differentiating cos (x2+5) is ________

A. 5.sin (x2+5) B. -sin (x2+5).2x
C. sin (x +5).2x
2 D. cos (x2+5).2x
F=
Answer: B
Explanation:
We differentiate the given function with the help of chain rule and hence the outer function becomes –sin and the inner function
is differentiated into 2x; therefore, the answer comes out to be -sin (x2+5).2x.

12. What is derivative of cotx?

A. tanx B. –sec2x
C. –cosec x
2 D. cosec2x
Answer: C
Explanation:
The derivative of cotx is –cosec2x, as this function has a fixed derivative like sinx has its derivative cosx. Therefore, the answer to
the above question is –cosec2x.

13. Differentiate 8𝑒 −𝑥 + 2𝑒 𝑥 w.r.t 𝑥.

A. 2𝑒 −𝑥 + 8𝑒 𝑥 B. 2𝑒 𝑥 + 8𝑒 −𝑥
C. 2𝑒 −𝑥 − 8𝑒 𝑥 D. 2𝑒 𝑥 − 8𝑒 −𝑥
Answer: D
Explanation:
To solve: 𝑦 = (8𝑒 −𝑥 + 2𝑒 𝑥 )
Differentiating w.r.t 𝑥 we get,
𝑑𝑦
= 8(−e−x + 2ex )
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦
∴ = 2ex − 8e−x .
𝑑𝑥

94
14. Differentiate 8𝑒 cos 2𝑥 w.r.t 𝑥.
A. 16sin 2𝑥𝑒 cos 2𝑥 B. −16sin 2𝑥𝑒 cos 2𝑥
C. −16sin 2𝑥𝑒 −cos 2𝑥 D. 16sin 2𝑥𝑒 −cos 2𝑥
Answer: B
Explanation:
Consider 𝑦 = 8𝑒 cos 2𝑥
Differentiating w.r.t 𝑥 by using chain rule, we get
𝑑𝑦 𝑑
= (8ecos 2x )
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑
= 8ecos 2x (cos 2x)
𝑑𝑥
𝑑
= 8ecos 2x (−sin 2x) (2x)
𝑑𝑥
= 8ecos 2x (−sin 2x)(2)
𝑑𝑦
∴ = −16sin 2xecos 2x
𝑑𝑥

15. Differentiate 3sin−1 (𝑒 2𝑥 ) w.r.t 𝑥.

6𝑒 2 𝑥 2𝑒 2 𝑥
A. B.
√1−𝑒 4𝑥 √1−𝑒 4𝑥
6𝑒 2 𝑥 6𝑒 −2𝑥
C. − D.
√1−𝑒 4𝑥 √1−𝑒 4𝑥
Answer: A

a
Explanation:
Consider 𝑦 = 3sin−1 (𝑒 2𝑥 )
𝑑𝑦 𝑑
= (3sin−1 (e2x ))
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦 3 𝑑
𝑑𝑥
=(
2𝑥
√1 − (𝑒 ) 2
) (e2x )
𝑑𝑥
m
𝑑𝑦 3
=( ) 2e2x
𝑑𝑥 √1 − (𝑒 2𝑥 )2
𝑑𝑦 6𝑒 2𝑥
∴ =
𝑑𝑥 √1 − 𝑒 4𝑥
F=
16. Differentiate log (log 𝑥 5 ) w.r.t x.
5 1
A. − B.
𝑥log 𝑥 5 log 𝑥 5
5 1
C. D. −
𝑥log 𝑥 5 𝑥log 𝑥 5
Answer: C
Explanation:
Consider 𝑦 = (log (log (𝑥 5 )))
𝑑𝑦 1 𝑑
= 5
(log 𝑥 5 )
𝑑𝑥 log 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑦 1 1 𝑑 5
= ⋅ ⋅ (𝑥 )
𝑑𝑥 log 𝑥 5 𝑥 5 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦 1 1
= ⋅ ⋅ 5𝑥 4
𝑑𝑥 log 𝑥 5 𝑥 5
𝑑𝑦 5
∴ =
𝑑𝑥 𝑥log 𝑥 5

3
17. Differentiate 3𝑒 3𝑥 w.r.t 𝑥.
3 3
A. 27𝑥 −2 𝑒 3𝑥 B. 27𝑥 2 𝑒 3𝑥
3𝑥 3 3
C. −27𝑥 2 𝑒 D. −27𝑥 −2 𝑒 3𝑥
Answer: B
Explanation:
3
Consider 𝑦 = 3𝑒 3𝑥

95
 𝑑𝑦 𝑑 3
= (3e3x )
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦 3 𝑑
= 3e3x (3x 3 )
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦 3
= 3e3x (3(3x 2 ))
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦 3
= 27x 2 e3x .
𝑑𝑥

2
18. Differentiate 5ex tan 𝑥 w.r.t x.
2 2
A. 5𝑒 𝑥 (1 + tan 𝑥)2 B. −5𝑒 𝑥 (1 + tan 𝑥)2
𝑥2 2
C. 5𝑒 (1 − tan 𝑥)2 D. −5𝑒 𝑥 (1 − tan 𝑥)2
Answer: A
Explanation:
2
Consider 𝑦 = 5𝑒 𝑥 tan 𝑥
Differentiating w.r.t 𝑥 by using chain rule, we get
𝑑𝑦 𝑑 2 2 𝑑
= tan x (5ex ) + 5ex (tan x)
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦 2 2
= tan x(5ex ⋅ 2x) + 5ex (sec 2 x)
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦 2
= 5ex (2xtan x + sec 2 x)
𝑑𝑥

a
𝑑𝑦 2
= 5ex (1 + tan2 x + 2xtan x)
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦 2
= 5ex (1 + tan x)2
𝑑𝑥

19.
A.
−15𝑥 2
3
m
Differentiate log (𝑒 5𝑥 ) w.r.t 𝑥.
B.
15𝑥 2
3 3
𝑒 5𝑥 𝑒 5𝑥
C. 15𝑥 2 D. −15𝑥 2
Answer: C
Explanation:
3
Consider 𝑦 = log (𝑒 5𝑥 )
F=
y = 5x 3 (∴ log ex = x)
𝑑𝑦 𝑑
⇒ = (5𝑥 3 )
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦
∴ = 5(3𝑥 2 ) = 15𝑥 2
𝑑𝑥

3
20. Differentiate 7log (𝑥 4 ⋅ 5𝑒 𝑥 ) w.r.t 𝑥
7(4+3𝑥 3 ) 7(4−3𝑥 3 )
A. B.
𝑥2 𝑥
7(4+3𝑥 3 ) 7(4+3𝑥 3 )
C. − D.
𝑥 𝑥
Answer: D
Explanation:
3
Consider 𝑦 = 7log (𝑥 4 . 5𝑒 𝑥 )

96
 3
y = 7(log 𝑥 4 + log 5𝑒 𝑥 )
3
y = 7(4log 𝑥 + log 5𝑒 𝑥 )
𝑑𝑦 𝑑 𝑑 3
= 7 (4 (log 𝑥) + (log 5𝑒 𝑥 ))
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦 4 1 𝑑 3
= 7 ( + 𝑥3 (5𝑒 𝑥 ))
𝑑𝑥 𝑥 5𝑒 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦 4 1 3 𝑑 3
= 7 ( + 𝑥3 ⋅ 5𝑒 𝑥 ⋅ 𝑥 )
𝑑𝑥 𝑥 5𝑒 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦 4 1 3
= 7 ( + 𝑥3 ⋅ 5𝑒 𝑥 ⋅ 3𝑥 2 )
𝑑𝑥 𝑥 5𝑒
𝑑𝑦 4
= 7 ( + 3𝑥 2 )
𝑑𝑥 𝑥
𝑑𝑦 7(4 + 3𝑥 3 )
∴ =
𝑑𝑥 𝑥

4
21. Differentiate 2𝑒 𝑥 log 𝑥 w.r.t 𝑥.
2𝑒 𝑥4 (4𝑥 4 log 𝑥+1)
4
𝑒 𝑥 (4𝑥 4 log 𝑥+1)
A. B.
𝑥2 𝑥
4 4
2𝑒 𝑥 (4𝑥 4 log 𝑥+1) 2𝑒 𝑥 (4𝑥 4 log 𝑥+1)
C. D. −
𝑥 𝑥
Answer: C

a
Explanation:
4 𝑑𝑦 𝑑 4
Consider 𝑦 = 2𝑒 𝑥 log 𝑥 = (2ex log x)
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
Differentiating w.r.t 𝑥 by using chain rule, we get
𝑑𝑦 𝑑 𝑥4 4 𝑑
= 2 (logx (𝑒 ) + 𝑒 𝑥 (logx))
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦
𝑑𝑥
= 2 (log 𝑥 ⋅ 𝑒 𝑥
4 𝑑

𝑑𝑥
4 1
𝑥4 + 𝑒 𝑥 ⋅ )
𝑥
m
𝑑𝑦 4 4 1
= 2 (log 𝑥 ⋅ 𝑒 𝑥 ⋅ 4𝑥 3 + 𝑒 𝑥 ⋅ )
𝑑𝑥 𝑥
𝑑𝑦 𝑥 4 3
1
= 2𝑒 (4𝑥 log 𝑥 + )
𝑑𝑥 𝑥
𝑥 4 4
𝑑𝑦 (2𝑒 (4𝑥 log 𝑥 + 1))
F=
∴ =
𝑑𝑥 𝑥

3
22. Differentiate log (cos (sin (𝑒 𝑥 ))) w.r.t x.
3 3 3 3 3 3
A. −3𝑥 2 𝑒 𝑥 cos 𝑒 𝑥 tan (sin 𝑒 𝑥 ) B. 3𝑥 2 𝑒 𝑥 cos 𝑒 𝑥 tan (sin 𝑒 𝑥 )
3 3 3 3 3 3
C. −3𝑒 𝑥 cos 𝑒 𝑥 cos (sin 𝑒 𝑥 ) D. −𝑥 2 𝑒 𝑥 cos 𝑒 𝑥 tan (sin 𝑒 𝑥 )
Answer: A
Explanation:
3
Consider y = log (cos (sin (𝑒 𝑥 )))
Differentiating w.r.t 𝑥 by using chain rule, we get

97
 𝑑𝑦 𝑑 3
= (log (cos (sin (𝑒 𝑥 ))))
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑦 1 𝑑 3
=( 3 (cos (sin 𝑒 𝑥 )))
𝑑𝑥 𝑥
cos (sin 𝑒 ) 𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑦 1 𝑥3
𝑑 3
=( 3 (−sin (sin 𝑒 ) (sin 𝑒 𝑥 )))
𝑑𝑥 𝑥
cos (sin 𝑒 ) 𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑦 1 𝑥 3 )(cos 𝑒 𝑥 3 )
𝑑 𝑥3
=( 3 (−sin (sin 𝑒 (𝑒 )))
𝑑𝑥 𝑥
cos (sin 𝑒 ) 𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑦 1 𝑥 3 )(cos 𝑒 𝑥 3 )(𝑒 𝑥 3 )
𝑑 3
=( 3 (−sin (sin 𝑒 𝑥 ))
𝑑𝑥 𝑥
cos (sin 𝑒 ) 𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑦 1 𝑥 3 ) ⋅ cos 𝑒 𝑥 3 ⋅ 𝑒 𝑥 3 ⋅ 3𝑥 2 )
=( 3 (−sin (sin 𝑒
𝑑𝑥 cos (sin 𝑒 𝑥 )
3 3
𝑥 3 cos 𝑒 𝑥 sin (sin 𝑒 𝑥 )
𝑑𝑦 3𝑥 2 𝑒
= −( 3 )
𝑑𝑥 cos (sin 𝑥 𝑥 )
𝑑𝑦 3 𝑥3 3
= −3𝑥 2 𝑒 𝑥 cos 𝑒 tan (sin 𝑒 𝑥 )
𝑑𝑥

a
23. Differentiate (log 2𝑥)sin 3𝑥 with respect to 𝑥.
sin 3𝑥 sin 3𝑥
A. (3cos 3xlog (log 2x) + ) B. log 2𝑥 sin 3𝑥 (3cos 3𝑥log (log 2𝑥) + )
𝑥log 2𝑥 𝑥log 2𝑥
sin 3𝑥 sin 3𝑥
C. − (3cos 3𝑥log (log 2𝑥) + ) 3cos 3𝑥log (log 2𝑥)+
𝑥log 2𝑥 D. 𝑥log 2𝑥

Answer: B
m log 2𝑥 sin 3𝑥

Explanation:
Consider y = (log 2𝑥)sin 3𝑥
Applying log on both sides, we get
log = log (log 2𝑥)sin 3𝑥
log 𝑦 = sin 3𝑥log (log 2𝑥)
F=
Differentiating with respect to 𝑥, we get
1 𝑑𝑦 𝑑 𝑑
= log (log 2𝑥) (sin 3𝑥) + sin 3𝑥 (log (log 2𝑥))
𝑦 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
By using chain rule, we get
1 𝑑𝑦 1 1
= log (log 2𝑥) ⋅ 3cos 3𝑥 + sin 3𝑥 ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ 2(∵ 𝑢 ⋅ 𝑣 = 𝑢′ 𝑣 + 𝑢𝑣 ′ )
𝑦 𝑑𝑥 log 2𝑥 2𝑥
𝑑𝑦 sin 3𝑥
= y (3cos 3xlog (log 2x) + )
𝑑𝑥 𝑥log 2𝑥
𝑑𝑦 sin 3𝑥
∴ = log 2x sin 3x (3cos 3𝑥log (log 2𝑥) + )
𝑑𝑥 𝑥log 2𝑥

x
24. Differentiate 4𝑥 e with respect to x.
𝑥 𝑥
A. 𝑥 𝑒 𝑒 −𝑥 (𝑥log 𝑥 + 1) B. −4𝑥 𝑒 −1 𝑒 𝑥 (𝑥log 𝑥 + 1)
𝑥 x
C. 4𝑥 𝑒 𝑒 𝑥 (𝑥log 𝑥 + 1) D. 4ee −1 ex (xlog x + 1)
Answer: D
Explanation:
x
Consider y = 4x e
Applying log on both sides, we get
x
log 𝑦 = log 4x e
x
log 𝑦 = log 4 + log 𝑥 𝑒 (∵ log 𝑎𝑏 = log 𝑎 + log 𝑏)
Differentiating both sides with respect to x, we get

98
 1 𝑑𝑦 𝑑 𝑥
=0+ (𝑒 log 𝑥)(∵ log 𝑎𝑏 = 𝑏log 𝑎)
𝑦 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
1 𝑑𝑦 𝑑 𝑥 𝑑
= (𝑒 )log 𝑥 + 𝑒 𝑥 (log 𝑥)
𝑦 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦 𝑒𝑥
= 𝑦 (𝑒 𝑥 log 𝑥 + )
𝑑𝑥 𝑥
𝑥 𝑒 𝑥 (𝑥log
𝑑𝑦 4𝑥 𝑥 𝑥+1)
𝑥 −1
= = 4𝑥 𝑒 𝑒 𝑥 (𝑥log 𝑥 + 1)
𝑑𝑥 𝑥

25. Differentiate 9tan 3𝑥 with respect to 𝑥.

A. 9tan 3𝑥 (3log 9sec 2 𝑥) B. 9tan 3𝑥 (3log 3sec 2 𝑥)
C. 9 tan 3𝑥 (3log 9sec 𝑥) D. −9tan 3𝑥 (3log 9sec 2 𝑥)
Answer: A
Explanation:
Consider 𝑦 = 9tan 3𝑥
Applying log on both sides, we get
logy = log 9tan 3𝑥
Differentiating both sides with respect to 𝑥, we get
1 𝑑𝑦 𝑑
= (tan 3x ⋅ log 9)
𝑦 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
1 𝑑𝑦 𝑑 𝑑
= (tan 3𝑥)log 9 + (log 9) ⋅ tan 3𝑥(∵ 𝑈sin 𝑢 ⋅ 𝑣 = 𝑢′ 𝑣 + 𝑢𝑣 ′ )

a
𝑦 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦
= y(3sec 2 x ⋅ log 9 + 0)
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦
= 9tan 3x (3log 9sec 2 x)
𝑑𝑥

26.
m
Differentiate (cos 3𝑥)3𝑥 with respect to 𝑥
A. (cos 3𝑥)𝑥 (3log (cos 3𝑥) − 9𝑥tan 3𝑥) B. (cos 3𝑥)3𝑥 (3log (cos 3𝑥) + 9𝑥tan 3𝑥)
C. (cos 3𝑥)3𝑥 (3log (cos 3𝑥) − 9𝑥tan 3𝑥) D. (cos 3𝑥)3𝑥 (log (cos 3𝑥) + 9tan 3𝑥)
Answer: C
Explanation:
Consider 𝑦 = (cos 3𝑥)3𝑥
F=
Applying log on both sides, we get
log 𝑦 = log (cos 3𝑥)3𝑥
log 𝑦 = 3𝑥log (cos 3𝑥)
Differentiating both sides with respect to 𝑥, we get
1 𝑑𝑦 𝑑
= (3𝑥log (cos 3𝑥))
𝑦 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
By using u.v = 𝑢′ v + 𝑢𝑣 ′ , we get
1 𝑑𝑦 𝑑 𝑑
= (3𝑥)log (cos 3𝑥) + (log (cos 3𝑥)) ⋅ 3𝑥
𝑦 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦 1 𝑑
= y (3log (cos 3x) + ⋅ (cos 3𝑥) ⋅ 3𝑥)
𝑑𝑥 cos 3𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦 1 𝑑
= y (3log (cos 3x) + ⋅ (−sin 3𝑥) ⋅ (3𝑥) ⋅ 3𝑥)
𝑑𝑥 cos 3𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦 1
= y (3log (cos 3x) + ⋅ (−sin 3𝑥) ⋅ 3 ⋅ 3𝑥)
𝑑𝑥 cos 3𝑥
𝑑𝑦
= y(3log (cos 3x) − 9xtan 3x)
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦
= (cos 3x)3x (3log (cos 3x) − 9xtan 3x)
𝑑𝑥

2𝑥 )
27. Differentiate 7𝑥 (2𝑒 with respect to 𝑥.
(2e2x ) 1 2𝑥 ) 1
A. 14e2x x (2log x + ) B. 14𝑥 (2𝑒 (2log 𝑥 + )
𝑥 𝑥
2x ) 1 2𝑥 ) 1
C. 14e2x x (2e (2log x − ) D. 14e2𝑥 𝑥 (2e (log 𝑥 − )
𝑥 𝑥
Answer: A
Explanation:

99
 2𝑥 )
Consider 𝑦 = 7𝑥 (2𝑒
2𝑥 )
log 𝑦 = log 7𝑥 (2𝑒
2𝑥
log 𝑦 = log 7 + log 𝑥 (2𝑒 )
log 𝑦 = log 7 + 2e2𝑥 log 𝑥

Differentiating with respect to 𝑥 on both sides, we get

1 𝑑𝑦 𝑑
= (log 7 + 2e2x log x)
𝑦 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
1 𝑑𝑦 𝑑 𝑑
=0+ (2e2x )log x + (log x)2e2x (usingu ⋅ v = u′ v + uv ′ )
𝑦 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
1 𝑑𝑦 2𝑒 2𝑥
= 2e2x ⋅ 2 ⋅ log x +
𝑦 𝑑𝑥 𝑥
2𝑥
𝑑𝑦 2𝑒
= y (4𝑒 2𝑥 log 𝑥 + )
𝑑𝑥 𝑥
𝑑𝑦 2x 2𝑒 2𝑥
= 7x (2e ) (4𝑒 2𝑥 log 𝑥 + )
𝑑𝑥 𝑥
𝑑𝑦 2x 1
= 14e2x x (2e ) (2log x + )
𝑑𝑥 𝑥

5 2
28. Differentiate 𝑒 4𝑥 ⋅ 2𝑥 log 𝑥 with respect to x.
5 2 5 2
A. 𝑒 4𝑥 ⋅ 𝑥 log 𝑥 −1 (10𝑥 5 + log 2𝑥 2 ) B. 4𝑒 4𝑥 ⋅ 𝑥 log 𝑥 −1 (10𝑥 5 + log 2𝑥 2 )

a
2
4𝑥 5 𝑥 2 −1 D. 𝑥 log 𝑥 −1 (10𝑥 4 + log 2𝑥 2 )
C. 4𝑒 ⋅ 𝑥 log (10𝑥 5 − log 2𝑥 2 )
Answer: B
Explanation:
5 2
Consider y = 𝑒 4𝑥 + 2𝑥 log 𝑥
Applying log on both sides, we get
5
log 𝑦 = log 𝑒 4𝑥 + log 2𝑥 log 𝑥
m 2

logy = 4𝑥 5 + log 𝑥 2 ⋅ log 2𝑥

log 𝑦 = 4𝑥 5 + 2log 𝑥log 2𝑥

Differentiating with respect to 𝑥, we get

1 𝑑𝑦 𝑑 𝑑
= 20𝑥 4 + 2 ( (log 𝑥)log 2𝑥 +
F=
(log 2𝑥)log 𝑥)
𝑦 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
1 𝑑𝑦 log 2𝑥 1
= 20𝑥 4 + 2 ( + ⋅ 2 ⋅ log 𝑥)
𝑦 𝑑𝑥 𝑥 2𝑥
1 𝑑𝑦 2(log 2𝑥 + log 𝑥)
= 20𝑥 4 +
𝑦 𝑑𝑥 𝑥
1 𝑑𝑦 2(log 2𝑥 2)
= 20𝑥 4 +
𝑦 𝑑𝑥 𝑥
𝑑𝑦 2(log 2𝑥 2 )
= 𝑦 (20𝑥 4 + )
𝑑𝑥 𝑥
𝑑𝑦 5 2 2(log 2𝑥 2 )
= 𝑒 4𝑥 ⋅ 2𝑥 log 𝑥 (20𝑥 4 + )
𝑑𝑥 𝑥
𝑑𝑦 5 2
= 4𝑒 4𝑥 ⋅ 𝑥 log 𝑥 −1 (10𝑥 5 + log 2𝑥 2 )
𝑑𝑥

29. Differentiate 2(tan 𝑥)cot 𝑥 with respect to 𝑥.

A. 2csc 2 𝑥 ⋅ tan 𝑥 cot 𝑥 (1 − log (tan 𝑥)) B. csc 2 𝑥 ⋅ tan 𝑥 cot 𝑥 (1 − log (tan 𝑥))
C. 2csc 2 𝑥 ⋅ tan 𝑥 cot 𝑥 (1 + log (tan 𝑥)) D. 2tan 𝑥 cot 𝑥 (1 − log (tan 𝑥))
Answer: A
Explanation:
Consider 𝑦 = 2(tan 𝑥)cot 𝑥
Applying log in both sides,
log 𝑦 = log 2(tan 𝑥)cot 𝑥
log 𝑦 = log 2 + log (tan 𝑥)cot 𝑥
log 𝑦 = log 2 + cot 𝑥log (tan 𝑥)

100
Differentiating both sides with respect to 𝑥, we get
1 𝑑𝑦 𝑑 𝑑
=0+ (cot 𝑥)log (tan 𝑥) + cot 𝑥 (log (tan 𝑥))
𝑦 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
1 𝑑𝑦 1
= −csc 2 𝑥 ⋅ log (tan 𝑥) + cot 𝑥 ⋅ ⋅ sec 2 𝑥
𝑦 𝑑𝑥 tan 𝑥
𝑑𝑦 (1 + tan2𝑥 )
= 𝑦 (−𝑐𝑐 2𝑥 ⋅ log (tan 𝑥) + )
𝑑𝑥 tan2𝑥
𝑑𝑦
= 2(tan x)cot 𝑥 (−𝑐𝑐 2𝑥 log (tan 𝑥) + cot 2𝑥 + 1)
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦
= 2(tan x)cot 𝑥 (−𝑐𝑠𝑐 2𝑥 log (tan 𝑥) + 𝑐𝑠𝑐 2𝑥 )
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦
= 2(tan x)cot 𝑥 (csc 2 x(1 − log (tan x))
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦
∴ = 2csc 2 𝑥 ⋅ tan x cot 𝑥 (1 − log (tan x))
𝑑𝑥

30. Differentiate (3cos 𝑥)𝑥 with respect to 𝑥.

A. (3cos 𝑥)𝑥 (log (3cos 𝑥) + 𝑥tan 𝑥) B. (3cos 𝑥) 𝑥 (log (3cos 𝑥) + tan 𝑥)
C. (cos 𝑥)∧ 𝑥(log (3cos 𝑥) − 𝑥tan 𝑥) D. (3cos 𝑥) 𝑥 (log (3cos 𝑥) − 𝑥tan 𝑥)
Answer: D
Explanation:
Consider 𝑦 = (3cos 𝑥)𝑥

a
Applying log on both sides, we get
log 𝑦 = log (3cos 𝑥)𝑥
log 𝑦 = 𝑥log (3cos 𝑥)
log 𝑦 = 𝑥(log 3 + log (cos 𝑥))
Differentiating both sides with respect to 𝑥, we get
1 𝑑𝑦
=
𝑦 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑
(𝑥log 3) +
𝑑
𝑑𝑥
(𝑥)log (cos 𝑥) +
𝑑
𝑑𝑥
m
(log (cos 𝑥)) ⋅ 𝑥
1 𝑑𝑦 1
= log 3 + log (cos 𝑥) + ⋅ −sin 𝑥 ⋅ 𝑥
𝑦 𝑑𝑥 cos 𝑥
1 𝑑𝑦
= log 3 + log (cos x) − xtan x
𝑦 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦
F=
= y(log (3cos x) − xtan x)
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦
= (3cos x)x (log (3cos x) − xtan x)
𝑑𝑥

Question/Answer
Very Short Questions
dy
1. If y = log (cos ex), then find .
dx
Answer: We have y = log (cos ex)

= – ex tan ex

2. Differentiate cos {sin (x)2 } w.r.t. x.

Answer: Let y = cos {sin (x)2}.
dy dy
∴ = – sin {sin (x)2}. {sin (x)2}
dx dx
dy
= – sin {sin (x)2}. cos(x)2 (x2)
dx
= – sin {sin (x)2}. cos(x)22x
= -2x cos(x)2 sin {sin(x)2}.

3. Differentiate sin2 (x 2 ) w.r.t. x 2 .

Answer: Let y = sin2(x2).

101
 dy
∴ = 2 sin (x2) cos (x2) = sin (2x2).
dx

dy
4. Find , if y + sin y = cos or.
dx
Answer: We have y + sin y = cos x.
Differentiating w.r, t. x, we get:
dy dy
+ cos y. = – sin x
dx dx
dy
(1 + cos y) = -sin x
dx
dy sin x
Hence, =−
dx 1+cos y
where y ≠ (2n + 1) π, n ∈ Z.

1 1 dy
5. If y = sin−1 (6x√1 − 9x 2 ), − <x< then find .
3√2 3√2 dx
Answer:

Put 3x = sin θ.
y = sin-1 (2 sin θ cos θ)
= sin-1 (sin 2θ) = 2θ
= 2 sin-1 3x

6. Is it true that x = elog x for all real x ?

Answer: The given equation is x = elogx
This is not true for non-positive real numbers.

a
[ ∵ Domain of log function is R+]
Now, let y = elogx
m
If y > 0, taking logs.,
log y = log (elogx) = log x.log e
= log x. 1 = log x
⇒ y = x.
Hence, x = elogx is true only for positive values of x.
F=
7. Differentiate the following w.r.t. x3x+2 .
Answer: Let y = 3x + 2.
dy d
= 3x + 2.log3. (x + 2)
dx dx
= 3x + 2
.log3. (1 + 0)
= 3x + 2. log 3 = log 3 (3x + 2).

8. Differentiate log (1 + θ) w.r.t. sin−1 θ.

Answer: Let y = log (1 + θ) and u = sin-1θ.

dy
9. If y = x x , find .
dx
Answer: Here y = … (1) xx
Taking logs., log y = log xx
⇒ log y = x log x.
Differentiating w.r.t. x, we get:

102
1 dy
⋅ = x 1x + logx. (1)
y dx
= 1 + log x.
dy
Hence, = y (1 + log x) dx
dx
= xx (1 + log x). [Using (1)]

dy
10. If y = √2x + √2x + √2x + ⋯ … + 0∞ then prove that: (2y − 1) = 2x log 2.
dx
Answer: The given series can be written as:

Squaring, y2 = 2x + y
⇒ y2 – y = 2x.
dy
Diff. w.r.t. x, (2y -1) = 2x log 2.
dx

Short Questions
1. Discuss the continuity of the function: f(x) = |x| at x = 0.
Answer:
−x, if x < 0
By definition, f(x) = {
x, if x ≥ 0.
lim− f(x) = lim− (−x)
x→0 x→0
= lim (−(0 − h))

a
h→0
= lim (h) = 0.
h→0
lim+ f(x) = lim+ (x)
x→0 x→0
= lim (0 + h)
h→0
= lim (h) = 0.
Also,
h→0
m
f(0) = 0.
Thus limx→0− f(x) = limx→0+ f(x) = f(0).
[∵ Each = 0] ∣
Hence ' f ' is continuous at x = 0.
F=
d
2. If f(x) = x + 1, find (fof)(x).
dx
Answer: We have f(x) = x + 1 … (1)
∴ fof(x) = f (f(x)) =f(x)+ 1
= (x + 1) + 1 = x + 2.
d d
∴ (fof)(x).) = (x + 2) = 1 + 0 = 1.
dx dx

cos x−sin x
3. Differentiate tan−1 ( ) with respect to x.
cos x+sin x
Answer:

1+cos x
4. Differentiate: tan−1 ( ) with respect to x.
sin x
Answer:

103
5. Write the integrating factor of the differential equation: (tan−1 y − x)dy = (1 + y 2 )dx.
Answer: The given differential equation is:
(Tan-1 y – x) dy = (1 + y2) dx

dy 5x+12√1−x2
6. Find if y = sin−1 ⌈ ⌉
dx 13

a
5x+12√1−x2
Answer: We have: y = sin−1 ⌊ ⌋
13
5 12
= sin−1 ( x + √1 − x 2 )
13 13
12 2 12
= sin−1 (x√1 − ( ) + √1 − x 2 ⋅ )
13 13
m
12
= sin−1 x + sin−1 (Note this step)
13
[∴ sin−1 A + sin−1 B = sin−1 (A√1 − B2 + B√1 − A2 )]
dy 1 1
∴ = +0= , |x| < 1.
dx √1 − x 2 √1 − x 2
F=
dy 6x−4√1−4x2
7. Find if y = sin−1 [ ]
dx 5
6x−4√1−4x2
Answer: We have : y = sin−1 ( )
5
6x 4
= sin−1 ( − √1 − 4x 2 )
5 5
3 4
= sin−1 ((2x) ⋅ − √1 − (2x)2 )
5 5
4 2 4
= sin−1 ((2x)√1 − ( ) − ( ) √1 − (2x)2 )
5 5
4
= sin−1 (2x) − sin−1 .
5
dy 1 2
Hence, = . (2) − 0 = .
dx √1−(4x2 ) √1−4x2

n dy ny
8. If y = {x + √x 2 + a2 } , prove that =
dx √x2 +a2
Answer:
n
y = {x + √x 2 + a2 }
dy n−1
∴ = n {x + √x 2 + a2 }
dx
n−1 d
= n {x + √x 2 + a2 } ⋅ {x + √x 2 + a2 }
dx

104
 n−1 √x 2 + a2 + x
= n {x + √x 2 + a2 } { }
√x 2 + a2
n
n{x + √x 2 + a2 } ny
= = , 0)
√x 2 + a2 √x 2 + a2
[Using (1)] which is true.

Long Questions
1. Find the value of ' a ' for which the function ' f ' defined as:
π
asin (x + 1), x ≤ 0
2
f(x) = {tan x − sin x
,x > 0
x3
s continuous at x = 0
Answer:
π
limx→0+ f(x) = limx→0− asin (x + 1)
2
π
= limh→0 asin (0 − h + 1)
2
π
= asin (0 − 0 + 1)
2
π
= asin = a ⋅ 1 = a
2

a
tan x − sin x
limx→0+ f(x) = limx→0+
x3
tan (0 + h) − sin (0 + h)
= lim
h→0 (0 + h)3
tan h − sin h
= lim
h→0 h3
sin h 1 − cos h 1
m
= lim ⋅
h→0 h h2 cos h
h
sin h 2sin2
= lim ⋅ lim 2
h→0 h h→0 h2
h 2
1 sin
2) ⋅ 1
F=
= 1 ⋅ lim (
2 h→0 h cos 0
2
1 1 1
= 1 ⋅ (1)2 ⋅ = ⋅
2 1 2
Also f(0) = asin π/2(0 + 1)
= asin π/2 = a(1) = a
For continuity,
lim− f(x) = lim+ f(x) = f(0)
x→0 x→0
⇒ a = 1/2 = a
Hence, a = 1/2

2. Find the values of ' p ' and ' q ' for which:
1 − sin3 x π
, if x <
3cos2 x 2
π
p, if x =
2
q(1 − sin x) π
, if x > .
{ (π − 2x)2 2
is continuous at x = 2
Answer:
1 − sin3 x
limx→π− f(x) = limx→π− 2
2 2 3cos x
π
1 − sin3 ( − h)
= limh→0 2
π
3cos2 ( − h)
2

105
 1 − cos3 h
= limh→0
3sin2 h
(1 − cos h)(1 + cos2 h + cos h)
= limh→0
3(1 − cos h)(1 + cos h)
1 + cos2 h + cos h
= limh→0
3(1 + cos h)
1+1+1 1
= = .
3(1 + 1) 2
q(1 − sin x)
lim π+ f(x) = lim π+
x→
2
x→
2 (π − 2x)2
π
q [1 − sin ( + h)]
= limh→0 2
π 2
(
[π − 2 + h)]
2
q(1 − cos h)
= limh→0
(π − π − 2h)2
q(1 − cos h)
= limh→0
4h2
h
q ⋅ 2sin2
= limh→0 2
4h2
π
q [1 − sin ( + h)]
2

a
= lim 2
h→0 π
[π − 2 ( + h)]
2
q(1 − cos h)
= lim
h→0 (π − π − 2h)2
q(1 − cos h)
= lim
h→0 4h2
q ⋅ 2sin2
h
m
= lim 2
h→0 4h2
2
q sin2
= lim ( )
h→0 8 h
2
q q
F=
= (1)2 = .
8 8
π
Also f ( , ) = p
2
For continuity limx→π− f(x) = lim π∗ f(x)
2
x→
2
π
= f( ,)
2
1− q
⇒ = =p
2 8
Hence p = 1/2 and q = 4

3. Find the value of ' k ' for which:

√1 + kx − √1 − kx
, if − 1 ≤ x < 0
f(x) = x
2x + 1
{x−1 ,if 0 ≤ x < 1
is continuous at x = 0
Answer:
√1 + 𝑘𝑥 − √1 − 𝑘𝑥
lim f(x) = lim−
x→0− x→0 𝑥
(√1 + 𝑘𝑥 − √1 − 𝑘𝑥)(√1 + 𝑘𝑥 + √1 − 𝑘𝑥)
= 𝑙𝑖𝑚−
𝑥→0 𝑥(√1 + 𝑘𝑥 + √1 − 𝑘𝑥)
[Rationalising Numerator]
(1 + 𝑘𝑥) − (1 − 𝑘𝑥)
= 𝑙𝑖𝑚−
𝑥→0 𝑥(√1 + 𝑘𝑥 + √1 − 𝑘𝑥)

106
 2𝑘𝑥
= 𝑙𝑖𝑚−
𝑥→0
𝑥(√1 + 𝑘𝑥 + √1 − 𝑘𝑥)
2𝑘
= 𝑙𝑖𝑚− [∵ 𝑥 ≠ 0]
𝑥→0 √1 + 𝑘𝑥 + √1 − 𝑘𝑥
2𝑘
= =𝑘
1+1
2𝑥 + 1 2(0 + ℎ) + 1
𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑙𝑖𝑚+ = 𝑙𝑖𝑚
𝑥→0+ 𝑥→0 𝑥 − 1 ℎ→0 (0 + ℎ) − 1
2(0) + 1 1
= = = −1
0−1 −1
2(0) + 1 1
Also 𝑓(0) = = = −1.
0−1 −1
For continuity 𝑙𝑖𝑚− 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑙𝑖𝑚+ 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓(0)
𝑥→0 𝑥→0
𝑘 = −1 = −1
Hence 𝑘 = −1

4. For what values of ' 𝑎 ' and ' 𝑏 ∖ the function ' 𝑓 ' defined as:
3𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏 if 𝑥 < 1
𝑓(𝑥) = { 11 if 𝑥 = 1
5𝑎𝑥 − 2𝑏 if 𝑥 > 1
is continuous at 𝑥 = 1.
Answer:

a
𝑙𝑖𝑚 − 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑙𝑖𝑚 − (3𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏)
𝑥→1 𝑥→1
= 𝑙𝑖𝑚 (3𝑎(1 − ℎ) + 𝑏]
ℎ→0
= 3𝑎(1 − 0) + b
= 3a + b
lim + f(x) = lim + (5ax − 2b)
x→1 x→1
= lim [5a(1 + h) − 2b]
h→0
m
= 5a(1 + 0) − 2b
= 5a − 2b
Also f(1) = 11
Since 'f' is continuous at x = 1,
∴ lim − f(x) = lim + f(x) = f(1)
x→1 x→1
F=
⇒ 3a + b = 5a − 2b = 11.
Since ' f ' is continuous at x = 1,
∴ lim − f(x) = lim + f(x) = f(1)
x→1 x→1
⇒ 3a + b = 5a − 2b = 11.
From first and third,
3a + b = 11
From last two,
5a − 2b = 11
Multiplying (1) by 2,
6a + 2b = 22
Adding (2) and (3),
11a = 33
⇒ a = 3.
Putting in (1),
3(3) + b = 11
⇒ b = 11 – 9 = 2.
Hence, a = 3 and b = 2.

107
 Chapter-6 Applications of Derivatives
The derivative is defined as the rate of change of one quantity with respect to another. In terms of functions, the rate of change
of function is defined as dy/dx = f(x) = y’.
The concept of derivatives has been used in small scale and large scale. The concept of derivatives used in many ways such as
change of temperature or rate of change of shapes and sizes of an object depending on the conditions etc.,

Rate of Change of a Quantity

This is the general and most important application of derivative. For example, to check the rate of change of the volume of a
cube with respect to its decreasing sides, we can use the derivative form as dy/dx. Where dy represents the rate of change of
volume of cube and dx represents the change of sides of the cube.

Definition of Derivative
The derivative of a function of a real variable in mathematics describes the sensitivity of the function value to a change in its
argument. Calculus relies heavily on derivatives. 𝑓 ′ is the derivative of 𝑓(𝑥) and is defined by:
𝑓(𝑥 + ℎ) − 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑓 ′ = lim
ℎ→0 ℎ

Derivatives Used in Mathematics

a
Gottfried Leibniz and Isaac Newton, during the mid-seventeenth century, invented calculus. Later, derivatives were discovered
and utilized for advancement and efficiency in yielding accurate results of variable functions related to the subject of calculus.
The three basic derivatives used in mathematics are mentioned below:
1 For use in algebraic expressions: 𝐷(𝑥 𝑛 ) = 𝑛𝑥 𝑛−1 (where 𝑛 is a real number)
2 For use in trigonometric functions: 𝐷(sin⁡ 𝑥) = cos⁡ 𝑥 and 𝐷(cos⁡ 𝑥) = (−sin⁡ 𝑥)
m
3 For use in exponential functions: 𝐷(𝑒 𝑥 ) = 𝑒 𝑥
In geometrical terms, one can define the derivative of any given function as the inclination of a line to its horizontal plane in a
graph of the function or the tendency of inclination of its tangent at a said point.

Increasing and Decreasing Functions

F=
To find that a given function is increasing or decreasing or constant, say in a graph, we use derivatives. If f is a function which is
continuous in [p, q] and differentiable in the open interval (p, q), then,
• f is increasing at [p, q] if f'(x) > 0 for each x ∈ (p, q)
• f is decreasing at [p, q] if f'(x) < 0 for each x ∈ (p, q)
• f is constant function in [p, q] if f'(x)=0 for each x ∈ (p, q)

Tangent and Normal to a Curve

A tangent is a line that touches the curve at a point and doesn’t cross it, whereas normal is perpendicular to that tangent.
Let the tangent meet the curve at P (x1, y1).

Now the straight-line equation which passes through a point having slope m could be written as.
y – y1 = m (x – x1)
We can see from the above equation, the slope of the tangent to the curve y = f(x) and at the point P (x1, y1), it is given as dy/dx
at P (x1, y1) = f'(x). Therefore,

108
Equation of the tangent to the curve at P (x1, y1) can be written as:
y – y1 = f'(x1) (x – x1)

Equation of normal to the curve is given by.

y – y1 = [-1/ f'(x1)] (x – x1)
Or
(y – y1) f'(x1) + (x-x1) = 0

Maxima and Minima

To calculate the highest and lowest point of the curve in a graph or to know it turning point, the derivative function is used.
• When x = a, if f(x) ≤ f(a) for every x in the domain, then f(x) has an Absolute Maximum value and the point a is the point of
the maximum value of f.
• When x = a, if f(x) ≤ f(a) for every x in some open interval (p, q) then f(x) has a Relative Maximum value.
• When x= a, if f(x) ≥ f(a) for every x in the domain then f(x) has an Absolute Minimum value and the point a is the point of the
minimum value of f.
• When x = a, if f(x) ≥ f(a) for every x in some open interval (p, q) then f(x) has a Relative Minimum value.

a
m
Monotonicity

Functions are said to be monotonic if they are either increasing or decreasing in their entire domain. f(x) = e x, f(x) = nx, f(x) = 2x
+ 3 are some examples.
Functions which are increasing and decreasing in their domain are said to be non-monotonic.
F=
For example: f(x) = sin x, f(x) = x2

Monotonicity Of a Function at A Point

A function is said to be monotonically decreasing at x = and if f(x) satisfies.
f (x + h) < f(a) for a small positive h
• f'(x) will be positive if the function is increasing.
• f'(x) will be negative if the function is decreasing.
• f'(x) will be zero when the function is at its maxima or minima.

Approximation or Finding Approximate Value

To find a very small change or variation of a quantity, we can use derivatives to give the approximate value of it. The approximate
value is represented by delta △.
Suppose change in the value of x, dx = x then,
dy/dx = △x = x.
Since the change in x, dx ≈ x therefore, dy ≈ y.

Point of Inflection

For continuous function f(x), if f'(x0) = 0 or f’” (x0) does not exist at points where f'(x0) exists and if f” (x) changes sign when
passing through x = x0 then x0 is called the point of inflection.
(a) If f” (x) < 0, x ∈ (a, b) then the curve y = f(x) in concave downward
(b) if f” (x) > 0, x ∈ (a, b) then the curve y = f(x) is concave upwards in (a, b)

109
For example: f(x) = sin x
Solution: f'(x) = cos x
f” (x) = sinx = 0 x = nπ, n ∈ z

Application of Derivatives in Real Life

Derivatives are used in real-life applications as well for a vivid understanding of various problems and issues. The use of
derivatives moreover builds knowledge of the problem by an individual. The application of derivatives in real life are:
• Calculating profit and loss in a business scenario in life.
• In checking or confirming the variations in temperature conditions.
• Determining the distance or speed, or area covered. (In kilometers, miles, etc.).
• Derivatives are used in certain equations in Physics.
• Derivative formulas are extensively used in Seismology to define the magnitude of earthquakes and for analyzing tectonic
activities.

a
m
F=

110
 Multiple Choice Questions
1. The side of an equilateral triangle is increasing at the rate of 2 cm/s. The rate at which area increases when the side is 10 is
A. 10 cm2/s B. 10/3 cm2/s
C. √3 cm2/s D. 10√3 cm2/s
Answer: D
Explanation:
Assume that x be the side of an equilateral triangle and A be its area.
Hence, A = (√3/4) x2 square units
Differentiate both sides with respect to t, we get.
dA/dt = (√3/4)2x(dx/dt) … (1)
Given that x = 10 cm and dx/dt = 2 cm/s
Now, substitute the values in (1), we get
dA/dt = (√3/4)2(10)(2)
Therefore, dA/dt = 10√3 cm2/s

2. The equation of the normal to the curve y = sin x at (0, 0) is

A. x = 0 B. y=0
C. x+y =0 D. x-y =0
Answer: C
Explanation:

a
Given: y = sin x
Hence, dy/dx = cos x
So, (dy/dx) at (0, 0) = cos 0 = 1
Thus, the slope of the normal = -1/(dy/dx) = -1/1 = -1.
m
Therefore, the equation of the normal at (0, 0) is.
y-0 =-1(x-0)
y=-x
Hence, x+y = 0 is the correct answer.

3. If there is an error of 2% in measuring the length of a simple pendulum, then percentage error in its period is
A. 1% B. 2%
F=
C. 3% D. 4%
Answer: A
Explanation:
We know that the formula for the time period of a pendulum is T = 2π × √(l/g)
dT/dl = π/√gl
Given that the percentage error in measuring the length “l” = 2%
Δl/l = 2/100
Δl = 2l/100
Therefore, the approximate error in T = dT = (dT/dl) Δl
dT = T/100 = 1% of T.
Hence, the percentage error in T is 1%.

4. The absolute maximum value of y = x3 – 3x + 2 in 0 ≤ x ≤ 2 is

A. 0 B. 2
C. 4 D. 6
Answer: C
Explanation:
Given: y = x3 – 3x + 2
Therefore, y’ = 3x2-3.
For a point of absolute maximum or minimum, y’ = 0
Hence, x = ±1
Let y = f(x)
Therefore, f (0) = 03-3(0) +2 = 2
f (1) = 13– 3(1) +2 = 0
f (2) = 23 – 3(2) +2 = 4

111
Hence, f(x) achieves a maximum value of 4 when x = 2.
5. The line y = x + 1 is a tangent to the curve y² = 4x at the point
A. (1, 2) B. (2, 1)
C. (-1, 2) D. (1, -2)
Answer: A
Explanation:
y = x+1…(1)
y2= 4x …(2)
Substitute (1) in (2), we get
(x+1)2 = 4x
x2+1+2x = 4x
x2-2x+1 = 0, which is equal to (x-1)2=0
⇒x=1
Now, substitute x = 1 in y=x+1, we get
y = 1+1 = 2.
Hence, the line y = x+1 is a tangent to the curve y2 = 4x at the point (1, 2).
Therefore, option (a) (1, 2) is the correct answer.

6. The function f(x) = x + cos x is

A. Always increasing B. Always decreasing
C. Increasing for a certain range of x D. None of these
Answer: A

a
Explanation:
Given:
f(x) = x+cos x
f’(x) = 1 – sinx
f’(x)>0 for all vaues of x.
m
Since sin x is lying between -1 and +1, f(x) is always increasing

7. Let the f: R → R be defined by f(x) = 2x + cos x, then f

A. has a maximum, at x = 0 B. has a minimum at x = 3t
C. is an increasing function D. is a decreasing function
Answer: C
Explanation:
F=
Given: f(x) = 2x + cos x
f’(x) = 2 – sin x
Now, f’(x) will be positive for all values of x
It means, f’ (x)>0 ∀ x∈R
Hence, the function is increasing for all values of x and it does not have any defined maximum and minimum.

8. The point(s) on the curve y = x², at which y-coordinate is changing six times as fast as x-coordinate is/are
A. (6, 2) B. (2, 4)
C. (3, 9) D. (3, 9), (9, 3)
Answer: C
Explanation:
dy/dt = (2x) (dx/dt)
⇒6. (dx/dt) = 2x.(dx/dt)
⇒x = 3
Now, substitute x = 3 in y=x2, we get
y = (3)2 = 9
Therefore, y = 9
Hence, the coordinate is (3, 9)

9. If y = x3 + x2 + x + 1, then y
A. has a local minimum B. has a local maximum
C. neither has a local minimum nor local maximum D. None of the above
Answer: C
Explanation:
If y = x3 + x2 + x + 1, then y neither has a local minimum nor local maximum.
112
10. The tangent to the curve y=e2x at the point (0,1) meet the x-axis at
A. (0, 1) B. (2, 0)
C. (-2, 0) D. (-½, 0)
Answer: D
Explanation:
Given: y=e2x
dy/dx = 2e2x
Hence, dy/dx at (0, 1) is = 2e0 = 2(1) = 2
Therefore, the equation of a tangent is y-1 = 2(x-0)
⇒2x-y+1 = 0, if it meets the x-axis, then y=0
So, x = -½.
Hence, the point is (-½, 0).

11. The value of f’(x) is -1 at the point P on a continuous curve y = f(x). What is the angle which the tangent to the curve at P
makes with the positive direction of x axis?
A. π/2 B. π/4
C. 3π/4 D. 3π/2
Answer: C
Explanation:
Let, Φ be the angle which the tangent to the curve y = f(x) at P makes with the positive direction of the x axis.
Then,
tanΦ = [f’(x)]p = -1

a
= -tan(π/4)
So, it is clear that this can be written as,
= tan(π – π/4)
= tan(3π/4)
So, Φ = 3π/4
m
Therefore, the required angle which the tangent at P to the curve y = f(x) makes with positive direction of x axis is 3π/4.

12. What will be the differential function of log(x2 + 4)?

A. 2x/(x2 + 4) dx B. 2x/(x2 – 4) dx
C. -2x/(x2 + 4) dx D. -2x/(x2 – 4) dx
Answer: A
Explanation:
F=
Let, y = f(x) = log(x2 + 4)
So f(x) = log(x2 + 4)
On differentiating it we get,
f’(x) = d/dx[log(x2 + 4)]
So f’(x) = 2x/(x2 + 4)
So the differential equation is:
dy = f’(x)dx
Hence, dy = 2x/(x2 + 4) dx

13. What will be the average rate of change of the function [y = 16 – x2] between x = 3 and x = 4?
A. 7 B. -7
C. 9 D. -9
Answer: B
Explanation:
Let, y = f(x) = 16 – x2
If x changes from 3 to 4, then, δx = 4 – 3 = 1
Again f (4) = 16 – 42 = 0
And f (3) = 16 – 32 = 7
Therefore, δy = f (4) – f (3) = 0 – 7 = -7
Hence, the average rate of change of the function between x = 3 and x = 4 is:
δy/δx = -7/1 = -7.

14. What will be the average rate of change of the function [y = 16 – x2] at x = 4?
A. -8 B. 8
C. -9 D. Depends on the value of x
113
Answer: A
Explanation:
Let, y = f(x) = 16 – x2
dy/dx = -2x
Now, [dy/dx]x = 4 = [-2x]x = 4
So, [dy/dx]x = 4 = -8

15. What will be the value of the co-ordinate whose position of a particle moving along the parabola y2 = 4x at which the rate of
increase of the abscissa is twice the rate of increase of the ordinate?
A. (1, 1) B. (2, 2)
C. (3, 3) D. (4, 4)
Answer: D
Explanation:
Here, y2 = 4x ………. (1)
Let, (x, y) be the position of the particle moving along the parabola (1) at time t.
Now, differentiating both sides of (1) with respect to t, we get:
2y(dy/dt) = 4(dx/dt)
Or, y(dy/dt) = 2(dy/dt) ……….(2)
By question, dx/dt = 2 × dy/dt ……….(3)
From (2) and (3) we get, y(dy/dt) = 2 × 2 dy/dt
Or y = 4
Putting y = 4 in (1) we get, 42 = 4x

a
So, x = 4
Thus, the co-ordinate of the particle is (4, 4).

16. The time rate of change of the radius of a sphere is 1/2π. When its radius is 5cm, what will be the rate of change of the surface
of the sphere with time?
A. 10 sq cm
C. 30 sq cm
m B. 20 sq cm
D. 40 sq cm
Answer: B
Explanation:
Let, r be the radius and s be the area of the surface of the sphere at time t.
By question, dr/dt = 1/2π
Now, s = 4πr2.
F=
Thus, ds/dt = 4π × 2r(dr/dt) = 8πr(dr/dt)
When r = 5cm and dr/dt = 1/2π
Then ds/dt = 8π ×5 × (1/2π) = 20
Thus, the correct answer is 20 sq cm.

17. A particle moving in a straight line covers a distance of x cm in t second, where x = t3 + 6t2 – 15t + 18. What will be the
acceleration of the particle at the end of 2 seconds?
A. 22cm/sec2 B. 23cm/sec2
C. 24cm/sec2 D. 25cm/sec2
Answer: C
Explanation:
We have, x = t3 + 6t2 – 15t + 18
Let ‘v’ be the velocity of the particle and ‘a’ be the acceleration of the particle at the end of t seconds. Then,
v = dx/dt = d/dt(t3 + 6t2 – 15t + 18)
So, v = 3t2 + 12t – 15
Therefore, a = dv/dt = d/dt(3t2 + 12t – 15)
So, a = 6t + 12
Thus, acceleration of the particle at the end of 2 seconds is,
[dv/dt]t = 2 = 6(2) + 12 = 24cm/sec2.

18. Water is flowing into a right circular conical vessel, 45 cm deep and 27 cm in diameter at the rate of 11 cc per minute. How
fast is the water level rising when the water is 30 cm deep?
A. 0.033cm/minute B. 0.043cm/minute
C. 0.053cm/minute D. 0.045cm/minute

114
Answer: B
Explanation:
Let ‘r’ be the radius and ‘h’ be the height of the water level at time t.
Then the volume of water level ‘V’ at time t is given by,
V = 1/3 (πr2h) ………. (1)
Given the radius of the base of the cone is = (OA)’ = 27/2 cm and its height = (OB)’ = 45cm.
Again, at time t, the radius of the water level = r = (CD)’ and its height = h = (CB)’
Clearly, the triangle OAB and CBD are similar.
Therefore, (CD)’/(CB)’ = (OA)’/(OB)’
Or r/h = (22/7)/45 = 3/10
or r = 3h/10
Thus, from (1) we get,
V = 1/3 π (3h/10)2 h = (3π/100) h3
Thus, dV/dt = (3π/100) × 3h2(dh/dt)
= (9πh2/100) (dh/dt)
When, h = 30cm, then,
11 = (9π/100) (30)2 (dh/dt) [as for all the values of t we have, dV/dt = 11]
Or, dh/dt = (11/ (9π ×9)) = 0.043
Thus, the rising rate of rising is 0.043 cm/minute.

19. What will be the increment of the differentiable function f(x) = 2x2 – 3x + 2 when x changes from 3.02 to 3?
A. 0.18 B. 0.018

a
C. 0.16 D. 0.016
Answer: A
Explanation:
Let, y = f(x) = 2x2 – 3x + 2
So, f’(x) = 4x – 3
m
Clearly, as x changes from 3 to 3.02, the increment of x is:
3.02 – 3 = 0.02
So, increment in f(x) = f(3.02) – f(3)
= 2(3.02)2 – 3(3.02) + 2 – 2(3)2 – 3(3) + 2
= 0.1808
Now, differential of y is dy
We get, f’(3) × 0.02 = (4.3 – 3) ×0.02
F=
= 0.18

20. If log103 = 0.4771 and log10e = 0.4343, then what is the value of log1030.5?
A. 1.43 B. 1.5
C. 1.484 D. 1.4
Answer: C
Explanation:
Let, y = log10x
Then f’(x) = d/dx[log10x]
= d/dx [logex × log10e]
= 1/x(log10e)
Now, f (x + δx) = f(x) + f’(x) δx
Putting x = 30 and δx = 0.5 in the above equation we get,
f (30 + 0.5) = f(30) + f’(30) δx
=> f (30.5) = log1030 + (1/30) log10e * 0.5
Putting the values we get,
log1030.5 = 1.4843 = 1.484

21. If 1° = 0.01745 then, what is the value of cos62°?

A. 0.4588 B. 0.4788
C. 0.4688 D. 0.3688
Answer: C
Explanation:
Let, y = f(x) = cosx
And x = 60° = π/3, δx = 2° = 2 × 0.01745 = 0.03490
115
Since f(x) = cosx, hence
f’(x) = -sinx
Now, we have f(x + δx) = f(x) + f’(x) δx
Or, f(60° + 2°) = f(60°) + f’(60°) × 0.0349
Or, f(62°) = cos(60°) – sin60° × 0.0349
Or, cos62° = 0.5 – 0.866 × 0.0349 = 0.4688

22. The length of a side of a cube is 10cm; if an error of 0.05cm is made in measuring the side, then what is the value of
approximate error in calculating its volume?
A. 16 cu cm B. 15 cu cm
C. 15.5 cu cm D. 14 cu cm
Answer: B
Explanation:
Let, v cubic cm be the volume of the cube of the cube of side x cm.
Then, v = x3
Thus, dv/dx = d/dx(x3) = 3x2
Now, dv = dv/dx × δx = 3x2 × δx
By problem, x = 10 and δx = 0.05
Therefore, approximate error = dv = 3 × 102 × 0.05 = 15 cu cm.

23. The length of a side of a cube is 10cm; if an error of 0.05cm is made in measuring the side, then what is the value of relative
error in calculating its volume?

a
A. 0.0016 B. 0.014
C. 0.015 D. 0.0015
Answer: C
Explanation:
Let, v cubic cm be the volume of the cube of the cube of side x cm.
Then, v = x3
Thus, dv/dx = d/dx(x3) = 3x2
m
Now, dv = dv/dx × δx = 3x2 × δx
By problem, x = 10 and δx = 0.05
Therefore, approximate error = dv = 3 × 102 × 0.05 = 15 cc cm.
Hence, relative error = dv/v = 15/103 = 0.015
F=
24. The length of a side of a cube is 10cm; if an error of 0.05cm is made in measuring the side, then what is the value of percentage
error in calculating its volume?
A. 1.65 B. 1.45
C. 0.015 D. 1.5
Answer: D
Explanation:
Let, v cubic cm be the volume of the cube of the cube of side x cm.
Then, v = x3
Thus, dv/dx = d/dx(x3) = 3x2
Now, dv = dv/dx × δx = 3x2 × δxBy problem, x = 10 and δx = 0.05
Therefore, approximate error = dv = 3 ×102 × 0.05 = 15 cc cm.
Hence, relative error = dv/v = 15/103 = 0.015
Thus, percentage error = relative error × 100 = 0.015 × 100 = 1.5

25. What will be the estimate error made in calculating the area of the triangle ABC in which the sides a and b are measured
accurately as 25 cm and 16 cm, while the angle C is measured as 60° but (1/2)° in error?
A. 55/63 sq cm B. 53/63 sq cm
C. 55/67 sq cm D. Data not sufficient
Answer: A
Explanation:
Let, y be the area of the triangle ABC.
Then, y = ½(ab)(sinC) where a and b are constants.
Now, dy = dy/dC × dC = ½(ab)(sinC) dC
Now, by problem, a = 25, b = 16, C = 60° and δC = (1/2) ° = π/180 × ½ radian
Therefore, dy = 1/2 × 25 × 16 × cos60° × π/180 × ½ sq cm
116
=> dy = 25 × 8 × ½ × 22/7 × 1/180 × ½ sq cm
= 55/63 sq cm

26. The edge of a cube is increasing at a rate of 7 cm/s. Find the rate of change of area of the cube when 𝑥 = 6 cm.
578 cm2 498 cm2
A. B.
s s
504 cm2 688 cm2
C. D.
s s
Answer: C
Explanation:
𝑑𝑥
Let the edge of the cube be 𝑥. The rate of change of edge of the cube is given by = 7 cm/s.
𝑑𝑡
The area of the cube is 𝐴 = 6𝑥 2
𝑑𝐴 𝑑 𝑑𝑥
⁡∴ = (6x 2 ) = 12x ⋅ = 12x × 7 = 84x
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝐴
| = 84 × 6 =
𝑑𝑡 −x=6
504 cm2
=
s

27. The rate of change of area of a square is 40 cm2 /s. What will be the rate of change of side if the side is 10 cm.
2 cm 4 cm
A. B.
s s
8 cm 6 cm
C. D.

a
s s
Answer: A
Explanation:
Let the side of the square be 𝑥.
𝐴 = 𝑥 2 , where 𝐴 is the area of the square
Given that,
𝑑𝑥 20
𝑑𝐴
𝑑𝑡
=2×
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑡
m
= 40 cm2 /s.

= cm/s
𝑑𝑡 𝑥
𝑑𝑥 20
= = 2 cm/s.
𝑑𝑡 10

28. If the circumference of the circle is changing at the rate of 5 cm/s then what will be rate of change of area of the circle if the
F=
radius is 6 cm.
A. 20 cm2 /s B.
40 cm2
s
70 cm2 30 cm2
C. D.
s s
Answer: D
Explanation:
The circumference of the circle is given by C = 2𝜋𝑟, where 𝑟 is the radius of the circle.
𝑑𝐶 𝑑𝑟
⁡∴ = 2𝜋 ⋅ = 5 cm/s
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑟
= 5/2𝜋cm/s
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝐴 𝑑𝑟 5
| = 2𝜋𝑟 ⋅ = 2𝜋𝑟 ⋅ = 5𝑟 = 5(6)
𝑑𝑡 𝑟=6 𝑑𝑡 2𝜋
30 cm2
=
s

29. The length of the rectangle is changing at a rate of 4 cm/s and the area is changing at the rate of 8 cm/s. What will be the rate
of change of width if the length is 4cm and the width is 1 cm.
A. 5 cm/s B. 6 cm/s
C. 2 cm/s D. 1 cm/s
Answer: D
Explanation:
Let the length be I, width be 𝑏 and the area be 𝐴.
The Area is given by 𝐴 = 1𝑏
𝑑𝐴 𝑑𝑏 𝑑𝑙
=I⋅ + b ⋅ − (1)
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
117
 𝑑𝑙 4 cm 𝑑𝐴 8 cm
Given that, = and =
𝑑𝑡 s 𝑑𝑡 s
Substituting in the above equation, we get
𝑑𝑏
8 = 1. + 4𝑏
𝑑𝑡
Given that, 1 = 4 cm and 𝑏 = 1 cm
𝑑𝑏
⁡∴ 8 = 4 ( ) + 4(1)
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑏
8 = 4( ) +4
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑏
= 1 cm/s.
𝑑𝑡

30. For which of the values of 𝑥, the rate of increase of the function 𝑦 = 3𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 + 7 is 4 times the rate of increase of 𝑥 ?
A. -1 B.
1
3
C. 1 D. 0
Answer: C
Explanation:
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑥
Given that, =4⋅
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
y= 3x 2 − 2x + 7
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑥
= (6x − 2)
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

a
4. = (6x − 2)
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
4 = 6x − 2
6x = 6
⁡⇒ x = 1
m Question/Answer
Very Short Questions
1. For the curve y = 5x − 2x 3 , if increases at the rate of 2 units/sec., find the rate of change of the slope of the curve when x =
3.
Answer:
F=
The given curve is y = 5x – 2x3
dy
∴ = 5 – 6x2
dx
i.e., m = 5 – 6x2,
where ‘m’ is the slope.
dm dx
∴ = -12x = -12x (2) = -24x
dt dt
dm
∴ ]x=3 = -24(3) = -72.
dt
Hence, the rate of the change of the slope = -72.

2. Without using the derivative, show that the function f(x) = 7x − 3 is a strictly increasing function in R.
Answer:
Let x1 and x2∈ R.
Now x1 > x2
⇒ 7x1 > 7x2
⇒ 7x1 – 3 > 7x2 – 3
⇒ f(x1) > f(x2).
Hence, ‘f’ is strictly increasing function in R.

3. Show that function:

f(x) = 4x 3 − 18x 2 − 27x − 7 is always increasing in R.
Answer:
We have f(x) = 4x3 – 18 × 2 – 27x – 7
∴ f(x) = 12x2 – 36x + 27 = 12(x2 – 3x) + 27
= 12(x2 – 3x + 9/4) + 27 – 27

118
= 12(x – 3/2)2∀ x∈ R.
Hence, f(x) is always increasing in R.

4. Find the slope of the tangent to the curve:

x = at 2 , y = 2 at t = 2.
Answer:
The given curve is x – at2, y = 2at.
dx
∴ = 2at
dt
dx
= 2a
dt
dy dy/dt 2a
∴ = = =
dx dx/dt 2at
dy 1
Hence, slope of the tangent at t = 2 is: ]t=2 =
dx 2

5. Find the maximum and minimum values, if any, of the following functions without using derivatives:
i. f(x) = (2x − 1)2 + 3
ii. f(x) = 16x 2 − 16x + 28
iii. f(x) = −|x + 1| + 3
iv. f(x) = sin⁡ 2x + 5
v. f(x) = sin⁡(sin⁡ x).
Answer:
(i) We have:

a
f(x) = (2x – 1)2 + 3.
Here Df = R.
Now f(x) ≥ 3.
[∵ (2x – 1)2 ≥ 0 for all x ∈ R]
However, maximum value does not exist.
m
[∵ f(x) can be made as large as we please]
(ii) We have:
f(x) = 16x2 – 16x + 28.
Here Df = R.
Now f(x) = 16 (x2 – x + 14 + 24
1
= (16(x – )2 + 24
2
⇒ f(x) ≥ 24.
F=
[∵ 16(x – 12)2 ≥ 0 for all x ∈ R
Hence, the minimum value is 24.
However, maximum value does not exist.
[ ∵ f(x) can be made as large as we please]
(iii) We have:
f(x) = – 1x + 11 + 3
⇒ f(x) ≤ 3.
[ ∵ -|x + 1| ≤ 0]
Hence, the maximum value = 3.
However, the minimum value does not exist.
[∵ f(x) can be made as small as we please]
(iv) We have:
f(x) = sin2x + 5.
Since – 1 ≤ sin 2x ≤ 1 for all x ∈ R,
– 1+5 ≤ sin2x + 5 ≤ 1+5 for all x∈ R
⇒ 4 ≤ sin2x + 5 ≤ 6 for all x ∈ R
⇒ 4 ≤ f(x) ≤ 6 for all x ∈ R.
Hence, the maximum value = 6 and minimum value = 4.
(v) We have:
f(x) = sin (sin x).
We know that – 1 ≤ sin x ≤ 1 for all x ∈ R
⇒ sin (-1) ≤ sin(sinx) ≤ sin 1 for all x ∈ R
⇒ – sin 1 ≤ f(x) ≤ sin 1.
Hence, maximum value = sin 1 and minimum value = -sin 1.

119
6. A particle moves along the curve x 2 = 2y. At what point, ordinate increases at die same rate as abscissa increases?
Answer:
The given curve is x2 = 2y … (1)
dx dy
Diff.w.r.t.t, 2x =2
dt dt
dx dx
⇒ 2x =2
dt dt
dy dx
∵ = given
dt dt
1
From (1), 1 = 2y ⇒ y =
2
1
Hence, the reqd. point is (1, )
2

Long Questions
1. A ladder 13m long is leaning against a vertical wall. The bottom of the ladder is dragged away from the wall along the ground
at the rate of 2cm/sec. How fast is the height on the wall decreasing when the foot of the ladder is 5m away from the wall?
Answer:

a
m
F=

Hence, the height is decreasing at the rate of 5/6 cm/sec.

2. Find the angle of intersection of the curves x 2 + y 2 = 4 and (x − 2)2 + y 2 = 4, at the point in the first quadrant.
Answer: The given curves are:
x2 + y2 = 4 …………. (1)
(x – 2)2 + y2 = 4 …………. (2)
From (2),
y = 4 – (x – 2)2
Putting in (1),
x2 + 4 - (x - 2)2 = 4
⇒ x2 – (x – 2)2 = 0
⇒ (x + (x - 2) (x – x) + 2) = 0
⇒ (2x – 2) (2) = 0
⇒ x = 1.
Putting in (1),
1 + y2 = 4
⇒ y = √3
∴ Point of intersection = (1, √3)

120
3. Find the intervals in which the function: f(x) = −2x 3 − 9x 2 − 12x + 1 is (i) Strictly increasing (ii) Strictly decreasing.
Answer:
Given function is:
f(x) = – 2x3 – 9x2 – 12x + 1.

a
Diff. w.r.t. x,
f'(x) = -6x2 – 18x – 12
= -6(x + 1) (x + 2).
Now, f'(x) – 0
⇒ x = -2, x = -1
m
⇒ Intervals are (-∞ – 2), (-2, -1) and (-1, ∞).
Getting f’ (x) > 0 in (-2, -1)
and f'(x) < 0 in (-∞, -2) u (-1, ∞)
⇒ f(x) is strictly increasing in (-2, -1) and strictly decreasing in (-∞, 2) u (-1, ∞).

4. A window is in the form of a rectangle surmounted by a semicircular opening. The total perimeter of the window is 10 meters.
F=
Find the dimensions of the window to admit maximum light through the whole opening.
Answer:
Let ‘x’ and ‘y’ be the length and breadth of the rectangle ABCD.
x
Radius of the semi-circle = .
2
πx
Circumference of the semi-circle =
2

121
or Max./Min. of A (x), A’ (x) = 0

20 - (2 + π) (2x) + πx = 0
20 + x (π – 4 – 2π) = 0
20 – x (4 + π) = 0

a
m
F=

122
 Chapter - 7 Integrals
Differentiation is the inverse of integration. Integration is the process of determining a function whose differential coefficient is known.
So from the above, if the differential coefficient of F(x) is 𝑓(x)
d
i.e., [F(x)] = 𝑓(x), then one can say that the antiderivative or integral of 𝑓(𝑥) is 𝐹(𝑥), written as ∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = 𝐹(𝑥),
dx
Here ∫ dx is the notation of integration 𝑓(𝑥) is the integrand, 𝑥 is the variable of integration and dx denotes the integration with respect to
X.

Indefinite Integral

d
We know that if [F(x)] = 𝑓(x), then ∫ 𝑓(x)dx = F(x).
dx
Also, for any arbitrary constant C

d d
[F(x) + C] = [F(x)] + 0 = 𝑓(x)
dx dx
∴ ∫ 𝑓(x)dx = F(x) + C

This shows that 𝐹(𝑥) and 𝐹(𝑥) + 𝐶 are both integrals of the same function 𝑓(𝑥). Thus, for different values of 𝐶, we obtain different integrals

a
of 𝑓(𝑥). This implies that the integral of 𝑓(𝑥) is not definite. By virtue of this property 𝐹(𝑥) is called the indefinite integral of 𝑓(𝑥).
Properties of Indefinite Integration
d
[∫ f(x)dx] = 𝑓(x)
dx

∫ 𝑓 ′ (𝑥)dx = ∫
d
dx
[𝑓(x)]dx = 𝑓(x) + c

∫ k𝑓(x)dx = k∫ 𝑓(x)dx, where k is any constant

m
If 𝑓1 (𝑥), 𝑓2 (𝑥), 𝑓3 (𝑥), … (finite in number) are functions of x, then
∫ [𝑓1 (𝑥) ± 𝑓2 (𝑥) ± 𝑓3 (𝑥) … ]𝑑𝑥
F=
= ∫ 𝑓1 (𝑥)𝑑𝑥 ± ∫ 𝑓2 (𝑥)𝑑𝑥 ± ∫ 𝑓3 (𝑥)𝑑𝑥 ± ⋯

1
If ∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = 𝐹(𝑥) + 𝑐 then ∫ 𝑓(𝑎𝑥 ± 𝑏)𝑑𝑥 = 𝐹(𝑎𝑥 ± 𝑏) + 𝑐
𝑎

Standard Formula of Integration

The definition of an integral has the following conclusions as a direct result.
𝑥 𝑛+1
∫ 𝑥 𝑛 𝑑𝑥 = + 𝐶, 𝑛 ≠ −1
𝑛+1
1
∫ 𝑑𝑥 = log |𝑥| + 𝐶
𝑥

∫ 𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑒 𝑥 + 𝐶

𝑎𝑥
∫ 𝑎 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = + 𝐶.
log𝑒 𝑎

∫ sin 𝑥𝑑𝑥 = −cos 𝑥 + 𝐶

∫ cos 𝑥𝑑𝑥 = sin 𝑥 + 𝐶

∫ sec 2 𝑥𝑑𝑥 = tan 𝑥 + 𝐶

∫ cosec 2 𝑥𝑑𝑥 = −cot 𝑥 + 𝐶

123
∫ sec 𝑥tan 𝑥𝑑𝑥 = sec 𝑥 + 𝐶

∫ cosec 𝑥cot 𝑥𝑑𝑥 = −cosec 𝑥 + 𝐶.

∫ tan 𝑥𝑑𝑥 = −log |cos 𝑥| + 𝐶 = log |sec 𝑥| + 𝐶.

∫ cot 𝑥𝑑𝑥 = log |sin 𝑥| + 𝐶

∫ sec 𝑥𝑑𝑥 = log |sec 𝑥 + tan 𝑥| + 𝐶

∫ cosec 𝑥𝑑𝑥 = log |cosec 𝑥 − cot 𝑥| + 𝐶

𝑑𝑥
∫ = sin−1 𝑥 + 𝐶; |𝑥| < 1
√1 − 𝑥 2

𝑑𝑥
∫ = tan−1 𝑥 + 𝐶
1 + 𝑥2

𝑑𝑥
∫ = sec −1 |𝑥| + 𝐶; |𝑥| > 1
𝑥√𝑥 2 − 1

a
Method of Integration

By using the suitable substitution, the variable 𝑥 in ∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 is changed into another variable 𝑡 so that the integrand 𝑓(𝑥) is changed into
F(t) is an algebraic sum of standard integrals or a standard integral. There is no universal formula for determining a suitable substitute,
and experience is the greatest guidance in this regard.

put 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏 = 𝑡 and 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑑𝑡
1
𝑎
𝑑𝑡
m
The following ideas, on the other hand, will be beneficial.
If the integrand is of the form 𝑓 ′ (𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏), then we

Thus, ∫ 𝑓 ′ (𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏)𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑓 ′ (𝑡)

𝑎
1 𝑓(𝑡) 𝑓(𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏)
= ∫ 𝑓 ′ (𝑡)𝑑𝑡 = = +𝑐
𝑎 𝑎 𝑎
F=
When the integrand is of the form 𝑥 𝑛−1 𝑓 ′ (𝑥 𝑛 ), we put 𝑥 𝑛 = 𝑡 and 𝑛𝑥 𝑛−1 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑡 1
Thus, ∫ 𝑥 𝑛−1 𝑓 ′ (𝑥 𝑛 )𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑓 ′ (𝑡) =
𝑛 𝑛
1 1
∫ 𝑓 ′ (t)dt = 𝑓(t) = 𝑓(x n ) + c
n n

When the integrand is of the form [𝑓(𝑥)]𝑛 ⋅ 𝑓 ′ (𝑥), we put 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑡 and 𝑓 ′ (𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = 𝑑𝑡
Thus,
𝑓′ (𝑥)
When the integrand is of the form , we put
𝑓(𝑥)
𝑓(x) = t and 𝑓 ′ (x)dx = dt

𝑓′ (x) dt
Thus, ∫ dx = ∫ = log |t| = log |𝑓(x)| + c
𝑓(x) t

Some Special Integrals

𝑑𝑥 1 𝑥
∫ = tan−1 + 𝐶
𝑥2 +𝑎 2 𝑎 𝑎

dx 1 x−a
∫ = log | |+C
x 2 − a2 2a x+a

𝑑𝑥 1 𝑎+𝑥
∫ = log | |+𝐶
𝑎2 − 𝑥 2 2𝑎 𝑎−𝑥

124
 𝑑𝑥 𝑥
∫ = sin−1 +𝐶
√𝑎 2 − 𝑥2 𝑎

𝑑𝑥
∫ = log |𝑥 + √𝑥 2 + 𝑎2 | + 𝐶
√𝑥 2 + 𝑎2

𝑑𝑥
∫ = log |𝑥 + √𝑥 2 − 𝑎2 | + 𝐶
√𝑥 2 − 𝑎2

𝑥 𝑎2 𝑥
∫ √𝑎 2 − 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 = √𝑎2 − 𝑥 2 + sin−1 + 𝐶.
2 2 𝑎

𝑥 𝑎2
∫ √𝑥 2 + 𝑎2 𝑑𝑥 = √𝑥 2 + 𝑎2 + log |𝑥 + √𝑥 2 + 𝑎2 | + 𝐶
2 2

𝑥 𝑎2
∫ √𝑥 2 − 𝑎2 𝑑𝑥 = √𝑥 2 − 𝑎2 − log |𝑥 + √𝑥 2 − 𝑎2 | + 𝐶
2 2

Integrals of the Form

∫ 𝑓(a2 − x 2 )dx,
∫ 𝑓(𝑎 2 + 𝑥 2 )𝑑𝑥,
∫ 𝑓(𝑥 2 − 𝑎2 )𝑑𝑥,

a
𝑎−𝑥
∫𝑓( ) 𝑑𝑥,
𝑎+𝑥

Working Rule
Integral Substitution
∫ 𝑓(a2 − x 2 )dx, x = asin 𝜃 or x = acos 𝜃
m
∫ 𝑓(𝑎2 + 𝑥 2 )𝑑𝑥, 𝑥 = 𝑎tan 𝜃 or 𝑥 = 𝑎cot 𝜃

∫ 𝑓(𝑥 2 − 𝑎2 )𝑑𝑥, 𝑥 = 𝑎sec 𝜃 or 𝑥 = 𝑎cosec 𝜃

𝑎−𝑥 𝑎+𝑥
∫ 𝑓( ) 𝑑𝑥 or ∫ 𝑓 ( ) 𝑑𝑥 𝑥 = 𝑎cos 2𝜃
𝑎+𝑥 𝑎−𝑥
F=
3. Integrals of the Form
𝑑𝑥
∫
𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐
dx
∫
√ax 2 + bx + c
∫ √𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐𝑑𝑥𝑎,

Working Rule
Make the coefficient of 𝑥 2 unity by taking the coefficient of x 2 outside the quadratic.
Complete the square in the terms involving 𝑥, i.e., write 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 in the form.
𝑏 2 (𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑐)
𝑎 [(𝑥 + ) ] −
2𝑎 4𝑎

One of the nine special integrals is used to transform the integrand.

Then just integrate the function.

Integrals of the Form

𝑝𝑥 + 𝑞
∫ 𝑑𝑥
𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐

px + q
∫ dx
√𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐

∫ (𝑝𝑥 + 𝑞)√𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐𝑑𝑥

125
Integral Working Rule
px+q
∫ dx Put px + q = 𝜆(2ax + b) + 𝜇 or px + q = 𝜆 (derivative of quadratic) +𝜇.
ax2 +bx+c

When the coefficient of x and the constant term on both sides are compared, we obtain.
− bp
p = 2a𝜆 and q = b𝜆 + 𝜇 ⇒ 𝜆 = and 𝜇 = (q − ).
2a 2a

Then integral becomes

𝑝𝑥 + 𝑞
∫ 𝑑𝑥
𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐
2ax + b dx bp d
= ∫ dx + (q − ) ∫
2a ax 2 + bx + c 2a ax + bx + c
𝑑𝑥 𝑏𝑝 𝑑𝑥
= log |𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐| + (𝑞 − ) ∫
2𝑎 2𝑎 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐
px + q
∫ dx
√axx 2 + bx + c

In this case the integral becomes

px + q
∫ 𝑑𝑥 =
√𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐
𝑝 2𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏 𝑏𝑝 𝑑𝑥
∫ 𝑑𝑥 + (𝑞 − ) ∫

a
2𝑎 2
√𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 2𝑎 2
√𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐
𝑝 𝑏𝑝 𝑑𝑥
= √ 2
𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 + (𝑞 − ) ∫
𝑎 2𝑎 2
√𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐
∫ (𝑝𝑥 + 𝑞)√𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐𝑑𝑥

∫ (𝑝𝑥 + 𝑞)√𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐𝑑𝑥 =

bp
2𝑎
m
In this example, the integral is transformed to
𝑝
∫ (2𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏)√𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐𝑑𝑥

+ (q − ) ∫ √ax𝑥 2 + bx + c𝑑𝑥
2a
p bp
= (ax 2 + bx + c)3/2 + (q − ) ∫ √ax 2 + bx + cdx
3a 2a
F=
Integrals of the Form
𝑃(𝑥)
∫ 𝑑𝑥, where 𝑃(𝑥) is a polynomial in 𝑥 of degree 𝑛 ⩾ 2.
√𝑎𝑥 2 +𝑏𝑥+𝑐

Working Rule: Write

P(x)
∫ 𝑑𝑥 =
√𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐
𝑑𝑥
= (𝑎0 + 𝑎1 𝑥 + 𝑎2 𝑥 2 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑛−1 𝑥 𝑛−1 )√𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 + 𝑘 ∫ where k a0 , a1 , … an−1 are
√𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐

where k, a0 , a1 , … an−1 are constants that may be found by separating the above relation and equating the coefficients of various powers of
𝑥 on both sides.

Integrals of the Form

𝑥2 + 1 𝑥2 − 1
∫ 𝑑𝑥 or ∫ 4 𝑑𝑥
𝑥4 2
+ 𝑘𝑥 + 1 𝑥 + 𝑘𝑥 2 + 1

where k is a constant positive, negative or zero.

Working Rule
x 2 is divided into the numerator and denominator.
1 1
Put 𝑥 − = 𝑧 or 𝑥 + = 𝑧, Whatever substitution yields the numerator of the resultant integrand on differentiation.
𝑥 𝑥
In Z, evaluate the resultant integral.
In terms of 𝑋, express the outcome.

126
Integrals of the Form
dx
∫ , where P, Q are linear or quadratic functions of x.
P√Q
Integral Substitution
1
∫ 𝑑𝑥
(𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏)√𝑐𝑥 + 𝑑
𝑐𝑥 + 𝑑 = 𝑧 2
𝑑𝑥
∫ 𝑝𝑥 + 𝑞 = 𝑧 2
(𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐)√𝑝𝑥 + 𝑞
𝑑𝑥 1
∫ 𝑝𝑥 + 𝑞 =
2
(𝑝𝑥 + 𝑞)√𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 𝑧
𝑑𝑥 1
∫ 𝑥=
(𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏)√𝑐𝑥 2 + 𝑑 𝑧

Method of Partial Fractions for Rational Functions

𝑝(𝑥)
By resolving the integrand into partial fractions, Integrals of the type ∫ may be integrated.
𝑔(𝑥)
The following is how we proceed:
First of all, check the degree of 𝑝(𝑥) and 𝑔(𝑥).
𝑝(𝑥) 𝑓(x)
If degree of 𝑝(x) ⩾ degree of 𝑔(x), then divide 𝑝(x) by 𝑔(x) till its degree is less, i.e., put in the form = r(x) + where degree of
𝑔(x) 𝑔(x)

a
𝑓(x) < degree of 𝑔(x)

CASE 1: When there are non-repeated linear components in the denominator. i.e.
𝑔(x) = (x − 𝛼1 )(x − 𝛼2 ) … (x − 𝛼n )

In such a case write 𝑓(𝑥) and 𝑔 as:

𝑓(x)
=
A1
+
A2
𝑔(x) (x − 𝛼1 ) (x − 𝛼2 )
+ ⋯+
m
An
(x − 𝛼n )

After extracting L.C.M., compare the coefficients of various powers on both sides to get the constants 𝐴1 , 𝐴2 , … 𝐴𝑛 .

CASE 2: When there are both repeated and non-repeated linear factors in the denominator.
F=
i.e., 𝑔(𝑥) = (𝑥 − 𝛼1 )2 (𝑥 − 𝛼3 ) … (𝑥 − 𝛼𝑛 )

In such a case write 𝑓(𝑥) and 𝑔(𝑥) as:

𝑓(x) A1 A2 A3 An
= + + + ⋯+
𝑔(x) x − 𝛼1 (x − 𝛼1 )2 x − 𝛼3 (x − 𝛼n )

After extracting L.C.M., compare the coefficients of various powers on both sides to get the constants 𝐴1 , 𝐴2 , … 𝐴𝑛 .
A1
Note: corresponding to a linear factor that has been repeated (𝑥 − 𝑎)𝑟 in the denominator, a sum of 𝑟 partial fractions of the type +
x−a
A2 A𝑟
+⋯+ is taken.
(x−a)2 (x−a)𝑟

CASE 3: When there is a non-repeated quadratic component in the denominator that cannot be factored further:
𝑔(x) = (ax 2 + bx + c)(x − 𝛼3 )(x − 𝛼4 ) … (x − 𝛼n )

In such a case express 𝑓(𝑥) and 𝑔(𝑥) as:

𝑓(𝑥) 𝐴1 𝑥 + 𝐴2 𝐴3 𝐴𝑛
= + +⋯+
𝑔(𝑥) 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 𝑥 − 𝛼3 𝑥 − 𝛼𝑛

After extracting L.C.M., compare the coefficients of various powers on both sides to get the constants 𝐴1 , 𝐴2 , … 𝐴𝑛 .

CASE 4: When there is a repeating quadratic component in the denominator that cannot be factored further:
i.e., 𝑔(𝑥) = (𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐)2 (𝑥 − 𝛼5 )(𝑥 − 𝛼6 ) … (𝑥 − 𝛼𝑛 )

In such a case write 𝑓(𝑥) and 𝑔(𝑥) as

127
 𝑓(𝑥) 𝐴1 𝑥 + 𝐴2 𝐴3 𝑥 + 𝐴4
= 2 + +
𝑔(𝑥) 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 (𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐)2
𝐴5 𝐴𝑛
+⋯+
𝑥 − 𝛼5 (𝑥 − 𝛼𝑛 )

After extracting L.C.M., compare the coefficients of various powers on both sides to get the constants 𝐴1 , 𝐴2 , … 𝐴𝑛 .

CASE 5: If 𝑥 will be the even power then

Put 𝑥 2 = z in the integrand.
Resolve the resulting rational expression in z into partial fractions
Put z = x 2 again in the partial fractions and then integrate both sides.

Method of Integration by Parts

Integration by parts refers to the process of combining the output of two functions.
d𝑢
e.g., if 𝑢 and 𝑣 are two functions of 𝑥, then ∫ (𝑢𝑣)dx = 𝑢 ⋅ ∫ 𝑣dx − ∫ ( ⋅ ∫ 𝑣dx) dx
dx
To put it another way, the integral of the product of two functions = first function × integral of the second - integral of (differential of first
× integral of the second function).

Working Hints
Choose the first and second functions in such a way that the derivative and integral of the first function may be determined quickly.

a
In case of integrals of the form ∫ 𝑓(𝑥) ⋅ x n dx, take x n as the first function and 𝑓(x) as the second function.
In case of integrals of the form ∫ (log 𝑥)n ⋅ ldx, take 1 as the second function and (log 𝑥)𝑛 as the first function.
The rule of parts integration can be applied several times if necessary.

If the two functions are of different types, the first function can be chosen as the one with the first initial in the word "ILATE," where
I - Inverse Trigonometric function
L - Logarithmic function
m
A - Algebraic function T - Trigonometric function
E - Exponential function

If both functions are trigonometric, use the second function as the second function with a simple integral. If both functions are algebraic,
choose the one with the simpler derivative as the initial function. If the integral is an inverse trigonometric function of an algebraic
F=
expression in x, simplify the integrand first using an appropriate trigonometric substitution before integrating the new integrand.

Integrals of the Form ∫ 𝐞𝒙 [𝒇(𝐱) + 𝒇′ (𝐱)]𝐝𝐱

Working Rule
Divide the integral into two equal halves.
Only use parts to integrate the first integral, i.e.
= [𝑓(x) ⋅ ex − ∫ 𝑓 ′ (x) ⋅ ex x] + ∫ ex 𝑓 ′ (x)dx
= ex 𝑓(x) + C

Integrals of the Form

After integrating by parts, the initial integrand reappears.

Working Rule
• Use the part-by-part integration technique twice.
• If we integrate by parts a second time, we'll get the same integrand as before, therefore we'll set it equal to 𝐼.
• On one side, transpose and gather words involving 𝐼, and assess 𝐼.

Integral of the Form (Trigonometric Formats)

𝑑𝑥
∫
𝑎 + bcos 𝑥
𝑑𝑥
∫
𝑎 + bsin 𝑥
128
 𝑑𝑥
∫
𝑎 + 𝑏cos 𝑥 + 𝑐sin 𝑥

Working Rule
𝑥 𝑥
1−tan2 2tan 𝑥
Put cos 𝑥 = 2
𝑥 and sin 𝑥 = 2
𝑥 so that the given integrand becomes a function of tan .
1+tan2 1+tan2 2
2 2
𝑥 1 𝑥
Put tan =𝑧⇒ sec 2 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑑𝑧
2 2 2
Integrate the resulting rational algebraic function of 𝑧
𝑥
In the answer, put 𝑧 = tan .
2

Integrals of the Form

𝑑𝑥
∫
𝑎 + 𝑏cos2 𝑥

𝑑𝑥
∫
𝑎 + 𝑏 sin2 𝑥
𝑑𝑥
∫
𝑎 cos2 𝑥 + bsin xcos 𝑥 + csin2 𝑥

Working Rule
• Divide the numerator and denominator by cos2 𝑥.
• In the denominator, replace sec'x, if any, by 1 + tan2 𝑥.
• Put tan 𝑥 = 𝑧 ⇒ sec 2 𝑥𝑑𝑥 = 𝑑𝑧

a
• Integrate the resulting rational algebraic function of 𝑧.
• In the answer, put 𝑧 = tan 𝑥.

Integrals of the Form

𝑎cos 𝑥 + 𝑏sin 𝑥
∫

•
𝑐cos 𝑥 + 𝑑sin 𝑥

Working Rule
𝑑𝑥
m
Put Numerator = 𝜆 (denominator) +𝜇 (derivative of denominator) acos 𝑥 + bsin 𝑥 = 𝜆(ccos 𝑥 + dsin 𝑥) + 𝜇(− csin 𝑥 + dcos 𝑥)
• Equate coefficients of sin 𝑥 and cos 𝑥 on both sides and find the values of 𝜆, and 𝜇.
• Divide the provided integral into two parts and evaluate each independently, as follows:
𝑎cos 𝑥 + 𝑏sin 𝑥
∫ 𝑑𝑥 =
𝑐cos 𝑥 + 𝑑sin 𝑥
F=
−csinx + dcos x
𝜆 ∬ dx + 𝜇 ∫ x = 𝜆x + 𝜇log |acos x + bsin x|
acos x + bsin x

Substitute the values of 𝜆 and 𝜇 found in step 2.

𝒂+𝐛𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒙+𝐜𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒙
Integrals of the Form ∫ 𝒅𝒙
𝒆+𝐟𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒙+𝐠𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒙
Working Rule
• Put Numerator = 𝐼 (denominator) +m (derivative of denominator)
𝑎 + 𝑏cos 𝑥 + 𝑐sin 𝑥 = 𝑙(𝑒 + 𝑓cos 𝑥 + 𝑔sin 𝑥) + 𝑚
(−𝑓sin 𝑥 + 𝑔cos 𝑥) + 𝑛

• Equate coefficients of sin 𝑥, cos 𝑥 and constant term n on both sides and find the values of 𝑙, m, n.
• The next step is to divide the provided integral into 3 distinct integrals and evaluate each one separately, i.e.

𝑎 + 𝑏cos 𝑥 + csin𝑥
∫ 𝑑𝑥
𝑒 + 𝑓cos 𝑥 + 𝑔sin 𝑥
−fsin x + gcos x
𝑙 ∫ dx + m ∫ dx +
e + fcos 𝑥 + gsin 𝑥
dx
n∫
e + fcos 𝑥 + gsin 𝑥
𝑑e
= Lx + mlog |e + fcos x + gsin x| + n ∫ dx
e + fcos x + gsin 𝑥
Substitute the values of 𝑙, m, n found in Step (ii). 0|c|

129
Integrals of the Form ∫ 𝐬𝐢𝐧𝐦 𝒙𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝐧 𝒙𝒅𝒙
Working Rule
• If the power of sin 𝑥 is an odd positive integer, put cos 𝑥 = 𝑡.
• If the power of cos 𝑥 is an odd positive integer, put sin 𝑥 = 𝑡.
• If the power of sin 𝑥 and cos 𝑥 are both odd positive integers, put sin 𝑥 = 𝑡 or cos 𝑥 = 𝑡
• If the power of sin 𝑥 and cos 𝑥 are both even positive integers, use De' Moivre's theorem as follows:
• Let, cos 𝑥 + isin 𝑥 = 𝑧. Then cos 𝑥 − isin 𝑥 = 𝑧 −1
1 1
• Adding these, we get 𝑧 + = 2 cos 𝑥 and 𝑧 − = 2𝑖 sin 𝑥
𝑧 𝑧
• By De Moivre's theorem, we have
1 1
𝑧 𝑛 + 𝑛 = 2cos 𝑛𝑥 and 𝑧 𝑛 − 𝑛 = 2𝑖sin𝑛 𝑥
𝑧 𝑧
1 1 1 𝑛 1 𝑚
sin𝑚 𝑥 cos𝑛 𝑥 = ⋅ (𝑧 + ) (𝑧 − )
(2𝑖)𝑚 2𝑛 𝑧 𝑧
𝑛 𝑚
1 1 1 1
= 𝑚+𝑛 ⋅ 𝑚 (𝑧 + ) (𝑧 − )
2 𝑖 𝑧 𝑧

• Using the Binomial theorem, extend each of the components on the R.H.S. Then, equidistant from the start and end, group the words.
As a result, all such pairings may be expressed as the sines or cosines of various angles. Term by term, continue to integrate.
If the sum of powers of sin 𝑥 and cos 𝑥 is an even negative integer, put tan 𝑥 = 𝑧.

a
m
F=

130
 Multiple Choice Question
1. Find the integral of 8𝑥 3 + 1.
A. 2𝑥 4 + 𝑥 + 𝐶 B. 2𝑥 6 − 5𝑥 + 𝐶
C. 2𝑥 4 − 𝑥 + 𝐶 D. 2𝑥 4 + 𝑥 2 𝐶
Answer: A
Explanation:
∫ 8𝑥 3+1 𝑑𝑥
𝑥 𝑛+1
Using ∫ 𝑥 𝑛 𝑑𝑥 = , we get
𝑛+1

∫ 8𝑥 3+1 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 8𝑥 3 𝑑𝑥 + ∫ 1𝑑𝑥
8𝑥 3+1
= +𝑥
3+1
4
8𝑥
= +𝑥
4
4
= 2𝑥 + x + C.

2. Find ∫ 7𝑥 2 − 𝑥 3 + 2𝑥𝑑𝑥.
7𝑥 3 𝑥4 2𝑥 2 7𝑥 3 𝑥4 2𝑥 2
A. + − +𝐶 B. + + +𝐶
3 5 2 3 4 2
7𝑥 5 𝑥4 2𝑥 2 7𝑥 3 𝑥4

a
C. − + +𝐶 D. − + 𝑥2 +𝐶
9 4 2 3 4
Answer: D
Explanation:
To find ∫ 7𝑥 2 − 𝑥 3 + 2𝑥𝑑𝑥
∫ 7𝑥 2 − 𝑥 3 + 2𝑥𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 7𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 − ∫ 𝑥 3 𝑑𝑥 + 2 ∫ 𝑥𝑑𝑥

Using ∫ 𝑥 𝑛 𝑑𝑥 =
𝑥 𝑛+1

∫ 7𝑥 2 − 𝑥 3 + 2𝑥𝑑𝑥 =
𝑛+1

−
2+1 3+1
, we get
7𝑥 2+1 𝑥 3+1
+2(
𝑥1+1
1+1
)
m
7𝑥 3 𝑥 4
∴ ∫ 7𝑥 2 − 𝑥 3 + 2𝑥𝑑𝑥 = − + 𝑥2 + 𝐶
3 4
F=
3. Find the integral of 2sin 2𝑥 + 3.
A. sin 2𝑥 + 3𝑥 + 𝐶 B. −cos 2𝑥 − 3𝑥 3 + 𝐶
C. −cos 2𝑥 + 3𝑥 + 𝑐 D. cos 2𝑥 − 3𝑥 + 12 + 𝐶
Answer: C
Explanation:
To find ∫ 2sin 2𝑥 + 3𝑑𝑥
∫ 2 sin 2𝑥 + 3𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 2 sin 2𝑥𝑑𝑥 + ∫ 3𝑑𝑥

∫ 2 sin 2𝑥 + 3𝑑𝑥 = 2 ∫ sin 2𝑥𝑑𝑥 + 3 ∫ 𝑑𝑥

−2 cos 2𝑥
∫ 2 sin 2𝑥 + 3𝑑𝑥 = + 3𝑥
2
∴ ∫ 2 sin 2x + 3dx = − cos 2x + 3x + C

4𝑥 4 −3𝑥 2
4. Find the integral of .
𝑥3
A. 7𝑥 2 − 3log 𝑥 3 + 𝐶 B. 2𝑥 2 − 3log 𝑥 + 𝐶
C. 𝑥 2 − log 𝑥 + 𝐶 D. 2𝑥 2 + 3log 𝑥 + 𝐶
Answer: B
Explanation:
4𝑥 4 −3𝑥 2
To find ∫ 𝑑𝑥
𝑥3

131
 4𝑥 4 − 3𝑥 2 4𝑥 4 3𝑥 2
∫ 3
𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 3 − 3 𝑑𝑥
𝑥 𝑥 𝑥
4𝑥 4 − 3𝑥 2 3
∫ 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 4𝑥𝑑𝑥 − ∫ 𝑑𝑥
𝑥3 𝑥
4𝑥 4 − 3𝑥 2 4𝑥 2
∫ 𝑑𝑥 = − 3 log 𝑥
𝑥3 2
4𝑥 4 − 3𝑥 2
∴∫ 𝑑𝑥 = 2𝑥 2 − 3 log 𝑥 + 𝐶.
𝑥3

5. Find ∫ (2 + 𝑥)𝑥√𝑥𝑑𝑥.
4𝑥 5/2 2𝑥 7/2 4𝑥 5/2 2𝑥 7/2
A. + +𝐶 B. − +𝐶
5 9 5 7
4𝑥 5/2 2𝑥 7/2 4𝑥 5/2 2𝑥 7/2
C. + +𝐶 D. − + +𝐶
6 7 5 7
Answer: C
Explanation:
To find ∫ (2 + 𝑥)𝑥√𝑥𝑑𝑥
∫ (2 + 𝑥)𝑥√𝑥𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 2𝑥√𝑥 + 𝑥 5/2 𝑑𝑥

∫ (2 + 𝑥)𝑥√𝑥𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 2𝑥 3/2 𝑑𝑥 + ∫ 𝑥 5/2 𝑑𝑥

2𝑥 3/2+1 𝑥 5/2+1
∫ (2 + 𝑥)𝑥√𝑥𝑑𝑥 = +
3/2 + 1 5/2 + 1

a
4𝑥 5/2 2𝑥 7/2
∫ (2 + 𝑥)𝑥√𝑥𝑑𝑥 = + +𝐶
5 7

6. Find the integral ∫ sin 2𝑥 + 𝑒 3 𝑥 − cos 3𝑥𝑑𝑥.

𝑒 3𝑥 𝑒 3𝑥
A.

C.
Answer: B
−
sin 2𝑥
2
cos 2𝑥
2
+
+
𝑒 3𝑥
3
3

−
−
sin 3𝑥
3
cos 3𝑥
3
+𝐶
+𝐶
m B.

D.
−

−
cos 2𝑥
2
cos 2𝑥
2
+

−
3
𝑒 3𝑥
3
−

+
sin 3𝑥
3
cos 3𝑥
3
+𝐶

+𝐶

Explanation:
To find ∫ sin 2𝑥 + 𝑒 3𝑥 − cos 3𝑥𝑑𝑥
∫ sin 2𝑥 + 𝑒 3𝑥 − cos 3𝑥𝑑𝑥 = ∫ sin 2𝑥𝑑𝑥 + ∫ 𝑒 3𝑥 𝑑𝑥 − ∫ cos 3𝑥𝑑𝑥
F=
cos 2𝑥 𝑒 3𝑥 sin 3𝑥
∫ sin 2𝑥 + 𝑒 3𝑥 − cos 3𝑥𝑑𝑥 = − + − +𝐶
2 3 3

7. Find the integral of (𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏)2 .

𝑎2 𝑥 5 2𝑎𝑏𝑥 3 𝑎2 𝑥 5 2𝑎𝑏𝑥 3
A. + 𝑏2𝑥 + +𝐶 B. − − 𝑏2𝑥 + +𝐶
5 3 5 3
𝑏2 𝑥 5 27𝑥 3 𝑎2 𝑥 5 2𝑎𝑏𝑥 3
C. + 𝑏2𝑥 + +𝐶 D. +𝑥+ +𝐶
5 3 5 5
Answer: A
Explanation:
To find (𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏)2
∫ (𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏)2 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ (𝑎2 𝑥 4 + 𝑏 2 + 2𝑎𝑥 2 𝑏)𝑑𝑥

∫ (𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏)2 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑎2 𝑥 4 𝑑𝑥 + ∫ 𝑏 2 𝑑𝑥 + 2 ∫ 𝑎𝑥 2 𝑏𝑑𝑥

∫ (𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏)2 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑎2 ∫ 𝑥 4 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑏 2 ∫ 𝑑𝑥 + 2𝑎𝑏 ∫ 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥

𝑥5 𝑥3
∫ (𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏)2 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑎2 ( ) + 𝑏 2 𝑥 + 2𝑎𝑏 ( )
5 3
2𝑥 5 3
𝑎 2𝑎𝑏𝑥
∫ (𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏)2 𝑑𝑥 = + 𝑏2𝑥 + +𝐶
5 3

8. Integrate 3𝑥 2 (cos 𝑥 3 + 8).

A. sin 𝑥 3 − 8𝑥 3 + 𝐶 B. sin 𝑥 3 + 8𝑥 3 + 𝐶
C. −sin 𝑥 3 + 8𝑥 3 + 𝐶 D. sin 𝑥 3 − 𝑥 3 + 𝐶

132
Answer: B
Explanation:
By using the method of integration by substitution,
Let 𝑥 3 = t
Differentiating w.r.t 𝑥, we get
3𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑑𝑡
∫ 3𝑥 2 (cos 𝑥 3 + 8)𝑑𝑥 = ∫ (cos 𝑡 + 8)𝑑𝑡

∫ (cos 𝑡 + 8)𝑑𝑡 = sin 𝑡 + 8𝑡

Replacing t with x 3 , we get
∫ 3𝑥 2 (cos 𝑥 3 + 8)𝑑𝑥 = sin 𝑥 3 + 8𝑥 3 + 𝐶

2(log 𝑥)
9. Find the integral of 3𝑒 𝑥 + .
3𝑥
1 8
A. 3𝑒 𝑥 + (𝑥)2 +𝐶 B. 𝑒 𝑥 − (log 𝑥)2 + 𝐶
3 3
1 1
C. 3𝑒 𝑥 − (log 𝑥)2 + 𝐶 D. 3𝑒 𝑥 + (log 𝑥)2 + 𝐶
3 3
Answer: D
Explanation:
2(log 𝑥 2 ) 2 log 𝑥
∫ 3𝑒 𝑥 + 𝑑𝑥 = 3∫ 𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 + ∫
3𝑥 3 𝑥

a
Let log 𝑥 = t
Differentiating w.r.t 𝑥, we get
1
𝑑𝑥 = 𝑑𝑡
𝑥
log 𝑥 𝑡2
∴∫ = ∫ 𝑡𝑑𝑡 =
𝑥
∫ 𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑒 𝑥
Replacing t with logx, we get
2
m
2(log 𝑥 2 ) 1
∫ 3𝑒 𝑥 + 𝑑𝑥 = 3𝑒 𝑥 + (log 𝑥)2 + 𝐶
3𝑥 3

−1𝑥
𝑒 −𝑐𝑡
F=
10. Find ∫ .
1+𝑥 2
−1 −1
A. 𝑒 −cot 𝑥 +𝐶 B. 𝑒 −2cot 𝑥 +𝐶
−tan−1 −cot1
C. 𝑒 +𝐶 𝑥
D. 𝑒 2𝑥
+𝐶
Answer: A
Explanation:
Let −cot −1 𝑥 = t Differentiating w.r.tx, we get
1
− (− ) 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑑𝑡
1 + 𝑥2
1
𝑑𝑥 = 𝑑𝑡
1 + 𝑥2
−1
𝑒 −cot 𝑥
∫ 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑒 𝑡 𝑑𝑡
1 + 𝑥2
= e𝑡
Replacing 𝑡 with −cot −1 𝑥, we get
−1
𝑒 −cot 𝑥 −1
∫ 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑒 −cot 𝑥 + 𝐶
1 + 𝑥2

6sin √𝑥
11. Find ∫ 𝑑𝑥
√𝑥
A. 2cos √𝑥 + 𝐶 B. −12cos √𝑥 + 𝐶
C. −12cos 𝑥 + 𝐶 D. 12cos 𝑥 + 𝐶
Answer: B
Explanation:
Let √𝑥 = 𝑡
Differentiating w.r.t x, we get

133
 1
𝑑𝑥 = 𝑑𝑡
2√𝑥
1
𝑑𝑥 = 2𝑑𝑡
√𝑥
6sin √𝑥
∴∫ 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 12sin 𝑡𝑑𝑡
√𝑥
= 12(−cos 𝑡) = −12cost
Replacing t with √𝑥, we get
6sin √𝑥
∫ 𝑑𝑥 = −12cos √𝑥 + 𝐶
√𝑥

20𝑥 3
12. Find ∫ 𝑑𝑥.
1+𝑥 4
A. 5log (𝑥 4 ) + 𝐶 B. −5log (1 + 𝑥 4 ) + 𝐶
C. 5log (1 + 𝑥 4 ) + 𝐶 D. log (1 + 𝑥 4 ) + 𝐶
Answer: C
Explanation:
Let 1 + 𝑥 4 = t
4x 3 dx = dt
20𝑥 3 𝑑𝑡
∴∫ 𝑑𝑥 = 5 ∫
1 + 𝑥4 𝑡
= 5 logt

a
Replacing t with 1 + 𝑥 4 , we get
20𝑥 3
∫ 𝑑𝑥 = 5log (1 + 𝑥 4 ) + 𝐶
1 + 𝑥4

𝑥2
13. Integrate .
A.

C.
−

−
1
(3𝑒 𝑥 )
1
𝑒𝑥
3
𝑒𝑥

+𝐶
3

+𝐶
m B.

D.
1
3𝑒 𝑥

𝑒𝑥
3
3 +𝐶

+𝐶
Answer: A
Explanation:
Let 𝑥 3 = 𝑡
3𝑥 2 dx = dt
F=
x 2 dx = dt/3
𝑥2 1 𝑑𝑡
∴ ∫ 𝑥3 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑡
𝑒 3 𝑒
1 −𝑡
= (−𝑒 )
3
Replacing t with x 3 , we get
𝑥2 1
∫ 𝑥 3 𝑑𝑥 = − 𝑥3 + 𝐶
𝑒 3𝑒

𝑥2
9sin √𝑥
14. Evaluate the integral ∫04 𝑑𝑥.
2√𝑥
A. 9 B. -9
9 9
C. D. −
2 2
Answer: A
Explanation:
𝜋2
9sin √𝑥
l = ∫04 𝑑𝑥
2√𝑥
Let √𝑥 = t
1
Differentiating both sides w.r.t 𝑥, we get 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑑𝑡
2√𝑥
The new limits are.
When x = 0, t = 0
𝜋2 𝜋
When x = ,𝑡 =
4 2

134
 𝜋2
𝜋/2
4 9sin √𝑥
∴∫ 𝑑𝑥 = 9 ∫ sin 𝑡𝑑𝑡
0 2√𝑥 0
𝜋/2
= 9[−cos 𝑡]0 = −9(cos 𝜋/2 − cos 0) = −9(0 − 1) = 9

1 4
15. Find ∫0 20𝑥 3 𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥.
A. (𝑒 − 1) B. 5(𝑒 + 1)
C. 5e D. 5(𝑒 − 1)
Answer: D
Explanation:
1 4
I = ∫0 20𝑥 3 𝑒 𝑥 dx
Let 𝑥 4 = t
Differentiating w.r.t 𝑥, we get 4x 3 dx = dt
∴ The new limits
When x = 0, t = 0
When 𝑥 = 1, t = 1
1 4 1
∴ ∫0 20𝑥 3 𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ∫0 5𝑒 𝑡 𝑑𝑡
= 5[𝑒 𝑡 ]10 = 5(𝑒1 − 𝑒 0 ) = 5(e − 1).

1 5𝑥 4
16. Find ∫−1 𝑑𝑥.
√𝑥 5 +3

a
A. 4 − √2 B. 4 + 2√2
C. 4 − 2√2 D. 1 − 2√2
Answer: C
Explanation:
1 5𝑥 4
1 = ∫−1
√𝑥 5 + 3
Let 𝑥 5 + 3 = 𝑡
𝑑𝑥

Differentiating w.r.t 𝑥, we get 5x 4 dx = dt

The new limits
m
when x = −1, t = 2
when 𝑥 = 1, 𝑡 = 4
1 4
5𝑥 4 𝑑𝑡
∴∫ 𝑑𝑥 = ∫
F=
5
−1 √𝑥 + 3 2 √𝑡
4
= [2√𝑡]2 = 2(√4 − √2) = 4 − 2√2

√𝜋
17. Find ∫02 2𝑥cos 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥.
A. 1 B.
1
√2
1
C. − D. √2
√2
Answer: B
Explanation:
√𝜋
𝑙 = ∫0 2 2𝑥cos 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥
Let 𝑥 2 = t
Differentiating w.r.t 𝑥, we get
2 ddx = dt
The new limits
When x = 0, t = 0
√𝜋 𝜋
When 𝑥 = ,𝑡 =
2 4
√𝜋 𝜋
∴ ∫0 2 2𝑥cos 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 = ∫04 cos 𝑡𝑑𝑡
𝜋
𝜋
𝐼 = [sin 𝑡]04 = sin − sin 0 = 1/√2.
4

6 √𝑥+3
18. Evaluate the integral ∫1 𝑑𝑥.
√𝑥
A. 9 B.
9
2
135
 9 4
C. − D.
2 5
Answer: B
Explanation:
4 √𝑥 + 3
I = ∫1 𝑑𝑥
√𝑥
Let √𝑥 + 3 = 𝑡
Differentiating w.r.t 𝑥, we get
1
𝑑𝑥 = 𝑑𝑡
2√𝑥
1
𝑑𝑥 = 2𝑑𝑡
√𝑥
The new limits
When 𝑥 = 1, 𝑡 = 4
When 𝑥 = 4, 𝑡 = 5
4 5
√𝑥 + 3
∴∫ 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑡𝑑𝑡
1 √𝑥 4
2 5
𝑡 52 − 42 9
=[ ] = =
2 4 2 2

2 12log 𝑥
19. Find ∫1 𝑑𝑥.
𝑥

a
A. −12log 2 B. 24log 2
C. 12log 2 D. 24log 4
Answer: B
Explanation:
2 12log 𝑥
I = ∫1
𝑥
Let log 𝑥 = 𝑡
𝑑𝑥

Differentiating w.r.t x, we get

1
𝑑𝑥 = 𝑑𝑡
m
𝑥
The new limits
When 𝑥 = 1, 𝑡 = 0
When 𝑥 = 2, 𝑡 = log 2
F=
2 log 2
12log 𝑥
∫ 𝑑𝑥 = 12 ∫ 𝑡𝑑𝑡
1 𝑥 0
log 2
= 12[𝑡 2 ]0 = 12((log 2)2 − 0)
= 12log 4 = 24log 2(∵ (log 2)2 = log 2 ⋅ log 2 = log 4 = 2log 2)

𝜋/4 5sin (tan−1 𝑥)

20. Find ∫0 𝑑𝑥.
1+𝑥 2
1 5
A. 5− B. 5+
√2 √2
5 5
C. −5 + D. 5−
√2 √2
Answer: D
Explanation:
−1) 𝑥
1 5sin (tan
I = ∫0 𝑑𝑥
1 + 𝑥2
Let tan−1 𝑥 = 𝑡
1
Differentiating w.r.t 𝑥, we get 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑑𝑡
1+𝑥 2
The new limits
When x = 0, t = tan−1 0 = 0
When 𝑥 = 1, 𝑡 = tan−1) 1 = 𝜋/4
1 𝜋/4
5sin (tan−1 𝑥)
∴∫ 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 5sin 𝑡𝑑𝑡
0 1 + 𝑥2 0
𝜋/4 𝜋/4
= 5[−cos 𝑡]0 = −5[cos 𝑡]0
𝜋 1 5
= −5 (cos − cos 0) = −5 ( )=5−
4 √2 − 1 √2
136
 1
21. Find ∫−1 7𝑥 6 (𝑥 7 + 8)𝑑𝑥
A. -386 B. −
386
3
C.
386 D. 386
3
Answer: C
Explanation:
1
𝑙 = ∫−1 7𝑥 6 (𝑥 7 + 8)𝑑𝑥
Let 𝑥 7 + 8 = t
Differentiating w.r.t 𝑥, we get 7x 6 dx = dt
The new limits
When x = −1, t = 7
When 𝑥 = 1, 𝑡 = 9
1 9
∴ ∫ 7𝑥 6 (𝑥 7 + 8)𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡
−1 7
9
𝑡31 386
= [ ] = (93 − 73 ) = .
3 7 3 3

2
22. Evaluate ∫√2 14𝑥log 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥
A. 14(3log 2 − 1) B. 14(3log 2 + 1)
C. log 2 − 1 D. 3log 2 − 1

a
Answer: A
Explanation:
2
I = ∫√2 14𝑥log 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥
Let x 2 = t
Differentiating w.r.t 𝑥, we get
2x𝑑𝑥 = dt
The new limits
When x = √2, t = 2
When x = 2, t = 4
m
2 4
∴ ∫√2 14𝑥log 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 = ∫2 7log 𝑡𝑑𝑡
Using integration by parts, we get
4
∫2 7log 𝑡𝑑𝑡 = 7(log 𝑡∫ 𝑑𝑡 − ∫ (log 𝑡)′ ∫ 𝑑𝑡)
F=
= 7(t log t − t)42
= 7(4log 4 − 4 − 2log 2 + 2)
= 7(6log 2 − 2) = 14(3log 2 − 1)

3 3
23. Find ∫2 2𝑥 2 𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥.
A. 𝑒 27 − 𝑒 8 B.
2
(𝑒 27 − 𝑒 8 )
3
2 2
C. (𝑒 8 − 𝑒 27 ) D. (𝑒 27 + 𝑒 8 )
3 3
Answer: B
Explanation:
3 3
l = ∫2 2𝑥 2 𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
Let 𝑥 3 = 𝑡
Differentiating w.r.t 𝑥, we get
3𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑡
𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 =
3
The new limits
When x = 2, t = 8
When x = 3, t = 27
3
3 2 27
∴ ∫ 2𝑥 2 𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑒 𝑡 𝑑𝑡
2 3 8
2 𝑡 27 2 27
= [𝑒 ]8 = (𝑒 − 𝑒 8 )
3 3

137
24. An improper integration fraction is reduced to proper fraction by _____.
A. multiplication B. division
C. addition D. subtraction
Answer: B
Explanation:
An improper integration factor can be reduced to proper fraction by division, i.e., if the numerator and denominator have same degree,
then they must be divided in order to reduce it to proper fraction.

𝑑𝑥
25. ∫ equals
𝑥(𝑥 2 +1)
1 1
A. log |𝑥| − log (𝑥 2 + 1) + 𝐶 B. log |𝑥| + log (𝑥 2 + 1) + 𝐶
2 2
1 1
C. −log |𝑥| + log (𝑥 2 + 1) + 𝐶 D. log |𝑥| + log (𝑥 2 + 1) + 𝐶
2 2
Answer: A
Explanation:
𝑑𝑥 𝐴 𝐵𝑥+𝐶
We know that ∫ = +
𝑥(𝑥 2 +1) 𝑥 𝑥 2 +1
𝑑𝑥 (𝐴+𝐵)𝑥 2 +𝐶𝑥+𝐴
By simplifying it we get, ∫ =
𝑥(𝑥 2 +1) 𝑥(𝑥 2 +1)
Now equating the coefficients, we get 𝐴 = 0, 𝐵 = 0, 𝐶 = 1.
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 −𝑥𝑑𝑥
∫ =∫ +∫ 2
𝑥(𝑥 2 + 1) 𝑥 (𝑥 + 1)
1
Therefore, after integrating we get log |𝑥| − log (𝑥 2 + 1) + 𝐶.
2

a
(𝑥 2 +𝑥+1)𝑑𝑥
26. ∫ equals
(𝑥+2)(𝑥 2 +1)
3 1 1 3 1 1
A. log |𝑥 + 2| + log |𝑥 2 + 1| + tan−1 𝑥 + 5𝐶 B. log |𝑥 + 2| + log |𝑥 2 + 1| + tan−1 𝑥 + 𝐶
5 5 5 5 5 6
C.
Answer: D
Explanation:
3
5

(𝑥 2 + 𝑥 + 1)𝑑𝑥 𝐴 𝐵𝑥 + 𝐶
1
log |𝑥 + 2| + log |𝑥 2 + 1| + tan−1 𝑥 + 𝐶
6
m 1
6
D.
3
5
1
5
1
log |𝑥 + 2| + log |𝑥 2 + 1| + tan−1 𝑥 + 𝐶
5

∫ = +
(𝑥 + 2)(𝑥 2 + 1) (𝑥 + 2) (𝑥 2 + 1)

Now equating, (x 2 + x + 1) = A(x 2 + 1) + (Bx + C)(x + 2)

F=
3 2 1
After equating and solving for coefficient we get values, 𝐴 = , 𝐵 = , 𝐶 = , now putting these values in the equation we get,
5 5 5
(𝑥 2 +𝑥+1)𝑑𝑥 3 𝑑𝑥 1 2𝑥𝑑𝑥 1 𝑑𝑥
∫ = ∫ + ∫ + ∫
(𝑥+2)(𝑥 2 +1) 5 (𝑥+2) 5 (𝑥 2 +1) 5 (𝑥 2 +1)

3 1 1
Hence it comes, log |𝑥 + 2| + log |𝑥 2 + 1| + tan−1 𝑥 + 𝐶
5 5 5

27. For the given equation (𝑥 + 2)(𝑥 + 4) = 𝑥 2 + 6𝑥 + 8, how many values of 𝑥 satisfies this equation?
A. Two values of 𝑥 B. One value of 𝑥
C. All value of 𝑥 D. No value of 𝑥
Answer: C
Explanation:
If we solve the L.H.S. (Left Hand Side) of the equation, we get the following value. (𝑥 + 2)(𝑥 + 4) = 𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 + 2𝑥 + 8 = 𝑥 2 + 6𝑥 + 8
This value is same as the R.H.S. (Right Hand Side).
So, all the values of 𝑥 satisfy the equality.

28. Integrate (𝑥 2 + 9)𝑒 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥

𝑒𝑥 39 𝑒 2𝑥 35
A. (𝑥 2 + 𝑥 − )+𝐶 B. (𝑥 2 + 𝑥 − )+𝐶
2 4 2 4
𝑒 2𝑥 48 𝑒𝑥 25
C. (𝑥 2 + 𝑥 − )+𝐶 D. (𝑥 2 + 𝑥 − )+𝐶
2 4 2 4
Answer: B
Explanation:
By using I u.v dx = u∫ vdx − ∫ u′ (∫ vdx), we get

138
 ∫ (𝑥 2 + 9)𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = (𝑥 2 + 9) ∫ 𝑒 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥 − ∫ (𝑥 2 + 9)′ ∫ 𝑒 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥
(𝑥 2 + 9)𝑒 2𝑥 𝑒 2𝑥
= − ∫ 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥
2 2
Again, applying integration by parts for integrating ∫ 𝑥𝑒 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥
∫ 𝑥𝑒 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥 ∫ 𝑒 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥 − ∫ (𝑥)′ ∫ 𝑒 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑥𝑒 2𝑥 𝑒 2𝑥
= −∫ 𝑑𝑥
2 2
𝑥𝑒 2𝑥 𝑒 2𝑥
= − .
2 4
(𝑥 2 + 9)𝑒 2𝑥 𝑥𝑒 2𝑥 𝑒 2𝑥
∴ ∫ (𝑥 2 + 9)𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = + −
2 2 4
2𝑥
𝑒 1
= (𝑥 2 + 9 + 𝑥 − )
2 4
𝑒 2𝑥 2 35
= (𝑥 + 𝑥 − ) + 𝐶.
2 4

29. Integrate 3sec 2 𝑥log (tan 𝑥)𝑑𝑥.

A. −log (tan 𝑥)(tan 𝑥 − 1) + 𝐶 B. log (tan 𝑥)(sec 𝑥 + 1) + 𝐶
C. tan 𝑥(log (tan 𝑥) − 1) + 𝐶 D. tan 𝑥(log sec 𝑥 + 1) + 𝐶
Answer: C

a
Explanation:
By using 𝑢. 𝑣dx = u∫ ∨ 𝑑𝑥 − ∫ 𝑢′ (∫ ∨ 𝑑𝑥), we get ∫ log (tan 𝑥)sec 2 𝑥𝑑𝑥 = log (tan 𝑥)∫ sec 2 𝑥𝑑𝑥 − ∫ (log tan 𝑥 )′ sec 2 ∫ 𝑥𝑑𝑥 =
1
tan xlog(tan 𝑥) − sec 2 ∫ 𝑥 ⋅ tan 𝑥𝑑𝑥 = tan 𝑥log (tan 𝑥) − ∫ sec 2 𝑥𝑑𝑥 = tan 𝑥log (tan 𝑥) − tan 𝑥 + 𝐶 = tan 𝑥(log (tan 𝑥) − 1) + 𝐶
tan 𝑥

30. Find ∫ sin 𝑥log (cos 𝑥)𝑑𝑥.

A. cos 𝑥(log (sin 𝑥) − 1) + 𝐶
C. cos 𝑥(log (cos 𝑥) − 1) + 𝐶
Answer: C
m B.
D.
sin 𝑥(log (cos 𝑥) + 1) + 𝐶
cos 𝑥(log (cos 𝑥) − 1) + 𝐶

Explanation:
Let cos 𝑥 = t
Differentiating w.r.t 𝑥, we get
−sin 𝑥𝑑𝑥 = 𝑑𝑡
F=
sin 𝑥𝑑𝑥 = −𝑑𝑡
∴ ∫ sin 𝑥log (cos 𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = ∫ − log 𝑡𝑑𝑡
Using ∫ u.v 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑢∫ 𝑣𝑑𝑥 − ∫ 𝑢′ (∫ ∨ 𝑑𝑥), we get
∫ − log 𝑡dt = −log 𝑡1𝑑𝑡 − ∫ (−log 𝑡)′ ∫ 1dt
= −𝑡log 𝑡 + ∫ dt
= −tlog t + t
= t(log t − 1)
Replacing t with cos 𝑥, we get
∫ sin 𝑥log (cos 𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = cos 𝑥(log (cos 𝑥) − 1) + 𝐶

Question/Answer
Very Short Questions
3+3cos x
1. Find ∫ dx
x+sin x
Answer:
3+3cos x
I=∫ dx = 3 log lx + sin xl + c.
x+sinx
𝑑
[∵ Num. = denom.]
𝑑𝑥

2. Find: ∫ (cos2 2x − sin2 2x)dx.

Answer:
sin 4x
I = ∫cos 4x dx = +c
4

139
 dx
3. Find: ∫
√5−4x−2x2
Answer:

x3 −1
4. Evaluate ∫ dx
x2
Answer:

a
m
sin2 x−cos2 x
5. Find: ∫ dx
sin xcos x
Answer:
F=

dx
6. Write the value of ∫
x2 +16
Answer:

7. Evaluate: ∫ (x 3 + 1)dx.
Answer:
2 2
I = ∫−2 𝑥 3 dx + ∫−2 1 ⋅dx = I1

140
⇒ 2 – (-2) = 4.

π/2 x
8. Evaluate: ∫0 e (sin x − cos x)dx.
Answer:
π/2
∫0 𝑒 𝑥 (sin x – cos x) dx
π/2
∫0 𝑒 𝑥 (-cos x + sin x) dx
I” Form: ∫ex (f(x) + f'(x) dx”

π
= -e π/2 cos + e0 cos 0
2
= -e π/2 (0) + (1) (1)
= -0 + 1 = 1

2
9. Evaluate: ∫0 √4 − x 2 dx
Answer:

a
x
m
10. valuate: If f(x) = ∫0 tsin tdt, then write the value of f ′ (x).
Answer:
𝑥
We have f(x) = ∫0 𝑡 sin t dt.
𝑑
f'(x) = x sin x. (x) – 0
𝑑𝑥
[Property XII; Leibnitz’s Rule]
F=
= x sin x. (1)
= x sin x.

Short Questions
cos 2x+2sin2 x
1. Evaluate: ∫ dx
cos2 x
Answer:

sec2 x
2. Find: ∫ dx
√tan2 x+4
Answer:
sec2 x
I=
√tan2 x + 4
Put tan x = t so that sec2 x dx = dt.
𝑑𝑡
∴I=∫
√𝑡 2 +22
= log |t + √𝑡 2 + 4| + C
= log |tan x + √𝑡 2 + 4| + C

141
 π π
3. Find: ∫ √1 − sin 2xdx, < x <
4 2
Answer:

4. Find ∫ sin x. log cos xdx

Answer:
∫sinx. log cos x dx
Put cox x = t
so that – sin x dx = dt
i.e., sin x dx = – dt.
∴ I = -∫log t.1dt
= - [ log t.t – ∫ 1/t. t dt ]
[Integrating by parts]
= – [t log t – t] + C = f (1 – log t) + C
= cos x (1 – log (cos x)) + C.

a
(x2 +sin2 x)sec2 x
5. Find: ∫ dx
1+x2
Answer: m
F=

ex (x−3)
6. Evaluate ∫ dx
(x−1)3
Answer:

7. Find ∫ sin−1 (2x)dx

Answer:

142
 π
8. Evaluate: ∫−π (1 − x 2 )sin xcos 2xdx.
Answer:
Here, f(x) = (1 - x2) sin x cos2 x.
f(x) = (1 – x2) sin (-x) cos2 (-x)

a
= – (1 – x2) sin x cos2 x
= -f(x)
⇒ f is an odd function.
Hence, I = 0.

Long Questions
1. Evaluate: ∫
Answer:
sin6 x+cos6 x
sin2 xcos2 x
dx
m
F=

143
 cos (x+a)
2. Integrate the function w.r.t. x.
sin (x+b)
Answer:

3. Evaluate: ∫ x 2 tan−1 xdx.

Answer:

a
m
F=

1
4. Find: ∫ [log (log x) + ] dx
(log x)2
Answer:
1
Let ∫ [log (log x) + (logx)2 ] dx
1
= ∫ log (log x) dx + ∫ (logx)2 ] dx …… (1)
Let I = I1 + I2
Now I1 = ∫ log (log x) dx
=∫ log (log x) 1 dx
1
= log (log x).x – ∫ x.dx
𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑥⋅𝑥
(Integrating by parts)
1
= xlog(logx) – ∫ dx ……….. (2)
𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑥

144
Let I1 = I3 + I4

Putting in (2),

Putting in (1),
I = x log (log x)

a
m
F=

145
 Chapter - 8 Application of Integrals
Integrals

In mathematics, Integration and Differentiation are the most significant ways to solve complex mathematical problems. Besides
mathematics, Integration and Differentiation play key roles in Science, Engineering, and various other facets of our life. We have outlined
what's, ifs, and how's related to integrals and their application. But how? Let us take an example.

To determine the area of a rectangle, the formulae 'length × breadth' is used. But what if you are given to calculate the area of the shaded
portion, of a shaded rectangle with an unshaded circle within?

Importance of Integrals in Math’s

Integration is an important chapter in Math’s that needs to be studied well in advance by the students before they attempt tests on the
topic. It always comes in use even if the students take up engineering, Science in their future years. They need to practice sums based on
Integrals too to perfect them. It is an important topic that will prove to be quite instrumental later on.

How is the Calculation done when Integrals come into the Play Integrals
In mathematics, the application of Integrals is applied to find the area under a curve, areas bounded by any curve, and so on.

a
Definition of Integrals

An integral is a function, of which a given function is a derivative. It is also known as the antiderivative or reverse of a derivative. Integrals
are used to determine the area of 2 D objects and the volume of 3 D objects in real life.

Types of Integrals
m
There are two types of Integrals.
• Definite Integrals
• Indefinite Integrals
F=
Definite Integrals

An integral which has a start, and an end value is known as a definite integral. In simple words, the function is restricted within an interval
a, b, where a and b are upper limit and lower limit, respectively. It is represented as

𝑎
𝑦 = ∫ 𝑓(𝑥)dx
𝑏

𝑏
𝑦 = ∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥
𝑎

4
Example: 𝑦 = ∫2 6𝑥 𝑑𝑥

4
Sol: 𝑦 = ∫2 6𝑥 𝑑𝑥

2
𝑦 = ∫ 6𝑥𝑑𝑥, here 𝑎 = 4, 𝑏 = 2
4

4
𝑥2
𝑦 = 6[ ]
2 2

146
 16 4 12
= 6[ − ] −= 6 = 6 × 6 = 36
2 2 2

Indefinite Integrals

An integral which does not have an upper and lower limit is known as definite integral. It is represented as
𝑎
𝑦 = ∫𝑏 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = 𝐹(𝑥) + 𝐶, where ' 𝐶 ' is a constant
4
Example: 𝑦 = ∫2 6𝑥𝑑𝑥

Sol:
𝑦 = ∫ 6𝑥𝑑𝑥
𝑥2
𝑦 = 6 [ ] = 3𝑥 + 𝐶, where 𝐶 is a constant
2

Application of Integrals

Integrals have their application in both science and math’s. In math’s, the application of integral is made to determine the area under a
curve, the area between two curves, the center of mass of a body, and so on. Whereas in science (Physics in particular), the application of
integrals is made to calculate the Centre of Gravity, Mass, Momentum, Work done, Kinetic Energy, Velocity, Trajectory, and Thrust.

a
Application of Integrals in Engineering Fields
There's a vast application of integration in the fields of engineering.
In Architecture
To determine the amount of material required in a curved surface. For instance, take the construction of a dome.
In Electrical Engineering
m
Integrals are used in Electrical Engineering to calculate the length of a power cable required for transmission between two power stations.

Application of Integrals in Different Fields

In Medical Science
Integrals are used to determine the growth of bacteria’s in the laboratory by keeping variables such as a change in temperature and
foodstuff.
In Medicine
F=
To study the rate of spread of infectious disease, the field of epidemiology uses medical seine to determine how fast a disease is spreading,
its origin, and how to best treat it.
In Statistics
To estimate survey data to help improve marketing plans for different companies because a survey requires many different questions with
a range of possible answers.

147
 Multiple Choice Questions
1. The area bounded by the curves y2 = 4x and y = x is equal to
A. 1/3 B. 8/3
C. 35/6 D. None of these
Answer: B
Explanation:
For the given curves, y2 = 4x and y = x, the intersection points are (0, 0) and (4, 4).
Therefore, the area bounded by the curves,
A =0∫4 [√(4x)-x] dx [since y2 = 4x, y = √(4x)]
A = 2. 0∫4√x dx – 0∫4 x dx
Integrate the function and apply the limits, we get
A = (4/3) (8) – 8
A = (32-24)/3 = 8/3.

2. The area of the figure bounded by the curve y = logex, the x-axis and the straight-line x = e is
A. 5-e B. 3+e
C. 1 D. None of these
Answer: C
Explanation:

a
At, x= 1, y = loge (1) = 0
At, x = e, y = loge (e) = 1
Therefore, A = 1∫e logex dx
Using integration by parts,
A = [x loge x – x]1e
Now, apply the limits, we get
A = [e-e-0+1]
A=1
m
3. The area of the region bounded by the curve x² = 4y and the straight-line x = 4y – 2 is
A. ⅜ sq. units B. ⅝ sq. units
C. ⅞ sq. units D. 9/8 sq. units
Answer: D
F=
Explanation:
For the curves x2 = y and x = 4y-2, the points of intersection are x = -1 and x = 2.
Hence, the required area, A = -1∫2 {[(x+2)/4]- [x2/4]} dx
Now, integrate the function and apply the limits, we get
A = (¼)[(10/3)-(-7/6)]
A = (¼)(9/2) = 9/8 sq. units
Hence, the correct answer is option (d) 9/8 sq. units

4. The area enclosed between the graph of y = x3 and the lines x = 0, y = 1, y = 8 is

A. 7 B. 14
C. 45/4 D. None of these
Answer: C
Explanation:
Given curve, y=x3 or x = y1/3.
Hence, the required area, A = 1∫8 y1/3 dy
A = [(y4/3)/ (4/3)]18
Now, apply the limits, we get
A = (¾) (16-1)
A = (¾) (15) = 45/4.
Hence, option (c) 45/4 is the correct answer.

5. The area of the region bounded by the curve y² = x, the y-axis and between y = 2 and y = 4 is
A. 52/3 sq. units B. 54/3 sq. units
C. 56/3 sq. units D. None of these

148
Answer: C
Explanation:
Given: y2 = x
Hence, the required area, A = 2∫4 y2 dy
A = [y3/3]24
A = (43/3) – (23/3)
A = (64/3) – (8/3)
A = 56/3 sq. units.

6. Area of the region bounded by the curve y = cos x between x = 0 and x = π is

A. 1 sq. units B. 2 sq. units
C. 3 sq. units D. 4 sq. units
Answer: B
Explanation:
Given: y= cos x and also provided that x= 0 and x = π
Hence, the required area, A =0∫π |cos x| dx
It can also be written as,
A = 20∫π/2 cos x dx
Now, integrate the function, we get
A = 2[sin x]0π/2
Now, apply the limits we get
A = 2 sq. units

a
7. Area of the region bounded by the curve x = 2y + 3, the y-axis and between y = -1 and y = 1 is
A. 6 sq. units B. 4 sq. units
C. 8 sq. units D. 3/2 sq. units
Answer: A
Explanation:
Required Area =-1∫1(2y+3) dy
A=[(2y2/2) +3y]-11
m
Now, apply the limits, we get
A = 1+3-1+3
A = 6 sq. units.
F=
8. The area bounded by the curve y = x3, the x-axis and two ordinates x = 1 and x = 2 is
A. 15/2 sq. units B. 15/4 sq. units
C. 17/2 sq. units D. 17/4 sq. units
Answer: B
Explanation:
Required Area = 1∫2 x3 dx
A = [x4/4]12
Now, apply the limits, we get
A = [(24/4) – (¼)]
A = (16/4) – (¼)
A = 15/4
Hence, the required area is 15/4 is the correct answer.

9. The area of the region bounded by the circle x² + y² = 1 is

A. 2π sq. units B. 3π sq. units
C. 4π sq. units D. 1π sq. units
Answer: D
Explanation:
The given circle equation is x2+y2 =1, whose center is (0, 0) and radius is 1.
Therefore, y2 = 1-x2
y=√(1-x2)
Hence, the required area, A = 40∫1√(1-x2) dx
Now, integrate the function and apply limits, we get
A = 4(½)(π/2)
A = π sq. units
149
10. Area bounded by the curve y = sin x and the x-axis between x = 0 and x = 2π is
A. 2 sq. units B. 3 sq. units
C. 4 sq. units D. None of these
Answer: C
Explanation:
2π
Required Area, A = ∫0 |sin x| dx
π 2π
A = ∫0 sin x dx + ∫π (-sin x) dx
Now, substitute the limits, we get
A= 4 sq.units.

11. The area under the curve 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 between the lines 𝑥 = 2 and 𝑥 = 3 is:
19 1
A. B.
3 9
9 19
C. D.
19 8
Answer: A
Explanation:
Given the curve 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 between the lines 𝑥 = 2 and 𝑥 = 3
3
⇒ Area under the curve = ∫ x 2 dx
2
3
x3
⇒ Area under the curve = |
3 2

a
33 23 19
⇒ Area under the curve = − =
3 3 3

12. Area bounded by the curve 𝑦 = sin 𝑥 and the 𝑥-axis between 𝑥 = 0 and 𝑥 = 2𝜋 is
A. 2 sq units B. 0 sq units
C. 3 sq units
Answer: D
Explanation:
m D. 4 sq units

(d), as sin 𝑥 is positive in 1 st and 2 nd quadrant and negative is 3rd and 4th quadrant.
2𝜋
Area =∫ |sin 𝑥|𝑑𝑥
0
𝜋 2𝜋
F=
= ∫ sin 𝑥𝑑𝑥 + ∫ (−sin 𝑥)𝑑𝑥
0 𝜋
= 4 sq units

13. Area of the region bounded by the curve 𝑦 = √49 − 𝑥 2 and the 𝑥-axis is
A.
49
𝜋 sq units B. 98𝜋 sq units
2
C. 49𝜋 sq units D. 240𝜋 sq units
Answer: A
Explanation:
(𝑎), as area is above the 𝑥-axis
7
∴ area = 2 ∫ √49 − 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥
0
𝑥 49 −1 𝑥 7
= 2 [ √49 − 𝑥 2 + sin ]
2 2 70
7 49
= 2 [( × 0 + sin−1 1) − (0)]
2 2
49
= 𝜋 sq units
2

14. Area of the region bounded by the curve 𝑥 = 2𝑦 + 3, the 𝑦-axis and between 𝑦 = −1 and 𝑦 = 1 is
A. 4 sq units 3 B.
3
sq units
2
C. 6 sq units D. 8sq units
Answer: C
Explanation:
1
(c), as area = ∫−1 (2𝑦 + 3)𝑑𝑦 = 6 sq units
150
15. The area enclosed by the curve 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 and 𝑦 = 8 is______________
64 3
A. √2 sq units B. sq units
3 2
C. 9 sq units D. 5 sq units
Answer: A
Explanation:
8
64
√2 sq units, as area = 2 ∫ √𝑦𝑑𝑦
3 0
8
2 4
= 2 ⋅ [ 𝑦 3/2 ] = (8)3/2
3 0 3
4 64
= ⋅ 8 ⋅ 2√2 sq units = √2 sq units
3 3

56
16. The area of the region bounded by the curve 𝑦 2 = 𝑥, the 𝑦-axis and between 𝑦 = 2 and 𝑦 = 4 is sq units. State true or false.
3
64 3
A. √2 sq units B. sq units
3 2
C.
56
sq units D. 5 sq units
3
Answer: C
Explanation:
4 4
𝑦3
True, as area = ∫ 𝑦 2 𝑑𝑦 = [ ]
2 3 2
1 56

a
= (64 − 8) = sq units
3 3

41
17. Find the area of the region bounded by the curve 𝑦 = , 𝑥-axis and between 𝑥 = 1, 𝑥 = 4.
𝑥
A. log 4 sq units. B. log 5 sq units.
C. log 14 sq units.
Answer: A
Explanation:
1
Curve is 𝑦 = , 𝑥-axis and between 𝑥 = 1,
𝑥
m D. log 9 sq units.

𝑥=4
4
1
Area =∫ 𝑑𝑥
1 𝑥
F=
= [log |𝑥|]14
= log 4 − log 1
= log 4 sq units.

18. Find the area of the region bounded by the curve 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 and the line 𝑦 = 4.
64 3
A. √2 sq units B. sq units
3 2
56 32
C. sq units D. sq units
3 3
Answer: D
Explanation:
Curve is symmetrical about the 𝑦-axis only
4
Area = 2∫0 𝑥𝑑𝑦
4
= 2∫0 √𝑦𝑑𝑦

4 4
= [𝑦 3/2 ]0
3
4 32
= × (8 − 0) = sq units
3 3

151
19. Find the area of the curve 𝑦 = 4𝑥 3 between the end points 𝑥 = [−2,3]
A. 97 B. 65
C. 70 D. 77
Answer: A
Explanation:
Given the end points 𝑥1 = −2, 𝑥2 = 3
3
Area of the curve (A) = |∫−2 4x 3 dx|
0 3
⇒ A = |∫ 4x 3 dx| + |∫ 4x 3 dx|
−2 0
0 3
x4 x4
⇒ A = |4 [ ] | + |4 [ ] |
4 −2 4 0
⇒ A = |[0 − 24 ]| + |[34 − 0]|
⇒ A = | − 16| + |81|
⇒ A = 𝟗𝟕

20. The area under the curve 𝑦 = 𝑥 4 and the lines 𝑥 = 1, 𝑥 = 5 and 𝑥-axis is:
3124 3124
A. sq. units B. sq. units
3 7
3124 3124
C. sq. units D. sq. units
5 9
Answer: C
Explanation:

a
x5
∫ x 4 dx = + 𝐶
5
Using the above concept for area of a curve, we can say that the required area is:
5
𝐼 = ∫ 𝑥 4 𝑑𝑥

=[

=
5
1
𝑥5

55 15
−
5
]
1
m
5 5
3125 − 1
=
5
3124
F=
=
5

21. Find the area of the region bounded by the curves 𝑦 = 𝑥 3 , the line 𝑥 = 2, 𝑥 = 5 and the 𝑥 - axis?
A. 173.50 B. 230.25
C. 175.35 D. 152.25
Answer: D
Explanation:
Here, we have to find the area of the region bounded by the curves 𝑦 = 𝑥 3 , the line 𝑥 = 2, 𝑥 = 5 and the 𝑥 - axis
3
So, the area enclosed by the given curves is given by ∫2 𝑥 3 𝑑𝑥
𝑥 𝑛+1
As we know that, ∫ 𝑥 𝑛 𝑑𝑥 = +𝐶
𝑛+1
5 5
𝑥4
⇒ ∫ 𝑥 3 𝑑𝑥 = [ ]
2 4 2
5
1
⇒∫ = (625 − 16) = 152.25 sq. units
𝑥 3 𝑑𝑥
2 4
22. The area under the curve 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 and the lines 𝑥 = −1, 𝑥 = 2 and 𝑥-axis is:
A. 3 sq. units. B. 5 sq. units.
C. 7 sq. units. D. 9 sq. units.
Answer: A
Explanations:
𝑥 𝑛+1
As we know that, ∫ 𝑥 𝑛 𝑑𝑥 = +𝐶
𝑛+1

152
 2
Area = ∫ x 2 dx
−1
2
x3
=[ ]
3 −1
8 −1 9
=[ − ]= =3
3 3 3
Area = 3 sq. units.

23. The area bounded by the parabola 𝑥 = 4 − 𝑦 2 and 𝑦-axis, in square units, is
2 32
A. 𝑆𝑞. unit B. Sq. unit
32 3
C.
33
Sq. unit D. None of these
2
Answer: B
Explanations:
Given Curve: 𝑥 = 4 − 𝑦 2
⇒ 𝑦2 = 4 − 𝑥
⇒ 𝑦 2 = −(𝑥 − 4)
The above curve is the equation of the Parabola,
We know that at 𝑦-axis; 𝑥 = 0
⇒ 𝑦2 = 4 − 𝑥
⇒ 𝑦2 = 4 − 0 = 4

a
⇒ 𝑦 = ±2
⇒ (0,2) or (0, −2) are Point of intersection.
2
Area under the curve = ∫−2 xdy
2
= ∫ (4 − 𝑦 2 )dy
−2

=
32
3
y3
= [4y − ]
3 −2

Sq. unit
2
m
𝜋
24. The area enclosed between the curves 𝑦 = sin 𝑥, 𝑦 = cos 𝑥, 0 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ is
2
A. √2 − 1 B. √2 + 1
F=
C. 2(√2 − 1) D. 2(√2 + 1)
Answer: C
Explanation:
Enclosed Area
𝜋/4
= 2∫ (cos 𝑥 − sin 𝑥)𝑑𝑥
0
𝜋/4
= 2[sin 𝑥 + cos 𝑥]0
1 1
= 2 [( + ) − (0 + 1)]
√2 √2
= 2(√2 − 1)

25. The area of a circle of radius ' 𝑎 ' can be found by following integral
𝑏 2𝜋
A. ∫𝑎 (𝑎2 + 𝑥 2 )𝑑𝑥 B. ∫0 √(𝑎2 − 𝑥 2 )𝑑𝑥
𝑎 𝑎
C. 4 × ∫0 √(𝑎2 − 𝑥 2 )𝑑𝑥 D. ∫0 √(𝑎2 − 𝑥 2 )𝑑𝑥
Answer: C
Explanation:
Let's take the strip along a y-direction and integrate it from 0 to 'a' this will give the area of the first quadrant and in order to find out the
area of a circle multiply by 4
𝑦 = √𝑥 2 − 𝑎 2
𝑎 𝑎
Area of first Quadrant = ∫0 𝑦𝑑𝑥 = ∫0 √𝑎2 − 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥
𝑎
Area of circle = 4 × ∫0 √𝑎2 − 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥

153
26. The area of the region bounded by the curve 𝑦 = √16 − 𝑥 2 and 𝑥-axis is
A. 8𝜋 sq. units B. 20𝜋 sq. units
C. 16𝜋 sq. units D. None of these
Answer: A
Explanation:
Given:
At 𝑥-axis, 𝑦 will be zero
𝑦 = √16 − 𝑥 2
⇒ 0 = √16 − 𝑥 2
⇒ 16 − 𝑥 2 = 0
⇒ 𝑥 2 = 16
∴ 𝑥 = ±4
So, the intersection points are (4,0) and (−4,0)
Since the curve is 𝑦 = √16 − 𝑥 2
So, 𝑦 ≥ 0 [always]
So, we will take the circular part which is above the 𝑥-axis
4
Area of the curve, 𝐴 = ∫−4 √16 − 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥
We know that,
𝑥 𝑎2 𝑥
∫ √𝑎2 − 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 = √𝑥 2 − 𝑎2 + sin−1 + 𝑐
2 2 𝑎
4
𝑥 16 x

a
= [ √(42 − x 2 ) + sin−1 ]
2 2 4 −4
x 16 −1
4 𝑥 16 4
= [ √(42 − 42 ) + sin ] − [ √(42 − (−4)2 ) + sin−1 )]
2 2 4 2 2 −4
= 8sin−1 (1) + 8sin−1 (1)
= 16sin−1 (1)
= 16 × 𝜋/2
= 8𝜋 sq units
m
27. What is the area of the parabola 𝑥 2 = 𝑦 bounded by the line 𝑦 = 1 ?
1 2
A. square unit B. square unit
3 3
C.
4
square units D. 2 square units
3
Answer: C
F=
Explanation:
1
Area = ∫ 𝑦𝑑𝑥
−1
Here, the area is symmetric about the 𝑦-axis, we can find the area on one side and then multiply it by 2, we will get the area,
1
Area 1 = ∫ 𝑦𝑑𝑥
0
1
Area 1 = ∫ 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥
0
1
x3 1
=[ ] =
3 0 3
This area is between 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 and the positive 𝑥-axis.
To get the area of the shaded region, we have to subtract this area from the area of square i.e.
1 2
(1 × 1) − =
3 3
2 4
Total Area = 2 × = square units.
3 3

28. The area bounded by the parabola 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 and the line 𝑦 = 2𝑥 (in square units) is:
2 4
A. B.
3 3
C.
8 D. 4
3
Answer: B
Explanation:
Given: The equation of the parabola is 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 , and the equation of the line is 𝑦 = 2𝑥 Substitute the value of 𝑦 in the parabola equation, and
we get
154
 ⇒ 2𝑥 = 𝑥 2
⇒ 𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 = 0
⇒ 𝑥(𝑥 − 2) = 0
⇒ 𝑥 = 0,2
Put the value of 𝑥 in 𝑦 = 𝑥 2
x 0 2

𝑦 0 4

∴ The point of intersection of the given curves are (0,0) and (2,4)

∴ Area under curve

2
= ∫ [Top − bottom ]dx
0
2
= ∫ (2x − x 2 )dx
0
2
x3
= [x 2 − ]
3 0
23 (0)3
= [22 − ] − [(0)2 − ]
3 3
8

a
= [4 − ]
3
4
= sq. units
3
4
∴ The area bounded by the parabola y = x 2 and the line y = 2x (in square units) is sq. units.
3

29. Consider the curves 𝑦 2 = 3𝑥 and 𝑥 2 = 3𝑦

m
The points of intersection of the curves are (0,0) and (3,3).
The area of region bounded by the curves is 3sq. units.
Which of the above statement(s) is/are correct?
A. Only 1 B. Only 2
C. Both 1 and 2 D. Neither 1 nor 2
Answer: C
F=
Explanation:
Given: 𝑦 2 = 3𝑥 − (1)
and 𝑥 2 = 3𝑦 − (2)
𝑥2
From equation (2), 𝑦 =
3
Substitute the value of 𝑦 in equation (1), we have
2
𝑥2
⇒ ( ) = 3𝑥
3
⇒ 𝑥(𝑥 3 − 27) = 0
∴ 𝑥 = 0,3
At 𝑥 = 0, 𝑦 = 0 and at 𝑥 = 3, 𝑦 = 3
Therefore, the points of intersection of the given curves are (0,0) and (3,3)
∴ Statement 1 is correct.
𝑥2
2. Let 𝑓(𝑥) = √3𝑥 and 𝑔(𝑥) =
3
Then, the area bounded by the given curve is
𝑏
𝐴 = ∫ [𝑓(𝑥) − 𝑔(𝑥)]𝑑𝑥
𝑎
3
𝑥2
𝐴 = ∫ [√3𝑥 − ] 𝑑𝑥
0 3
3
𝑥 3/2 1
𝐴 = √3 [ ] − [𝑥 3 ]30
3/2 0 9

155
 2
𝐴= × 3√3 − 3
√3
A=6−3
A=3
Therefore, the area is 3 sq. units.

30. The area bounded by the parabola 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 and the line 𝑦 = 2𝑥 (in square units) is:
2 4
A. B.
3 3
C.
8 D. 4
3
Answer: B
Explanation:
Given: The equation of the parabola is 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 and the equation of the line is 𝑦 = 2𝑥 Substitute the value of 𝑦 in the parabola equation, and
we get
⇒ 2𝑥 = 𝑥 2
⇒ 𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 = 0
⇒ 𝑥(𝑥 − 2) = 0
⇒ 𝑥 = 0,2
Put the value of 𝑥 in 𝑦 = 𝑥 2
x 0 2

y 0 4

a
∴ The point of intersection of the given curves are (0,0) and (2,4)
∴ Area under curve
2
= ∫ [ Top − bottom ]𝑑𝑥
0

0
2
= ∫ (2x − x 2 )dx

= [x 2 −
x3
]
2
m
3 0
23 (0)3
= [22 −] − [(0)2 − ]
3 3
F=
8
= [4 − ]
3
4
= sq. units
3
4
∴ The area bounded by the parabola 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 and the line 𝑦 = 2𝑥 (in square units) is 𝑠𝑞. units.
3

Question/Answer
Very Short Questions
1. Find the area of region bounded by the curve y = x2 and the line y = 4.
32
Answer: sq. units.
2

2. Find the area bounded by the curve y = x3, x = 0 and the ordinates x = -2 and x = 1.
17
Answer: sq. units.
4

3. Find the area bounded between parabolas y2 = 4x and x2 = 4y.

16
Answer: sq. units.
3

𝜋
4. Find the area enclosed between the curve y = cos x, 0 ≤ x ≤ and the co-ordinate axes.
4
1
Answer: sq. units.
2

5. Find the area between the x-axis curve y = cos x when 0≤ x < 2.

156
Answer: 4 sq. units

6. Find the ratio of the areas between the center y = cos x and y = cos 2x and x-axis for x = 0 to
𝜋
x=
3
Answer: 2: 1.

7. Find the areas of the region:

{(x, y): x2 + y2 ≤ 1 ≤ x + 4}
1
Answer: (π – 1) sq. units.
2

Long Questions
1. Find the area enclosed by the circle:
x2 + y2 = a2.
Answer: The given circle is
x2 + y2 = a2 …………. (1)
This is a circle whose center is (0,0) and radius ‘a’.

a
m
Area of the circle=4 x (area of the region OABO, bounded by the curve, x-axis and ordinates x = 0, x = a)
[ ∵ Circle is symmetrical about both the axes]
𝑎
= 4 ∫0 𝑦𝑑𝑥 [Taking vertical strips] o

But region OABO lies in 1st quadrant, ∴ y is + ve]

F=

2. Using integration, find the area of the region in the first quadrant enclosed by the x-axis, the line y = x and the circle x2 + y2
= 32.
Answer: We have:
y = x …(l)
and x2 + y2 = 32 … (2)
(1) is a st. line, passing through (0,0) and (2) is a circle with centre (0,0) and radius 4√2 units. Solving (1) and (2) :
Putting the value of y from (1) in (2), we get:
x2 + x2 = 32
2x2 = 32
x2 = 16
x = 4.
[∵ region lies in first quadrant]
Also, y = 4
Thus, the line (1) and the circle (2) meet each other at B (4,4), in the first quadrant.
Draw BM perp. to x – axis.

157
∴ Reqd. area = area of the region OMBO + area of the region BMAB … (3)
Now, area of the region OMBO

Again, area of the region BMAB

a
m
F=

= 8π – (8 + 4π) = 4π – 8
∴ From (3),
Required area = 8 + (4π – 8) = 4π sq. units.

3. Find the area bounded by the curves y = √x, 2y + 3 = Y and Y-axis.

Answer: The given curves are
y = √x …………. (1)
and 2y + 3 = x … (2)
Solving (1) and (2), we get.

Squaring, 2y + 3 = y2
⇒ y22 – 2y – 3 = 0
⇒ (y + 1) (y-3) = 0 ⇒ y = -1, 3
⇒ y = 3 [∵ y > 0]
Putting in (2),
x = 2(3) + 3 = 9.
Thus, (1) and (2) intersects at (9, 3).

158
4. Find the area of region:
{(x, y): x2 + y2 < 8, x2 < 2y}.

a
Answer: The given curves are.
x2 + y2 = 8 ………… (1)
x2 = 2y ………… (2) m
F=
Solving (1) and (2):
8 – y2= 2y
⇒ y2 + 2y – 8 = 0
⇒ (y + 4) (y – 2) = 0
= y = -4,2
⇒ y = 2. [∵ y > 0]
Putting in (2), x2 = 4
⇒ x = -2 or 2.
Thus, (1) and (2) intersect at P (2, 2) and Q (-2, 2).

159
 Chapter - 9 Differential Equations

Definition

An equation involving the dependent variable and independent variable and also the derivative of the dependable variable is known as
dy
differential equation. This can be mathematically written as x + y = 0.
dx
dy
The derivative can also be written as f ′ (x) or y ′ (x). Similarly,
dx
d2 y
⇒ f ′′ (x) or y′′ (x)
dx 2
d3 y
⇒ f ′′ (x) or y′′′ (x)
dx 3
dy x d2 y dy 2
Some examples can be = 1 1 , = −p2 y or x 2 ( ) = y 2 + 1.
dx y3 (1+x3 ) dx2 dx

Differential equations which involve only one independent variable are called ordinary differential equations.

Order of Differential Equations

The order of a differential equation is the order of the highest derivative involved in the differential equation. This can be understood

a
clearly by looking at a few examples.

dy 4 dy 2 dy
(i) First order differential equation − ( ) + ( ) − 5x = 0. The maximum derivative of y with respect to x is .
dx dx dx
d2 y d2 y
(ii) Second order differential equation − + 7y = 0. The maximum derivative of y with respect to x is .

(iii) Third order differential equation − (

m dx2
d3 y
dx3
2
dy
) − 3 ( ) + 2 = 0. The maximum derivative of y with respect to x is
dx
dx2
d3 y
dx3
.

Degree of Differential Equations

The degree of a differential equation is the degree of the highest differential coefficient when the equation has been made rational and
F=
integral as far as the differential coefficients are concerned. This can be understood clearly by looking at a few examples.
dy 5x dy
(i) First degree differential equation − = 1 1 . The power of the highest order derivative is 1.
dx y3 (1−x3 ) dx

2
d3 y dy d3 y
(ii) Second degree differential equation − ( ) + 6 ( ) = −2. The power of highest order derivative is 2 .
dx3 dx dx3
1/3 3
dy 2 d2 y dy 2 d2 y
(iii) Third degree differential equation - [1 + ( ) ] =3 . First, making it rational, [1 + ( ) ] = 27 ( ) .
dx dx2 dx dx2
d2 y
The power of highest order derivative is 3.
dx2

Formation of Ordinary Differential Equations

There may be some arbitrary constants in an equation containing variables and constants. An ordinary differential equation is formed as
a result of elimination of these arbitrary constants.
Consider an equation containing n arbitrary constants. Differentiating this equation n times we get n additional equations containing n
arbitrary constants and derivatives. Eliminating n arbitrary constants from the above (n + 1) equations, differential equation involving
dy d2 y dny
nth derivative is obtained. After this is complete, the resulting equation will be of the form ϕ (x, y, , ,……, )=0
dx dx2 dx

Solution of a Differential Equations

The solution of the differential equation is a relation is a relation between the independent and dependent variable free from derivatives
satisfying the given differential equation.
dy
So, the solution of an equation given by = m can be obtained by integrating both the sides to remove the derivatives and obtain y =
dx
mx + c, where c is arbitrary constant.
160
General Solution or Primitive
The general solution of a differential equation is the relation between the variables (not involving the derivatives) which contain the same
number of the arbitrary constants as the order of the differential equation.
Thus, the general solution of the differential equation
d2 y
= 4y is y = Asin 2x + Bcos 2x, where A and B are the constants.
dx2

Particular Solution or Integral

A solution which is obtained by giving particular values to the arbitrary constants in the general solution is called a particular solution.

Method of solving an equation of the first order and first degree

dy
A differential equation of the first order and first degree can be written in the form = f(x, y) or, Mdx + Ndy = 0, where M and N are
dx
functions of x and y.

Method-1

Variable Separation:
The general form of such an equation is
f(x)dx + f(y)dy = 0

a
Integrating it gives the solution as
∫ f(x)dx + ∫ f(y)dy = c

𝐝𝐲
Solution of differential equation of the type = 𝐟(𝐚𝐱 + 𝐛𝐲 + 𝐜) :
Consider the differential equation

Let z = ax + by + c
m
dy
dx
𝐝𝐱
= f(ax + by + c)...(i) where f(ax + by + c) is some function of ax + by + c.

dz dy
∴ =a+b
dx dx
dz
dy −a
or, = dx
F=
dx b

dz
−a
From (i), dx = f(z)
b
dz
or, = bf(z) + a
dx
dz
or, = dx
bf(z)+a
In the differential equation (ii), the variables x and z are separated.
Integrating, we get

dx
∫ = ∫ dx + c
bf(z) + a
dx
or ∫ = x + c, where z = ax + by + c
bf(z)+a
This represents the general solution of the differential equation (i)

Solution of differential equation of the type

dy a1 x + b1 y + c1 a1 b1 c1
= , where = ≠
dx a2 x + b2 y + c2 a2 b2 c2

dy a1 x+b1 y+c1 a1 b1 c1
Here = , where = ≠
dx a2 x+b2 y+c2 a2 b2 c2

a1 b1
Let = = λ (say)
a2 b2
∴ a1 = λa2 , b1 = λb2

161
From (i)
dy λa2 x + λb2 y + c1
=
dx a2 x + b2 y + c2
dy λ(a2 x + b2 y) + c1
= =
dx a2 x + b2 y + c2

Let z = a2 x + b2 y
dz
dz dy dy dx − a2
∴ = a2 + b2 ⇒ = ...
dx dx dx b2

From (ii) and (iii), we get

dz
− a2 λz + c1
dx =
b2 z + c2
dz b2 λz + c1 λb2 z + b2 c1 + a2 z + a2 c2
or, = + a2 =
dx z + c2 z + c2

z+c2
or dx = dz, where x and z are separated.
λb2 +a2 z+b2 c1 +a2 c2

Integrating, we get
z + c2
x+c=∫ dz where z = a2 x + b2 y

a
λb2 + a2 z + b2 c1 + a2 c2

Method-2

Homogeneous Differential Equation:

f(x, y)
m
A function = λn f(x, y) called homogeneous function of degree n if
dy
A differential equation of the form = f(x, y), where f(x, y) is a homogeneous polynomial of degree zero is called a homogeneous
dx
y x
differential equation. Such equations are solved by substituting v = or and then separating the variables.
x y
F=
Differential Equation Reducible to Homogeneous Forms:
dy ax+by+c a b
Equation of the form = , where ≠ can be reduced to homogeneous form by changing the variables x, y to x ′ , y ′ by equations
dx a′ x+b′ y+c′ a′ b′
x = x ′ + h and y = y + k where h and k
′ are constants to be chosen so as to make the given equation homogeneous.
dx = dx ′ and dy = dy
The given equation becomes

dy ′ a(x ′ + h) + b(y ′ + k) + c
′
= ′ ′
dx a (x + h) + b ′ (y ′ + k) + c ′
ax ′ + by ′ + (ah + bk + c)
= ′ ′
a x + b ′ y ′ + (a′ h + b ′ k + c ′ )

Now, choose h and k so that

ah + bk + c = 0
and a′ h + b′ k + c ′ = 0

From this equation, the values of h and k in terms of the coefficients are obtained. Then the given equation reduces to
dy ax ′ + by ′
= ′ ′
dx a x + b ′ y ′
Which is the homogeneous form.

162
Method - 3

Linear Differential Equation:

A differential equation is said to be linear if the dependent variable y and its derivative occur in the first degree.
dy
An equation of the form + Py = Q
dx
where P and Q are functions of x only or constant is called a linear equation of the first order.
dx
Similarly, + Px = Q is a linear differential equation where P and Q are functions of y only.
dy
To get the general solution of the above equation’s determination of a function R of x called Integrating function (I.F) is required. So, multiply
both sides of the given equation by R
where, R = e∫ Pdx = I.F. ...(iii)

From (i) and (iii),

dy
e∫ Pdx + Pye ∫ Pdx = QePdx
dx
d
(yee∫ Pdx ) = Q ⋅ e∫ Pdx
dx
Integrating,
ye∫ Pdx = ∫ Qe∫ Pdx dx + c is the required solution.
Integrating,

a
ye∫ Pdx = ∫ Qe∫ Pdx dx + c is the required solution.
This can also be written and memorized as
y( I.F. ) = ∫ Q( I.F. )dx + c m
Differential Equation Reducible to the Linear Form:
Sometimes equations which are not linear can be reduced to the linear form by suitable transformation.
dy
Here, f ′ (y) + f(y)P(x) = Q(x)
dx
Let, f(y) = u ⇒ f ′ (y)dy = du
Then (i) reduces to
du
+ uP(x) = Q(x) Which is of the linear differential equation form.
dx
F=
Extended Form of Linear Equations:
Bernoulli's Equation:
dy
An equation of the form + Py = Qy n , where P and Q are function of x alone or constants and n is constant, other than 0 and 1 , is called
dx
a Bernoulli's equation.
dy
Here + Py = Qy n
dx
Dividing by y n ,
1 dy 1
+ P ⋅ n−1 = Q
y n dx y

1
Putting = v and differentiating w.r.t x,
yn−1
(n − 1) dy dv
− =
y n dx dx
1 dy −1 dv
=
y n dx n − 1 dx
dv dy
= (1 − n)y −n
dx dx
The equation becomes
dv
+ (1 − n)Pv = Q(1 − n)
dx
Which is a linear equation with v as independent variable.

163
Method-4

Exact Differential Equation:

A differential equation is said to be exact if it can be derived from its solution (primitive) directly by differentiation, without any elimination,
multiplication etc. For example, the differential equation xdy + ydx = 0 is an exact differential equation as it is derived by direct
differentiation for its solution, the function xy = c.

Application of Differential Equations

The below results are helpful when solving geometrical problems. Consider the below diagram,

Let PT and PN be the tangent and the normal at P(x, y) respectively. Let the tangent at P make an angle θ with the x-axis.

a
dy
Then the slope of the tangent at P = tan θ = ( )
dx P
1
The slope of the normal at P = − dy
( )
dx P

Equation of the tangent at P(x, y) is

dy
Y − y = ( ) (X − x)
dx p
m
Equation of the normal at P(x, y) is
1
Y−y =− (X − x)
dy
( )
dx P
F=
PG y
From △ PGT, sin θ = =
PT PT
PT = ycosecθ( length of the tangent )
2
∴ √1 + (dy)
√1 + tan2 θ dx
=y =y
tan θ dy
dx
PG y
And tan θ = =
TG TG
y
⇒ TG = ycot θ( length of the sub tangent ) =
dy
dx
PG y
From △ PGN, cos θ = =
PN PN

PN = ysecθ( length of the normal )

⇒ dy 2
= y√1 + tan2 θ = y√1 + ( )
dx
GN
tan θ =
y
dy
⇒ GN = ytan θ = y (length of the sub normal)
dx

164
 Multiple Choice Questions
1. Find the degree of the differential equation y”-12cosec y=0.
A. 1 B. 2
C. 4 D. Not defined
Answer: A
Explanation:
The highest order derivative in this D.E is y”. The given D.E is a polynomial equation in y”. Therefore, the degree of the D.E is the power
raised to y” which is 1.

dy
2. Which of the following functions is the solution of the differential equation + 2y = 0 ?
dx
A. y = −2e−x B. y = 2ex
C. y = e−2x D. y = e2x
Answer: C
Explanation:
Consider the function y = e−2x Differentiating both sides w.r.t x, we get
dy
= −2e−2x
dx
dy
= −2y
dx
dy
⇒ + 2y = 0.
dx

a
3. Which of the following functions is a solution for the differential equation xy ′ − y = 0 ?
A. y = 4x B. y = x 2
C. y = −4x D. y = 2x
Answer: D
Explanation:
Consider the function y = 2x
Differentiating w.r.t x, we get
y′ =
dy
=2
m
dx
Substituting in the equation xy ′ − y, we get
xy ′ − y = x(2) − 2x = 2x − 2x = 0
Therefore, the function y = 2x is a solution for the differential equation xy ′ − y = 0.
F=
4. Which of the following differential equations has the solution y = 3x 2 ?
d2 y dy
A. − 6x = 0 B. − 3x = 0
dx2 dx
d2 y dy d2 y 3dy
C. x − =0 D. − =0
dx2 dx dx2 dx
Answer: C
Explanation:
Consider the function y = 3x 2
Differentiating w.r.t x, we get
dy
= 6x − (1)
dx
Differentiating (1) w.r.t x, we get
d2 y
=6
dx 2
xd2 y 6dy
∴ − = 6x − 6x = 0
dx 2 dx
d2 y dy
Hence, the function y = 3x 2 is a solution for the differential equation x 2 − 6 = 0.
dx dx

5. Which of the following functions is a solution for the differential equation y ′′ + 6y = 0 ?

A. y = 5cos 3x B. y = 5tan 3x
C. y = cos 3x D. y = 6cos 3x
Answer: A
Explanation:
Consider the function y = 5cos 3x
Differentiating w.r.t x, we get
dy
y′ = = −15sin 3x
dx
165
Differentiating again w.r.t x, we get
d2 y
y ′′ = 2 = −30cos 3x
dx
⇒ y ′′ + 6y = 0.
Hence, the function y = 5cos 3x is a solution for the differential equation y ′′ + 6y = 0.

dy
6. Which of the following functions is a solution for the differential equation − 14x = 0 ?
dx
A. y = 7x 2 B. y = 7x 3
C. y = x 7 D. y = 14x
Answer: A
Explanation:
Consider the function y = 7x 2
Differentiating w.r.t x, we get
dy
= 14x
dx
dy
∴ − 14x = 0
dx
dy
Hence, the function y = 7x 2 is a solution for the differential equation − 14x = 0
dx

7. Which of the following differential equations given below has the solution y = log x ?
d2 y d2 y dy 2
A. −x =0 B. +( ) = 0
dx2 dx2 dx
d2 y dy d2 y
C. D.

a
− =0 x − log x = 0
dx2 dx dx2
Answer: B
Explanation:
Consider the function y = log x
Differentiating w.r.t x, we get
dy 1
= − (1)
dx x
Differentiating (1) w.r.t x, we get
d2 y
dx 2
=− 2
1
x
m
d2 y dy 2 1 1 2
∴ 2+( ) =− 2+( )
dx dx x x
1 1
= − 2 + 2 = 0.
F=
x x

8. How many arbitrary constants will be there in the general solution of a second order differential equation?
A. 3 B. 4
C. 2 D. 1
Answer: C
Explanation:
The number of arbitrary constants in a general solution of a nth order differential equation is n.
Therefore, the number of arbitrary constants in the general solution of a second order D.E is 2.

9. The number of arbitrary constants in a particular solution of a fourth order differential equation is __________________
A. 1 B. 0
C. 4 D. 3
Answer: B
Explanation:
The number of arbitrary constants for a particular solution of nth order differential equation is always zero.

dy
10. Find the general solution of the differential equation = 5x 2 + 2.
dx
A. 10x 3
+ 12x − +C=0 3y 2 B. 12x − 3y 2 + C = 0
C. 10x 3 + 12x − y 2 + C = 0 D. 10x 2 − 3y 2 + C = 0
Answer: A
Explanation:
dy
Given that, = 5x 2 + 2
dx
Separating the variables, we get
dy = (5x 2 + 2)dx − (1)
Integrating both sides of (1), we get

166
 ∫ ydy = ∫ 5x 2 + 2dx
y 2 5x 3
= + 2x + C1
2 3
3y = 10x 3 + 12x + 6C1
2

10x 3 + 12x − 3y 2 + C = 0 (where 6C1 = C )

dy y−3
11. Find the general solution of the differential equation = (x, y ≠ 3).
dx x−3
A. x − 3 = 0 B. y−3 =0
C. y + 3 = 0 D. x − 3y = 0
Answer: B
Explanation:
dy y−3
Given that, =
dx x−3
Separating the variables, we get
dy dx
=
y−3 x−3
log (y − 3) = log (x − 3) + log C1
log (y − 3) − log (x − 3) = log C1
y−3
log ( ) = log C1
x−3
1 y−3
=0
C1 x − 3

a
y − 3 = 0 is the general solution for the given differential equation.

dy
12. Find the general solution of the differential solution = 2 − x + x3 .
dx
A. x4
− 2x 2
− 4y + C = 0 B. x 4 − 2x 2 + C = 0
C. 2x 2 + 4x − 4y + C = 0 D. x 4 − 2x 2 + 4x − 4y + C = 0
Answer: D
Explanation:
Given that,
dy
dx
= 2 − x + x4
Separating the variables, we get
m
dy = (2 − x + x 3 )dx
Integrating on both sides, we get
∫ dy = ∫ 2 − x + x 3 dx
F=
x2 x4
y = 2x − + + C1
2 4
4y = 4x − 2x 2 + x 4 + 4C1
∴ x 4 − 2x 2 + 4x − 4y + 4C1 = 0
x 4 − 2x 2 + 4x − 4y + C = 0 (where 4C1 = C)

dy 3sec y
13. Find the general solution of the differential equation = .
dx 2cosec x
A. 3cos x − 2cos y = C B. 3sin x + 2sin y = C
C. 3cos x + 2tan x = c D. 3cos x + 2sin y = C
Answer: D
Explanation:
dy 3sec y
Given that, =
dx 2cosec x

2dy 3dx
=
sec y cosec x
Separating the variables, we get
2 cosy dy = 3sin xdx
Integrating both sides, we get
∫ 2cos ydy = ∫ 3sin xdx
2sin y = 3(−cos x) + C
3cos x + 2sin y = C

167
 dy 2+x3
14. Find the general solution of the differential equation = .
dx 4−y3
A. x 3 − y 3 − 4y + C = 0 B. x 4 + 8x + y 4 − 16y + C = 0
C. 2x + y 4 − 4y + C = 0 D. x 3 + 2x + C = 0
Answer: B
Explanation:
dy 2+x3
Given that, =
dx 4−y3
Separating the variables, we get
(4 − y 3 )dy = (2 + x 3 )dx
Integrating both sides, we get
∫ 4 − y 3 dy = ∫ 2 + x 3 dx
y4 x4
4y − = 2x + + C1
4 4
x 4 + 8x + y 4 − 16y + C = 0 (where 4C1 = C)

dy
15. Find the general solution of the differential equation = 3ex + 2
dx
A. y = 3ex
+ 2x + C B. y = 3ex − 2x + C
C. y = 2ex + 3x + C D. y = 2ex − 3x + C
Answer: A
Explanation:
dy
Given that, = 3ex + 2
dx

a
Separating the variables, we get
dy = (3ex + 2)dx
Integrating both sides, we get
∫ dy = ∫ (3ex + 2)dx − (1)

A. y = 5x + x 2 + 1
m
y = 3ex + 2x + C which is the general solution of the given differential equation.

16. Find the particular solution of the differential equation

dy
dx
+ 2x = 5 given that y = 5, when x = 1.
B. y = x − x2 + 4
C. y = 5x − x 2 + 1 D. y = 5x − x 2
Answer: C
Explanation:
dy
Given that, + 2x = 5
F=
dx
dy
= 5 − 2x
dx
Separating the variables, we get
dy = (5 − 2x)dx
Integrating both sides, we get
∫ dy = ∫ 5 − 2xdx
y = 5x − x 2 + C − (1)

Given that, y = 5, when x = 1

⇒ 5 = 5(1) − (1)2 + C
∴C=1
Substituting value of C to equation (1), we get y = 5x − x 2 + 1 which is the particular solution of the given differential equation.

dy 1
17. Find the particular solution of the differential equation + 8x = 16x 2 + 4 given that y = when x = 1.
dx 3
(2x+1)2 (4x+1)2
A. y= B. y=
3 12
(4x−2)2 (2x−1)2
C. y= D. y=
3 3
Answer: D
Explanation:
dy
Given that, + 8x = 16x 2 + 4
dx
dy
= 16x 2 − 8x + 4
dx
dy
= (4x − 2)2
dx

168
Separating the variables, we get
dy = (4x − 2)2 dx
Integrating both sides, we get
∫ dy = ∫ (4x − 2)2 dx
(4x − 2)2
y= +C
12
(2x − 1)2
y= + C − (1)
3
Given that, y = 1/3 when x = 1
Therefore, equation (1) becomes,
1 (2(1) − 1)2
= +C
3 3
1 1
C= − =0
3 3
(2x−1)2
Hence, the particular solution for the given differential solution is y = .
3

dy 3x2
18. Find the particular solution for the differential equation = given that, y = 1 when x = 1.
dx 7y
A. 7x 2
= +5 2y 3 B. 7x 3 = 2y 2 + 5
C. 7y 2 = 2x 3 + 5 D. 2y 2 = 5x 3 + 6
Answer: C
Explanation:

a
dy 3x2
Given that, =
dx 7y
Separating the variables, we get
7ydy = 3x 2 dx
Integrating both sides, we get
7 ∫ ydy = 3 ∫ x 2 dx
7y 2
2
7y 2
x3
= 3( ) +C
3
m
= x 3 + C − (1)
2
Given that y = 1, when x = 1
Substituting the values in equation (1), we get
7(1)2
F=
= (1)3 + C
2
7 5
C= −1=
2 2
Hence, the particular solution of the given differential equation is:
7y 2 5
= x3 +
2 2
⇒ 7y 2 = 2x 3 + 5

dy 9ylog x
19. Find the particular solution of the differential equation = .
dx 5xlog y
A. (log y)2
+ (log =0 x)2 B. (log y)2 − (log x)2 = 0
C. log y − log x = 0 D. 2log x + log y = 0
Answer: B
Explanation:
dy 9ylog x
=
dx 5xlog y
Separating the variables, we get

5log y 9log x
dy = dx
y x

Integrating both sides, we get

log y log x
5∫ dy = 9 ∫ dx − (1)
y x
log y
First, for integrating
y
Let logy=t
169
Differentiating w.r.ty, we get
1
dy = dt
y
log y
∴∫ dy = ∫ tdt
y
t 2 log y 2
= =
2 2
log x
Similarly integrating
x
Let log x = t
Differentiating w.r.t x, we get
1
dx = dt
x
log x
∴∫ dy = ∫ tdt
x
t 2 (log x)2
= =
2 2
Hence, equation (1), becomes.
(log y)2 (log x)2
= + C − (2)
2 2

Given y = 2, we get x = 2
Substituting the values in equation (2), we get
(log y)2 (log x)2

a
= +C
2 2
Therefore, the equation becomes (log y)2 = (log x 2 ) ∴ (log y)2 − (log x)2 = 0.

20. What is the value of the solution of dy/dx = (6x + 9y − 7)/(2x + 3y − 6) ?

A. −c/3 B. 3c/2
C. 2c/3
Answer: A
Explanation:
dy/dx = (6x + 9y − 7)/(2x + 3y − 6)
m D. −2c/3

So, dy/dx = (3(2x + 3y) − 7)/(2x + 3x − 6)

Now, we put, 2x + 3y = z
Therefore, 2 + 3dy/dx = dz/dx [differentiating with respect to x ] Or, dy/dx = 1/3(dz/dx − 2)
Therefore, from (1) we get,
F=
1/3(dz/dx − 2) = (3z − 7)/(z − 6)
Or, dz/dx = 2 + (3(3z − 7))/(z − 6)
= 11(z − 3)/(z − 6)
Or (z − 6)/(z − 3)dz = 11dx
Or ∫ (z − 6)/(z − 3)dz = ∫ 11dx
Or ∫ (1 − 3/(z − 3))dz = 11x + c
Or z − log |z − 3| = 11x + c
Or 2x + 3y − 11x − 3log |2x + 3y − 3| = c
Or 3y − 9x − 3log |2x + 3y − 3| = c
Or 3x − y + log |2x + 3y − 3| = −c/3

21. What is the order of the differential equation of the family of circles with one diameter along the line y = x axis?
A. 3 B. 2
C. 1 D. 0
Answer: B
Explanation:
Centre of the circles can be taken as (a, a) and radius as r for some real numbers a and r.
Thus, the family is a two-parameter family.
Hence, the order of the corresponding differential equation is 2.

22. What will be the general solution of differential equation for 2x−y dx + 2y−x dy = 0 ?
A. 22x + 22y = c B. 2(22x + 22y ) = c
C. 3(22x + 22y ) = c D. 4(22x + 22y ) = c
Answer: A
Explanation:
We have, 2x−y dx + 2y−x dy = 0
Or (2x /2y )dx + (2y /2x )dy = 0

170
Integrating both sides,
122x dx + ∫ 22y dy = k
Taking k = c/2log 2 as, k, c and 2log 2 are constant.
Or 22x /2log 2 + 22y /2log 2 = c/2log 2
Or 22x + 22y = c

23. What will be the value of the differential equation dy/dx = (x + y)2 /(x + 2)(y − 2) ?
A. keY/X where, X = x + 2 and Y = y − 2 B. ke2Y/X where, X = x + 2 and Y = y − 2
C. ke 2Y/X
where, X = x and Y = 2y D. ke2X/Y where, X = x − 2 and Y = y + 2
Answer: B
Explanation:
Let, X = x + 2 and Y = y − 2
Then, dY/dX = (X + Y)2 /XY
So, let, Y = vX
dY/dX = v + xdv/dX
⇒ v + Xdv/dX = (v + 1)2 /v
⇒> V/1 + 2vdv = dX/X
⇒ (1 − 1/1 + 2v)dv = 2dx/x
⇒ v − 1/2log (1 + 2v) = 2log X + c
This means, X 4 (1 + 2Y/X)
= ke2Y/X where, X = x + 2 and Y = y − 2

a
24. A normal is drawn at a point P(x, y) of a curve. It meets the x-axis at Q. If PQ is of constant length k. Then what is the differential
equation describing such curve?
A. y(dy/dx) = ±√(k 2 + x 2 ) B. y(dy/dx) = ±√(k 2 − 2y 2 )
dy
C. y ( ) = ±√(k 2 − y 2 ) D. Depends on the value of k
dx
Answer: C
Explanation:
m
Equation of the normal at a point P(x, y) is given by
Y − y = −1/(dy/dx)(X − x)
Let the point Q at the x-axis be (x1 , 0).
From (1), we get
y(dy/dx) = x1 − x. . . (2)
Now, giving that PQ2 = k 2
Or, x1 − x + y 2 = k 2
F=
⇒ y(dy/dx) = ±√(k 2 − y 2 )

25. A normal is drawn at a point P(x, y) of a curve. It meets the x-axis at Q. If PQ is of constant length k. What is the equation of such curve
passing through (0, k) ?
A. x 2 + 2y 2 = k 2 B. 2x 2 + y 2 = k 2
C. x − y = k
2 2 2 D. x 2 + y 2 = k 2
Answer: D
Explanation:
Equation of the normal at a point P(x, y) is given by
Y − y = −1/(dy/dx)(X − x)
Let the point Q at the x-axis be (x1 , 0).
From (1), we get
y(dy/dx) = x1 − x
Now, giving that PQ2 = k 2
Or x1 − x + y 2 = k 2 ⇒ y(dy/dx) = ±√(k 2 − y 2 ) … (3)
(3) is the required differential equation for such curves,
Now solving (3) we get,
∫ − dy/√(k 2 − y 2 ) = ∫ − dx
Or x 2 + y 2 = k 2 passes through (0, k)

26. A curve passes through (1,1) such that the triangle formed by the coordinate axes and the tangent at any point of the curve is in the
first quadrant and has its area equal to 2. What will be the equation of the curve?
A. xy = 2 B. xy = −1
C. x − y = 2 D. x + y = 2
Answer: D

171
Explanation:
The equation of tangent to the curve y = f(x), at point (x, y), is
Y − y = dy/dx(X − x)
Where it meets the x axis, Y = 0 and X = (x − y/(dy/dx))
Where it meets the y axis, X = 0 and Y = (y − x/(dy/dx))
Also, the area of the triangle formed by (1) with the coordinate axes is 2, so that, (x − y/(dy/dx) × (y − x/(dy/dx)) = 4
Or (y − x/(dy/dx))2 − 4dy/dx = 0
Or x 2 (dy/dx)2 − 2(xy − 2)dy/dx + y 2 = 0
Solving for dy/dx we get,
dy/dx = [(xy − 2) ± √(1 − xy)]/x 2
Let, 1 − xy = t 2
⇒ x(dy/dx) + y = −2t(dt/dx)
⇒ x 2 (dy/dx) = t 2 − 1 − 2tx(dt/dx), so that (3) gives
t(x(dt/dx) − (t ± 1)) = 0
Hence, either t = 0
⇒ xy = 1 which is satisfied by (1,1)
Or, xdt/dx = t ± 1
⇒ dx/x = dt/t ± 1
⇒ t ± 1 = cx
For x = 1, y = 1 and t = 0 ⇒ c = ±1, so the solution is t = ±(x − 1) ⇒ t 2 = (x − 1)2
Or, 1 − xy = x 2 − 2x + 1
Or x + y = 2
Thus, the two curves that satisfies are xy = 1 and x + y = 2

a
27. What is the solution of dy/dx = (6x + 9y − 7)/(2x + 3y − 6) ?
A. 3x − y + log |2x + 3y − 3| = −c/3 B. 3x − y + log |2x + 3y − 3| = c/3
C. 3x + y + log |2x + 3y − 3| = −c/3 D. 3x − y − log |2x + 3y − 3| = c/3
Answer: A
Explanation:
m
dy/dx = (6x + 9y − 7)/(2x + 3y − 6)
So, dy/dx = (3(2x + 3y) − 7)/(2x + 3x − 6)
Now, we put, 2x + 3y = z
Therefore, 2 + 3dy/dx = dz/dx [differentiating with respect to x ]
Or dy/dx = 1/3(dz/dx − 2)
Therefore, from (1) we get,
1/3(dz/dx − 2) = (3z − 7)/(z − 6)
F=
Or, dz/dx = 2 + (3(3z − 7))/(z − 6)
= 11(z − 3)/(z − 6)
Or (z − 6)/(z − 3)dz = 11dx
Or1 ∫ (z − 6)/(z − 3)dz = ∫ 11dx
Or ∫ (1 − 3/(z − 3))dz = 11x + c
Or z − log |z − 3| = 11x + c
Or 2x + 3y − 11x − 3log |2x + 3y − 3| = c
Or 3y − 9x − 3log |2x + 3y − 3| = c
Or 3x − y + log |2x + 3y − 3| = −c/3

28. A particle starts from the origin with a velocity 5 cm/sec and moves in a straight line, its acceleration at time t seconds being
(3t 2 − 5t)cm/sec 2 . What will be the velocity of the particle?
A. 27 cm/sec B. 28 cm/sec
C. 29 cm/sec D. 30 cm/sec
Answer: C
Explanation:
Let x cm be the distance of the moving particle from the origin and vcm/sec be its velocity at the end of t seconds. Then the acceleration of
the particle at time t seconds= dv/dt and its velocity at that time = v = dx/dt.
By question, dv/dt = 3t 2 − 5t
Or dv = 3t 2 dt − 5tdt
Or ∫ dv = 3[t 2 dt − 5∫ tdt
Or v = t 3 − (5/2)t 2 + c
Given, v = 5, when t = 0; hence putting these values in equation (1) we get, c = 5
Thus v = t 3 − (5/2)t 2 + 5
Or dx/dt = t 3 − (5/2)t 2 + 5
Thus, the velocity of the particle at the end of 4 seconds,

172
 = [v]t=4 = (43 − (5/2)42 + 5)cm/sec [putting t = 4 in (2)]
= 29 cm/sec
29. What is the solution of (y(dy/dx) + 2x)2 = (y 2 + 2x 2 )[1 + (dy/dx)2 ] ?
A. cx ±1/√2 = y/x + √(y 2 − 2x 2 )/x 2 B. cx ±√2 = y/x + √(y 2 + 2x 2 )/x 2
C. cx ±1/2√2 = y/x + √(y 2 − 2x 2 ) /x 2 D. cx ±1/√2 = y/x + √(y 2 + 2x 2 )/x 2
Answer: D
Explanation:
Here, y 2 (dy/dx)2 + 4x 2 + 4xy(dy/dx) = (y 2 + 2x 2 )[1 + (dy/dx)2 ] ⇒ dy/dx = y/x ± √(1/2(y/x)2 ) + 1
Let, y = vx
⇒ v + xdv/dx = v ± √(1/2(v)2 ) + 1
Integrating both sides,
±√dv/(√(1/2(v)2 ) + 1) = ∫ dx/x
cx ±1/√2 = y/x + √(y 2 + 2x 2 )/x 2

30. What is the equation of the curve passing through (1,0) of (y(dy/dx) + 2x)2 = (y 2 + 2x 2 )[1 + (d/dx)2 ] ?
A. √2x ±1/√2 = y/x + √(y 2 + 2x 2 )/x 2 B. √2x ±1/2√2 = y/x + √(y 2 + 2x 2 )/x 2
C. √2x √2 = y/x + √(y 2 + 2x 2 )/x 2 D. √2x = y/x + √(y 2 + 2x 2 )/x 2
Answer: A
Explanation:
Here, y 2 (dy/dx)2 + 4x 2 + 4xy(dy/dx) = (y 2 + 2x 2 )[1 + (dy/dx)2 ]

a
⇒ dy/dx = y/x ± √(1/2(y/x)2 ) + 1
Let, y = vx
⇒ v + xdv/dx = v ± √(1/2(v)2 ) + 1
Integrating both sides,

± ∫ dv/ (√√(1/2(v)2 ) + 1) = ∫ dx/x

m
cx ± 1/√2 = y/x + √(y 2 + 2x 2 )/x 2 (Put v/√2 = tan t )
putting x = 1, y = 0, we get c = √2
So, the curve is given by,
√2x ±1/√2 = y/x + √(y 2 + 2x 2 )/x 2
F=
Question/Answer
Very Short Questions
4
d2 y dy 2
1. Find the order and the degree of the differential equation: x2 = [1 + ( ) ]
dx2 dx
Answer: Here, order = 2 and degree = 1.

dy 3 d2 y
2. Determine the order and the degree of the differential equation: ( ) + 2y = 0
dx dx2
Answer: Order = 2 and Degree = 1.

3. Form the differential equation representing the family of curves: y = b (x + a), where « and b are arbitrary constants.
Answer:
We have: y= b (x + a) …(1)
Diff. w.r.t. x, b.
d2 y
Again diff. w.r.t. x, = 0,
dx2
which is the reqd. differential equation.

4. Write the general solution of differential equation:

dy
= ex+y
dx
Answer:
dy
We have: = ex+y
dx
⇒ e-y dy = ex dx [Variables Separable
173
⇒ – e-y + c = ex
⇒ ex + e-y = c.

5. Find the integrating factor of the differential equation:

dy
y – 2x = y3e-y
dx
Answer:
The given equation can be written as.

6. Form the differential equation representing the family of curves y = a sin (3x – b), where a and b are arbitrary constants.
Answer:
We have: y – a sin (3x – b) …(1)
dy
Diff. W.r.t y = a cos (3x – b) .3
dx
= 3a cos (3x – b)

a
d2 y
= -3a sin (3x – b) 3
dx2
= -9a sin (3x – b)
= -9y [Using (1)]
d2 y
+ 9y = 0,m
dx2
which in the reqd. differential equation.

Short Questions
m
1. Determine the order and the degree of the differential equation:
Answer: Order = 2 and Degree = 1.

2. Form the differential equation representing the family of curves: y = e 2x (a + bx), where ‘a’ and ‘h’ are arbitrary constants.
F=
Answer:
We have: y = e2x (a + bx) …(1)
dy
Diff. w.r.t. x, = e2x (b) + 2e2x (a + bx)
dx
dy
⇒ = be2x + 2y ………….. (2)
dx
Again diff. w.r.t. x,
d2 y
= 2be2x + 22x
dx2
d2 y dy dy
=2( – 2y) +
dx2 dx dx
[Using (2)]
d2 y dy
Hence, -4 + 4y = 0, which is the reqd. differential equation.
dx2 dx

3. Solve the following differentia equation:

dy
+ y = cos x - sin x
dx
Answer:
The given differential equation is:
dy
+ y = cos x – sin x dx Linear Equation
dx
∴ I.F. = e∫1dx = ex
The solution is :
y.ex = ∫ (cos x — sin x) ex dx + C
⇒ y.ex = ex cos x + C
or y = cos x + C e-x

174
4. Solve the following differential equation:
dx
+ x = (tan y + sec2y).
dy
Answer:
The given differential equation is:
dx
+ x = (tany + sec2y).
dy
Linear Equation
∵ I.F. = Jldy = ey
∴ The solution is:
x. ey = ∫ ey (tan y + sec2 y)dy + c
⇒ x. ey = ey tan y + c
= x = tan y + c e-y, which is the reqd. solution.

Long Questions
1. Find the area enclosed by the circle:
x2 + y2 = a2.
Answer:

a
m
log x = -log (1 + v2) + log C
F=
x (1 + v2) = C
y2
x (1 + 2 ) = C
x
x2 + y2 = C.

2. Using integration, find the area of the region in the first quadrant enclosed by the x-axis, the line y = x and the circle x2 + y2
= 32.
Answer:

= tan-1 x + C
When y = 0, x = 1,
𝜋
then 0 = + C
4
𝜋
C=
4
𝜋
∴ y (1 + x2) = tan -1 x –
4

3. Find the area bounded by the curves y = √x, 2y + 3 = Y and Y-axis.

Answer:
175
We have: y = aebx + 5 + 5 …(1)
𝑑𝑦
Diff. w.r.t. x, = aebx + 5. (b)
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦
= dy ……(2) [Using (1)]]
𝑑𝑥
Again diff. w.r.t x.,
𝑑2𝑦 𝑑𝑦
=b ………(3)
𝑑𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥
Dividing (3) by (2),

which is the required differential equation.

4. Find the area of region:

{(x, y): x2 + y2 < 8, x2 < 2y}.
Answer:
The given differential equation is:

a
m
F=
When x = 0, y = 1, ∴ 1 = c + c (0) ⇒ c = 1.
Putting in (2), √1 + 𝑥 2 = 1 + ey (y -1),
which is the reqd. particular solution.

176
 Chapter – 10 Vector
Introduction

In our day-to-day life, we come across many queries such as - What is your height? How should a football player hit the ball to
give a pass to another player of his team? Observe that a possible answer to the first query may be 1.6 meters, a quantity that
involves only one value (magnitude) which is a real number. Such quantities are called scalars. However, an answer to the second
query is a quantity (called force) which involves muscular strength (magnitude) and direction (in which another player is
positioned). Such quantities are called vectors. In mathematics, physics, and engineering, we frequently come across with both
types of quantities, namely, scalar quantities such as length, mass, time, distance, speed, area, volume, temperature, work, money,
voltage, density, resistance etc. and vector quantities like displacement, velocity, acceleration, force, weight, momentum, electric
field intensity etc.

In this chapter, we will study some of the basic concepts about vectors, various operations on vectors, and their algebraic and
geometric properties. These two types of properties, when considered together give a full realisation to the concept of vectors,
and lead to their vital applicability in various areas as mentioned above.

Some Basic Concepts

Let ' 𝑙 ' be any straight line in plane or three-dimensional space. This line can be given two directions by means of arrowheads. A
line with one of these directions prescribed is called a directed line (Fig 10.1 (i), (ii)).

Now observe that if we

restrict the line 𝑙 to the line
segment AB, then a

a
magnitude is prescribed on
m the
line 𝑙 with one of the two
directions, so that we obtain a
directed line segment (Fig
10.1(iii)). Thus, a directed line
segment has magnitude as well as
direction.
F=
Definition: A quantity that has
magnitude as well as
direction is called a vector.
Notice that a directed line segment is a vector (Fig 10.1(iii)), denoted as ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
AB or simply as 𝑎 , and read as 'vector ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
AB ' or 'vector 𝑎 '.

The point A from where the vector AB⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ starts is called its initial point, and the point B where it ends is called its terminal point.
The distance between initial and terminal points of a vector is called the magnitude (or length) of the vector, denoted as |AB ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ |, or
|𝑎|, or 𝑎. The arrow indicates the direction of the vector.

Note: Since the length is never negative, the notation |𝑎| < 0 has no meaning.

Position Vector
From Class XI, recall the three-dimensional right-handed rectangular coordinate system (Fig 10.2(i)). Consider a point P in space,
having coordinates (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) with respect to the origin O(0,0,0). Then, the vector ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
OP having O and P as its initial and terminal
points, respectively, is called the position vector of the point P with respect to O. Using distance formula (from Class XI), the
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ (or 𝑟 ) is given by
magnitude of OP
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ | = √𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2
|OP

In practice, the position vectors of points A, B, C, etc., with respect to the origin O are denoted by 𝑎, 𝑏⃗, 𝑐 , etc., respectively (Fig 10.2
(ii)).

177
 Fig 10.2

Direction Cosines
Consider the position vector ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
OP (or 𝑟 ) of a point P(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) as in Fig 10.3. The angles 𝛼, 𝛽, 𝛾 made by the vector 𝑟 with the positive
directions of 𝑥, 𝑦 and 𝑧-axes respectively, are called its direction angles. The cosine values of these angles, i.e., cos⁡ 𝛼, cos⁡ 𝛽 and
cos⁡ 𝛾 are called direction cosines of the vector 𝑟, and usually denoted by 𝑙, 𝑚 and 𝑛, respectively.

a
m
F=

𝑥
From Fig 10.3, one may note that the triangle OAP is right angled, and in it, we have cos⁡ 𝛼 = ( 𝑟 stands for |𝑟 |). Similarly, from
𝑟
𝑦 𝑧
the right-angled triangles OBP and OCP, we may write cos⁡ 𝛽 = and cos⁡ 𝛾 = . Thus, the coordinates of the point P may also be
𝑟 𝑟
expressed as (𝑙𝑟, 𝑚𝑟, 𝑛𝑟). The numbers 𝑙𝑟, 𝑚𝑟 and 𝑛𝑟, proportional to the direction cosines are called as direction ratios of vector
𝑟, and denoted as 𝑎, 𝑏 and 𝑐, respectively. Note One may note that 𝑙 2 + 𝑚2 + 𝑛2 = 1 but 𝑎 2 + 𝑏 2 + 𝑐 2 ≠ 1, in general.

Types of Vectors

Zero Vector: A vector whose initial and terminal points coincide, is called a zero vector (or null vector), and denoted as ⃗0. Zero
vector can not be assigned a definite direction as it has zero magnitude. Or, alternatively otherwise, it may be regarded as having
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ , BB
any direction. The vectors AA ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ represent the zero vector,

Unit Vector: A vector whose magnitude is unity (i.e., 1 unit) is called a unit vector. The unit vector in the direction of a given
vector 𝑎 is denoted by 𝑎ˆ.

Coinitial Vectors: Two or more vectors having the same initial point are called coinitial vectors.
Collinear Vectors: Two or more vectors are said to be collinear if they are parallel to the same line, irrespective of their
magnitudes and directions.
178
Equal Vectors: Two vectors 𝑎 and 𝑏⃗ are said to be equal, if they have the same magnitude and direction regardless of the positions
of their initial points, and written as 𝑎 = 𝑏⃗

Negative of a Vector: A vector whose magnitude is the same as that of a given vector (say, AB ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ), but direction is opposite to that
of it, is called negative of the given vector. For example, vector BA is negative of the vector AB, and written as ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ BA = −AB⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ .
Remark The vectors defined above are such that any of them may be subject to its parallel displacement without changing its
magnitude and direction. Such vectors are called free vectors. Throughout this chapter, we will be dealing with free vectors only.
Example 1 Represent graphically a displacement of 40 km, 30∘ west of south.
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ represents the required Scale displacement (Fig 10.4).
Solution The vector OP

Addition of Vectors

a
m
A vector ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
AB simply means the displacement from a point A to the point B. Now consider a situation that a girl moves from 𝐴 to 𝐵
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ and
and then from 𝐵 to 𝐶 (Fig 10.7). The net displacement made by the girl from point A to the point C, is given by the vector AC
expressed as
F=

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
AC = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
AB + ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
BC
This is known as the triangle law of vector addition.
In general, if we have two vectors 𝑎 and 𝑏⃗ (Fig 10.8 (i)), then to add them, they are positioned so that the initial point of one
coincides with the terminal point of the other (Fig 10.8(ii)).

179
For example, in Fig 10.8 (ii), we have shifted vector 𝑏⃗ without changing its magnitude and direction, so that it's initial point
coincides with the terminal point of 𝑎. Then, the vector 𝑎 + 𝑏⃗, represented by the third side AC of the triangle ABC, gives us the
sum (or resultant) of the vectors 𝑎 and 𝑏⃗ i.e., in triangle ABC (Fig 10.8 (ii)), we have
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ + BC
AB ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = AC
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
Now again, since ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ , from the above equation, we have
AC = −CA

a
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ + BC
AB ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ + CA
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = AA
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 0
⃗
This means that when the sides of a triangle are taken in order, it leads to zero resultant as the initial and terminal points get
coincided (Fig 10.8(iii)). Now, construct a vector ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
BC′ so that its magnitude is same as the vector ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
BC, but the direction opposite to
that of it (Fig 10.8 (iii)), i.e.,
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
BC′ = −BC ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
m
Then, on applying triangle law from the Fig 10.8 (iii), we have.
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
AC′ = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
AB + ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
BC = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗AB + (−BC⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ) = 𝑎 − 𝑏⃗
AC′ is said to represent the difference of 𝑎 and 𝑏⃗.
The vector ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
Now, consider a boat in a river going from one bank of the river to the other in a direction perpendicular to the flow of the river.
Then, it is acted upon by two velocity vectors-one is the velocity imparted to the boat by its engine and other one is the velocity
of the flow of river water. Under the simultaneous influence of these two velocities, the boat in actual starts travelling with a
F=
different velocity. To have a precise idea about the effective speed and direction (i.e., the resultant velocity) of the boat, we have
the following law of vector addition.

If we have two vectors 𝑎 and 𝑏⃗ represented by the two adjacent sides of a parallelogram in magnitude and direction (Fig 10.9),
then their sum 𝑎 + 𝑏⃗ is represented in magnitude and direction by the diagonal of the parallelogram through their common point.
This is known as the parallelogram law of vector addition.

Note: From Fig 10.9, using the triangle law, one may note that
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
OA + AC⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
OC
or
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
OA + ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
OB = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
OC
which is parallelogram law. Thus, we may say that the two laws of vector addition are equivalent to each other.

180
Properties of vector addition

Property: For any two vectors 𝑎 and 𝑏⃗,

𝑎 + 𝑏⃗ = 𝑏⃗ + 𝑎
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝑏⃗ , then using the triangle law, from triangle ABC, we
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝑎 and BC
Proof: Consider the parallelogram ABCD (Fig 10.10). Let AB
have
AC = 𝑎 + 𝑏⃗
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
Now, since the opposite sides of a parallelogram are equal and parallel, from Fig 10.10, we have, AD ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝑏⃗ and DC
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = BC ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = AB
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝑎.
Again, using triangle law, from triangle ADC, we have

Hence ⁡𝑎 + 𝑏⃗ = 𝑏⃗ + 𝑎

a
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = AD
AC ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝑏⃗ + 𝑎
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ + DC
m
Property: For any three vectors 𝑎, 𝑏 and 𝑐
(𝑎 + 𝑏⃗ ) + 𝑐 = 𝑎 + (𝑏⃗ + 𝑐 )⁡ (Associative property)
⃗
Proof Let the vectors 𝑎, 𝑏 and 𝑐 be represented by ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
PQ, ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
QR and ⃗⃗⃗⃗
RS, respectively, as shown in Fig 10.11(i) and (ii).
F=

Then 𝑎 + 𝑏⃗ = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
PQ + ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
QR = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
PR
And 𝑏⃗ + 𝑐 = QR
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ + RS
⃗⃗⃗⃗ = QS
⃗⃗⃗⃗

So (𝑎 + 𝑏⃗) + 𝑐 = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
PR + ⃗⃗⃗⃗
RS = ⃗⃗⃗⃗
PS
And 𝑎 + (𝑏⃗ + 𝑐) = PQ
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ + QS
⃗⃗⃗⃗ = PS
⃗⃗⃗⃗
Hence (𝑎 + 𝑏⃗) + 𝑐 = 𝑎 + (𝑏⃗ + 𝑐 )

Remark: The associative property of vector addition enables us to write the sum of three vectors 𝑎, 𝑏⃗, 𝑐 as 𝑎 + 𝑏⃗ + 𝑐 without
using brackets.
Note that for any vector 𝑎, we have
𝑎 + ⃗0 = ⃗0 + 𝑎 = 𝑎
⃗ is called the additive identity for the vector addition.
Here, the zero vector 0

181
Multiplication of a Vector by a Scalar

Let 𝑎 be a given vector and 𝜆 a scalar. Then the product of the vector 𝑎 by the scalar 𝜆, denoted as 𝜆𝑎, is called the multiplication
of vector 𝑎 by the scalar 𝜆. Note that, 𝜆𝑎 is also a vector, collinear to the vector 𝑎. The vector 𝜆𝑎 has the direction same (or
opposite) to that of vector 𝑎 according as the value of 𝜆 is positive (or negative). Also, the magnitude of vector 𝜆𝑎 is |𝜆| times the
magnitude of the vector 𝑎, i.e.,
|𝜆𝑎 | = |𝜆||𝑎|
A geometric visualisation of multiplication of a vector by a scalar is given in Fig 10.12.

When 𝜆 = −1, then 𝜆𝑎 = −𝑎, which is a vector having magnitude equal to the magnitude of 𝑎 and direction opposite to that of
the direction of 𝑎. The vector −𝑎 is called the negative (or additive inverse) of vector 𝑎 and we always have

a
𝑎 + (−𝑎) = (−𝑎) + 𝑎 = ⃗0
1
Also, if 𝜆 = , provided 𝑎 ≠ 0 i.e., 𝑎 is not a null vector, then.
|𝑎|
1
|𝜆𝑎| = |𝜆||𝑎| =|𝑎| = 1
|𝑎|
So, 𝜆𝑎 represents the unit vector in the direction of 𝑎. We write it as
m 𝑎ˆ =
1
𝑎
|𝑎|
⃗ = ⃗0
Note: For any scalar 𝑘, 𝑘0

Components of a vector
F=
Let us take the points A(1,0,0), B(0,1,0) and C(0,0,1) on the 𝑥-axis, 𝑦-axis and 𝑧-axis, respectively. Then, clearly
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ | = 1, |OB
|OA ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ | = 1 and |OC
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ | = 1
The vectors ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
OA, ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
OB and ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
OC, each having magnitude 1 , are called unit vectors along the axes OX, OY and OZ, respectively, and
denoted by 𝑖ˆ, 𝑗ˆ and 𝑘ˆ , respectively (Fig 10.13).

̅̅̅̅ of a point P(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) as in Fig 10.14. Let P1 be the foot of the perpendicular from P on the
Now, consider the position vector OP
plane XOY.

182
 We, thus, see that P1 P is parallel to 𝑧-axis. As 𝑖ˆ, 𝑗ˆ and 𝑘ˆ are the unit vectors along the 𝑥, 𝑦 and 𝑧-axes, respectively, and by the
definition of the coordinates of P, we have P ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ˆ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
1 P = OR = 𝑧𝑘 . Similarly, QP1 = OS = 𝑦𝑗ˆ and OQ = 𝑥𝑖ˆ.
Therefore, it follows that ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
OP1 = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
OQ + ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
QP1 = 𝑥𝑖ˆ + 𝑦𝑗ˆ
And ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
OP = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ P1 P = 𝑥𝑖ˆ + 𝑦𝑗ˆ + 𝑧𝑘ˆ
OP1 + ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
Hence, the position vector of P with reference to O is given by
OP( or 𝑟) = 𝑥𝑖ˆ + 𝑦𝑗ˆ + 𝑧𝑘ˆ
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗

This form of any vector is called its component form. Here, 𝑥, 𝑦 and 𝑧 are called as the scalar components of 𝑟, and 𝑥𝑖ˆ, 𝑦𝑗ˆ and 𝑧𝑘ˆ
are called the vector components of 𝑟 along the respective axes. Sometimes 𝑥, 𝑦 and 𝑧 are also termed as rectangular components.
The length of any vector 𝑟 = 𝑥𝑖ˆ + 𝑦𝑗ˆ + 𝑧𝑘ˆ, is readily determined by applying the Pythagoras theorem twice. We note that in the
right angle triangle OQP1 (Fig 10.14)

a
2
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗1 | = √|OQ
|OP ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ |2 + |QP
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗1 | = √𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2
and in the right angle triangle OP1 P, we have
2 2
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
OP = √|OP
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗1 | + |P
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ 2 2
1 P| = √(𝑥 + 𝑦 ) + 𝑧
2
m
Hence, the length of any vector 𝑟 = 𝑥𝑖ˆ + 𝑦𝑗ˆ + 𝑧𝑘ˆ is given by
|𝑟 | = |𝑥𝑖ˆ + 𝑦𝑗ˆ + 𝑧𝑘ˆ| = √𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2
If 𝑎 and 𝑏 are any two vectors given in the component form 𝑎1 𝑖ˆ + 𝑎2 𝑗ˆ + 𝑎3 𝑘ˆ and 𝑏1 𝑖ˆ + 𝑏2 𝑗ˆ + 𝑏3 𝑘ˆ , respectively, then
⃗
(i) the sum (or resultant) of the vectors 𝑎 and 𝑏⃗ is given by
𝑎 + 𝑏⃗ = (𝑎1 + 𝑏1 )𝑖ˆ + (𝑎2 + 𝑏2 )𝑗ˆ + (𝑎3 + 𝑏3 )𝑘ˆ
(ii) the difference of the vector 𝑎 and 𝑏⃗ is given by
F=
𝑎 − 𝑏⃗ = (𝑎1 − 𝑏1 )𝑖ˆ + (𝑎2 − 𝑏2 )𝑗ˆ + (𝑎3 − 𝑏3 )𝑘ˆ
(iii) the vectors 𝑎 and 𝑏⃗ are equal if and only if
𝑎1 = 𝑏1 , 𝑎2 = 𝑏2 ⁡ and 𝑎3 = 𝑏3
(iv) the multiplication of vector 𝑎 by any scalar 𝜆 is given by
𝜆𝑎 = (𝜆𝑎1 )𝑖ˆ + (𝜆𝑎2 )𝑗ˆ + (𝜆𝑎3 )𝑘ˆ

The addition of vectors and the multiplication of a vector by a scalar together give the following distributive laws:
Let 𝑎 and 𝑏⃗ be any two vectors, and 𝑘 and 𝑚 be any scalars. Then
(i) 𝑘𝑎 + 𝑚𝑎 = (𝑘 + 𝑚)𝑎
(ii) 𝑘(𝑚𝑎) = (𝑘𝑚)𝑎
(iii) 𝑘(𝑎 + 𝑏⃗) = 𝑘𝑎 + 𝑘𝑏⃗
Remarks
i). One may observe that whatever be the value of 𝜆, the vector 𝜆𝑎 is always collinear to the vector 𝑎. In fact, two vectors 𝑎 and
𝑏⃗ are collinear if and only if there exists a nonzero scalar 𝜆 such that 𝑏⃗ = 𝜆𝑎. If the vectors 𝑎 and 𝑏⃗ are given in the component
form, i.e. 𝑎 = 𝑎1 𝑖ˆ + 𝑎2 𝑗ˆ + 𝑎3 𝑘ˆ and 𝑏⃗ = 𝑏1 𝑖ˆ + 𝑏2 𝑗ˆ + 𝑏3 𝑘ˆ , then the two vectors are collinear if and only if
𝑏1 𝑖ˆ + 𝑏2 𝑗ˆ + 𝑏3 𝑘ˆ = 𝜆(𝑎1 𝑖ˆ + 𝑎2 𝑗ˆ + 𝑎3 𝑘ˆ )
⇔ 𝑏1 𝑖ˆ + 𝑏2 𝑗ˆ + 𝑏3 𝑘ˆ = (𝜆𝑎1 )𝑖ˆ + (𝜆𝑎2 )𝑗ˆ + (𝜆𝑎3 )𝑘ˆ
⇔ 𝑏1 = 𝜆𝑎1 , 𝑏2 = 𝜆𝑎2 , 𝑏3 = 𝜆𝑎3
𝑏1 𝑏2 𝑏3
⇔ = = =𝜆
𝑎1 𝑎2 𝑎3
ii). (ii) If 𝑎 = 𝑎1 𝑖ˆ + 𝑎2 𝑗ˆ + 𝑎3 𝑘ˆ, then 𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , 𝑎3 are also called direction ratios of 𝑎.
iii). (iii) In case if it is given that 𝑙, 𝑚, 𝑛 are direction cosines of a vector, then 𝑙𝑖ˆ + 𝑚𝑗ˆ + 𝑛𝑘ˆ = (cos⁡ 𝛼)𝑖ˆ + (cos⁡ 𝛽)𝑗ˆ + (cos⁡ 𝛾)𝑘ˆ is
the unit vector in the direction of that vector, where 𝛼, 𝛽 and 𝛾 are the angles which the vector makes with 𝑥, 𝑦 and 𝑧 axes
respectively.
183
Vector joining two points

If P1 (𝑥1 , 𝑦1 , 𝑧1 ) and P2 (𝑥2 , 𝑦2 , 𝑧2 ) are any two points, then the vector joining P1 and P2 is the vector ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
P1 P2 (Fig 10.15).
Joining the points P1 and P2 with the origin O, and applying triangle law, from the triangle OP1 P2, we have
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ P1 P2 = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
OP1 + ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ OP2
Using the properties of vector addition, the above equation becomes
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
P ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
1 P2 = OP2 − OP1

a
i.e. P1 P2 = (𝑥2 𝑖ˆ + 𝑦2 𝑗ˆ + 𝑧2 𝑘ˆ) − (𝑥1 𝑖ˆ + 𝑦1 𝑗ˆ + 𝑧1 𝑘ˆ )
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡= (𝑥2 − 𝑥1 )𝑖ˆ + (𝑦2 − 𝑦1 )𝑗ˆ + (𝑧2 − 𝑧1 )𝑘ˆ
The magnitude of vector ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
P1 P2 is given by
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
|P 2 2
1 P2 | = √(𝑥2 − 𝑥1 ) + (𝑦2 − 𝑦1 ) + (𝑧2 − 𝑧1 )
2

Section formula
m
Let P and Q be two points represented by the position vectors OP ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ and OQ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ,
respectively, with respect to the origin O. Then the line segment joining the points
P and Q may be divided by a third point, say R, in two ways - internally (Fig 10.16)
F=
and externally (Fig 10.17). Here, we intend to find the position vector OR ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ for the
point R with respect to the origin O. We take the two cases one by one.

Case I
When R divides PQ internally (Fig 10.16).
If R divides ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝑛PR
PQ such that 𝑚RQ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ,

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ internally
where 𝑚 and 𝑛 are positive scalars, we say that the point R divides PQ
in the ratio of 𝑚: 𝑛. Now from triangles ORQ and OPR, we have
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
RQ = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ OR = 𝑏⃗ − 𝑟
OQ − ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
And ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ − OP
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = OR
PR ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝑟 − 𝑎

Therefore, we have
𝑚(𝑏⃗ − 𝑟 ) ⁡= 𝑛(𝑟 − 𝑎)⁡ (Why?)
𝑚𝑏⃗ + 𝑛𝑎
𝑟 ⁡=
𝑚+𝑛
Hence, the position vector of the point R which divides P and Q internally in the ratio of 𝑚: 𝑛 is given by
𝑚𝑏⃗ + 𝑛𝑎
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ =
OR
𝑚+𝑛

Case II
When R divides PQ externally (Fig 10.17). We leave it to the reader as an exercise to verify that the position vector of the point R
PR 𝑚
which divides the line segment PQ externally in the ratio 𝑚: 𝑛 i.e. = is given by
QR 𝑛

184
 𝑚𝑏⃗ − 𝑛𝑎
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
OR =
𝑚−𝑛

Remark If R is the midpoint of PQ, then 𝑚 = 𝑛. And therefore, from Case I, the midpoint R of ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
PQ, will have its position vector as
𝑎 + 𝑏⃗
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
OR =
2

Product of Two Vectors

So far we have studied about addition and subtraction of vectors. An other algebraic operation which we intend to discuss
regarding vectors is their product. We may recall that the product of two numbers is a number, product of two matrices is again
a matrix. But in case of functions, we may multiply them in two ways, namely, multiplication of two functions pointwise and
composition of two functions. Similarly, multiplication of two vectors is also defined in two ways, namely, scalar (or dot) product

a
where the result is a scalar, and vector (or cross) product where the result is a vector. Based upon these two types of products
for vectors, they have found various applications in geometry, mechanics, and engineering. In this section, we will discuss these
two types of products.

Scalar (or dot) product of two vectors

m
Definition 2 The scalar product of two nonzero vectors 𝑎 and 𝑏⃗, denoted by 𝑎 ⋅ 𝑏⃗, is defined as ⁡𝑎 ⋅ 𝑏⃗ = |𝑎||𝑏⃗|cos⁡ 𝜃, where, 𝜃 is the
angle between 𝑎 and 𝑏⃗, 0 ≤ 𝜃 ≤ 𝜋 (Fig 10.19).
If either 𝑎 = 0 or 𝑏⃗ = 0 then 𝜃 is not defined, and in this case, we
define 𝑎 ⋅ 𝑏⃗ = 0
F=

Observations
1 𝑎 ⋅ 𝑏⃗ is a real number.
2 Let 𝑎 and 𝑏⃗ be two nonzero vectors, then 𝑎 ⋅ 𝑏⃗ = 0 if and only if 𝑎 and 𝑏⃗ are perpendicular to each other. i.e.
𝑎 ⋅ 𝑏⃗ = 0 ⇔ 𝑎 ⊥ 𝑏⃗
3 If 𝜃 = 0, then 𝑎 ⋅ 𝑏⃗ = |𝑎||𝑏⃗|
In particular, 𝑎 ⋅ 𝑎 = |𝑎|2, as 𝜃 in this case is 0.
4 If 𝜃 = 𝜋, then 𝑎 ⋅ 𝑏⃗ = −|𝑎||𝑏⃗|
In particular, 𝑎 ⋅ 𝑏⃗ = −|𝑎||𝑏⃗|, as 𝜃 in this case is 𝜋.
5 In view of the Observations 2 and 3, for mutually perpendicular unit vectors 𝑖ˆ, 𝑗ˆ and 𝑘ˆ , we have
𝑖ˆ ⋅ 𝑖ˆ = 𝑗ˆ ⋅ 𝑗ˆ = 𝑘ˆ ⋅ 𝑘ˆ = 1,
𝑖ˆ ⋅ 𝑗ˆ = 𝑗ˆ ⋅ 𝑘ˆ = 𝑘ˆ ⋅ 𝑖ˆ = 0
6 ⃗
The angle between two nonzero vectors 𝑎 and 𝑏 is given by
𝑎 ⋅ 𝑏⃗ 𝑎 ⋅ 𝑏⃗
cos⁡ 𝜃 = , or 𝜃 = cos−1 ⁡ ( )
|𝑎||𝑏⃗| |𝑎||𝑏⃗|
185
7 The scalar product is commutative. i.e.
𝑎 ⋅ 𝑏⃗ = 𝑏⃗ ⋅ 𝑎⁡ (Why?)

Two important properties of scalar product

Property 1 (Distributivity of scalar product over addition) Let 𝑎, 𝑏⃗ and 𝑐 be any three vectors, then
𝑎 ⋅ (𝑏⃗ + 𝑐 ) = 𝑎 ⋅ 𝑏⃗ + 𝑎 ⋅ 𝑐
Property 2 Let 𝑎 and 𝑏⃗ be any two vectors, and 1 be any scalar. Then
(𝜆𝑎) ⋅ 𝑏⃗ = (𝜆𝑎) ⋅ 𝑏⃗ = 𝜆(𝑎 ⋅ 𝑏⃗) = 𝑎 ⋅ (𝜆𝑏⃗ )
If two vectors 𝑎 and 𝑏⃗ are given in component form as 𝑎1 𝑖ˆ + 𝑎2 𝑗ˆ + 𝑎3 𝑘ˆ and 𝑏1 𝑖ˆ + 𝑏2 𝑗ˆ + 𝑏3 𝑘ˆ , then their scalar product is given as
𝑎 ⋅ 𝑏⃗ = (𝑎1 𝑖ˆ + 𝑎2 𝑗ˆ + 𝑎3 𝑘ˆ) ⋅ (𝑏1 𝑖ˆ + 𝑏2 𝑗ˆ + 𝑏3 𝑘ˆ )
⁡= 𝑎1 𝑖ˆ ⋅ (𝑏1 𝑖ˆ + 𝑏2 𝑗ˆ + 𝑏3 𝑘ˆ ) + 𝑎2 𝑗ˆ ⋅ (𝑏1 𝑖ˆ + 𝑏2 𝑗ˆ + 𝑏3 𝑘ˆ ) + 𝑎3 𝑘ˆ ⋅ (𝑏1 𝑖ˆ + 𝑏2 𝑗ˆ + 𝑏3 𝑘ˆ )
⁡= 𝑎1 𝑏1 (𝑖ˆ ⋅ 𝑖ˆ) + 𝑎1 𝑏2 (𝑖ˆ ⋅ 𝑗ˆ) + 𝑎1 𝑏3 (𝑖ˆ ⋅ 𝑘ˆ ) + 𝑎2 𝑏1 (𝑗ˆ ⋅ 𝑖ˆ) + 𝑎2 𝑏2 (𝑗ˆ ⋅ 𝑗ˆ) + 𝑎2 𝑏3 (𝑗ˆ ⋅ 𝑘ˆ)
⁡+𝑎3 𝑏1 (𝑘ˆ ⋅ 𝑖ˆ) + 𝑎3 𝑏2 (𝑘ˆ ⋅ 𝑗ˆ) + 𝑎3 𝑏3 (𝑘ˆ ⋅ 𝑘ˆ )
⁡= 𝑎1 𝑏1 + 𝑎2 𝑏2 + 𝑎3 𝑏3

Thus 𝑎 ⋅ 𝑏⃗ = 𝑎1 𝑏1 + 𝑎2 𝑏2 + 𝑎3 𝑏3

Projection of a vector on a line

Suppose a vector ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗

AB makes an angle 𝜃 with a given directed line 𝑙 (say), in the anticlockwise direction (Fig 10.20). Then the

a
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ||cos⁡ 𝜃|, and the direction of 𝑝 being the same (or opposite) to that
projection of AB on 𝑙 is a vector 𝑝 (say) with magnitude |AB
of the line 𝑙, depending upon whether cos⁡ 𝜃 is positive or negative. The vector 𝑝
m
F=

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ on the directed line 𝑙.

is called the projection vector, and its magnitude |𝑝| is simply called as the projection of the vector AB
For example, in each of the following figures (Fig 10.20 (i) to (iv)), projection vector of AB along the line 𝑙 is vector ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ AC.

Observations
1 If 𝑝ˆ is the unit vector along a line 𝑙, then the projection of a vector 𝑎 on the line 𝑙 is given by 𝑎 ⋅ 𝑝ˆ.
2 Projection of a vector 𝑎 on another vector 𝑏⃗, is given by
𝑏⃗ 1
𝑎 ⋅ 𝑏ˆ, ⁡ or ⁡𝑎 ⋅ ( ) , or (𝑎 ⋅ 𝑏⃗ )
⃗
|𝑏| |𝑏⃗|
3 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ will be AB
If 𝜃 = 0, then the projection vector of AB ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ itself and if 𝜃 = 𝜋, then the projection vector of AB
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ will be BA
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ .
𝜋 3𝜋
4 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
If 𝜃 = or 𝜃 = , then the projection vector of AB will be zero vector.
2 2

Remark If 𝛼, 𝛽 and 𝛾 are the direction angles of vector 𝑎 = 𝑎1 𝑖ˆ + 𝑎2 𝑗ˆ + 𝑎3 𝑘ˆ, then its direction cosines may be given as
𝑎 ⋅ 𝑖ˆ 𝑎1 𝑎2 𝑎3
cos⁡ 𝛼 = = , cos⁡ 𝛽 = , and cos⁡ 𝛾 =
|𝑎||𝑖ˆ| |𝑎| |𝑎| |𝑎|

186
Also, note that |𝑎|cos⁡ 𝛼, |𝑎|cos⁡ 𝛽 and |𝑎|cos⁡ 𝛾 are respectively the projections of 𝑎 along OX, OY and OZ. i.e., the scalar
components 𝑎1 , 𝑎2 and 𝑎3 of the vector 𝑎, are precisely the projections of 𝑎 along 𝑥-axis, 𝑦-axis and 𝑧-axis, respectively. Further,
if 𝑎 is a unit vector, then it may be expressed in terms of its direction cosines as
𝑎 = cos⁡ 𝛼𝑖ˆ + cos⁡ 𝛽𝑗ˆ + cos⁡ 𝛾𝑘ˆ

Vector (or cross) product of two vectors

In Section 10.2, we have discussed on the three-dimensional right handed rectangular coordinate system. In this system, when
the positive 𝑥-axis is rotated counterclockwise into the positive 𝑦-axis, a right-handed (standard) screw would advance in the
direction of the positive 𝑧-axis (Fig 10.22(i)).
In a right-handed coordinate system, the thumb of the right hand points in the direction of the positive 𝑧-axis when the fingers
are curled in the direction away from the positive 𝑥-axis toward the positive 𝑦-axis (Fig 10.22(ii)).

a
m
Definition: The vector product of two nonzero vectors 𝑎 and 𝑏⃗, is denoted by 𝑎 × 𝑏⃗ and defined as
𝑎 × 𝑏⃗ = |𝑎 ∥ 𝑏⃗|sin⁡ 𝜃𝑛ˆ
where, 𝜃 is the angle between 𝑎 and 𝑏⃗, 0 ≤ 𝜃 ≤ 𝜋 and 𝑛ˆ is a unit vector perpendicular to both 𝑎 and 𝑏⃗, such that 𝑎, 𝑏⃗ and 𝑛ˆ form
a right handed system (Fig 10.23). i.e., the −𝒏ˆ right handed system rotated from 𝑎 to 𝑏⃗ moves in the direction of 𝑛ˆ.
F=

If either 𝑎 = ⃗0 or 𝑏⃗ = ⃗0, then 𝜃 is not defined and in this case, we define 𝑎 × 𝑏⃗ = ⃗0.

Observations
1 𝑎 × 𝑏⃗ is a vector.
2 Let 𝑎 and 𝑏⃗ be two nonzero vectors. Then 𝑎 × 𝑏⃗ = 0
⃗ if and only if 𝑎 and 𝑏⃗ are parallel (or collinear) to each other, i.e.,
𝑎 × 𝑏⃗ = ⃗0 ⇔ 𝑎 ∥ 𝑏⃗
⃗ and 𝑎 × (−𝑎) = 0
In particular, 𝑎 × 𝑎 = 0 ⃗ , since in the first situation, 𝜃 = 0 and in the second one, 𝜃 = 𝜋, making the value
of sin⁡ 𝜃 to be 0 .
𝜋
3 If 𝜃 = then 𝑎 × 𝑏⃗ = |𝑎 ∥ 𝑏⃗|.
2
4 In view of the Observations 2 and 3 , for mutually perpendicular unit vectors 𝑖ˆ, 𝑗ˆ and 𝑘ˆ (Fig 10.24), we have
𝑖ˆ × 𝑖ˆ = 𝑗ˆ × 𝑗ˆ = 𝑘ˆ × 𝑘ˆ = 0 ⃗
𝑖ˆ × 𝑗ˆ = 𝑘ˆ , ⁡𝑗ˆ × 𝑘ˆ = 𝑖ˆ, 𝑘ˆ × 𝑖ˆ = 𝑗ˆ

187
5 In terms of vector product, the angle between two vectors 𝑎 and 𝑏⃗ may be given as
|𝑎 × 𝑏⃗|
sin⁡ 𝜃 =
|𝑎 ∥ 𝑏⃗|
6 It is always true that the vector product is not commutative, as 𝑎 × 𝑏⃗ = −𝑏⃗ × 𝑎. Indeed, 𝑎 × 𝑏⃗ = |𝑎||𝑏⃗|sin⁡ 𝜃𝑛ˆ, where 𝑎, 𝑏⃗ and
𝑛ˆ form a right-handed system, i.e., 𝜃 is traversed from 𝑎 to 𝑏⃗, Fig 10.25 (i). While 𝑏⃗ × 𝑎 = |𝑎 ∥ 𝑏⃗|sin⁡ 𝜃𝑛ˆ1 , where 𝑏⃗, 𝑎 and 𝑛ˆ1
form a right handed system i.e. 𝜃 is traversed from 𝑏⃗ to 𝑎, Fig 10.25(ii).

a
m
Thus, if we assume 𝑎 and 𝑏⃗ to lie in the plane of the paper, then 𝑛ˆ and 𝑛ˆ1 both will be perpendicular to the plane of the paper. But,
𝑛ˆ being directed above the paper while 𝑛ˆ1 directed below the paper. i.e. 𝑛ˆ1 = −𝑛ˆ.
Hence 𝑎 × 𝑏⃗ = |𝑎 ∥ 𝑏⃗|sin⁡ 𝜃𝑛ˆ
= −|𝑎 ∥ 𝑏⃗|sin⁡ 𝜃𝑛ˆ1 = −𝑏⃗ × 𝑎

7 In view of the Observations 4 and 6 , we have

𝑗ˆ × 𝑖ˆ = −𝑘ˆ , 𝑘ˆ × 𝑗ˆ = −𝑖ˆ and 𝑖ˆ × 𝑘ˆ = −𝑗ˆ.
F=
1
8 If 𝑎 and 𝑏 represent the adjacent sides of a triangle then its area is given as |𝑎 × 𝑏⃗|
⃗
2
By definition of the area of a triangle, we have from Fig 10.26,
1
Area of triangle ABC = AB ⋅ CD.
2

But AB = |𝑏⃗| (as given), and CD = |𝑎|sin⁡ 𝜃.

1 1
Thus, Area of triangle ABC = |𝑏⃗||𝑎|sin⁡ 𝜃 = |𝑎 × 𝑏⃗|.
2 2
9 If 𝑎 and 𝑏⃗ represent the adjacent sides of a parallelogram, then its area is given by |𝑎 × 𝑏⃗|.
From Fig 10.27, we have Area of parallelogram ABCD = AB. DE.
But AB = |𝑏⃗| (as given), and DE = |𝑎|sin⁡ 𝜃.
Thus,

188
 Area of parallelogram ABCD = |𝑏⃗||𝑎|sin⁡ 𝜃 = |𝑎 × 𝑏⃗|.
We now state two important properties of vector product.

Property (Distributivity of vector product over addition): If 𝑎, 𝑏⃗ and 𝑐 are any three vectors and 𝜆 be a scalar, then
i). 𝑎 × (𝑏⃗ + 𝑐 ) = 𝑎 × 𝑏⃗ + 𝑎 × 𝑐
ii). 𝜆(𝑎 × 𝑏⃗) = (𝜆𝑎) × 𝑏⃗ = 𝑎 × (𝜆𝑏⃗)
Let 𝑎 and 𝑏⃗ be two vectors given in component form as 𝑎1 𝑖ˆ + 𝑎2 𝑗ˆ + 𝑎3 𝑘ˆ and 𝑏1 𝑖ˆ + 𝑏2 𝑗ˆ + 𝑏3 𝑘ˆ, respectively. Then their cross
product may be given by
𝑖ˆ 𝑗ˆ 𝑘ˆ
𝑎 × 𝑏⃗ = |𝑎1 𝑎2 𝑎3 |
𝑏1 𝑏2 𝑏3

a
m
F=

189
 Multiple Choice Questions
1. Which of the following is TRUE about Mass and Weight?
A. Mass is a vector quantity and weight is a scalar B. Both mass and weight are vector quantities.
quantity.
C. Both mass and weight are scalar quantities. D. Mass is a scalar quantity and weight is a vector
quantity.
Answer:D
Explanation:
As the mass is a scalar quantity and weight is a vector quantity. So Answer: 4 is correct.

Mass Weight

Mass is a fundamental measure of the amount of matter The weight of an object is the force of gravity acting on the
in the object. object.

It is measured in Kilograms and grams. It is measured in Newtons.

Mass of an object does not vary or change depending The weight of an object changes based on the location.
upon the location. The gravitational force changes with location, and so does the
weight.

a
The mass of an object can never be zero. Weight can be zero.
For example, in space, with no gravity acting on objects, the
weight becomes zero.
Mass is not related to gravity, centrifugal force, etc. and The weight of any given object can go up or down

the object.
m
these forces have no effect whatsoever on the mass of depending on the amount of gravity acting on it.
More gravity - the heavier the object. Less gravity - the lighter
the object.

2. A vector which coincides with initial and terminal points is called ________.
A. Zero vector B. Free vector
C. Unit vector D. Equal vector
F=
Answer: A
Explanation:
Zero vector/Null vector:
The vector having magnitude equal to zero is called a null vector. It is generally represented by O.
In zero vector the initial and terminal points coincide with each other.
A point is generally taken as a null vector.

3. If two forces A and B are inclined to each other at an angle θ. Using triangle Law of vector addition, find the direction of
resultant force.
Bsin 𝜃 𝐵sin⁡ 𝜃
A. tan 𝛽 = B. tan⁡ 𝛽 =
𝐴+Bcos 𝜃 𝐴+𝐵cot⁡ 𝜃
C. tan⁡ 𝛽 =
𝐵cos⁡ 𝜃 D. None of the above
𝐴+𝐵sin⁡ 𝜃
Answer: A
Explanation:
• Law of Parallelogram of forces: This law is used to determine the resultant of two coplanar forces acting at a point.
• o It states that "If two forces acting at a point are represented in magnitude and direction by two adjacent sides of a
parallelogram, then their resultant is represented in magnitude and direction by the diagonal of the parallelogram which
passes through that common point."
• Let two forces 𝐹1 and 𝐹2 , acting at the point 𝑂 be represented, in magnitude and direction, by the directed line 𝑂𝐴 and 𝑂𝐵
inclined at an angle 𝜃 with each other.
• Then if the parallelogram OACB be completed, the resultant force R will be represented by the diagonal OC.

𝑅 = √𝐹12 + 𝐹22 + 2𝐹1 𝐹2 cos⁡ 𝜃

𝐹2 sin
tan⁡ 𝛼 =
𝐹1 + 𝐹2 cos

190
4. The co-ordinates of moving particle at any time t are given as x = αt3 and y = βt3. The Speed of the particle at t is given by –
(where the letters have their usual meanings)
A. 3𝑡√𝛼 2 + 𝛽2 B. 3𝑡 2 √𝛼 2 + 𝛽2
C. 𝑡 2 √𝛼 2 + 𝛽2 D. √𝛼 2 + 𝛽2
Answer: B
Explanation:
• Speed: The rate at which an object covers a given distance in a particular period of time. It is a scalar quantity. S.I unit of
speed is meter per second.
• Velocity: The velocity of an object is the rate of change of its position with respect to a frame of reference and is a function
of time. S.I unit of velocity is meter per second.
• Velocity has two components: horizontal component 𝑣𝑥 , vertical component 𝑣𝑦 .
⇒ 𝑣 2 = 𝑣𝑥2 + 𝑣𝑦2
CALCULATION:
As𝑥 = at 3
𝑑𝑥
∴ 𝑣𝑥 = = 3𝛼𝑡 2
𝑑𝑡
Also, 𝑦 = 𝛽𝑡 3
𝑑𝑦
⁡∴ 𝑣𝑦 = = 3𝛽𝑡 2
𝑑𝑡
⁡⇒ 𝑣 = √𝑣𝑥2 + 𝜈𝑦2 = 3𝑡 2 √𝛼 2 + 𝛽2

a
5. Which of the following is not a vector quantity?
A. Weight B. Nuclear spin
C. Momentum D. Potential energy
Answer:D
Explanation:
m
Energy is quantity has only magnitude. It does not require any direction. So, it is a scaler, not vector quantity.
The weight of a body denotes gravitational force. And force requires magnitude and direction (in which direction it is acting)
both to describe.
So, weight is a vector.
Similarly, momentum requires magnitude and direction (in which direction it is acting) both to describe.
So, momentum is a vector.
F=
In chemistry, you will study that the nuclear spin of an electron has two directions clockwise and anti-clockwise. So, it will also
be a vector.

6. Which of the following is a vector?

A. Time B. Volume
C. Speed D. Velocity
Answer: D
Explanation:
• Time is a scalar quantity.
• Volume is a scalar quantity.
• Speed is a scalar quantity.
• Velocity is a vector quantity.

7. Select the scalar quantity.

A. Force B. Velocity
C. acceleration D. pressure
Answer: D
Explanation:
From the above table, force, velocity, and acceleration are vector quantities because they have both magnitude as well as
direction.
Pressure is defined as force per unit area. It is a scalar quantity because it has only magnitude and it is independent on the size
of the area chosen.

8. The x -component of a force of 50N is 30N, then what will be the y-component of the same applied force?
A. 20N B. 30N

191
 C. 40N D. 50N
Answer: C
Explanation:
Here 𝐹1 and 𝐹2 are along 𝑋 - and 𝑌-direction.
Let the applied force 𝐹 = 50
And the 𝑥-component of the applied force 𝐹𝑥 = 30
The 𝑦-component of the applied force 𝐹𝑦 = ?
We know that the vector sum of the force

𝐹 = √𝐹𝑥2 + 𝐹𝑦2

50𝑁 = √302 + 𝐹 2
Now squaring both sides
2500 = 900 + F 2
𝐹𝑦 = √2500 − 900 = √1600
𝐹𝑦 = 40𝑁

9. Which among the following can become negative?

A. Speed B. Mass
C. Velocity D. Distance
Answer: C
Explanation:
As discussed above, velocity is a vector quantity that can be negative.

10. Which of the following is a vector quantity?

A. Electrostatic energy
C. Electrostatic potential

a B. Intensity of electric field

D. Electric current
Answer: B
Explanation:
m
The space around an electric charge in which its influence can be felt is known as the electric field.
The electric field intensity at a point is the force experienced by a unit positive charge placed at that point.
Electric Field Intensity is a vector quantity. It is denoted by ‘E’.
Electric Field = F/q.
Unit of E is NC-1 or Vm-1
F=
11. Which of the following is not a vector quantity?
A. Displacement B. Weight
C. Momentum D. Energy
Answer: B
Explanation:
From the above discussion, we can say that
The energy is not a vector quantity.

12. ⃗ given by-

The angle between two vectors 𝐴 and 𝐵
⃗
𝐴⋅𝐵 ⃗
𝐴⋅𝐵
A. cos 𝜃 = ⃗|
B. tan⁡ 𝜃 = ⃗|
2|𝐴||𝐵 |𝐴||𝐵
⃗
𝐴⋅𝐵 ⃗
𝐴⋅𝐵
C. sin⁡ 𝜃 = ⃗∣
D. cos⁡ 𝜃 = ⃗|
|𝐴|𝐵 |𝐴||𝐵
Answer: D
Explanation:
⃗
𝐴⋅𝐵
• ⃗ given by ⇒ cos⁡ 𝜃 =
The angle between two vectors 𝐴 and 𝐵 ⃗|
|𝐴||𝐵

13. Which of the following holds true for a vector quantity?

A. It has only magnitude B. It has only direction
C. A vector has both direction and magnitude D. A vector can never be negative
Answer: C
Explanation: A quantity which has both magnitude and direction is called a vector quantity. The quantity which has only
magnitude, but no direction is called a scalar quantity.

192
14. Which of the following is the correct symbol for denoting a given vector A?
A. |𝐴| B. [A]
C. 𝐴 D. 𝐴
Answer: C
Explanation: The correct way denoting a vector given vector A is 𝐴.

15. Which of the following is used to represent the magnitude of vector 𝐴 ?

A. 𝐴ˆ B. |𝐴|
C. ⃡A D. 𝐴
Answer: B
Explanation: The correct way of representing the magnitude of a given vector 𝐴 is | 𝐴. The magnitude of a vector is the
distance between the initial and the terminal points of a vector.

16. Which of the given qualities is a vector?

A. Speed B. Time
C. Weight D. Volume
Answer: A
Explanation: Speed is a vector quantity as it has both magnitude and direction. Time, weight, volume have only magnitude and
no direction. Hence, they all are scalar quantity.

17. Which of the following is not a vector quantity?

A. Speed B. Density

a
C. Force D. Velocity
Answer: B
Explanation: Density is a scalar quantity as it has only magnitude but no direction. Speed, force, velocity has both magnitude
and direction. Therefore, they all are vectors.

18.
m
Which of the below given is a vector quantity?
A. 8 kg B. 4 seconds
C. 6 Newton D. 90 cm3
Answer: C
Explanation: 6 Newton is a vector quantity as it is a force. Force is a vector quantity which has both magnitude and direction.
F=
19. Which of the following is a scalar quantity?
A. 80𝑚3 B. 5 Newton
C. 7 m/s towards east D. 55 m/s2
Answer: A
Explanation: 80 m3 is a scalar quantity as it is denoting volume. Volume is a scalar quantity and has only magnitude but no
direction.

20. If I, m, n are the direction cosines of a position vector 𝑎 , then which of the following is true?
A. 12 + 𝑚2 − 𝑛2 = 0 B. 1𝑚𝑛 = 1
C. 12 + 𝑚2 + 𝑛2 = 1 D. 𝑘 2 𝑚2 + 𝑛2 = 1
Answer: C
Explanation: Consider 𝑎 is the position vector of a point 𝑀(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) and 𝛼, 𝛽, y are the angles, made by the vector 𝑎 with the
positive directions of x, y and 𝑧 respectively. The cosines of the angles, cos⁡ 𝛼, cos⁡ 𝛽, cosy are the direction cosines of the vector
𝑎 denoted by l, m, n, then cos2 ⁡ 𝛼 + cos2 ⁡ 𝛽 + cos2 ⁡ 𝑦 = 1 i.e., l2 + 𝑚2 + 𝑛2 = 1.

21. The _____ vector represents a unit in the direction of x-axis.

A. (0, 1, 0) B. (1 ,1, 1)
C. (1, 0, 0) D. (0, 0, 1)
Answer: C
Explanation:
Unit vector:
A unit vector is defined as a vector that has a magnitude is one. It is often referred to as a direction vector because it is
commonly employed to describe the direction of a vector.
Where
î = Unit vector in X-axis

193
ĵ = Unit vector in Y-axis
k̂ = Unit vector in Y-axis
Calculation:
The unit vector in X-axis is (1,0,0).

22. If î‚ ĵ and k̂ are unit vectors along X, Y and Z axes respectively, then the product (î × ĵ) will be equal to:
A. 0 B. ĵ
C. k̂ D. î
Answer: C
Explanation:
The cross product of two vectors results in a vector that is perpendicular to both of the original vectors.
If î and ĵ are unit vectors along the X and Y axes, respectively, then the cross product of î and ĵ, (î × ĵ), will be equal to the unit
vector k̂ along the Z axis.
⇒ î × ĵ = k̂
∴ (î × ĵ) = k̂

23. The value of λ for which the vectors 3ı ˆ-6j ˆ+k ˆ and 2ı ˆ-4j ˆ+λk ˆ are parallel is
2 3
A. B.
3 2
5 2
C. D.
2 5
Answer: A
Explanation:

a
Given two vectors are 3𝑖ˆ − 6𝑗ˆ + 𝑘ˆ and 2𝑖ˆ − 4𝑗ˆ + 𝜆𝑘ˆ .
Given two vectors are parallel.
3 −6 1
⁡⇒ = =
2 −4 𝜆
2
⁡∴ 𝜆 =
3
2
The value of 𝜆 is .
m
3

24. If the points A (60ı̂ + 3ĵ), B(40ı̂ - 8ĵ), and C(ai -52ĵ) are collinear, then a is equal to
A. 40 B. -40
C. 20 D. -20
Answer: B
F=
Explanation:
Given, Position vector 𝐴 = 60𝑖ˆ + 3𝑗ˆ
Position vector 𝐵 = 40𝑖ˆ − 8𝑗ˆ
Position vector 𝐶 = 𝑎𝑖ˆ − 52𝑗ˆ
Now, find vector 𝐴𝐵 and 𝐵𝐶
𝐴𝐵 = 𝐵 − 𝐴
⁡= (40𝑖ˆ − 8𝑗ˆ) − (60𝑖ˆ + 3𝑗ˆ) = −20𝑖ˆ − 11𝑗ˆ
𝐵𝐶 = 𝐶 − 𝐵
⁡= (𝑎𝑖ˆ − 52𝑗ˆ) − (40𝑖ˆ − 8𝑗ˆ) = (𝑎 − 40)𝑖ˆ − 44𝑗ˆ
Given, A, B, C are collinear points.
−20 −11
| |=0
𝑎 − 40 −44
⁡⇒ 880 + 11(𝑎 − 40) = 0
⁡⇒ 880 + 11a − 440 = 0
⁡⇒ a = −40

25. If λı̂ + 2λȷ̂ + 2λk̂ is a unit vector, then the value of 𝜆 is:
1 1
A. B.
4 3
1 1
C. D.
9 2
Answer: B
Explanation:
Given, 𝜆𝑖ˆ + 2𝜆𝑗ˆ + 2𝜆𝑘ˆ is a unit vector.
∴ |𝜆𝑖ˆ + 2𝜆𝑗ˆ + 2𝜆𝑘ˆ | = 1
⇒ √𝜆2 + (2𝜆)2 + (2𝜆)2 = 1
⇒ √𝜆2 + 4𝜆2 + 4𝜆2 = 1
194
⇒ √9𝜆2 = 1
⇒ 3𝜆 = 1
1
⇒𝜆=
3

26. The point with position vectors 5ı̂ - 2ĵ, 8ı̂ - 3ĵ, aı̂ - 12ĵ are collinear if the value of a is
A. 31 B. 51
C. 42 D. 35
Answer: D
Explanation:
Here, 5𝑖ˆ − 2𝑗ˆ, 8𝑖ˆ − 3𝑗ˆ, a −12𝑗ˆ
Let, 𝐴 = (5, −2), 𝐵 = (8, −3), 𝐶 = (𝑎, −12)
Now, slope of 𝐴𝐵 = Slope of 𝐵𝐶 = Slope of 𝐴𝐶. . . (∵ points are collinear )
−3 − (−2) −12 − (−3) −1 −9
= ⇒ =
8−5 𝑎−8 3 𝑎−8
⁡⇒ a − 8 = 27
⁡⇒ a = 27 + 8 = 35

27. If 𝑖 − 𝑎𝑗 + 5𝑘⃗ and 3𝑖 − 6𝑗 + 𝑏𝑘⃗ are parallel vectors, then 𝑏 is equal to?
A. 5 B. 10
C. 15 D. 20
Answer: C
Explanation:

a
Given:
𝑖 − 𝑎𝑗 + 5𝑘⃗ and 3𝑖 − 6𝑗 + 𝑏𝑘⃗ are parallel vectors, Therefore, ı − aȷ + 5k⃗ = λ(3ı − 6ȷ + bk
⃗ ) Equating the coefficient of 𝑖, 𝑗 and 𝑘⃗
⁡⇒ 1 = 3𝜆, ∴ 𝜆 = 1/3
⁡⇒ −𝑎 = −6𝜆
⁡⇒ 5 = 𝑏𝜆
m
Put the value of 𝜆 in equation (1), we get
5 = 𝑏 × (1/3)
So, 𝑏 = 15

28. ⃗ and 2ı − 4ȷ + yk are parallel vectors, then 𝑥 is equal to?

If 𝑥ı − 2ȷ + 3k
A. 3 B. 2
C. -1 D. 1
F=
Answer: D
Explanation:
Given:
xi − 2ȷ + 3k⃗ and 2ı − 4ȷ + yk are parallel vectors,
Therefore, xı − 2ȷ + 3k⃗ = λ(2ı − 4ȷ + yk
⃗)
Equating the coefficient of 𝑖, 𝑖 and 𝑘⃗
⁡⇒ x = 2𝜆
l⁡⇒ −2 = −4𝜆
⁡∴ 𝜆 = 1/2
Put the value of 𝜆 in equation (1), we get
𝑥 = 2 × (1/2)
So, 𝑥 = 1

29. Find a vector in the direction of vector a⃗ = 3ı̂ − 4ȷ̂ that has magnitude 10 units?
A. 6𝑖ˆ + 8𝑗ˆ B. 6𝑖ˆ − 8𝑗ˆ
C. 3𝑖ˆ − 4𝑗ˆ D. 3𝑖ˆ + 4𝑗ˆ
Answer: B
Explanation:
Given: 𝑎 = 3i − 4j
𝑎⃗
⇒ Unit vector in the direction of vector 𝑎 is given by 𝑎ˆ = .
|𝑎|
3i − 4j 3𝑖ˆ − 4𝑗ˆ
⇒ â = =
√32+ (−4)2 5
A vector in the direction of vector 𝑎 that has magnitude 10 is given by 10𝑎ˆ
⇒ 10𝑎ˆ = 6𝑖ˆ − 8𝑗ˆ

195
30. Find the value of 𝜆 for which the vectors 3𝑖ˆ + 𝑗ˆ − 2𝑘ˆ and 𝑖ˆ + 𝜆𝑗ˆ − 3𝑘ˆ are perpendicular?
A. -9 B. 9
C. -3 D. 3
Answer: A
Explanation:
Given: 3𝑖ˆ + 𝑗ˆ − 2𝑘ˆ and 𝑖ˆ + 𝜆𝑗ˆ − 3𝑘ˆ are perpendicular
⁡⇒ 𝑎 ⋅ 𝑏⃗ = (3𝑖ˆ + 𝑗ˆ − 2𝑘ˆ) ⋅ (𝑖ˆ + 𝜆𝑗ˆ − 3𝑘ˆ) = 3 + 𝜆 + 6 = 9 + 𝜆
⁡∵ 𝑖ˆ + 𝜆𝑗ˆ − 3𝑘ˆ and 𝑖ˆ + 𝜆𝑗ˆ − 3𝑘ˆ are perpendicular
⁡⇒ 𝜆 + 9 = 0
⁡⇒ 𝜆 = −9

Question/Answer
Very Short Questions
1. Classify the following measures as scalar and vector quantities:
i. 40°
ii. 50 watt
iii. 10gm/cm3
iv. 20 m/sec towards north
v. 5 seconds.
Answer:

a
(i) Angle-scalar
(ii) Power-scalar
(iii) Density-scalar
(iv) Velocity-vector
(v) Time-scalar.
m
2. In the figure, which of the vectors are:
i. Collinear
ii. Equal
iii. Co-initial.
F=

Answer:
(i) a⃗, c and a⃗ are collinear vectors.
(ii) a⃗ and c are equal vectors.
(iii) b⃗ , c and d
⃗ are co-initial vectors.

3. Find the sum of the vectors:

a⃗ = ı̂ − 2ȷ̂ + k̂, a⃗ = −2ı̂ + 4ȷ + 5k̂ and c = ı̂ − 6ȷ̂ − 7k̂.
Answer:
Sum of the vectors = â + b̂ + ĉ
⁡= (ı̂ − 2ȷ̂ + k̂) + (−2ı̂ + 4ȷ̂ + 5k̂) + (ı̂ − 6ȷ̂ − 7k̂)
⁡= (ı̂ − 2ı̂ + ı̂) + (−2ȷ̂ + 4ȷ̂ − 6ȷ̂) + (k̂ + 5k̂ − 7k̂)
⁡= −4ȷ̂ − k̂.

4. Find the vector joining the points P (2,3,0) and Q (-1, – 2, – 4) directed from P to Q.
Answer:
Since the vector is directed from P to Q,
∴ P is the initial point and Q is the terminal point.
∴ Reqd. vector = PQ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗

196
⁡= (−ı̂ − 2ȷ̂ − 4k̂) − (2ı̂ + 3ȷ̂ + 0k̂)
⁡= (−1 − 2)ı̂ + (−2 − 3)ȷ̂ + (−4 − 0)k̂
⁡= −3ı̂ − 5ȷ̂ − 4k̂.

5. If a⃗ = xı̂ + 2ȷ̂ − zk̂ and b⃗ = 3ı̂ − yȷ̂ + k̂ are two equal vectors, then write the value of x + y + z.
Answer:
Here
⃗ ⇒ xı̂ + 2ȷ̂ − zk̂ = 3ı̂ − yȷ̂ + k̂
a⃗ = b
Comparing, A: = 3,2 = −y i.e. y = −2. ∼ z = 1 i.e. z = −1.
Hence, x + y + z = 3 − 2 − 1 = 0.

6. Find the unit vector in the direction of the sum of the vectors:
a⃗ = 2ı̂ − ȷ̂ + 2k̂ and ⃗b = −ı̂ + ȷ̂ + 3k̂
Answer:
We have: a⃗ = 2ı̂ − ȷ̂ + 2k̂
⃗ = −ı̂ + ȷ̂ + 3k̂.
and b
⁡∴ ⁡c = a⃗ + ⃗b
⁡= (2ı̂ − ȷ̂ + 2k̂) + (−ı̂ + ȷ̂ + 3k̂)
⁡= ı̂ + 0 ⋅ ȷ̂ + 5k̂.
⁡∴ |c| = √12 + 02 + 52
⁡= √1 + 0 + 25 = √26.

a
c
⁡∴ Reqd. unit vector = ĉ =
|c|
ı̂ + 0ȷ̂ + 5k̂ ı̂ + 5k̂
⁡= = .
√26 √26
m
7. Find the value of ‘p’ for which the vectors: 3ı̂ + 2ȷ̂ + 9k̂ and ı̂ − 2pȷ̂ + 3k̂ are parallel.
Answer:
3 2 9 1
The given vectors 3ı̂ + 2ȷ̂ + 9k̂ and ı̂ − 2pȷ̂ + 3k̂ are parallel If = = if 3 = =3
1 −2p 3 −p
1
if p = −
3
F=
8. If a⃗ and b ⃗ are perpendicular vectors, |a⃗ + b
⃗ | = 13 and |a⃗| =5, find the value of |b
⃗|
Answer:
We have : |a⃗ + ⃗b| = 13.
Squaring, (a⃗ + ⃗b)2 = 169
⃗ |2 + 2a⃗ ⋅ ⃗b = 169
⁡⇒ |a⃗|2 + |b
⁡⇒ (5)2 + |b ⃗ |2 + 2(0) = 169
[∵ a⃗ and ⃗b are perpendicular ⇒ a⃗⃗b = 0]
⁡⇒ |b ⃗ |2 = 169 − 25 = 144.
[∵ a⃗ and b ⃗ are perpendicular ⇒ a⃗b
⃗ = 0]
⇒ |b ⃗ |2 = 169 − 25 = 144.
Hence, |b ⃗ | = 12.

9. Find the magnitude of each of the two vectors a⃗ and ⃗b, having the same magnitude such that the angle between them is 60°
9
and their scalar product is
2
Answer:
By the question, |a⃗| = |b ⃗|
Now a⃗ ⋅ ⃗b = |a⃗||b
⃗ |cos⁡ θ
9
⁡⇒ = |a⃗||a⃗|cos⁡ 60∘ [ Using (1)]
2
9 1
⁡⇒ = |a⃗|2 ( )
2 2
⁡⇒ |a⃗|2 = 9
Hence, |a⃗| = |b⃗ | = 3.

197
10. Find the area of the parallelogram whose diagonals are represented by the vectors: a⃗ =2ı̂ − 3ȷ̂ + 4k̂ and b
⃗ = 2ı̂ − ȷ̂⁡+ 2k̂
Answer:
⃗ = 2ı̂ − ȷ̂ + 2k̂.
We have: a⃗ = 2ı̂ − 3ȷ̂ + 4k̂⁡ and ⁡b
ı̂ ȷ̂ k̂
⁡∴ a⃗ × ⃗b = |2 −3 4|
2 −1 2
⁡= ı̂(−6 + 4) − ȷ̂(4 − 8) + k̂(−2 + 6)
⁡= −2ı̂ + 4ȷ̂ + 4k̂.
⁡∴ |a⃗ × ⃗b| = √4 + 16 + 16 = √36 = 6.
1 1
∴ Area of the parallelogram = |a⃗ × ⃗b| = (6) = 3 sq. units.
2 2

Short Questions
1. If θ is the angle between two vectors:
ı̂ − 2ȷ̂ + 3k̂ and 3ı̂ − 2ȷ̂ + k̂, find sin⁡ θ.
Answer:
⃗ ×b
|a ⃗|
We know that sin⁡ θ = ⃗∣
⃗ |b
|a
(ı̂ − 2ȷ̂ + 3k̂) × (3ı̂ − 2ȷ̂ + k̂)
⇒ sin⁡ θ =
|ı̂ − 2ȷ̂ + 3k̂ ∥ 3ı̂ − 2ȷ̂ + k̂|
Now (ı̂ − 2ȷ̂ + 3k̂) × (3ı̂ − 2ȷ̂ + k̂)

a
ı̂ ȷ̂ k̂
⁡= |1 −2 3|
3 −2 1
⁡= ı̂(−2 + 6) − ȷ̂(1 − 9) + k̂(−2 + 6)
⁡= 4ı̂ + 8ȷ̂ + 4k̂.
⁡∴ |4ı̂ + 8ȷ̂ + 4k̂| = √16 + 64 + 16
m
⁡= √96 = 4√6
and |i − 2ȷ̂ + 3k̂| = √1 + 4 + 9 = √14;
|3ı̂ − 2ȷ̂ + k̂| = √9 + 4 + 1 = √14.
4√6 4√6
∴ From (1), sin⁡ θ = = .
√14√14 14
2√6
Hence, sin⁡ θ = .
F=
7

2. X and Y are two points with position vectors 3a ⃗ and a⃗ − 3b

⃗⃗⃗⃗ + b ⃗⃗⃗⃗ respectively. Write the po-sition vector of a point Z which
divides the line segment XY in the ratio 2:1 externally.
Answer:
Position vector of
⃗ ) − (3a⃗ + ⃗b)
2(a⃗ − 3b
A= ⃗
= −a⃗ − 7b
2−1

3. Find the unit vector perpendicular to both a⃗ and ⃗b, where:

⃗ = −ȷ̂ + k̂
a⃗ = 4ı̂ − ȷ̂ + 8k̂ and b
Answer:
We have: a⃗ = 4ı̂ − ȷ̂ + 8k̂, ⃗b = −ȷ̂ + k̂.
ı̂ ȷ̂ k̂
⃗ ⁡ = |4 −1 8|
∴ ⁡a⃗ × b
0 −1 1
= ı̂(−1 + 8) − ȷ̂(4 − 0) + k̂(−4 + 0) ⁡ = 7ı̂ − 4ȷ̂ − 4k̂
∴ ⁡|a⃗ × ⃗b| = √(7)2 + (−4)2 + (−4)2
= √49 + 16 + 16 = √81 = 9.
Hence, the unit vector perpendicular to both a⃗ and ⃗b
⃗
a⃗ × b 7ı̂ − 4ȷ̂ − 4k̂ 7 4 4
= = = ı̂ − ȷ̂ − k̂.
⃗
|a⃗ × b| 9 9 9 9

4. If a⃗ = 2ı̂ + 2ȷ̂ + k̂, b

⃗ = −ı̂⁡+ 2ȷ̂⁡+ k̂ and c = 3ı̂ + ȷ̂ are such that a⃗ + λb
⃗ is perpendicular to c , then find the value of λ.

198
Answer:
We have:
⃗ = −ı̂ + 2ȷ̂ + k̂
a = a⃗ = 2ı̂ + 2ȷ̂ + k̂ and b
⃗
⁡∴ a⃗ + λb = (2ı̂ + 2ȷ̂ + 3k̂) + λ(−ı̂ + 2ȷ̂ + k̂)
⁡= (2 − λ)ı̂ + (2 + 2λ)ȷ̂ + (3 + λ)k̂.
Now, (a⃗ + λb⃗ ) is perpendicular to c,
⃗)⋅c=0
⁡∴ (a⃗ + λb
⁡⇒ ((2 − λ)ı̂ + (2 + 2λ)ȷ̂ + (3 + λk̂) ⋅ (3ı̂ + ȷ̂) = 0
⁡⇒ (2 − λ)(3) + (2 + 2λ)(1) + (3 + j(0) = 0
⁡⇒ 6 − 3λ + 2 + 2λ = 0
⁡⇒ −λ, +⁡8 = 0.
Hence,⁡λ = 8

5. Let a⃗ = ı̂ + 2ȷ̂ − 3k̂ and ⃗b = 3ı̂ − ȷ̂ + 2k̂ be two vectors. Show that the vectors (a⃗ + ⃗b) and (a⃗ − ⃗b) are perpendicular to each other.
Answer:
⃗ = (ı̂ + 2ȷ̂ − 3k̂) + (3ı̂ − ȷ̂ + 2k̂)
Here, a⃗ + b
= 4ı̂ + ȷ̂ − k̂ and a⃗ − ⃗b = (ı̂ + 2ȷ̂ − 3k̂) − (3ı̂ − j + 2k)
= −2ı̂ + 3ȷ̂ − 5k̂.
Now,
a⃗ + ⃗b ⋅ a⃗ − ⃗b = (4ı̂ + ȷ̂ − k̂) − (−2ı̂ + 3ȷ̂ − 5k̂)
⁡= (4)(−2) + (1)(3) + (−1)(−5)

a
⁡= −8 + 3 + 5 = 0.
Hence a⃗ + ⃗b is perpendicular to a⃗ − ⃗b.

6. If the sum of two-unit vectors is a unit vector, prove that the magnitude of their difference is √3.
Answer:
We have: |𝑎| = |𝑏⃗| = 1, |𝑎 + 𝑏⃗| = 1.
m
Let,
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝐵𝐶 = 𝑏⃗.
𝐴𝐵 = 𝑎, ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
Then,
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⁡= 𝐴𝐵
𝐴𝐶 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ + 𝐵𝐶⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝑎 + 𝑏⃗
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⁡= ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐷𝐵 𝐷𝐴 + 𝐴𝐵 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
F=
⁡= −𝐴𝐷 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ + 𝐴𝐵⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝐴𝐵
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ − ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐴𝐷
⁡= 𝑎 − 𝑏⃗.

By the question,
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ | = |BC
|AB ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ | = |AC
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ | = 1
⇒△ ABC is equilateral, each of its angles being 60∘ ⇒ ∠DAB = 2 × 60∘ = 120∘ and ∠ADB = 30∘.
By Sine Formula,
DB AB
=
sin⁡ ∠DAB sin⁡ ∠ADB
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ |
|𝐷𝐵 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ |
|𝐴𝐵
⇒⁡ ⁡=
sin⁡ 120∘ sin⁡ 30∘
sin⁡ 120∘
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ | ⁡=
⇒ ⁡|𝐷𝐵 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ |
|𝐴𝐵
sin⁡ 30∘
√3/2
⁡= × 1 = √3.
1/2
199
Hence, |𝑎 − 𝑏⃗| = √3.

⃗ +c=0
7. If a⃗ + b ⃗ | = 5 and |a⃗| = 7, then find the value of a⃗⋅b
⃗ and |a⃗| = 3, |b ⃗ +b
⃗ ⋅c + c⋅a⃗
Answer:
Here, 𝑎 + 𝑏⃗ + 𝑐 = ⃗0
⇒ ⁡(𝑎 + 𝑏⃗ + 𝑐 ) ⋅ (𝑎 + 𝑏⃗ + 𝑐 ) = 0
⇒ 𝑎 ⋅ 𝑎 + 𝑎 ⋅ 𝑏⃗ + 𝑎 ⋅ 𝑐 + 𝑏⃗ ⋅ 𝑎 + 𝑏⃗ ⋅ 𝑏⃗
⁡+𝑏⃗ ⋅ 𝑐 + 𝑐 ⋅ 𝑎 + 𝑐 ⋅ 𝑏⃗ + 𝑐 ⋅ 𝑐 = 0
⇒ ⁡|𝑎|2 + |𝑏⃗|2 + |𝑐|2 + 2(𝑎 ⋅ 𝑏⃗ + 𝑏⃗ ⋅ 𝑐 + 𝑐 ⋅ 𝑎) = 0
⇒ 32 + 52 + 72 + 2(𝑎 ⋅ 𝑏⃗ + 𝑏⃗ ⋅ 𝑐 + 𝑐 ⋅ 𝑎) = 0
⇒ 2(𝑎 ⋅ 𝑏⃗ + 𝑏⃗ ⋅ 𝑐 + 𝑐 ⋅ 𝑎) = −(9 + 25 + 49).
83
Hence, 𝑎 ⋅ 𝑏⃗ + 𝑏⃗ ⋅ 𝑐 + 𝑐 ⋅ 𝑎 = − .
2

8. Find |a⃗ − ⃗b|, if two vectors a and b are such that |a⃗| = 2, | ⃗b | = 3 and a⃗⋅b
⃗ = 4.
Answer:
Here, 𝑎 + 𝑏⃗ + 𝑐 = 0 ⃗
⇒ ⁡(𝑎 + 𝑏⃗ + 𝑐 ) ⋅ (𝑎 + 𝑏⃗ + 𝑐 ) = 0
⇒ 𝑎 ⋅ 𝑎 + 𝑎 ⋅ 𝑏⃗ + 𝑎 ⋅ 𝑐 + 𝑏⃗ ⋅ 𝑎 + 𝑏⃗ ⋅ 𝑏⃗
⁡ + 𝑏⃗ ⋅ 𝑐 + 𝑐 ⋅ 𝑎 + 𝑐 ⋅ 𝑏⃗ + 𝑐 ⋅ 𝑐 = 0
⇒ ⁡|𝑎|2 + |𝑏⃗|2 + |𝑐|2 + 2(𝑎 ⋅ 𝑏⃗ + 𝑏⃗ ⋅ 𝑐 + 𝑐 ⋅ 𝑎) = 0

a
⁡⇒ 32 + 52 + 72 + 2(a⃗ ⋅ ⃗b + ⃗b ⋅ c + c ⋅ a⃗) = 0
⃗ +b
⁡⇒ 2(a⃗ ⋅ b ⃗ ⋅ c + c ⋅ a⃗) = −(9 + 25 + 49).
83
Hence, a⃗ ⋅ ⃗b + ⃗b ⋅ c + c ⋅ a⃗ = −
2

Long Questions
m
1. Let a⃗ = 4ı̂ + 5ȷ̂ − k̂ and b
⃗ = ı̂ – 4ȷ̂ + 5k̂ and c = 3ı̂ + ȷ̂ − k̂. Find a vector a⃗ which is perpendicular to both c and b
⃗ and d
⃗ ⋅a⃗ =21.
Answer:
Wehave: a⃗ = 4ı̂ + 5ȷ̂ − k̂
⃗b = ı̂ − 4ȷ̂ + 5k̂ and
c = 3ı̂ + ȷ̂ − k̂
F=
⃗ = xı̂ + yȷ̂ + zk̂
Let d
Let ⃗d = xı̂ + yȷ̂ + zk̂
since d⃗ is perpendicular to both c and b
⃗
⃗d ⋅ c = 0 and ⃗d ⋅ ⃗b = 0
⁡⇒ (xı̂ + yȷ̂ + zk̂) ⋅ (3ı̂ + ȷ̂ − k̂) = 0
and (xı̂ + yȷ̂ + zk̂) ⋅ (ı̂ − 4ȷ̂ + 5ȷ̂) = 0
⇒ 3x + y − z = 0. (1)
and x − 4y + 5z = 0
Also, ⃗d ⋅ a⃗ = 21
⇒ (xı̂ + yȷ̂ + zk̂) ⋅ (4ı̂ + 5ȷ̂ − k̂) = 21
⇒ 4x + 5y − z = 21
Multiplying (1) by 5,
15x + 5y − 5z = 0n(4)
Adding (2) and (4),
16x + y = 0m(5)

Subtracting (1) from (3), ⁡

x + 4y = 21n(6)
From (5), ⁡y = −16x … (7)
Putting in (6),⁡x − 64x = 21⁡ − 63x: = 21
1 16
Putting in (7), y = −16 (− ) =
3 3
1 16
Putting in (1), 3 (− ) + −z=0
3 3
z = 13/3
⃗ = − 1 ı̂ + 16 ȷ̂ + 13 k̂
Hence d
3 3 3
200
2. ⃗ = ı̂ + ȷ̂ + k̂ and q
If p ⃗ = ı̂ – 2ȷ̂ + k̂, find a vector of magnitude 5√3 units perpendicular to the vector q
⃗ . and coplanar with vector
⃗ and q
p ⃗.
Answer: Let r = aı̂ + bȷ̂ + ck̂ be the vect
Since r ⊥ q ⃗
(1) (a) + (−2)(b) + 1(c) = 0
⁡⇒ a − 2b + c = 0
Again, p ⃗ and r and coplanar,
⃗ ,q
⁡∴ [p
⃗ q ⃗ r] = 0
1 1 1
⁡⇒ |1 −2 1| = 0
a b c
⁡⇒ (1)(−2c − b) − (1)(c − a) + (1)(b + 2a) = 0
⁡⇒ −2c − b − c + a + b + 2a = 0
⁡⇒ 3a − 3c = 0
⁡⇒ a − c − 0
Solving (1) and (2),
Solving (1) and (2),
a b c
= =
2−0 1+1 0+2
a b c
⇒⁡ = =
2 2 2
a p c
⇒⁡ = = .
1 1 1
∴⁡ r = 1ı̂ + 1ȷ̂ + 1k̂.

a
∴⁡ |r| = √3.
r ı̂ + ȷ̂ + k̂
∴ Unit vector r̂ = = .
|r| √3
⃗r î+ĵ+k̂
∴ Unit vector r̂ = = .
|r⃗|
Hence, the required vector = 5√3r̂
√3
m
ı̂ + ȷ̂ + k̂
= 5√3 ( ) = 5(ı̂ + ȷ̂ + k̂).
√3

3. If ı̂ + ȷ̂ + k̂, 2ı̂ + 5ȷ̂, 3ı̂ + 2ȷ̂ − 3k̂ and ı̂ − 6ȷ̂ − k̂ respectively are the position vectors of points A, B, C and D, then find the angle
between the straight lines AB and CD. Find
F=
Answer:
Note: If ' θ ' is the angle between AB and CD, then θ is also the angle between ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ AB and ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
CD Now ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
AB = Position vector of B −
Position vector of A
⁡= (2ı̂ + 5ȷ̂) − (ı̂ + ȷ̂ + k̂) = ı̂ + 4ȷ̂ − k̂.
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ | = √(1)2 + (4)2 + (−1)2 = 3√2.
⁡∴ |AB
̅̅̅̅ = −2ı̂ − 8ȷ̂ + 2k̂ and |CD
Similarly, CD ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ | = 6√2.
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
AB⋅CD ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
Thus ⁡cos⁡ θ = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ |
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ||CD
|AB
1(−2) + 4(−8) + (−1)(2) −36
= = = −1.
(3√2)(6√2) 36
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ and CD
Since 0 ≤ θ ≤ π, it follows that θ = π. This shows that AB ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = − 1 CD
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ are collinear. Alternatively, AB ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ which implies that
2
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ and CD
AB ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ are collinear vectors.

4. If a⃗ + ⃗b + c = ⃗0 and |a⃗| = 3, |b
⃗ | = 5, and |c| =7, find the angle between a⃗ and ⃗b.
Answer:
Solution:
⃗ +c = 0
Since a⃗ + b ⃗,
∴ ⁡a⃗ + ⃗b = −c.
Squaring, (a⃗ + b⃗ )2 = c 2
⁡⇒ a⃗ + b + 2a⃗ ⋅ ⃗b = c 2
2 ⃗ 2

⃗ |2 + 2|a⃗||b
⁡⇒ |a⃗|2 + |b ⃗ |cos⁡ θ = |c|2 ,
where ' θ ' is the angle between a and b

201
⁡⇒ (3)2 + (5)2 + 2(3)(5)cos⁡ θ = (7)2
⁡⇒ 9 + 25 + 30cos⁡ θ = 49
1
⁡⇒ 30cos⁡ θ = 49 − 34 ⇒ cos⁡ θ =
2
⁡⇒ θ = 60∘ .
⃗ is 60∘.
Hence, the angle between a⃗ and b

a
m
F=

202
 Chapter-11 Three - Dimensional Geometry
Introduction

In Class XI, while studying Analytical Geometry in two dimensions, and the introduction to three-dimensional geometry, we
confined to the Cartesian methods only. In the previous chapter of this book, we have studied some basic concepts of vectors. We
will now use vector algebra to three-dimensional geometry. The purpose of this approach to 3-dimensional geometry is that it
makes the study simple and elegant*. In this chapter, we shall study the direction cosines and direction ratios of a line joining two
points and also discuss about the equations of lines and planes in space under different conditions, angle between two lines, two
planes, a line and a plane, shortest distance between two skew lines and distance of a point from a plane. Most of the above results
are obtained in vector form. Nevertheless, we shall also translate these results into the Cartesian form which, at times, presents a
clearer geometric and analytic picture of the situation.

Direction Cosines and Direction Ratios of a Line

From Chapter 10, recall that if a directed line L passing through the origin makes angles 𝛼, 𝛽 and 𝛾 with 𝑥, 𝑦 and 𝑧-axes,
respectively, called direction angles, then cosine of these angles, namely, cos⁡ 𝛼, cos⁡ 𝛽 and cos⁡ 𝛾 are called direction cosines of the
directed line 𝐿.
If we reverse the direction of 𝐿, then the direction angles are replaced by their supplements, i.e., 𝜋 − 𝛼, 𝜋 − 𝛽 and 𝜋 − 𝛾. Thus, the
signs of the direction cosines are reversed.

a
m
F=

Note that a given line in space can be extended in two opposite directions and so it has two sets of direction cosines. In order to
have a unique set of direction cosines for a given line in space, we must take the given line as a directed line. These unique direction
cosines are denoted by l, m and n. Remark If the given line in space does not pass through the origin, then, in order to find its
direction cosines, we draw a line through the origin and parallel to the given line. Now take one of the directed lines from the
origin and find its direction cosines as two parallel lines have same set of direction cosines. Any three numbers which are
proportional to the direction cosines of a line are called the direction ratios of the line. If l, m, n are direction cosines and a, b, c
are direction ratios of a line, then a = λl, b=λm and c = λn, for any nonzero λ ∈ R.

Let 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 be direction ratios of a line and let 𝑙, 𝑚 and 𝑛 be the direction cosines (d. c’s) of the line. Then
𝑙 𝑚 𝑛
= = = 𝑘 (say), 𝑘 being a constant.
𝑎 𝑏 𝑐
Therefore
𝑙 = 𝑎𝑘, 𝑚 = 𝑏𝑘, 𝑛 = 𝑐𝑘 … (1)
But
Therefore
𝑙 2 + 𝑚2 + 𝑛2 = 1
𝑘 2 (𝑎2 + 𝑏 2 + 𝑐 2 ) = 1
or
1
𝑘=±
√𝑎 + 𝑏 2 + 𝑐 2
2

Hence, from (1), the d.c.'s of the line are

𝑎 𝑏 𝑐
𝑙=± ,𝑚 = ± ,𝑛 = ±
2 2
√𝑎 + 𝑏 + 𝑐 2 2
√𝑎 + 𝑏 + 𝑐2 2 √𝑎 + 𝑏 2 + 𝑐 2
2

203
where, depending on the desired sign of 𝑘, either a positive or a negative sign is to be taken for 𝑙, 𝑚 and 𝑛.
For any line, if 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 are direction ratios of a line, then 𝑘𝑎, 𝑘𝑏, 𝑘𝑐; 𝑘 ≠ 0 is also a set of direction ratios. So, any two sets of direction
ratios of a line are also proportional. Also, for any line there are infinitely many sets of direction ratios.

Direction cosines of a line passing through two points

Since one and only one line passes through two given points, we can determine the direction cosines of a line passing through the
given points P(𝑥1 , 𝑦1 , 𝑧1 ) and Q(𝑥2 , 𝑦2 , 𝑧2 ) as follows (Fig 11.2 (a)).

Let 𝑙, 𝑚, 𝑛 be the direction cosines of the line PQ and let it makes angles 𝛼, 𝛽 and 𝛾 with the 𝑥, 𝑦 and 𝑧-axis, respectively.
Draw perpendiculars from P and Q to XY-plane to meet at R and S. Draw a perpendicular from P to QS to meet at N. Now, in right
angle triangle PNQ, ∠PQN = 𝛾 (Fig 11.2 (b).

Therefore,

a
NQ 𝑧2 − 𝑧1
cos⁡ 𝛾 = =
PQ PQ
𝑥2 − 𝑥1 𝑦2 − 𝑦1
cos⁡ 𝛼 = and cos⁡ 𝛽 =
PQ PQ

Similarly
𝑥2 − 𝑥1
m
𝑦2 − 𝑦1
cos⁡ 𝛼 = and cos⁡ 𝛽 =
PQ PQ
Hence, the direction cosines of the line segment joining the points P(𝑥1 , 𝑦1 , 𝑧1 ) and Q(𝑥2 , 𝑦2 , 𝑧2 ) are.
𝑥2 − 𝑥1 𝑦2 − 𝑦1 𝑧2 − 𝑧1
, ,
PQ PQ PQ
where ⁡PQ = √(𝑥2 − 𝑥1 )2 + (𝑦2 − 𝑦1 )2 + (𝑧2 − 𝑧1 )2
F=
Equation of a Line in Space

We have studied equation of lines in two dimensions in Class XI, we shall now study the vector and cartesian equations of a line
in space.

A line is uniquely determined if

(i) it passes through a given point and has given direction, or
(ii) it passes through two given points.

Equation of a line through a given point and parallel to 𝒂 ⃗

⃗ given vector 𝒃
Let 𝑎 be the position vector of the given point A with respect to the origin O of the rectangular coordinate system. Let 𝑙 be the line
which passes through the point A and is parallel to a given vector 𝑏⃗. Let 𝑟 be the position vector of an arbitrary point P on the line
(Fig 11.3).

204
Then AP ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ is parallel to the vector 𝑏⃗, i.e., AP
̅̅̅̅ = 𝜆𝑏⃗, where 𝜆 is some real number.
But
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
AP = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ OP − ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
OA
⃗
𝜆𝑏 = 𝑟 − 𝑎
i.e.
Conversely, for each value of the parameter 𝜆, this equation gives the position vector of a point P on the line. Hence, the vector
equation of the line is given by
𝑟 = 𝑎 + 𝑏⃗ … (1)

Derivation of cartesian form from vector form

Let the coordinates of the given point A be (𝑥1 , 𝑦1 , 𝑧1 ) and the direction ratios of the line be 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐. Consider the coordinates of any
point P be (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧). Then
r ⁡= 𝑥𝑖ˆ + 𝑦𝑗ˆ + 𝑧k̂; a⃗ = 𝑥1 î + 𝑦1 ĵ + 𝑧1 k̂
⃗𝑏 ⁡= 𝑎𝑖ˆ + 𝑏𝑗ˆ + 𝑐𝑘ˆ
and
𝑏⃗ = 𝑎𝑖ˆ + 𝑏𝑗ˆ + 𝑐𝑘ˆ

Substituting these values in (1) and equating the coefficients of 𝑖ˆ, 𝑗ˆ and 𝑘ˆ , we get
𝑥 = 𝑥1 + 𝜆𝑎; 𝑦 = 𝑦1 + 𝜆𝑏; 𝑧 = 𝑧1 + 𝜆𝑐 … (2)
These are parametric equations of the line. Eliminating the parameter 𝜆 from (2), we get
𝑥 − 𝑥1 𝑦 − 𝑦1 𝑧 − 𝑧1
= = … (3)
𝑎 𝑏 𝑐

a
This is the Cartesian equation of the line.

Angle between Two Lines

m
Let L1 and L2 be two lines passing through the origin and with direction ratios 𝑎1 , 𝑏1 , 𝑐1 and 𝑎2 , 𝑏2 , 𝑐2 , respectively. Let P be a point
on L1 and Q be a point on L2 . Consider the directed lines OP and OQ as given in Fig 11.4. Let 𝜃 be the acute angle between OP and
OQ. Now recall that the directed line segments OP and OQ are vectors with components 𝑎1 , 𝑏1 , 𝑐1 and 𝑎2 , 𝑏2 , 𝑐2 , respectively.
Therefore, the angle 𝜃 between them is given by
F=

𝑎1 𝑎2 +𝑏1 𝑏2 +𝑐1 𝑐2
cos⁡ 𝜃 = | |… (1)
√𝑎12 +𝑏12 +𝑐12 √𝑎22 +𝑏22 +𝑐22

The angle between the lines in terms of sin⁡ 𝜃 is given by

sin⁡ 𝜃 ⁡= √1 − cos2 ⁡ 𝜃
(𝑎1 𝑎2 + 𝑏1 𝑏2 + 𝑐1 𝑐2 )2
⁡= √1 −
(𝑎12 + 𝑏12 + 𝑐12 )(𝑎22 + 𝑏22 + 𝑐22 )
√(𝑎12 + 𝑏12 + 𝑐12 )(𝑎22 + 𝑏22 + 𝑐22 ) − (𝑎1 𝑎2 + 𝑏1 𝑏2 + 𝑐1 𝑐2 )2
⁡=
√(𝑎12 + 𝑏12 + 𝑐12 )√(𝑎22 + 𝑏22 + 𝑐22 )
√(𝑎1 𝑏2 − 𝑎2 𝑏1 )2 + (𝑏1 𝑐2 − 𝑏2 𝑐1 )2 + (𝑐1 𝑎2 − 𝑐2 𝑎1 )2
⁡= … (2)
√𝑎12 + 𝑏12 + 𝑐12 √𝑎22 + 𝑏22 + 𝑐22

If instead of direction ratios for the lines L1 and L2 , direction cosines, namely, 𝑙1 , 𝑚1 , 𝑛1 for L1 and 𝑙2 , 𝑚2 , 𝑛2 for L2 are given, then
(1) and (2) takes the following form:

205
 cos⁡ 𝜃 ⁡= |𝑙1 𝑙2 + 𝑚1 𝑚2 + 𝑛1 𝑛2 |⁡( as 𝑙12 + 𝑚12 + 𝑛12 = 1 = 𝑙22 + 𝑚22 + 𝑛22 ) … (3)
and ⁡sin⁡ 𝜃 ⁡= √(𝑙1 𝑚2 − 𝑙2 𝑚1 )2 − (𝑚1 𝑛2 − 𝑚2 𝑛1 )2 + (𝑛1 𝑙2 − 𝑛2 𝑙1 )2 … (4)
Two lines with direction ratios 𝑎1 , 𝑏1 , 𝑐1 and 𝑎2 , 𝑏2 , 𝑐2 are
(i) perpendicular i.e., if 𝜃 = 90∘ by…. (1)
𝑎1 𝑎2 + 𝑏1 𝑏2 + 𝑐1 𝑐2 = 0
(ii) parallel i.e., if 𝜃 = 0 by…. (2)
𝑎1 𝑏1 𝑐1
= =
𝑎2 𝑏2 𝑐2

Now, we find the angle between two lines when their equations are given. If 𝜃 is acute the angle between the lines
𝑟 ⁡= 𝑎‾1 + 𝜆𝑏1 and 𝑟 = 𝑎2 + 𝜇𝑏⃗2
𝑏⃗1 ⋅ 𝑏⃗2
cos⁡ 𝜃 ⁡= | |
|𝑏⃗1 ||𝑏⃗2 |

In Cartesian form, if 𝜃 is the angle between the lines

𝑥 − 𝑥1 𝑦 − 𝑦1 𝑧 − 𝑧1
⁡= = … (1)
𝑎1 𝑏1 𝑐1
and 𝑥 − 𝑥 𝑦 − 𝑦2 𝑧 − 𝑧2
2
⁡= = … (2)
𝑎2 𝑏2 𝑐2

where, 𝑎1 , 𝑏1 , 𝑐1 and 𝑎2 , 𝑏2 , 𝑐2 are the direction ratios of the lines (1) and (2), respectively, then
𝑎1 𝑎2 + 𝑏1 𝑏2 + 𝑐1 𝑐2

a
cos⁡ 𝜃 = | |
√𝑎1 + 𝑏12 + 𝑐12 √𝑎22 + 𝑏22 + 𝑐22
2

Shortest Distance between Two Lines

m
If two lines in space intersect at a point, then the shortest distance between them is zero. Also, if two lines in space are parallel,
then the shortest distance between them will be the perpendicular distance, i.e., the length of the perpendicular drawn from a
point on one line onto the other line.

Further, in a space, there are lines which are neither intersecting nor parallel. In fact, such pairs of lines are non-coplanar and are
called skew lines. For example, let us consider a room of size 1,3,2 units along 𝑥, 𝑦 and 𝑧-axes respectively Fig 11.5.
F=

The line GE that goes diagonally across the ceiling and the line DB passes through one corner of the ceiling directly above A and
goes diagonally down the wall. These lines are skewed because they are not parallel and also never meet. By the shortest distance
between two lines, we mean the join of a point in one line with one point on the other line so that the length of the segment so
obtained is the smallest. For skew lines, the line of the shortest distance will be perpendicular to both the lines.

Distance between two skew lines

We now determine the shortest distance between two skew lines in the following way: Let 𝑙1 and 𝑙2 be two skew lines with
equations (Fig. 11.6)

206
 𝑟 = 𝑎1 + 𝜆𝑏⃗1 … (1)
and 𝑟 = 𝑎2 + 𝜇𝑏⃗2 … (2)
Take any point S on 𝑙1 with position vector 𝑎1 and T on 𝑙2 , with position vector a⃗2 .

Then the magnitude of the shortest distance vector will be equal to that of the projection of ST along the direction of the line of
shortest distance (See 10.6.2).
̅̅̅̅ is the shortest distance vector between 𝑙1 and 𝑙2 , then it being perpendicular to both 𝑏⃗1 and 𝑏⃗2 , the unit vector 𝑛ˆ along ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
If PQ PQ
would therefore be.
𝑏⃗1 × 𝑏⃗2
𝑛ˆ = … (3)
|𝑏⃗1 × 𝑏⃗2 |
Then PQ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝑑𝑛ˆ
̅̅̅ and PQ
where, 𝑑 is the magnitude of the shortest distance vector. Let 𝜃 be the angle between ST ̅̅̅̅. Then
But

a
PQ ⁡= ST|cos⁡ 𝜃|
̅̅̅̅ ⋅ ST
PQ ̅̅̅
⁡but cos⁡ 𝜃 ⁡= | |
̅̅̅̅
|PQ||ST|̅̅̅
𝑑𝑛ˆ ⋅ (𝑎2 − 𝑎1 )
⁡= | ⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝑎2 − 𝑎1 )
| ⁡( since ST
𝑑ST

⁡= |
(𝑏
m
⃗⃗⃗1 × 𝑏⃗2 ) ⋅ (𝑎2 − 𝑎1 )
| ⁡[ [From (3)]
ST|𝑏⃗1 × 𝑏⃗2 |
Hence, the required shortest distance is
or
𝑑 = PQ = ST|cos⁡ 𝜃|
(b⃗1×b⃗ 2 ) ⋅ (𝑎2 × 𝑎1 )
𝒅=| |
F=
|𝑏⃗1 × 𝑏⃗2 |

Cartesian form
The shortest distance between the lines
and
𝑥 − 𝑥1 𝑦 − 𝑦1 𝑧 − 𝑧1
𝑙1 : = =
𝑎1 𝑏1 𝑐1
𝑥 − 𝑥2 𝑦 − 𝑦2 𝑧 − 𝑧2
and 𝑙2 : = =
𝑎2 𝑏2 𝑐2
𝑥2 − 𝑥1 𝑦2 − 𝑦1 𝑧2 − 𝑧1
| 𝑎1 𝑏1 𝑐1 |
| 𝑎2 𝑏2 𝑐2 |
is
|√(𝑏1 𝑐2 − 𝑏2 𝑐1 )2 + (𝑐1 𝑎2 − 𝑐2 𝑎1 )2 + (𝑎1 𝑏2 − 𝑎2 𝑏1 )2 |

Distance between parallel lines

If two lines 𝑙1 and 𝑙2 are parallel, then they are coplanar. Let the lines be given by
and
𝑟 = 𝑎1 + 𝜆𝑏 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
… (1)
and 𝑟 = 𝑎2 + 𝜇𝑏⃗ … (2)
where, 𝑎1 is the position vector of a point 𝑆 on 𝑙1 and 𝑎2 is the position vector of a point T on 𝑙2 Fig 11.7.

207
As 𝑙1 , 𝑙2 are coplanar, if the foot of the perpendicular from T on the line 𝑙1 is P, then the distance between the lines 𝑙1 and 𝑙2 = |TP|.
Let 𝜃 be the angle between the vectors ST ̅̅̅ and 𝑏⃗. Then
Fig 11.7
𝑏⃗ × ̅̅̅
ST = (|𝑏⃗||ST
̅̅̅|sin⁡ 𝜃)𝑛ˆ … (3)
where 𝑛ˆ is the unit vector perpendicular to the plane of the lines 𝑙1 and 𝑙2 .
But
⃗⃗⃗⃗
ST = 𝑎2 − 𝑎1
Therefore, from (3), we get.
𝑏⃗ × (𝑎2 − 𝑎1 ) = 𝑏⃗ ∣ PT𝑛ˆ (since PT = STsin⁡ 𝜃)
|𝑏⃗ × (𝑎2 − 𝑎1 )| = |𝑏⃗|PT ⋅ 1 (as |𝑛ˆ| = 1)
i.e.,
|𝑏⃗ × (𝑎2 − 𝑎1 )| = |𝑏⃗|PT ⋅ 1
is

a
𝑏⃗ × (𝑎2 − 𝑎1 )
̅̅̅̅| = |
𝑑 = |𝐏𝐓 |
|𝑏⃗|
m
F=

208
 Multiple Choice Questions
1. If 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 are the direction ratios of the line and 𝐼, 𝑚, 𝑛 are the direction cosines of the line, then which of the following is true?
𝑙 𝑚 𝑛 𝑙 𝑚 𝑛
A. = = =𝜇 B. = = =𝜇−1
𝑎 𝑏 𝑐 𝑎 𝑏 𝑐
𝑙 𝑚 𝑛 𝑙 𝑛+1 𝑛
C. = = =𝜇 D. = = =𝜇
𝑎 𝑐 𝑏 𝑎 𝑏 𝑐
Answer: A
Explanation:
For a given line, if 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 are the direction ratios and 𝐼, 𝑚, 𝑛 are the direction cosines of the line then 𝑎 = 𝜇𝑙, 𝑏 = 𝜇m, 𝑐 = 𝜇n
𝑙 𝑚 𝑛
Or we can say that = = = 𝜇, where 𝜇 is a constant.
𝑎 𝑏 𝑐

2. If a line has direction ratios, 2, −3,7 then find the direction cosines.
2 7 7 2 3 7
A. 𝑙 = ,𝑚 = − ,𝑛 = B. l= ,𝑚 = − ,𝑛 =
√62 √62 √62 √6 √6 √6
2 3 7 2 3 7
C. 𝑙=− ,𝑚 = − ,𝑛 = − D. 𝑙= ,𝑚 = − ,𝑛 =
√62 √62 √62 √62 √62 √62
Answer: D
Explanation:
For a given line, if a, b, c are the direction ratios and I, m, n are the direction cosines of the line then
𝑎
𝐼=±
√𝑎2 + 𝑏 2 + 𝑐 2
𝑏
m=±
√𝑎2 + 𝑏 2 + 𝑐 2

a
𝑐
n=±
√𝑎 + 𝑏 2 + 𝑐 2
2
2 3 7
⁡∴ 𝑙 = ,𝑚 = − ,𝑛 =
2
√2 + (−3) + 7 2 2 2 2
√2 + (−3) + 7 2 √2 + (−3)2 + 72
2
2 3 7
Hence, 𝐼 = .
√62
,𝑚 = −
√62
,𝑛 =
m√62

3. Find the direction cosines of the line passing through two points (4, −5, −6) and (−1,2,8).
5 7 14 5 7 14
A. , , C. − , ,
270 √270 √270 √270 √270 √270
7 7 7 5 7 14
B. − , , D. − , ,
√270 √270 √270 √20 √720 √270
Answer: C
Explanation:
F=
The direction cosines of two lines passing through two points is given by:
𝑥2 − 𝑥1 𝑦2 − 𝑦1 𝑧2 − 𝑧1
, ,
𝑃𝑄 𝑃𝑄 𝑃𝑄
and 𝑃𝑄 = √(𝑥2 − 𝑥1 )2 + (𝑦2 − 𝑦1 )2 + (𝑧2 − 𝑧1 )2
In the given problem we have, 𝑃(4, −5, −6) and 𝑄(−1,2,8)
⁡∴ 𝑃𝑄 = √(−1 − 4)2 + (2 + 5)2 + (8 + 6)2
⁡= √25 + 49 + 196 = √270
(−1−4) 5
Hence, the direction ratios are 𝑙 = =−
√270 √270
(2 + 5) 7
𝑚= =
√270 √270
(8 + 6) 14
𝑛= =
√270 √270

4. The direction ratios of the line segment joining 𝑃(𝑥1 , 𝑦1 , 𝑧1 ) and 𝑄(𝑥2 , 𝑦2 , 𝑧2 ) is given by ____________,_____________and _________
A. 𝑥2 + 𝑥1 , 𝑦2 + 𝑦1 , 𝑧2 + 𝑧1 C. 𝑥2 − 𝑥1 , 𝑦2 − 𝑦1 , 𝑧2 − 𝑧1
B. 𝑥2 − 𝑥1 , 𝑦2 + 𝑦1 , 𝑧2 − 𝑧1 D. 𝑥2 + 𝑥1 , 𝑦2 − 𝑦1 , 𝑧2 + 𝑧1
Answer: C
Explanation:
Let 𝑎. , 𝑏, 𝑐 be the direction ratios of the line segment PQ.
Then, the direction ratios of the line segment joining 𝑃(𝑥1 , 𝑦1 , 𝑧1 ) and 𝑄(𝑥2 , 𝑦2 , 𝑧2 ) is given by
𝑎 = 𝑥2 − 𝑥1
𝑏 = 𝑦2 − 𝑦1
𝑐 = 𝑧2 − 𝑧1

5. If the direction ratios of a line are 5,4, −7 respectively, then find the direction cosines.

209
 75 4 5 5 4 7
A. , , B. , ,−
√90 √90 √90 √90 √90 √90
5 4 7 3 4 5
C. , ,− D. , ,−
√70 √70 √70 √90 √90 √90
Answer: C
Explanation:
If 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 are the direction ratios and 𝑙, 𝑚, 𝑛 are the direction cosines respectively for a given line, then the direction cosines in
terms of the direction ratios can be expressed as
𝑎
𝐼=±
√𝑎 + 𝑏 2 + 𝑐 2
2
𝑏
m=±
√𝑎 + 𝑏 2 + 𝑐 2
2
𝑐
n=±
√𝑎 + 𝑏 2 + 𝑐 2
2
Given that, 𝑎 = 5, 𝑏 = 4, 𝑐 = −7
5 5 5
⁡∣= = =
√(52 + 42 + (−7)2 ) √(25 + 16 + 49) √90
4 4
m= =
2 2 2
√(5 + 4 + (−7) ) √90
7 7
𝑛=− =−
√(52 + 42 + (−7)2 ) √90

1 √3
6. If the direction cosines of the line are , − ,𝑥 respectively, then find the value of 𝑥.
2 2

a
A. 1 B. 0
1
C.
√3 D.
2 2
Answer: B
Explanation:
If the direction cosines of a line are 𝐼, 𝑚, 𝑛 respectively, then
K 2 + m2 + n2 = 1
2
m
1 √3
⁡∴ ⁡2 + ( ) + 𝑥 2 = 1
2 2
1 3
x2 = 1 − −
4 4
x2 = 0
⁡⇒ x = 0
F=
7. If a line makes an angle of 60∘ , 150∘ , 45∘ with the positive 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧-axis respectively, find its direction cosines.
1 √3 1 √3 1 1
A. − ,− , B. − ,− ,−
2 2 √2 2 2 √2
1 √3 1 1 √3 1
C. ,− , D. , ,−
2 2 √2 2 2 √2
Answer: C
Explanation:
Let 𝐼, 𝑚, 𝑛 be the direction cosines of the line.
We know that, if 𝛼, 𝛽, 𝑦 are the angles that the line makes with the 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧-axis respectively, then
1
𝐼 = cos⁡ 𝛼 = cos⁡ 60∘ =
2
√3
𝑚 = cos⁡ 𝛽 = cos⁡ 150∘ = −
2
∘
1
𝑛 = cos⁡ 𝑦 = cos⁡ 45 = .
√2

8. If the line is passing through the points (𝑥1 , 𝑦1 , 𝑧1 ) and has direction cosines I, m, n of the line, then which of the following is
the cartesian equation of the line?
𝑥−𝑥1 𝑦−𝑦1 𝑧−𝑧1 𝑥−𝑥1 𝑦−𝑦1 𝑧−𝑧1
A. = = B. = =
𝑙 𝑚 𝑛 𝑛 𝑚 𝑙
𝑥+𝑥1 𝑦+𝑦1 𝑧−𝑧1 𝑥+𝑥1 𝑦+𝑦1 𝑧+𝑧1
C. = = D. = =
𝑛 𝑚 𝑙 𝑙 𝑚 𝑛
Answer: A
Explanation:
If the line is passing through the points (𝑥1 , 𝑦1 , 𝑧1 ) and has direction cosines 1, 𝑚, 𝑛 of the line, then the cartesian equation of the
𝑥−𝑥1 𝑦−𝑦1 𝑧−𝑧1
line is given by = = .
𝑙 𝑚 𝑛

210
9. If a line is passing through two points 𝐴(𝑥1 , 𝑦1 , 𝑧1 ) and 𝐵(𝑥2 , 𝑦2 , 𝑧2 ) then which of the following is the vector equation of the
line?
A. 𝑟 = 𝑎 + 𝜆(𝑏⃗ + 𝑎) B. 𝑟 = 𝑎 + 𝜆(𝑎 − 𝑏⃗)
⃗
C. 𝑟 = 𝜆𝑎 + (𝑏 − 𝑎) D. 𝑟 = 𝑎 + 𝜆(𝑏⃗ − 𝑎)
Answer: B
Explanation:
Let 𝑎 and 𝑏⃗ are the position vectors of two points 𝐴(𝑥1 , 𝑦1 , 𝑧1 ) and 𝐵(𝑥2 , 𝑦2 , 𝑧2 ) Then the vector equation of the line is given by the
formula passing through two points will be given by 𝑟 = 𝑎 + 𝜆(𝑏⃗ − 𝑎), 𝜆 ∈ R

10. Find the vector equation of a line passing through two points (−5,3,1) and (4, −3,2).
A. (−5 + 𝜆)𝑖ˆ + (3 + 𝜆)𝑗ˆ + (1 − 𝜆)𝑘ˆ B. (−5 + 𝜆)𝑖ˆ + (3 + 6𝜆)𝑗ˆ + (1 + 𝜆)𝑘ˆ
C. (5 + 7𝜆)𝑖ˆ + (8 + 6𝜆)𝑗ˆ + (3 − 5𝜆)𝑘 ˆ D. (−5 + 9𝜆)𝑖ˆ + (3 − 6𝜆)𝑗ˆ + (1 + 𝜆)𝑘ˆ
Answer: D
Explanation:
Consider the points 𝐴(−5,3,1) and 𝐵(4, −3,2)
Let 𝑎 and 𝑏⃗ be the position vectors of the points 𝐴 and 𝐵.
⁡∴ a⃗ = −5î + 3ĵ + k̂
⃗b = 4î − 3ĵ + 2k̂
⁡∴ r = −5î + 3ĵ + k̂ + λ (4î − 3ĵ + 2k̂ − (−5î + 3ĵ + k̂))
⁡= −5î + 3ĵ + k̂ + λ(9î − 6ĵ + k̂)
⁡= (−5 + 9λ)î + (3 − 6λ)ĵ + (1 + λ)k̂

a
11. Find the cartesian equation of a line passing through two points (1, −9,8) and (4, −1,6).
𝑥+1 𝑦−9 −𝑧−8 𝑥−1 𝑦+9 𝑧−8
A. = = B. = =
3 8 2 3 8 −2
𝑥−1 𝑦+9 𝑧−8 2𝑥−1 6𝑦+9 4𝑧−8
C. = = D. = =
7 −2 5 3 8 −2
Answer: B
Explanation:
m
The position vector for the point 𝐴(1, −9,8) and 𝐵(4, −1,6)
𝑎 = 𝑖ˆ − 9𝑗ˆ + 8𝑘ˆ
𝑏⃗ = 4𝑖ˆ − 𝑗ˆ + 6𝑘ˆ
⁡∴ 𝑟 = 𝑎 + 𝜆(𝑏⃗ − 𝑎)
The above vector equation can be expressed in cartesian form as:
𝑥 − 𝑥1 𝑦 − 𝑦1 𝑧 − 𝑧1
F=
= =
𝑥2 − 𝑥1 𝑦2 − 𝑦1 𝑧2 − 𝑧1
𝑥−1 𝑦+9 𝑧−8
∴ The cartesian equation for the given line is = =
3 8 −2

12. Find the cartesian equation of the line which is passing through the point (5, −6,1) and parallel to the vector 5𝑖ˆ + 2𝑗ˆ − 3𝑘ˆ .
𝑥−5 𝑦−4 𝑧+1 𝑥−5 𝑧+6 𝑦−1
A. = = B. = =
5 6 −3 5 2 3
𝑥+5 𝑦−8 𝑧−1 𝑥−5 𝑦+6 𝑧−1
C. = = D. = =
4 2 −3 5 2 −3
Answer: D
Explanation:
The equation of a line passing through a point and parallel to a vector is given by 𝑟 = 𝑎 + 𝜆𝑏⃗
𝑎 is the position vector of the given point : 𝑎 = 5𝑖ˆ − 6𝑗ˆ + 𝑘ˆ
𝑏⃗ = 5𝑖ˆ + 2𝑗ˆ − 3𝑘ˆ
𝑟 = 5𝑖ˆ − 6𝑗ˆ + 𝑘ˆ + 𝜆(5𝑖ˆ + 2𝑗ˆ − 3𝑘ˆ)
𝑥𝑖ˆ + 𝑦𝑗ˆ + 𝑧𝑘ˆ = (5 + 5𝜆)𝑖ˆ + (2𝜆 − 6)𝑗ˆ + (1 − 3𝜆)𝑘ˆ
𝑥−5 𝑦+6 𝑧−1
⁡∴ = =
5 2 −3
is the cartesian equation of the given line.

13. Find the cartesian equation of a line passing through two points (8, −5,7) and (7,1,4).
𝑥−8 𝑦+5 𝑧−7 2𝑥−8 3𝑦+5 4𝑧−7
A. = = B. = =
1 −6 3 −1 6 −3
𝑥−8 𝑦+5 𝑧−7 𝑥−8 𝑦+5 𝑧−7
C. = = D. = =
−1 6 −3 −2 5 −7
Answer: C
Explanation:
Consider A(8, −5,7) and B(7,1,4)
i.e., (𝑥1 , 𝑦1 , 𝑧1 ) = (8, −5,7) and (𝑥2 , 𝑦2 , 𝑧3 ) = (7,1,4)
211
 𝑥−𝑥1 𝑦−𝑦1 𝑧−𝑧1
The cartesian equation for a line passing through two points is given by = =
𝑥2 −𝑥1 𝑦2 −𝑦1 𝑧2 −𝑧1
𝑥−8 𝑦+5 𝑧−7
∴ the cartesian equation for the given line is = =
−1 6 −3

14. Find the vector equation of a line passing through two points (1,0,4) and (6, −3,1).
A. (1 + 5𝜆)𝑖ˆ − 𝜆𝑗ˆ + (4 − 3𝜆)𝑘ˆ B. (1 + 5𝜆)𝑖ˆ − 3𝜆𝑗ˆ + (7 − 3𝜆)𝑘ˆ
C. (1 + 𝜆)𝑖ˆ + 𝜆𝑗ˆ + (8 − 3𝜆)𝑘 ˆ D. (1 + 5𝜆)𝑖ˆ − 3𝜆𝑗ˆ + (4 − 3𝜆)𝑘ˆ
Answer: D
Explanation:
Consider the points 𝐴(1,0,4) and 𝐵(6, −3,1)
Let 𝑎 and 𝑏⃗ be the position vectors of the points 𝐴 and 𝐵.
⁡∴ 𝑎 = 𝑖ˆ + 4𝑘ˆ
𝑏⃗ = 6𝑖ˆ − 3𝑗ˆ + 𝑘ˆ
⁡∴ 𝑟 = 𝑖ˆ + 4𝑘ˆ + 𝜆(6𝑖ˆ − 3𝑗ˆ + 𝑘ˆ − (𝑖ˆ + 4𝑘ˆ))
⁡= 𝑖ˆ + 4𝑘ˆ + 𝜆(5𝑖ˆ − 3𝑗ˆ − 3𝑘ˆ)
⁡= (1 + 5𝜆)𝑖ˆ − 3𝜆𝑗ˆ + (4 − 3𝜆)𝑘ˆ

15. Find the angle between the lines.

𝑥+2 𝑦+5 𝑧−3
= =
1 6 2
𝑥−4 𝑦−3 𝑧+3
= =
5 −2 1
5 3
A. cos ⁡−1 B. cos−1 ⁡

a
√1230 √3120
7 48
C. cos−1 ⁡ D. cos−1 ⁡
√2310 √1230
Answer: A
Explanation:
We know that the angle between two lines is given by the formula
cos⁡ 𝜃 = |
𝑎1 𝑎2 + 𝑏1 𝑏2 + 𝑐1 𝑐2
m
√𝑎1 + 𝑏12 + 𝑐12 √𝑎22 + 𝑏22 + 𝑐22
2
|

1(5) + 6(−2) + 2(1)

cos⁡ 𝜃 = || ||
√12 + 62 + 22 ) ⋅ √(52 + (−2)2 + 12
−5 5
⁡= | |=
F=
√41 ⋅ √30 √1230
5
⁡∴ 𝜃 = cos −1 ⁡
√1230

16. Find the value of 𝑝 such that the lines

𝑥−1 𝑦+4 𝑧−9
= =
3 𝑝 1
𝑥+2 𝑦−3 𝑧−7
= =
1 1 −2
are at right angles to each other.
A. 𝑝 = 2 B. 𝑝=1
C. 𝑝 = −1 D. 𝑝 = −2
Answer: C
Explanation:
The angle between two lines is given by the equation
𝑎1 𝑎2 + 𝑏1 𝑏2 + 𝑐1 𝑐2
cos⁡ 𝜃 = | |
√𝑎1 + 𝑏12 + 𝑐12 √𝑎22 + 𝑏22 + 𝑐22
2

3(1) + 𝑝(1) + 1(−2)

cos⁡ 90∘ = | |
√32 + 𝑝2 + 12 ⋅ √12 + 12 + (−2)2
𝑝+1
0=| |
√10 + 𝑝2 ⋅ √6
0= p+1
p = −1

17. Find the angle between the two lines if the equations of the lines are
𝑟 = 𝑖ˆ + 𝑗ˆ + 𝑘ˆ + 𝜆(3𝑖ˆ − 𝑗ˆ + 𝑘ˆ) and 𝑟 = 4𝑖ˆ + 𝑗ˆ − 2𝑘ˆ + 𝜇(2𝑖ˆ + 3𝑗ˆ + 𝑘ˆ )
212
 4 7
A. cos−1 ⁡ B. cos−1 ⁡
√14 √154
4 4
C. cos−1 ⁡ D. cos−1 ⁡
154 √154
Answer: D
Explanation:
Given that, 𝑟 = 𝑖ˆ + 𝑗ˆ + 𝑘ˆ + 𝜆(3𝑖ˆ − 𝑗ˆ + 𝑘ˆ ) and 𝑟 = 4𝑖ˆ + 𝑗ˆ − 2𝑘ˆ + 𝜇(2𝑖ˆ + 3𝑗ˆ + 𝑘ˆ )
We know that, if the equations of two lines are of the form 𝑟 = ⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝑎1 + 𝜆𝑏⃗⃗⃗1 and 𝑟 = ⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗2 then the angle between the two lines is
𝑎2 + 𝜇𝑏
given by
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑏1 ⁡⁡⁡𝑏⃗⃗⃗⃗2
cos⁡ 𝜃 = | |
⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗
|𝑏1 ||𝑏2 |
(3(2) + (−1)3 + 1(1) 4 4
⁡= | |= =
2 2 2
√3 + (−1) + (1) ⋅ √2 + 3 + 1 2 2 2 ⋅
√11 √14 √154
4
𝜃 = cos ⁡ −1
.
√154

𝑥+11 𝑦+3 𝑧−3 𝑥−3 𝑦+12 𝑧−3

18. Find the value of p such that the lines = = and = = are at right angles to each other.
4 −2 4 𝑝 2 −12
A. 𝑝 = 11 B. 𝑝 = 12
C. 𝑝 = 13 D. 𝑝=4
Answer: C
Explanation:
We know that, if two lines are perpendicular to each other then,

a
𝑎1 𝑎2 + 𝑏1 𝑏2 + 𝑐1 𝑐2 = 0
i.e. 4(𝑝) + (−2)2 + 4(−12) = 0
4𝑝 − 4 − 48 = 0
4𝑝 = 52
52
𝑝=
4
= 13.
m
19. Find the angle between the lines 𝑟 = 2𝑖ˆ + 6𝑗ˆ − 𝑘ˆ + 𝜆(𝑖ˆ − 2𝑗ˆ + 3𝑘ˆ) and 𝑟 = 4𝑖ˆ − 7𝑗ˆ + 3𝑘ˆ + 𝜇(5𝑖ˆ − 3𝑗ˆ + 3𝑘ˆ)
20 20
A. 𝜃 = cos −1 ⁡ B. 𝜃 = cos −1 ⁡
√602 √682
8 14
C. 𝜃= cos −1 ⁡ D. 𝜃= cos −1 ⁡
√602 √598
Answer: A
Explanation:
F=
If two lines have the equations 𝑟 = ⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗1 and 𝑟 = ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎1 + 𝜆𝑏 ⃗⃗⃗⃗2 Then, the angle between the two lines will be given by
𝑎2 + 𝜇𝑏
⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑏1 , 𝑏2
cos⁡ 𝜃 = | |
⃗⃗⃗1 ||𝑏
|𝑏 ⃗⃗⃗⃗2 |

(𝑖ˆ − 2𝑗ˆ + 3𝑘ˆ ) ⋅ (5𝑖ˆ − 3𝑗ˆ + 3𝑘ˆ)

⁡= || ||
√ 12 + (−2)2 + (3)2 ) ⋅ √(52 + (−3)2 + 32
5+6+9 20
⁡= =
√14 ⋅ √43 √602
20
𝜃 = cos−1 ⁡
√602

20. If two lines 𝐿1 and 𝐿2 are having direction cosines 𝑙1 , 𝑚1 , 𝑛1 and 𝑙2 , 𝑚2 , 𝑛2 respectively, then what is the angle between the
two lines?
A. cot⁡ 𝜃 = |𝑙1 𝑙2 + 𝑚1 𝑚2 + 𝑛1 𝑛2 | B. sin⁡ 𝜃 = |𝑙1 𝑙2 + 𝑚1 𝑛2 + 𝑛1 𝑚2 |
C. tan⁡ 𝜃 = |𝑙1 𝑙2 + 𝑚1 𝑚2 + 𝑛1 𝑛2 | D. cos⁡ 𝜃 = |𝑙1 𝑙2 + 𝑚1 𝑚2 + 𝑛1 𝑛2 |
Answer: D
Explanation:
If two lines 𝐿1 and L2 are having direction cosines 𝑙1 , 𝑚1 , 𝑛1 and 𝑙2 , 𝑚2 , 𝑛2 respectively, then the angle between the lines is given
by
cos⁡ 𝜃 = |𝑙1 𝑙2 + 𝑚1 𝑚2 + 𝑛1 𝑛2 |

𝑥−3 𝑦+7 𝑧−2 𝑥+1 𝑦−5 𝑧+2

21. Find the angle between the pair of lines = = and = = .
5 3 2 3 4 8
43 43
A. cos−1 ⁡ B. cos−1 ⁡
√3482 √3382

213
 85 34
C. cos−1 ⁡ D. cos−1 ⁡
√3382 √3382
Answer: B
Explanation:
The direction ratios are 5, 3, 2 for 𝐿1 and 3, 4, 8 for 𝐿2
∴ the angle between the two lines is given by
(𝑎1 𝑎2 + 𝑏1 𝑏2 + 𝑐1 𝑐2 )
cos⁡ 𝜃 =
√𝑎1 + 𝑏12 + 𝑐12 √𝑎22 + 𝑏22 + 𝑐22
2

15 + 12 + 16
⁡=
√52 + 32 + 22 ⋅ √32 + 42 + 82
43 43
⁡= =
√38 ⋅ √89 √3382
43
𝜃 = cos−1 ⁡ .
√3382

22. Which of the below given is the correct formula for the distance between two skew lines I1 and I2 ?
⃗⃗⃗⃗1 ×𝑏
(𝑏 ⃗⃗⃗⃗2 )⋅(𝑎2 −𝑎1 ) ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
(𝑏1 −𝑏 ⃗⃗⃗⃗2 )⋅(𝑎2 −𝑎1 )
A. d=| ⃗⃗⃗⃗1 ×𝑏
⃗⃗⃗⃗2 |
| B. 2d=| |
|𝑏 ⃗⃗⃗⃗1 −𝑏
𝑏 ⃗⃗⃗⃗2 ∣

⃗⃗⃗⃗1 ×𝑏
(𝑏 ⃗⃗⃗⃗2 )⋅(𝑎2 ⋅𝑎1 ) ⃗⃗⃗⃗1 ×𝑏
(𝑏 ⃗⃗⃗⃗2 )⋅(𝑎2 −𝑎1 )
C. 𝑑=| ⃗ |𝑏⃗⃗⃗⃗1 ×𝑏
⃗⃗⃗⃗2 |
| D. 𝑑2 = | ⃗⃗⃗⃗1 −𝑏
⃗⃗⃗⃗2 |
|
3 |𝑏
Answer: A
Explanation:
The distance between two lines I1 and I2 with the equations

a
𝑟 = ⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑎1 + 𝜆𝑏 ⃗⃗⃗1
𝑟 = ⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑎2 + 𝜇𝑏 ⃗⃗⃗⃗2
Then, the distance between the two lines is given by the formula
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
(𝑏1 × ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑏2 ) ⋅ (𝑎2 − 𝑎1 )
𝑑=| |
⃗⃗⃗1 × ⃗⃗⃗⃗
|𝑏 𝑏2 |
m
23. Find the shortest distance between two lines I1 and I2 whose vector equations is given below.
𝑟 = 3𝑖ˆ − 4𝑗ˆ + 2𝑘ˆ + 𝜆(4𝑖ˆ + 𝑗ˆ + 𝑘ˆ )
𝑟 = 5𝑖ˆ + 𝑗ˆ − 𝑘ˆ + 𝜇(2𝑖ˆ − 𝑗ˆ − 3𝑘ˆ)
11 23
A. B.
√12 √10
18 10
C. D.
F=
√10 √11
Answer: C
Explanation:
The distance between two skew lines is given by
(𝑏⃗⃗⃗1 × ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑏2 ) ⋅ (𝑎2 − 𝑎1 )
d=| |
⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑏⃗ × 𝑏 2 ∣
𝑟 = 3𝑖ˆ − 4𝑗ˆ + 2𝑘ˆ + 𝜆(4𝑖ˆ + 𝑗ˆ + 𝑘ˆ)
𝑟 = 5𝑖ˆ + 𝑗ˆ − 𝑘ˆ + 𝜇(2𝑖ˆ − 𝑗ˆ − 3𝑘ˆ)
((4𝑖ˆ + 𝑗ˆ + 𝑘ˆ ) × (2𝑖ˆ − 𝑗ˆ − 𝑘ˆ )) ⋅ ((3𝑖ˆ − 4𝑗ˆ + 2𝑘ˆ) − (2𝑖ˆ − 𝑗ˆ − 𝑘ˆ))
d=| |
∣ 4𝑖ˆ + 𝑗ˆ + 𝑘ˆ) × (2𝑖ˆ − 𝑗ˆ − 3𝑘ˆ) ∣

𝑖ˆ 𝑗ˆ 𝑘ˆ
⁡(4𝑖ˆ + 𝑗ˆ + 𝑘ˆ ) × (2𝑖ˆ − 𝑗ˆ − 𝑘ˆ ) = |4 1 1|
2 −1 −1
⁡= 𝑖ˆ(−1 + 1) − 𝑗ˆ(−4 − 2) + 𝑘ˆ (−4 − 2)
⁡= 6𝑗ˆ − 6𝑘ˆ
d =∣ 6𝑗ˆ − 6𝑘ˆ) ⋅ (𝑖ˆ − 3𝑗ˆ + 3𝑘ˆ)|6𝑖ˆ − 2𝑘ˆ| ∣
0 − 18 − 18 36 18
| |= =
2
√6 + 2 2 √40 √10

24. Find the equation between the two parallel lines 𝐼1 and 𝐼2 whose equations is given below.
𝑟 = 3𝑖ˆ + 2𝑗ˆ − 𝑘ˆ + 𝜆(3𝑖ˆ − 2𝑗ˆ + 𝑘ˆ )
𝑟 = 2𝑖ˆ − 𝑗ˆ + 𝑘ˆ + 𝜇(3𝑖ˆ − 2𝑗ˆ + 𝑘ˆ)

214
 172 145
A. √ B. √
14 14
171 171
C. √ D. √
14 134
Answer: C
Explanation:
The distance between two parallel lines is given by
𝑏⃗ × (𝑎 𝑎1 )
⃗⃗⃗⃗2 − ⃗⃗⃗⃗
d=| |
|𝑏|⃗

((3𝑖ˆ − 2𝑗ˆ + 𝑘ˆ) × ((3𝑖ˆ + 2𝑗ˆ − 𝑘ˆ) − (2𝑖ˆ − 𝑗ˆ + 𝑘ˆ )))

⁡= | |
|√32 + (−2)2 + 12 |

(3𝑖ˆ − 2𝑗ˆ + 𝑘ˆ) × (𝑖ˆ + 3𝑗ˆ − 2𝑘ˆ))

⁡= | |
√14

𝑖ˆ 𝑗ˆ 𝑘ˆ
⁡(3𝑖ˆ − 2𝑗ˆ + 𝑘ˆ) × (𝑖ˆ + 3𝑗ˆ − 2𝑘ˆ) = |3 −2 1 |
1 3 −2
⁡= 𝑖ˆ(4 − 3) − 𝑗ˆ(−6 − 1) + 𝑘ˆ (9 + 2)
⁡= 𝑖ˆ + 7𝑗ˆ + 11𝑘ˆ
|𝑖ˆ + 7𝑗ˆ + 11𝑘ˆ| √1 + 49 + 121 171
⁡∴ d = = =√

a
√14 √14 14

25. Find the shortest distance between the lines given.

𝑥−5 𝑦−2 𝑧−1
I1 : = =

I2 :
2 5
𝑥+4 𝑦−7 𝑧−3
= =
4
m
3 6 7
115 115
A. B.
√134 √184
115
C. D.
√115
134 134
Answer: A
Explanation:
F=
The shortest distance between two lines in cartesian form is given by:
𝑥 − 𝑥1 𝑦 − 𝑦1 𝑧 − 𝑧1
I1 : = =
𝑎1 𝑏1 𝑐1
𝑥 − 𝑥2 𝑦 − 𝑦2 𝑧 − 𝑧2
I2 : = =
𝑎2 𝑏2 𝑐2

𝑥2 − 𝑥1 𝑦2 − 𝑦1 𝑧2 − 𝑧1
| 𝑎1 𝑏1 𝑐1 |
𝑎2 𝑏2 𝑐2
∴ d =∣
√(𝑏1 𝑐2 − 𝑏2 𝑐1 )2 + (𝑐1 𝑎2 − 𝑐2 𝑎1 )2 + (𝑎1 𝑏2 − 𝑎2 𝑏1 )2

−9 5 2
|2 5 4|
| 3 6 7 |
𝑑=
| |
√√(35 − 24)2 + (12 − 14)2 + (12 − 15)2

−9(35 − 24) − 5(14 − 12) + 2(12 − 15)

𝑑=| |
√112 + 22 + 32
−99 − 10 − 6
𝑑=| |
√134
115
𝑑= .
√134

26. Which of the following is the correct formula for the distance between the parallel lines 𝐼1 and I2 ?
⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎2 +𝑎⃗⃗⃗⃗1 )×(𝑎 ⃗⃗⃗⃗1 )
⃗⃗⃗⃗2 −𝑎 ⃗ ×(𝑎
𝑏 ⃗⃗⃗⃗1 )
⃗⃗⃗⃗2 −𝑎
A. d=| ⃗|
| B. 𝑑2 = | |
|𝑏 |𝑏 ⃗|

215
 ⃗ ×(𝑎
𝑏 ⃗⃗⃗⃗1 )
⃗⃗⃗⃗2 −𝑎 ⃗ ×(𝑎
𝑏 ⃗⃗⃗⃗1 )
⃗⃗⃗⃗2 −𝑎
C. 2𝑑 = | ⃗|
| D. d=| ⃗|
|
|𝑏 |𝑏
Answer: D
Explanation:
If I1 and I2 are two parallel lines, then they are coplanar and hence can be represented by the following equations
𝑎1 + 𝜆𝑏⃗
𝑟 = ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎2 + 𝜇𝑏⃗
𝑟 = ⃗⃗⃗⃗
Then the distance between the lines is given by
𝑏⃗ × (𝑎 𝑎1 )
⃗⃗⃗⃗2 − ⃗⃗⃗⃗
d=| |
|𝑏|⃗

27. Find the shortest distance between the following set of parallel lines.
𝑟 = 6𝑖ˆ + 2𝑗ˆ − 𝑘ˆ + 𝜆(𝑖ˆ + 2𝑗ˆ − 4𝑘ˆ)
𝑟 = 𝑖ˆ + 𝑗ˆ + 𝑘ˆ + 𝜇(𝑖ˆ + 2𝑗ˆ − 4𝑘ˆ)
324 405
A. 𝑑=√ B. 𝑑=√
45 21
24 21
C. 𝑑=√ D. 𝑑=√
21 567
Answer: B
Explanation:
The shortest distance between two parallel lines is given by:
𝑏⃗ × (𝑎 𝑎1 )
⃗⃗⃗⃗2 − ⃗⃗⃗⃗
d=| |
|𝑏⃗|

a
(𝑖ˆ + 2𝑗ˆ − 4𝑘ˆ ) × (6𝑖ˆ + 2𝑗ˆ − 𝑘ˆ ) − (𝑖ˆ + 𝑗ˆ + 𝑘ˆ )
⁡∴ d = | |
√12 + 22 + (−4)2
(𝑖ˆ + 2𝑗ˆ − 4𝑘ˆ) × (5𝑖ˆ + 𝑗ˆ − 2𝑘ˆ)
⁡= | |
√21
m 𝑖ˆ 𝑗ˆ 𝑘ˆ
⁡(𝑖ˆ + 2𝑗ˆ − 4𝑘ˆ) × (5𝑖ˆ + 𝑗ˆ − 2𝑘ˆ) = |1 2 −4|
5 1 −2
⁡= 𝑖ˆ(−4 + 4) − 𝑗ˆ(−2 + 20) + 𝑘ˆ(1 − 10)
⁡= −18𝑗ˆ − 9𝑘ˆ
√(−18)2 + (−9)2
⁡⇒ d = | |
F=
√21

405
d=√
21

28. Which of the following is not the correct formula for representing a plane?
A. 𝑟 ⋅ 𝑛ˆ = 𝑑 B. 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏𝑦 + 𝑐𝑧 = 𝑑
C. 1𝑥 + 𝑚𝑦 + 𝑛𝑧 = 𝑑 D. 𝑎𝑙 + 𝑚𝑏 + 𝑐𝑛 = 𝑑2
Answer: D
Explanation:
𝑟 ⋅ 𝑛ˆ = 𝑑, ax+by+cz=d, I x + my + nz = d are the various ways of representing a plane. 𝑟 . 𝑛ˆ = d is the vector equation of the plane,
where 𝑛ˆ is the unit vector normal to the plane. 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏𝑦 + 𝑐𝑧 = 𝑑, ∣ 𝑥 + 𝑚𝑦 + 𝑛𝑧 = 𝑑 are the Cartesian equation of the plane in
the normal form where, a, b, c are the direction ratios and I, m, n are the direction cosines of the normal to the plane respectively.

29. If the plane passes through three collinear points, (𝑥1 , 𝑦1 , 𝑧1 ), (𝑥2 , 𝑦2 , 𝑧2 ), (𝑥3 , 𝑦3 , 𝑧3 ) then which of the following is true?
A. 𝑥1 𝑦1 𝑧1 + 𝑥2 𝑦2 𝑧2 + 𝑥3 𝑦3 𝑧3 = 0 𝑥1 𝑦1 𝑧1
B. |𝑥2 𝑦2 𝑧2 | = 0
𝑥3 𝑦3 𝑧3
𝑥1 D. 𝑥1 𝑥2 𝑥3 + 𝑦1 𝑦2 𝑦3 + 𝑧1 𝑧2 𝑧3 = 0
C. |𝑦2 | = 0
𝑧3
Answer: B
Explanation:
If the three points are collinear, then they will be in a straight line and hence the determinant of the three points will be zero.
𝑥1 𝑦1 𝑧1
i.e., |𝑥2 𝑦2 𝑧2 | = 0
𝑥3 𝑦3 𝑧3

216
 7
30. Find the vector equation of the plane which is at a distance of from the origin and the normal vector from origin is 2𝑖ˆ +
√38
3𝑗ˆ − 5𝑘ˆ ?
2𝑖ˆ 3𝑗ˆ 5𝑘ˆ 7 2𝑖ˆ 3𝑗ˆ 5𝑘ˆ 7
A. 𝑟⋅( + − )= B. 𝑟⋅( + − )=
38 √38 √38 √56 √38 √38 √38 √38
2𝑖ˆ 5𝑗ˆ 3𝑘ˆ 7 2𝑖ˆ 3𝑗ˆ 5𝑘ˆ 7
C. 𝑟⋅( + + )= D. 𝑟⋅( − − )=
√38 √38 √38 √38 √58 √37 √38 √38
Answer: B
Explanation:
Let 𝑛⃗ = 2𝑖ˆ + 3𝑗ˆ − 5𝑘ˆ
𝑛⃗ (2𝑖ˆ + 3𝑗ˆ − 5𝑘ˆ) (2𝑖ˆ + 3𝑗ˆ − 5𝑘ˆ)
𝑛ˆ = = =
|𝑛⃗| √(22 + 32 + (−5)2 ) √38
2𝑖ˆ 3𝑗ˆ 5𝑘ˆ 7
Hence, the required equation of the plane is 𝑟 ⋅ ( + − )=
√38 √38 √38 √38

Question/Answer
Very Short Questions
1 1
1. Find the acute angle which the line with direction-cosines < ⁡ , , n⁡ > makes with positive direction of z-axis.
√3 √6
Answer: l2 + m2 + n2 =1

a
1
n2 = 1 –
2
1
n2 =
2
1
n=
√2
Thus, cos α =
1
√2
m
π
Hence, α = 45° or
4

2. Find the direction-cosines of the line.

Answer:
F=
Its direction-ratios are <2, -1, 2>.
Hence, its direction- cosine are:

3. If α, β, γ are direction-angles of a line, prove that cos 2a + cos 2P + cos 2y +1 = 0.

Answer:
Since α, β, γ are direction-angles of a line,
∴ cos2 α + cos2 β + cos2γ = 1

⇒ 1 + cos2α + 1 + cos2β + 1 + cos2γ = 2

⇒ cos 2α + cos 2β + cos 2γ + 1 = 0, which is true.

4. Find the length of the intercept, cut off by the plane 2x + y – z = 5 on the x-axis.
Answer:
The given plane is2x + y – z = 5

217
 x
Its intercepts are , 5 and -5.
5/2
x
Hence, the length of the intercept on the x-axis is
5/2
Solution:
Length of the perpendicular from P (3, -4,5) on the z-axis

5. Find the length of the perpendicular drawn from the point P (3, -4,5) on the z-axis.
Answer:

6. Find the vector equation of a plane, which is at a distance of 5 units from the origin and whose normal vector is 2î − ĵ + 2k̂
Answer:
Direction cosines of the line are:

a
< cos 90°, cos 135°, cos 45° >

7. If a line makes angles 90°, 135°, 45° with the x, y and z-axes respectively, find its direction cosines.
Answer:
m
The equations of the line through A (3,4,1) and B (5,1,6) are:

Any point on (1) is (3 + 2k,4- 3k, 1 + 5k) …. (2)

F=
This lies on xy-plane (z = 0).
1
∴ 1 + 5k = 0 ⇒ k = −
5
2 3
Putting in (2), [ 3 - , 4 + , 1-1)
5 5
13 23
i.e. ( , , 0)
5 5
which are the reqd. co-ordinates of the point.

8. Find the co-ordinates of the point where the line through the points A (3,4,1) and B (5,1, 6) crosses the xy-plane.
Answer:
The vector equation of the line is r = a⃗ + λm ⃗⃗⃗
i.e., r = (3î + 4ĵ + 5k̂) + λ (2î + 2ĵ − 3k̂)

9. find the vector equation of the line which passes through the point (3,4,5) and is parallel to the vector 2î + 2ĵ - 3k̂
Answer:

Short Questions
1. Find the acute angle between the lines whose direction-ratios are:
< 1,1,2 > and <-3, -4,1 >.
Answer:

218
2. Find the angle between the following pair of lines:
And and check whether the lines are parallel or perpendicular.

Answer:
The given lines can be rewritten as:

Here < 2,7, – 3 > and < -1,2,4 > are direction- ratios of lines (1) and (2) respectively.

Hence, the given lines are perpendicular.

a
m
3. Find the vector equation of the line joining (1.2.3) and (-3,4,3) and show that it is perpendicular to the z-axis.
Answer:
Vector equation of the line passing through
F=

∴ Line (1) is perpendicular to z-axis.

6
4. Find the vector equation of the plane, which is at units from the origin and its normal vector from the origin is 2𝑖̂ −3𝑗̂ +
√29
4𝑘̂ . Also, find its cartesian form.
Answer:

219
5. Find the direction-cosines of the unit vector perpendicular to the plane 𝑟 ⋅(6𝑖̂ − 3𝑗̂ − 2𝑘̂ ) +1 = 0 through the origin.
Answer:

Dividing (1) by 7,

6. Find the acute angle between the lines:

Answer:
Vector in the direction of first line

Vector in the direction of second line

a
m
∴ θ, the angle between two given lines is given by:
F=

7. Find the angle between the line:

𝑟 = (𝑖̂ − 𝑗̂ + 𝑘̂ ) + λ (2𝑖̂ − 𝑗̂ + 3𝑘̂ ) and the plane 𝑟 ⋅(2𝑖̂ + 𝑗̂ − 𝑘̂ ) = 4 Also, find whether the line is parallel to the plane or not .
Answer:
The given line is:

If ‘θ’ is the angle between the line and the plane,

Then

220
Hence, the line is parallel to the plane.

8. Find the value of ‘λ’, so that the lines:

1−𝑥 7𝑦−14 𝑧−3 7−7𝑥 𝑦−5 6−𝑧
= = and = = are at right angles. Also, find whether the lines are intersecting or not.
3 𝜆 2 3𝜆 1 5
Answer:
(i) The given lines are

These are perpendicular if:

Hence λ = 1.
(ii) The direction cosines of line (1) are <-3,1,2>
The direction cosines of line (2) are < -3,1, -5 >
Clearly, the lines are intersecting.

Long Questions
1. Find the shortest distance between the lines: 𝑟 = (4𝐼̂ – 𝑗̂) + λ (𝐼̂ + 2𝑗̂ – 3𝑘̂ ) and 𝑟 = (𝐼̂ – 𝑗̂ + 2𝑘̂ ) + μ(2𝐼̂ + 4𝑗̂ – 5𝑘̂ .

a
Answer:
Comparing given equations with:
m
F=

2. A line makes angles α, β, γ, δ with the four diagonals of a cube, prove that:
4
cos2 α + cos2 β + cos2 γ + cos2 δ= . (N.C.E.R.T.)
3
Answer:
Let O be the origin and OA, OB, OC (each = a) be the axes.

221
Thus, the co-ordinates of the points are:
O (0,0,0), A (a, 0,0), B (0, a, 0), C (0,0, a),
P (a, a, a), L (0, a, a), M (a, 0, a), N (a, a, 0).
Here OP, AL, BM, and CN are four diagonals.
Let < l, m, n > be the direction-cosines of the given line.
Now direction-ratios of OP are:
<a-0, a-0, a-0>i.e.<a, a, a>
i.e., < 1,1,1 >,
direction-ratios of AL are:
<0-a, a-0, a-0> i.e., <-a, a, a>
i.e., <-l, 1,1 >,
direction-ratios of BM are:
<a-0,0-a, a-0>

a
i.e. <a, -a,a> i.e. < 1,-1, 1 >
and direction-ratios of CN are:
<a-0,a-0,0-a> i.e. <a,a,-a>
i.e. < 1,1,-1 >.
Thus, the direction-cosines of OP are:
m
the direction-cosines of AL are:

the direction-cosines of BM are:

F=
and the direction-cosines of CN are:

If the given line makes an angle ‘a’ with OP, then:

Squaring and adding (1), (2), (3) and (4), we get:

cos2 α + cos2 β + cos2 γ + cos2δ

+ (l-m + n)2 + (l + m — n)2]

222
 𝑥−1 𝑦−4 𝑧−4
3. Find the equation of the plane through the line = = and parallel to the line:
3 2 −2
𝑥+1 1−𝑦 𝑧+2
= =
2 4 1
Hence, find the shortest distance between the lines.
Answer:
The two given lines are:

Let <a, b, c> be the direction-ratios of the normal to the plane containing line (1).
∴ Equation of the plane is:
a (x- l) + b(y-4) + c(z-4) … (3),
where 3a + 2b – 2c = 0 … (4)
[∵ Reqd. plane contains line (1)] and 2a – 4b + 1.c = 0
[∵ line (1) a parallel to the reqd. plane] Solving (4) and (5),

Putting in (3),
6k (x- 1) + 7k(y – 4) + 16k(z – 4) = 0
= 6(x – 1) + 7(y – 4) + 16(z – 4) =0

a
[∵k ≠ 0]
m
⇒ 6x + 7y+ 16z-98 = 0,
which is the required equation of the plane.
Now, S.D. between two lines = perpendicular distance of (-1,1, – 2) from the plane
F=

6(-1) + 7(1) +16(-2) – 98

V (6)2 + (7)2 + (16)2
-6 + 7-32-98 V36 + 49 + 256

4. Find the Vector and Cartesian equations of the plane passing through the points (2, 2, -1), (3,4,2) and (7,0,6). Also, find the
vector equation of a plane passing through (4,3,1) and parallel to the plane obtained above.
Answer:
(i) Cartesian equations
Any plane through (2,2, -1) is:
a (x – 2) + b (y- 2) + c (z + 1) = 0 … (1)
Since the plane passes through the points (3,4,2) and (7,0,6),
∴ a (3 – 2) + b (4 – 2) + c (2 +1) = 0
and a (7 – 2) + b (0 – 2) + c (6 + 1) = 0
⇒ a + 2b + 3c = 0 … (2)
and 5a – 2b + 7c = 0 … (3)

∴ a = 5k, b = 2k and c = -3k,

Putting the values of a, b, c in (1), we get:
5k (x – 2) + 2k (y – 2) – 3k (z + 1) = 0
⇒ 5(x-2) + 2(y-2)-3(z+ 1) =0[∵ k ≠ 0]

223
=» 5x- 10 + 2y-4-3z-3 = 0
=» 5x + 2y-3z-17 = 0, … (4)
which is the reqd. Cartesian equation.

(ii) Any plane parallel to (4) is

5x + 2y – 3z + λ – 0 … (5)
Since it passes through (4, 3,1),
5(4) + 2(3) – 3(1) + λ = 0
⇒ 20 + 6 — 3 + λ = 0
⇒ λ = -23.
Putting in (5), 5x + 2y – 3z – 23 = 0, which is the reqd. equation.

a
m
F=

224
 Chapter-12 Linear Programming
Introduction

In earlier classes, we have discussed systems of linear equations and their applications in day-to-day problems. In Class XI, we have
studied linear inequalities and systems of linear inequalities in two variables and their solutions by graphical method. Many applications
in mathematics involve systems of inequalities/equations. In this chapter, we shall apply the systems of linear inequalities/equations to
solve some real-life problems of the type as given below: A furniture dealer deals in only two items–tables and chairs. He has Rs 50,000 to
invest and has storage space of at most 60 pieces. A table costs Rs 2500 and a chair Rs 500. He estimates that from the sale of one table,
he can make a profit of Rs 250 and that from the sale of one chair a profit of Rs 75. He wants to know how many tables and chairs he
should buy from the available money so as to maximize his total profit, assuming that he can sell all the items which he buys.

Such types of problems which seek to maximize (or, minimize) profit (or, cost) form a general class of problems called optimization
problems. Thus, an optimization problem may involve finding maximum profit, minimum cost, or minimum use of resources etc.

A special but a very important class of optimization problems is linear programming problems. The above stated optimization problem is
an example of linear programming problem. Linear programming problems are of much interest because of their wide applicability in
industry, commerce, management science etc.

In this chapter, we shall study some linear programming problems and their solutions by graphical method only, though there are many

a
other methods also to solve such problems.

Linear Programming Problem and its Mathematical Formulation

m
We begin our discussion with the above example of furniture dealer which will further lead to a mathematical formulation of the problem
in two variables. In this example, we observe
• The dealer can invest his money in buying tables or chairs or the combination thereof. Further he would earn different profits by
following different investment strategies.
• There are certain overriding conditions or constraints viz., his investment is limited to a maximum of Rs 50,000 and so is his storage
space which is for a maximum of 60 pieces.

Suppose he decides to buy tables only and no chairs, so he can buy 50000 ÷ 2500, i.e., 20 tables. His profit in this case will be Rs
F=
(250 × 20), i.e., Rs 5000.
Suppose he chooses to buy chairs only and no tables. With his capital of Rs 50,000, he can buy 50000 ÷ 500, i.e., 100 chairs. But he can
store only 60 pieces. Therefore, he is forced to buy only 60 chairs which will give him a total profit of Rs⁡(60 × 75), i.e., Rs 4500.

There are many other possibilities, for instance, he may choose to buy 10 tables and 50 chairs, as he can store only 60 pieces. Total profit
in this case would be Rs (10 × 250 + 50 × 75), i.e., Rs 6250 and so on.
We, thus, find that the dealer can invest his money in different ways, and he would earn different profits by following different investment
strategies.

Now the problem is: How should he invest his money in order to get maximum profit? To answer this question, let us try to formulate the
problem mathematically.

Mathematical formulation of the problem

Let 𝑥 be the number of tables and 𝑦 be the number of chairs that the dealer buys. Obviously, 𝑥 and 𝑦 must be non-negative, i.e.,
𝑥 0 … (1)
(Non-negative constraints)
𝑦 0 … (2)

The dealer is constrained by the maximum amount he can invest (Here it is Rs 50,000) and by the maximum number of items he can
store (Here it is 60).

Stated mathematically,
2500𝑥 + 500𝑦 ⁡≤ 50000 (investment constraint)
or 5𝑥 + 𝑦 ⁡≤ 100 … (3)
and 𝑥 + 𝑦 ⁡≤ 60 (storage constraint) …(4)

225
The dealer wants to invest in such a way so as to maximise his profit, say, Z which stated as a function of 𝑥 and 𝑦 is given by Z = 250𝑥 +
75𝑦 (called objective function)…(5)

Mathematically, the given problems now reduces to:

Maximise Z = 250𝑥 + 75𝑦
subject to the constraints:
5𝑥 + 𝑦 ≤ 100
𝑥 + 𝑦 ≤ 60
𝑥 ≥ 0, 𝑦 ≥ 0

So, we have to maximise the linear function Z subject to certain conditions determined by a set of linear inequalities with variables as
non-negative. There are also some other problems where we have to minimise a linear function subject to certain conditions determined
by a set of linear inequalities with variables as non-negative. Such problems are called Linear Programming Problems.

Thus, a Linear Programming Problem is one that is concerned with finding the optimal value (maximum or minimum value) of a linear
function (called objective function) of several variables (say 𝑥 and 𝑦 ), subject to the conditions that the variables are non-negative and
satisfy a set of linear inequalities (called linear constraints). The term linear implies that all the mathematical relations used in the
problem are linear relations while the term programming refers to the method of determining a particular programme or plan of action.
Before we proceed further, we now formally define some terms (which have been used above) which we shall be using in the linear
programming problems:

Objective function Linear function Z = 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏𝑦, where 𝑎, 𝑏 are constants, which has to be maximised or minimized is called a linear

a
objective function.

In the above example, Z = 250𝑥 + 75𝑦 is a linear objective function. Variables 𝑥 and 𝑦 are called decision variables.
Constraints The linear inequalities or equations or restrictions on the variables of a linear programming problem are called constraints.
The conditions 𝑥 ≥ 0, 𝑦 ≥ 0 are called non-negative restrictions. In the above example, the set of inequalities (1) to (4) are constraints.
m
Optimisation problem A problem which seeks to maximise or minimise a linear function (say of two variables 𝑥 and 𝑦 ) subject to certain
constraints as determined by a set of linear inequalities is called an optimisation problem. Linear programming problems are special
types of optimisation problems. The above problem of investing a given sum by the dealer in purchasing chairs and tables is an example
of an optimisation problem as well as of a linear programming problem. We will now discuss how to find solutions to a linear
programming problem. In this chapter, we will be concerned only with the graphical method.

Graphical method of solving linear programming problems

F=
In Class XI, we have learnt how to graph a system of linear inequalities involving two variables 𝑥 and 𝑦 and to find its solutions
graphically. Let us refer to the problem of investment in tables and chairs discussed in Section 12.2. We will now solve this problem
graphically. Let us graph the constraints stated as linear inequalities:
5𝑥 + 𝑦 ⁡≤ 100 … (1)
𝑥 + 𝑦 ⁡≤ 60 … (2)
𝑥 ⁡≥ 0 … (3)
𝑦 ⁡≥ 0 … (4)

The graph of this system (shaded region) consists of the points common to all half planes determined by the inequalities (1) to (4) (Fig
12.1).

226
Each point in this region represents a feasible choice open to the dealer for investing in tables and chairs. The region, therefore, is called
the feasible region for the problem. Every point of this region is called a feasible solution to the problem. Thus, we have,
Feasible region. The common region determined by all the constraints including non-negative constraints 𝑥, 𝑦 ≥ 0 of a linear
programming problem is called the feasible region (or solution region) for the problem. In Fig 12.1, the region OABC (shaded) is the
feasible region for the problem. A region other than feasible region is called an infeasible region.

Feasible solutions Points within and on the boundary of the feasible region represent feasible solutions of the constraints. In Fig 12.1,
every point within and on the boundary of the feasible region OABC represents a feasible solution to the problem. For example, the point
(10,50) is a feasible solution of the problem and so are the points (0,60), (20,0) etc.
Any point outside the feasible region is called an infeasible solution. For example, the point (25,40) is an infeasible solution of the
problem.

Optimal (feasible) solution: Any point in the feasible region that gives the optimal value (maximum or minimum) of the objective function
is called an optimal solution.
Now, we see that every point in the feasible region OABC satisfies all the constraints as given in (1) to (4), and since there are infinitely
many points, it is not evident how we should go about finding a point that gives a maximum value of the objective function Z = 250𝑥 +
75𝑦. To handle this situation, we use the following theorems which are fundamental in solving linear programming problems. The proofs
of these theorems are beyond the scope of the book.

Theorem 1 Let R be the feasible region (convex polygon) for a linear programming problem and let Z = 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏𝑦 be the objective
function. When Z has an optimal value (maximum or minimum), where the variables 𝑥 and 𝑦 are subject to constraints described by
linear inequalities, this optimal value must occur at a corner point* (vertex) of the feasible region.

a
Theorem 2 Let R be the feasible region for a linear programming problem and let Z = 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏𝑦 be the objective function. If R is bounded
b* ⁡∗∗ , then the objective function Z has both a maximum and a minimum value on R and each of these occurs at a corner point (vertex) of
𝑅.
Remark If R is unbounded, then a maximum or a minimum value of the objective function may not exist. However, if it exists, it must
m
occur at a corner point of R. (By Theorem 1).

In the above example, the corner points (vertices) of the bounded (feasible) region are: O, A, B and C and it is easy to find their
coordinates as (0,0), (20,0), (10,50) and (0,60) respectively. Let us now compute the values of 𝑍 at these points.
We have
Vertex of the Corresponding value
Feasible Region of 𝐙 (in Rs)
F=
O (0,0) 0

C (0,60) 4500

B (10,50) 𝟔𝟐𝟓𝟎 ←Maximum

A (20,0) 5000

We observe that the maximum profit to the dealer results from the investment strategy (10,50), i.e. buying 10 tables and 50 chairs.
This method of solving linear programming problems is referred to as Corner Point Method.
The method comprises of the following steps:
• Find the feasible region of the linear programming problem and determine its corner points (vertices) either by inspection or by
solving the two equations of the lines intersecting at that point.
• Evaluate the objective function Z = 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏𝑦 at each corner point. Let M and 𝑚, respectively denote the largest and smallest values of
these points.
• (i) When the feasible region is bounded, 𝑀 and 𝑚 are the maximum and minimum values of 𝑍.
(ii) In case, the feasible region is unbounded, we have:
• (a) M is the maximum value of Z, if the open half plane determined by 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏𝑦 > M has no point in common with the feasible region.
Otherwise, Z has no maximum value.
(b) Similarly, 𝑚 is the minimum value of 𝑍, if the open half plane determined by 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏𝑦 < 𝑚 has no point in common with the
feasible region. Otherwise, Z has no minimum value.
227
Different Types of Linear Programming Problems

A few important linear programming problems are listed below:

Manufacturing problems: In these problems, we determine the number of units of different products which should be produced and
sold by a firm when each product requires a fixed manpower, machine hours, labour hour per unit of product, warehouse space per unit
of the output etc., in order to make maximum profit.

Diet problems: In these problems, we determine the amount of different kinds of constituents/nutrients which should be included in a
diet so as to minimise the cost of the desired diet such that it contains a certain minimum amount of each constituent/nutrient.

Transportation problems: In these problems, we determine a transportation schedule in order to find the cheapest way of transporting
a product from plants/factories situated at different locations to different markets

a
m
F=

228
 Multiple Choice Questions
1. Region represented by x ≥ 0, y ≥ 0 is:
A. first quadrant B. second quadrant
C. third quadrant D. fourth quadrant
Answer: A.
Explanation:
All the positive values of x and y will lie in the first quadrant.

2. The maximum value of Z = 3x + 4y subjected to constraints x + y ≤ 4, x ≥ 0 and y ≥ 0 is:

A. 12 B. 14
C. 16 D. None of the above
Answer: C.
Explanation:
The feasible region determined by the constraints, x + y ≤ 4, x ≥ 0, y ≥ 0, is given below

a
m
O (0, 0), A (4, 0), and B (0, 4) are the corner points of the feasible region. The values of Z at these points are given below:
Corner point Z = 3x + 4y
O (0, 0) 0
A (4, 0) 12
B (0, 4) 16
F=
Hence, the maximum value of Z is 16 at point B (0, 4)

3. The minimum value of Z = 3x + 5y subjected to constraints x + 3y ≥ 3, x + y ≥ 2, x, y ≥ 0 is:

A. 5 B. 7
C. 10 D. 11
Answer: B.
Explanation:
The feasible region determined by the system of constraints, x + 3y ≥ 3, x + y ≥ 2, and x, y ≥ 0 is given below

It can be seen that the feasible region is unbounded.

The corner points of the feasible region are A (3, 0), B (3 / 2, 1 / 2) and C (0, 2)
The values of Z at these corner points are given below

229
Corner point Z = 3x + 5y
A (3, 0) 9
B (3 / 2, 1 / 2) 7 Smallest
C (0, 2) 10
7 may or may not be the minimum value of Z because the feasible region is unbounded.

For this purpose, we draw the graph of the inequality, 3x + 5y < 7 and check the resulting half-plane have common points with the
feasible region or not. Hence, it can be seen that the feasible region has no common point with 3x + 5y < 7.
Thus, the minimum value of Z is 7 at point B (3/2, 1/2).

4. The point which does not lie in the half-plane 2x + 3y -12 < 0 is:
A. (2,1) B. (1,2)
C. (-2,3) D. (2,3)
Answer: D
Explanation:
By putting the value of point (2,3) in 2x + 3y – 12, we get;
2(2) + 3(3) – 12
= 4 + 9 – 12
= 13 – 12
= 1 which is greater than 0.

a
5. The optimal value of the objective function is attained at the points:
A. on X-axis B. on Y-axis
C. corner points of the feasible region D. none of these
Answer: C.
Explanation:

solution.

6.
m
Any point in the feasible region that gives the optimal value (maximum or minimum) of the objective function is called an optimal

What is the Graphical method, simplex method and transportation method concerned with?
A. value analysis B. queuing theory
C. linear programming D. break even analysis
Answer: C
Explanation:
F=
The Graphical Method, Simplex Method, and Transportation Method are optimization techniques for linear programming problems.
Graphical Method visualizes the feasible region and objective function on a graph to find optimal solutions. Simplex Method
uses algebraic operations to iteratively find the optimal solution. Transportation Method is used to allocate resources efficiently from
sources to destinations.

7. Simplex problem is considered as infeasible when

A. All the variables in entering column are negative B. Variable in the basis are negative
C. Artificial variable is present in basis D. Pivotal value is negative
Answer: C
Explanation:
A Simplex problem is considered infeasible when there is no solution that satisfies all the constraints of the problem. This can occur
when the constraints are conflicting and cannot be simultaneously satisfied, or when there is no solution that satisfies the non-negativity
constraints (i.e., all variables must be non-negative). In this case, the simplex algorithm will not be able to find a feasible solution and will
terminate with an infeasibility message.

8. In linear programming problems when does feasibility change?

A. Change in objective functions coefficient B. Change in right hand side of feasible region
C. Addition of new variable D. Feasibility doesn’t change
Answer: B
Explanation:
Linear programming feasibility is if a solution meets all restrictions. Feasible problems have solutions. Infeasibility occurs when no
solution meets all requirements.
Changes in limitations or objective function can affect feasibility. If a new requirement makes it impossible to develop a solution that
meets all constraints, the problem becomes infeasible. However, removing a constraint may make the challenge doable.

230
Changing the objective function might also affect feasibility. The task is viable if the new objective function solves all restrictions. The
task becomes infeasible if the new objective function yields a solution that violates all restrictions.

9. Region represented by x ≥ 0, y ≥ 0 is:

A. first quadrant B. second quadrant
C. third quadrant D. fourth quadrant
Answer: A
Explanation:
The region represented by x ≥ 0 and y ≥ 0 is the non-negative quadrant of the Cartesian plane. It is a region in which both x and y are
greater than or equal to zero. This region is also referred to as the first quadrant. The non-negative quadrant is a commonly used region
in linear programming problems as it represents the feasible region in which the variables must be non-negative.

10. Maximize Z = 3x + 5y, subject to constraints: x + 4y ≤ 24, 3x + y ≤ 21, x + y ≤ 9, x ≥ 0, y ≥ 0

A. 20 at (1, 0) B. 30 at (0, 6)
C. 37 at (4, 5) D. 33 at (6, 3)
Answer: C
Explanation:
To maximize: z = 3x + 5y
Given subject to,
x + 4 ≤ 24
3x + y ≤ 21
x + y ≤ 9, x ≥ 0, y ≥ 0

a
Consider,
x + 4y = 24 … (1)
3x + y = 21 … (2)
x + y = 9 … (3)
On solving equation (1) and (2), we get
y = 51/11
Form equation (1),
x = 60/11
m
Therefore, (x, y) = (60/11, 51/11)
And z = 3x + 5y = 435/11 = 39.54
Now,
On solving equation (2) and (3), we get
F=
x=6
From equation (3),
y=3
Therefore, (x, y) = (6,3)
And z = 3x + 5y = 33
Now,
On solving equation (1) and (3), we get
y=5
From equation (3),
x=4
Therefore, (x, y) = (4,5)
And z = 3x + 5y = 37

11. If we have a basic feasible solution consisting of (𝑚 + 𝑛 − 1) independent allocations and a set of arbitrary number 𝑢𝑖 (𝑖 =
1,2, … . . , 𝑚) and 𝑣𝑗 (𝑗 = 1,2, … . . , 𝑛) satisfying 𝑐𝑟𝑠 = 𝑢𝑟 + 𝑣𝑠 for all occupied cells (𝑟, 𝑠), then the evaluation Δ𝑗 (≥ 0) corresponding to
each empty cell (𝑖, 𝑗) is given by
A. 𝐶𝑖𝑗 + (𝑢𝑖 + 𝑣𝑗 ) B. 𝐶𝑖𝑗 + (𝑢𝑖 − 𝑣𝑗 )
1
C. 𝐶𝑖𝑗 − (𝑢𝑖 + 𝑣𝑗 ) D. 𝐶𝑖𝑗 − (𝑢𝑖 + 𝑣𝑗 )
2
Answer: D
Explanation:
Algorithm for optimally test:
In order to test for optimally we should follow the procedure as given below:
1 Start with basic feasible solution consisting of 𝑚 + 𝑛 − 1 allocations in independent positions.
2 Determine a set of 𝑚 + 𝑛 numbers 𝑢𝑖 (𝑖 = 1,2, … 𝑚) and 𝑣𝑗 (𝑗 = 1,2, … 𝑛) such that for each occupied cell (𝑟, 𝑠)𝑐𝑟𝑠 = 𝑢𝑟 + 𝑣𝑠

231
3 Calculate cell evaluation (unit cost difference) 𝑑𝑖𝑗 for each empty cell (𝑖, 𝑗) by using the formula dij = cij − (ui + vj)
4 ∴ The formula of cell (I, j) is given by cij − (ui + vj )

12. Which of the following methods is commonly used to solve assignment problems?
A. Steppingstone method B. Hungarian method
C. North - west corner method D. Vogel's approximation method
Answer: B
Explanation:
There are mainly four methods to solve assignment problems:
• Hungarian method
• Enumeration Method
• Simplex method
• Transportation method
The most common method used for solving assignment is: Hungarian Method

13. In a transportation problem with 4 supply points and 5 demand points, how many number of constraints are required in its
formulation?
A. 20 B. 1
C. 0 D. 9
Answer: D
Explanation:

a
In a transportation problem with m supply points and n demand points
Number of constraints = 𝑚 + 𝑛
Number of variables = 𝑚 × 𝑛
Number of equations = 𝑚 + 𝑛 − 1
Given:
𝑚 = 4, 𝑛 = 5
m
Number of constraints = 𝑚 + 𝑛 = 4 + 5 = 9
Consider the Linear Programming problem:
Maximize: 7𝑋1 + 6𝑋2 + 4𝑋3
subject to:
𝑋1 + 𝑋2 + 𝑋3 ≤ 5
2𝑋1 + 𝑋2 + 3𝑋3 ≤ 10
𝑋1 , 𝑋2 , 𝑋3 ≥ 0 (Solve by algebraic method).
F=
14. The number of basic solutions is:
A. 10 B. 7
C. 9 D. 8
Answer: A
Explanation:
Given:
X1 + X 2 + X 3 ≤ 5
X1 + X2 + X3 + S1 + 0 S2 = 5
2X1 + X2 + 3X3 ≤ 10
2X1 + X2 + 3X3 + 0 S1 + S2 = 10
n = number of variables = 5
m = number of equations = 2
⁡∴ number of basic solution = 𝑛𝐶𝑚 ⇒ 5𝐶2
5!
⁡∴ ⇒ 10
2! × (5 − 2)!

15. If the ith constraint of a primal (maximisation) is equality, then the dual (minimisation) variable ' 𝑦𝑖 ' is:
A. ≥ 0 B. ≤ 0
C. Unrestricted in sign D. None of the above
Answer: C
Explanation:
Duality
• For every linear programming problem there exists a related unique linear programming problem involving the same data which also
describes and solve the original problem.
232
• In Duality our aim is to find a Transpose matrix of the initial given problem known as Primal.
• It is done by transposing row and column and the final solution of both the problem will be the same.

Primal (Maximisation) Dual ( Minimisation)

𝑖 th constraint ≤ 𝑖 th variable ≥ 0

𝑗 th constraint ≥ 𝑗 th variable ≤ 0

ith constraint = jth variable unrestricted

𝑗 th variable ≥ 0 𝑗 th constraint ≥

𝑗 th variable ≤ 0 𝑗 th constraint ≤

𝑗 th variable unrestricted 𝑗 th constraint =

16. If there are m sources and n destinations in a transportation matrix, the total number of basic variables in a basic feasible solution is
A. 𝑚 + 𝑛 B. 𝑚 + 𝑛 + 1
C. 𝑚 + 𝑛 − 1 D. m
Answer: C
Explanation:

a
If 𝑥𝑖𝑗 ≥ 0, is the number of units shipped from ith source to jth destination, then the equivalent LPP model will be
Minimize 𝑍 = ∑𝑚 𝑛
𝑖=1 ∑𝑗=1 𝑐𝑖𝑗 𝑥𝑖𝑗
Subjected to:
𝑚

⁡∑ 𝑥𝑖𝑗 ≤ 𝑏𝑖 ( demand )
𝑖=1
𝑛

⁡∑ 𝑥𝑖𝑗 ≤ 𝑎𝑖 (sup𝑝𝑙𝑦)
𝑗=1
m
If total supply = total demand, then it is a balanced transportation problem otherwise it is called an unbalanced transportation problem.
There will be (𝑚 + 𝑛 − 1) basic independent variables out of (𝑚 × 𝑛) variables.

17. In a Linear programming problem, the restrictions, or limitations under which the objective function is to be optimised are called
F=
___________
A. Constraints B. Objective function
C. Decision variables D. None of the above
Answer: A
Explanation:
Objective function
• A linear function of two or more variables which has to be maximized or minimized under the given restrictions is called an
objective function.
• The variables used in the objective function are called as decision variables.
Constraints:
• These are the restrictions on the variables of a linear programming problem that are called as linear constraints.
• The final solution of the objective function must satisfy these constraints.

18. In a Linear Programming Problem, the linear relations of the variables which are either to be maximized or minimized is called
______________
A. the decisions variables B. the constraints functions
C. the variable function D. the objective function
Answer: D
Explanation:
Objective function:
• A linear function of two or more variables that have to be maximized or minimized under the given restrictions is called an objective
function.
• Decision variables:
• The variables used in the objective function are called as decision variables.
• Constraints:
233
• These are restrictions on the variables of a linear programming problem that are called as linear constraints.
• The final solution of the objective function must satisfy these constraints.

19. Vogel’s approximation method is connected with

A. Assignment problem B. Inventory problem
C. Transportation problem D. PERT
Answer: C
Explanation:
VAM solves transportation challenges. Penalty cost determines the initial possible transportation problem solution in this iterative
procedure.
VAM finds a plausible transportation problem solution, which can be enhanced utilizing the northwest corner rule, minimal cost
technique, or steppingstone method. The approach assigns penalty charges to each unused transportation table cell and fills the cell with
the lowest penalty cost.
VAM is beneficial for transportation problems with many supply and demand points or complicated pricing comparisons. The northwest
corner rule and minimum cost approach can be replaced by the easy-to-implement method.
Vogel's Approximation Method solves transportation difficulties by finding an initial workable solution.

20. Consider the given problem:

5x + y ≤ 100 ... (1)
x + y ≤ 60 ... (2)
x ≥ 0 ... (3)
y ≥ 0 ... (4)

a
A. (60, 0) B. (20, 0)
C. (0, 60) D. (10, 50)
Answer: A
Explanation:
After setting each constraint to zero, we get the equations of lines on cartesian coordinates.
m
When we compare the inequality with (0,0) and shade the common area, we get the following for the feasible region:
F=
21. In the Simplex method if in pivot column all the entries are negative or zero when choosing leaving variable then
A. Solution is Degenerate B. Solution is infeasible
C. Alternative optima D. Unbounded
Answer: A
Explanation:
The mathematical optimization technique Simplex solves linear programming issues. The algorithm iteratively determines the optimal
solution by picking a pivot column (the column with the largest negative value in the objective function row) and a pivot row (the row
with the smallest positive ratio of the right-hand side value to the pivot column entry). The pivot element updates the tableau, a matrix
representation of the linear programming problem.
The Simplex algorithm cannot discover a solution if all pivot column entries are negative or zero. Two scenarios:
• All pivot column items are negative: If all items in the pivot column are negative, the ratio will be negative or zero regardless of the
pivot row. No suitable Simplex solution can be discovered.
• The pivot column is empty: If the pivot column has zero entries, the objective function is flat and the algorithm cannot determine
which direction to travel to enhance the result. This solution is unbounded or infeasible. More testing is needed to decide.
The Simplex technique terminates and cannot find a feasible solution in either scenario. The problem may require a different
optimization algorithm or approach.

22. The objective function of a linear programming problem is

A. a constraint B. function to be optimized
C. A relation between the variables D. None of these
Answer: B
234
Explanation:
Optimization problem's mathematical purpose. The objective function incorporates numerous variables and coefficients to reflect the
decision-goal. In a production context, the aim function may be to maximize profit or minimize cost, taking into consideration resources
used, input prices, and product prices. The variable values that optimize the objective function within the limitations of the linear
programming problem are the solution.

23. A set of values of decision variables that satisfies the linear constraints and non-negativity conditions of an L.P.P. is called its:
A. Unbounded solution B. Optimum solution
C. Feasible solution D. None of these
Answer: B
Explanation:
A feasible solution in linear programming is:
• A set of values for the decision variables in the problem.
• Satisfies all the constraints in the problem.
• Meets the non-negativity condition, which requires that the values of the decision variables be greater than or equal to zero, unless
otherwise specified.
• A valid solution, but not necessarily the optimal solution.
• The starting point for finding the optimal solution, which optimizes the objective function.

24. Which of the following is a property of all linear programming problems?

A. alternate courses of action to choose from B. minimization of some objective

a
C. a computer program D. usage of graphs in the solution
Answer: B
Explanation:
According to Robbins, the resources (capital, land, labour, materials, ...) are always limited. Every resource have multiple uses.
The problem before any organisation or manager is to choose the best alternatives which can maximize the profit or minimize the cost of
m
production. Linear programming is the method which is used to select the best possible alternatives from the all alternatives.

According to William M. Fox, "Linear programming is a planning technique that permits some objective function to be maximized or
minimized within the framework of given situational restrictions."
Therefore, the linear programming is the process of selecting best courses of action to choose from various alternatives.

25. The ratio of the rate of flow of water in pipes varies inversely as the square of the radius of the pipes. What is the ratio of the rates of
F=
flow in two pipes diameters 2 cm and 4 cm ?
A. 1: 6 B. 1: 4
C. 1: 2 D. 3: 1
Answer: B
Explanation:
Given: d1 = 2 cm
d2 = 4 cm
Since the diameter are 2 cm and 4 cm.
The replacement ratio of the two pipes are 1 cm and 2 cm
r1 = 1 cm
r2 = 2 cm
Square of the ratio of the pipes are 1 and 4
1
∴ The ratio of rates of flow in two pipes = 1:
4
1
⇒
4

26. If given constraints are 5𝑥 + 4𝑦 ≥ 2, 𝑥 ≤ 6, 𝑦 ≤ 7, then the maximum value of the function 𝑧 = 𝑥 + 2𝑦 is
A. 13 B. 14
C. 15 D. 20
Answer: D
Explanation:
Given,

235
 𝑧 = 𝑥 + 2𝑦
and 5𝑥 + 4𝑦 = 2
𝑥 𝑦
⁡⇒ + = 1
2 2
5
2 2 2
At point A ( , 0) , 𝑧 = + 0 =
5 5 5
At point B(6,0), z = 6 + 0 = 6
At point C(6,7), z = 6 + 14 = 20
At point D(0,7), z = 0 + 2(7) = 14
1 1
At point 𝐸 (0, ) , 𝑧 = 0 + 2 ( ) = 1
2 2
∴ The maximum value of z is 20.

27. Given a system of inequation: 2𝑦 − 𝑥 ≤ 4 − 2𝑥 + 𝑦 ≥ −4 Find the value of s, which is the greatest possible sum of the x and y co-
ordinates of the point which satisfies the following inequalities as graphed in the xy plane.
A. 8 B. 12
C. 2 D. 4
Answer: A
Explanation:
First, rewrite each equation, so that it is in the slope-intercept form of a line, which is y = mx + b, where m is the slope and b is the y-
intercept of the line.
1
The first equation becomes 2𝑦 < 𝑥 + 4 or 𝑦 ≤ 𝑥 + 2.
2

a
The second equation becomes y ≥ 2x − 4.
The greatest x + y is the point at which the two lines intersect.
1
Set the equations of the two lines, 𝑦 = 𝑥 + 2 and 𝑦 = 2𝑥 − 4, equal to each other and solve for x.
2
1
The resulting equation is y = x + 2 and y = 2x − 4
2
Solve for 𝑥 to get 𝑦 =
⇒x=4
3
−2
m
𝑥 + 2 = −4 or
−2
3
𝑥 = −6,

Next, plug 4 into one of the two equations to solve for y.

Therefore, 𝑦 = 2(4) − 4 = 4 and 𝑥 + 𝑦 = 4 + 4 = 8.
The correct answer is 8.

28. Feasible region's optimal solution for a linear objective function always includes
F=
A. downward point B. upward point
C. corner point D. front point
Answer: A
Explanation:
The vertex of the feasible solution is the corner point.
In the above figure, the blue shaded region is the feasible region and the points which highlighted in red color are the vertices of the
feasible region which are called corner points.
Therefore, feasible region's optimal solution for linear objective function always includes corner point.

236
29. A feasible solution to an LP problem
A. must satisfy all of the problems constraints B. need not satisfy all of the constraints, only some of
simultaneously them
C. must be a corner point of the feasible region D. must optimize the value of the objective function
Answer: C
Explanation:
A feasible solution to an LP problem belongs to the feasible region. Feasible region is the set of all the points that satisfy the problem's
constraints including inequalities, equalities and integer constraints.
In the above figure, blue region is the feasible region. All the points in this region are feasible solutions or feasible points which satisfy the
given constraints (4𝑥 + 3𝑦 ≤ 480 and 2𝑥 + 3𝑦 ≤ 360)

a
A. first quadrant
B. second quadrant
m
30. Region represented by x ≥ 0, y ≥ 0 is:
C.
D.
third quadrant
fourth quadrant
Answer: A
Explanation: All the positive values of x and y will lie in the first quadrant.
F=
Question/Answer
Very Short Questions
1. Draw the graph of the following LPP:
5x + 2y ≤ 10, x ≥ 0, y ≥ 0.
Answer: Draw the line AB: 5.v + 2y = 10 … (1),
which meets x-axis at A (2, 0) and y-axis at B (0,5).
Also, x = 0 is y-axis and y = 0 is x-axis.
Hence, the graph of the given LPP is as shown (shaded):

237
2. Solve the system of linear inequations: x + 2y ≤ 10; 2x + y ≤ 8.
Answer: Draw the st. lines x + 2y = 10 and 2x + y = 8.
These lines meet at E (2,4).
Hence, the solution of the given linear inequations is shown as shaded in the following figure:

3. Find the linear constraints for which the shaded area in the figure below is the solution set:

a
m
Answer: From the above shaded portion, the linear constraints are:
F=
2x + y ≥ 2, x – y ≤ 1,
x + 2y ≤ 8, x ≥ 0, y ≥ 0.

4. A small firm manufactures neclaces and bracelets. The total number of neclaces and bracelets that it can handle per day is at most
24. It takes one hour to make a bracelet and half an hour to make a neclace. The maximum number of hours available per day is 16.
If the profit on a neclace is ₹100 and that on a bracelet is ₹300. Formulate an LPP for finding how many of each should be produced
daily to maximize the profit?
It is being given that at least one of each must be produced.
Answer: Let ‘x’ neclaces and ‘y’ bracelets be manufactured per day.
Then LPP problem is:
Maximize Z = 100x+300y
Subject to the constraints: x + y ≤ 24,
1
(1) (x) + y ≤ l6,
2
i.e., 2x + y ≤ 32
and x ≥ 1
and y ≥ 1
i.e., x – 1 ≥ 0
and y – 1 ≥ 0.

5. Old hens can be bought for? 2.00 each and young ones at? 5.00 each. The old hens lay 3 eggs per week and the young hens lay 5
eggs per week, each egg being worth 30 paise. A hen costs ₹1.00 per week to feed. A man has only ₹80 to spend for hens. Formulate
the problem for maximum profit per week, assuming that he cannot house more than 20 hens.
Answer: Let ‘x’ be the number of old hens and ‘y’ the number of young hens.
30
Profit = (3x + 5y) – (x + y) (1)
100

238
 9𝑥 3
= + yx – y
10 2
𝑦 𝑥 5𝑦−𝑥
= − =
2 10 10
∴ LPP problem is:
5𝑦−𝑥
Maximize Z = subject to:
10
x ≥ 0,
y ≥ 0,
x + y ≤ 20 and
2x + 5y ≤ 80.

Long Questions
1. Maximize Z-5x + 3y. subject to the constraints:
3x + 5y ≤ 15, 5x + 2y ≤ 10, x ≥ 0, y ≥ 0.
Answer: The system of constraints is:
3x + 5y ≤ 15 …(1)
5x + 2y ≤ 10 …(2)
and x ≥ 0, y≥ 0 …(3)
The shaded region in the following figure is the feasible region determined by the system of constraints (1) – (3):

a
m
It is observed that the feasible region OCEB is bounded. Thus, we use Corner Point Method to determine the maximum value of Z,
where:
Z = 5x + 3y … (4)
F=
20 45
The co-ordinates of O, C, E and B are (0, 0), (2,0), ( , ) (Solving 3x + 5y = 15 and 5x + 2y – 10) and (0, 3) respectively.
19 19
We evaluate Z at each comer point:

2. Minimize Z = 3x + 2y subject to the constraints:

x +y ≥ 8, 3x + 5y ≤ 15, x ≥ 0, y ≥ 0.
Answer: The system of constraints is:
x +y ≥ 8, , x ≥ 0, y ≥ 0…(1)
3x + 5y ≤ 15 …(2)
and x ≥ 0, y ≥ 0 …(3)

239
It is observed that there is no point, which satisfies all (1) – (3) simultaneously.
Thus, there is no feasible region.
Hence, there is no feasible solution.
Solution:
The system of constraints is:
2x-y ≥ – 5 …(1)
3x +y ≥ 3 …(2)
2x – 3y ≤ 12 … (3)
and x, y ≥ 0 …(4)

a
The shaded region in the following figure is the feasible region determined by the system of constraints (1) – (4).

m
F=
t is observed that the feasible region is unbounded.
We evaluate Z = – 50x + 20y at the corner points:
A (1, 0), B (6, 0), C (0, 5) and D (0, 3):

From the table, we observe that – 300 is the minimum value of Z.

But the feasible region is unbounded.
∴ – 300 may or may not be the minimum value of Z.”
For this, we draw the graph of the inequality.
– 50x + 20y < – 300
i.e. – 5x + 2y < – 30.
Since the remaining half-plane has common points with the feasible region,
∴ Z = – 50x + 20y has no minimum value.

3. Determine graphically the minimum value of the objective function: Z = – 50x + 20y subject to the constraints: 2x-y ≥ – 5, 3x +y ≥ 3,
2x – 3y ≤ 12, x, y ≥ 0. Hence, find the shortest distance between the lines.
240
Minimize and Maximize Z = 5x + 2y subject to the following constraints: x – 2y ≤ 2, 3x + 2y < 12, -3x + 2y ≤ 3, x ≥ 0, y ≥ 0.
Answer: The given system of constraints is:
x – 2y ≤ 2 … (1)
3x + 2y < 12 … (2)
-3x + 2y ≤ 3 … (3)
and x ≥ 0, y ≥ 0.

a
The shaded region in the above figure is the feasible region determined by the system of constraints (1) – (4). It is observed that
the feasible region OAHGF is bounded. Thus, we use Corner Point Method to determine the maximum and minimum value of Z,
where,
Z = 5x + 2y … (5)
The co-ordinates of O, A, H, G and F are:
7 3
2 4
respectively. [Solving x,
3 15 3
(0, 0). (2. 0), ( , ) and ( ,
2

2y = 2 and 3x + 2y = 12 for
4
, )
2
m
H and -3x + 2y = 3 and
3x + 2y = 12 for G]
We evaluate Z at each corner point:
F=

241
 Chapter - 13 Probability
Introduction

In earlier Classes, we have studied the probability as a measure of uncertainty of events in a random experiment. We discussed the
axiomatic approach formulated by Russian Mathematician, A.N. Kolmogorov (1903-1987) and treated probability as a function of
outcomes of the experiment. We have also established equivalence between the axiomatic theory and the classical theory of probability in
case of equally likely outcomes. On the basis of this relationship, we obtained probabilities of events associated with discrete sample
spaces. We have also studied the addition rule of probability. In this chapter, we shall discuss the important concept of conditional
probability of an event given that another event has occurred, which will be helpful in understanding the Bayes' theorem, multiplication
rule of probability and independence of events. We shall also learn an important concept of random variable and its probability distribution
and also the mean and variance of a probability distribution. In the last section of the chapter, we shall study an important discrete
probability distribution called Binomial distribution. Throughout this chapter, we shall take up the experiments having equally likely
outcomes, unless stated otherwise.

Conditional Probability

Up till now in probability, we have discussed the methods of finding the probability of events. If we have two events from the same sample
space, does the information about the occurrence of one of the events affect the probability of the other event? Let us try to answer this

a
question by taking up a random experiment in which the outcomes are equally likely to occur.
Consider the experiment of tossing three fair coins. The sample space of the experiment is
S = {HHH, HHT, HTH, THH, HTT, THT, TTH, TTT}
1
Since the coins are fair, we can assign the probability to each sample point. Let E be the event 'at least two heads appear' and F be the
8
event 'first coin shows tail'.
Then
And
Therefore
m
E = {HHH, HHT, HTH, THH}$$
{F}= {THH}, {THT}, {TTH}, {TTT}}

P(E) = P({HHH}) + P({HHT}) + P({HTH}) + P({THH})

1 1 1 1 1
= + + + =
8 8 8 8 2
and
F=
P(F) = P({THH}) + P({THT}) + P({TTH}) + P({TTT})
1 1 1 1 1
= + + + =
8 8 8 8 2
Also
E ∩ F = {THH}
1
with P(E ∩ F) = P({THH}) =
8

Now, suppose we are given that the first coin shows tail, i.e., F occurs, then what is the probability of occurrence of E ? With the information
of occurrence of F, we are sure that the cases in which first coin does not result into a tail should not be considered while finding the
probability of E. This information reduces our sample space from the set S to its subset F for the event E. In other words, the additional
information really amounts to telling us that the situation may be considered as being that of a new random experiment for which the
sample space consists of all those outcomes only which are favourable to the occurrence of the event 𝐹.
Now, the sample point of F which is favourable to event E is THH.

1
Thus, Probability of E considering F as the sample space = ,
4
1
or Probability of E given that the event F has occurred =
4
This probability of the event E is called the conditional probability of 𝐸 given that 𝐹 has already occurred and is denoted by P(E ∣ F).

1
Thus P(E ∣ F) =
4
Note that the elements of F which favour the event E are the common elements of 𝐸 and 𝐹, i.e., the sample points of 𝐸 ∩ 𝐹. Thus, we can
also write the conditional probability of E given that F has occurred as

242
 Number of elementary events favourable to E ∩ F
P(E ∣ F) =
Number of elementary events which are favourable to F
𝑛(E ∩ F)
=
𝑛( F)
Dividing the numerator and the denominator by total number of elementary events of the sample space, we see that P(E ∣ F) can also be
written as
𝑛(E ∩ F)
𝑛( S) P(E ∩ F)
P(E ∣ F) = =
𝑛( F) P(F)
𝑛( S)
Note that (1) is valid only when P(F) ≠ 0 i.e., F ≠ 𝜙 (Why?)
Thus, we can define the conditional probability as follows:

Definition 1 If 𝐸 and 𝐹 are two events associated with the same sample space of a random experiment, the conditional probability of the
event E given that F has occurred, i.e., P(E ∣ F) is given by
𝑃(𝐸 ∩ 𝐹)
𝑃(𝐸 ∣ 𝐹) = provided 𝑃(𝐹) ≠ 0
𝑃(𝐹)

Properties of conditional probability

Let E and F be events of a sample space S of an experiment, then we have

a
Property 𝟏 P(S ∣ F) = P(F ∣ F) = 1
We know that
Also
𝑃(𝑆 ∩ 𝐹) 𝑃(𝐹)
𝑃(𝑆 ∣ 𝐹) = = =1

Thus
m 𝑃(𝐹 ∣ 𝐹) =
𝑃(𝐹)

𝑃(𝐹)
𝑃(𝐹)

𝑃(𝐹 ∩ 𝐹) 𝑃(𝐹)
=
𝑃(𝐹)
=1

P(S ∣ F) = P(F ∣ F) = 1

Property 2 If A and B are any two events of a sample space S and F is an event of S such that P(F) ≠ 0, then
P((A ∪ B) ∣ F) = P(A ∣ F) + P(B ∣ F) − P((A ∩ B) ∣ F)
F=
In particular, if A and B are disjoint events, then
We have
P((A ∪ B) ∣ F) = P(A ∣ F) + P(B ∣ F)
P[(A ∪ B) ∩ F]
P((A ∪ B) ∣ F) =
P(F)
P[(A ∩ F) ∪ (B ∩ F)]
=
P(F)
(by distributive law of union of sets over intersection)
𝑃(𝐴 ∩ 𝐹) + 𝑃(𝐵 ∩ 𝐹) − 𝑃(𝐴 ∩ 𝐵 ∩ 𝐹)
=
𝑃(𝐹)
𝑃(𝐴 ∩ 𝐹) 𝑃(𝐵 ∩ 𝐹) 𝑃[( A ∩ B) ∩ 𝐹]
= + −
𝑃(𝐹) 𝑃(𝐹) P(F)
= P(A ∣ F) + P(B ∣ F) − P((A ∩ B) ∣ F)
When A and B are disjoint events, then
⇒ P((A ∩ B) ∣ F) = 0
P((A ∪ B) ∣ F) = P(A ∣ F) + P(B ∣ F)

Property 𝟑 P(E′ ∣ F) = 1 − P(E ∣ F)

From Property 1, we know that P(S ∣ F) = 1
⇒ 𝑃(𝐸 ∪ E′ ∣ F) = 1 since 𝑆 = 𝐸 ∪ E′
⇒ P(E ∣ F) + P(E′ ∣ F) = 1 since E and E′ are disjoint events
Thus,
P(E′ ∣ F) = 1 − P(E ∣ F)
Let us now take up some examples.
7 9 4
Example 1 If P(A) = , P(B) = and P(A ∩ B) = , evaluate P(A ∣ B).
13 13 13
243
 4
P(A∩B) 4
Solution We have P(A ∣ B) = = 13
9 =
P(B) 9
13
Example 2 A family has two children. What is the probability that both the children are boys given that at least one of them is a boy?
Solution Let 𝑏 stand for boy and 𝑔 for girl. The sample space of the experiment is
S = {(𝑏, 𝑏), (𝑔, 𝑏), (𝑏, 𝑔), (𝑔, 𝑔)}
Let E and F denote the following events :
E: 'both the children are boys'
F : 'at least one of the child is a boy'
Then
E = {(𝑏, 𝑏)} and F = {(𝑏, 𝑏), (𝑔, 𝑏), (𝑏, 𝑔)}
Now
E ∩ F = {(𝑏, 𝑏)}
Thus
3 1
𝑃(𝐹) = and 𝑃(𝐸 ∩ 𝐹) =
4 4
Therefore
1
𝑃(𝐸 ∩ 𝐹) 4 1
𝑃(𝐸 ∣ 𝐹) = = =
𝑃(𝐹) 3 3
4

Example 3 Ten cards numbered 1 to 10 are placed in a box, mixed up thoroughly and then one card is drawn randomly. If it is known that
the number on the drawn card is more than 3, what is the probability that it is an even number?

a
Solution Let A be the event 'the number on the card drawn is even' and B be the event 'the number on the card drawn is greater than 3'.
We have to find P(A ∣ B).
Now, the sample space of the experiment is S = {1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10}
Then
A = {2,4,6,8,10}, B = {4,5,6,7,8,9,10}
and

Also
m 5
A ∩ B = {4,6,8,10}

7 4
P(A) = , P(B) = and P(A ∩ B) =
10 10 10
Then
4
𝑃(𝐴 ∩ 𝐵) 10 4
F=
𝑃(𝐴 ∣ 𝐵) = = =
𝑃(𝐵) 7 7
10

Example 4 In a school, there are 1000 students, out of which 430 are girls. It is known that out of 430,10% of the girl’s study in class XII.
What is the probability that a student chosen randomly studies in Class XII given that the chosen student is a girl?
Solution Let E denote the event that a student chosen randomly studies in Class XII and F be the event that the randomly chosen student
is a girl. We have to find P(E ∣ F). Now
430 43
𝑃(𝐹) = = 0.43 and P(E F) = 0.043 (Why?)
1000 1000
𝑃(𝐸∩𝐹) 0.043
Then 𝑃(𝐸 ∣ 𝐹) = = = 0.1
𝑃(𝐹) 0.43

Example 5 A die is thrown three times. Events A and B are defined as below:
A : 4 on the third throw
B : 6 on the first and 5 on the second throw
Find the probability of A given that B has already occurred.
Solution The sample space has 216 outcomes.
Now

and

𝐵 = {(6,5,1), (6,5,2), (6,5,3), (6,5,4), (6,5,5), (6,5,6)}

244
Now
A ∩ B = {(6,5,4)}
6 1
P(B) = and P(A ∩ B) =
216 216
Then
1
𝑃(𝐴 ∩ 𝐵) 216 1
𝑃(𝐴 ∣ 𝐵) = = =
𝑃(𝐵) 6 6
216

Example 6 A die is thrown twice and the sum of the numbers appearing is observed to be 6. What is the conditional probability that the
number 4 has appeared at least once?
Solution Let E be the event that 'number 4 appears at least once' and 𝐹 be the event that 'the sum of the numbers appearing is 6
Then, 𝐸 = {(4,1), (4,2), (4,3), (4,4), (4,5), (4,6), (1,4), (2,4), (3,4), (5,4), (6,4)} and F = {(1,5), (2,4), (3,3), (4,2), (5,1)}
11 5
We have 𝑃(𝐸) = and P(F) =
36 36

Also E ∩ F = {(2,4), (4,2)} Therefore

2
P(E ∩ F) =
36
Hence, the required probability
2
𝑃(𝐸 ∩ 𝐹) 36 2
𝑃(𝐸 ∣ 𝐹) = = =
𝑃(𝐹) 5 5

a
36
For the conditional probability discussed above, we have considered the elementary events of the experiment to be equally likely and the
corresponding definition of the probability of an event was used. However, the same definition can also be used in the general case where
the elementary events of the sample space are not equally likely, the probabilities P(E ∩ F) and P(F) being calculated accordingly. Let us
take up the following example.
m
Example 7 Consider the experiment of tossing a coin. If the coin shows head, toss it again but if it shows tail, then throw a die. Find the
conditional probability of the event that 'the die shows a number greater than 4 ' given that 'there is at least one tail'.
Solution The outcomes of the experiment can be represented in the following diagrammatic manner called the 'tree diagram'.
F=

The sample space of the experiment may be described as

S = {(H, H), (H, T), (T, 1), (T, 2), (T, 3), (T, 4), (T, 5), (T, 6)}
where (H, H) denotes that both the tosses result into head and (𝑇, 𝑖) denote the first toss result into a tail and the number 𝑖 appeared on
the die for 𝑖 = 1,2,3,4,5,6.
Thus, the probabilities assigned to the 8 elementary events
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
(H, H), (H, T), (T, 1), (T, 2), (T, 3)(T, 4), (T, 5), (T, 6) are , , , , , , , respectively which is clear from the Fig 13.2.
4 4 12 12 12 12 12 12

245
Let F be the event that 'there is at least one tail' and E be the event 'the die shows a number greater than 4 '. Then
Now
F = {(H, T), (T, 1), (T, 2), (T, 3), (T, 4), (T, 5), (T, 6)}
E = {(T, 5), (T, 6)} and E ∩ F = {(T, 5), (T, 6)}
P(F) = P({(H, T)}) + P({(T, 1)}) + P({(T, 2)}) + P({(T, 3)})
+P({(T, 4)}) + P({(T, 5)}) + P({(T, 6)})

a
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 3
=
4 12 12 12 12 12 12 4
and
1 1 1
P(E ∩ F) = P({(T, 5)}) + P({(T, 6)}) =
12 12 6
Hence

𝑃(𝐸 ∣ 𝐹) =
𝑃(𝐸 ∩ 𝐹) 6 2
𝑃(𝐹)
= =
1

3 9
4
m
Multiplication Theorem on Probability
F=
Let E and F be two events associated with a sample space S. Clearly, the set E ∩ F denotes the event that both E and F have occurred. In
other words, E ∩ F denotes the simultaneous occurrence of the events E and F. The event E ∩ F is also written as EF.

Very often we need to find the probability of the event EF. For example, in the experiment of drawing two cards one after the other, we
may be interested in finding the probability of the event ' a king and a queen'. The probability of event EF is obtained by using the
conditional probability as obtained below:

We know that the conditional probability of event E given that F has occurred is denoted by P(E ∣ F) and is given by
𝑃(𝐸 ∩ 𝐹)
𝑃(𝐸 ∣ 𝐹) = , 𝑃(𝐹) ≠ 0
𝑃(𝐹)
From this result, we can write
𝑃(𝐸 ∩ 𝐹) = 𝑃(𝐹) ⋅ 𝑃(𝐸 ∣ 𝐹)
Also, we know that
or
𝑃(𝐹 ∩ 𝐸)
𝑃(𝐹 ∣ 𝐸) = , 𝑃(𝐸) ≠ 0
𝑃(𝐸)
𝑃(𝐸 ∩ 𝐹)
𝑃(𝐹 ∣ 𝐸) = ( since 𝐸 ∩ 𝐹 = 𝐹 ∩ 𝐸)
𝑃(𝐸)
Thus,
P(E ∩ F) = P(E) ⋅ P(F ∣ E)
Combining (1) and (2), we find that
P(E ∩ F) = P(E)P(F ∣ E)
= P(F)P(E ∣ F) provided P(E) ≠ 0 and P(F) ≠ 0.
The above result is known as the multiplication rule of probability.
Let us now take up an example.

246
Example 8 An urn contains 10 black and 5 white balls. Two balls are drawn from the urn one after the other without replacement. What
is the probability that both drawn balls are black?
Solution Let E and F denote respectively the events that first and second ball drawn are black. We have to find P(E ∩ F) or P(EF). Now
10
𝑃(𝐸) = 𝑃( black ball in first draw ) =
15
Also given that the first ball drawn is black, i.e., event E has occurred, now there are 9 black balls and five white balls left in the urn.
Therefore, the probability that the second ball drawn is black, given that the ball in the first draw is black, is nothing but the conditional
probability of F given that E has occurred.
9
P(F ∣ E) =
14
By multiplication rule of probability, we have
𝑃(𝐸 ∩ 𝐹) = 𝑃(𝐸)𝑃(𝐹 ∣ 𝐸)
10 9 3
=
15 14 7
Multiplication rule of probability for more than two events If E, F and G are three events of sample space, we have
𝑃(𝐸 ∩ 𝐹 ∩ 𝐺) = 𝑃(𝐸)𝑃(𝐹 ∣ 𝐸)𝑃(𝐺 ∣ (𝐸 ∩ 𝐹)) = 𝑃(𝐸)𝑃(𝐹 ∣ 𝐸)𝑃(𝐺 ∣ 𝐸𝐹)
Similarly, the multiplication rule of probability can be extended for four or more events.
The following example illustrates the extension of multiplication rule of probability for three events.

Example 9 Three cards are drawn successively, without replacement from a pack of 52 well shuffled cards. What is the probability that
the first two cards are kings and the third card drawn is an ace?

a
Solution Let K denote the event that the card drawn is king and A be the event that the card drawn is an ace. Clearly, we have to find P
(KKA)
Now
4
P(K) =
52
Also, P(K ∣ K) is the probability of second king with the condition that one king has already been drawn. Now there are three kings in (52 −
1) = 51 cards.
Therefore
m P(K ∣ K) =
3
51
Lastly, P(A ∣ KK) is the probability of third drawn card to be an ace, with the condition that two kings have already been drawn. Now there
are four aces in left 50 cards. Therefore
4
P(A ∣ KK) =
F=
50
By multiplication law of probability, we have
P(KKA) = P(K) P(K ∣ K) P(A ∣ KK)
4 3 4 2
=
52 51 50 5525

Independent Events

Consider the experiment of drawing a card from a deck of 52 playing cards, in which the elementary events are assumed to be equally
likely. If E and F denote the events 'the card drawn is a spade' and 'the card drawn is an ace' respectively, then
13 1 4 1
𝑃(𝐸) = and 𝑃(𝐹)
52 4 52 13
Also E and F is the event ' the card drawn is the ace of spades' so that
1
𝑃(𝐸 ∩ 𝐹) =
52
Hence
1
𝑃(𝐸 𝐹) 52 1
𝑃(𝐸 ∣ 𝐹) =
𝑃(𝐹) 1 4
13
1
Since 𝑃(𝐸) = = 𝑃(𝐸 ∣ 𝐹), we can say that the occurrence of event 𝐹 has not affected the probability of occurrence of the event E.
4
We also have
1
𝑃(𝐸 𝐹) 52 1
𝑃(𝐹 ∣ 𝐸) = 𝑃(𝐹)
𝑃(𝐸) 1 13
4

247
 1
Again, 𝑃(𝐹) = = P(F ∣ E) shows that occurrence of event E has not affected the probability of occurrence of the event 𝐹.
13
Thus, E and F are two events such that the probability of occurrence of one of them is not affected by occurrence of the other.
Such events are called independent events.

Definition 2 Two events E and F are said to be independent, if

𝑃(𝐹 ∣ 𝐸) = 𝑃(𝐹) provided 𝑃(𝐸) ≠ 0
𝑃(𝐸 ∣ 𝐹) = 𝑃(𝐸) provided 𝑃(𝐹) ≠ 0
and
Thus, in this definition we need to have P(E) ≠ 0 and P(F) ≠ 0
Now, by the multiplication rule of probability, we have
P(E ∩ F) = P(E) ⋅ P(F ∣ E)
If E and F are independent, then (1) becomes
P(E ∩ F) = P(E) ⋅ P(F)
Thus, using (2), the independence of two events is also defined as follows:

Definition 3 Let E and F be two events associated with the same random experiment, then E and F are said to be independent if
P(E ∩ F) = P(E) ⋅ P(F)

Remarks

a
i. Two events E and F are said to be dependent if they are not independent, i.e., if
P(E ∩ F) ≠ P(E) ⋅ P(F)
ii. Sometimes there is a confusion between independent events and mutually exclusive events. The term 'independent' is defined in terms
of 'probability of events' whereas mutually exclusive is defined in terms of events (subset of sample space). Moreover, mutually
exclusive events never have an outcome in common, but independent events may have a common outcome. Clearly, 'independent' and
m
'mutually exclusive' do not have the same meaning.
In other words, two independent events having nonzero probabilities of occurrence cannot be mutually exclusive, and conversely, i.e.
two mutually exclusive events having nonzero probabilities of occurrence cannot be independent.
iii. Two experiments are said to be independent if for every pair of events E and F, where E is associated with the first experiment and F
with the second experiment, the probability of the simultaneous occurrence of the events E and F when the two experiments are
performed is the product of P(E) and P(F) calculated separately on the basis of two experiments, i.e., 𝑃(𝐸 ∩ 𝐹) = 𝑃(𝐸). 𝑃(𝐹)
iv. Three events A, B and C are said to be mutually independent, if
F=
P(A ∩ B) = P(A)P(B)
P(A ∩ C) = P(A)P(C)
P(B ∩ C) = P(B)P(C)
And P(A ∩ B ∩ C) = P(A) P(B)P(C)

If at least one of the above is not true for the three given events, we say that the events are not independent.

Example 𝟏𝟎 A die is thrown. If E is the event 'the number appearing is a multiple of 3' and F be the event 'the number appearing is even'
then find whether E and F are independent?
Solution We know that the sample space is S = {1,2,3,4,5,6}
Now E = {3,6}, F = {2,4,6} and E ∩ F = {6}
2 1 3 1 1
Then P(E) = = , P(F) = = and P(E ∩ F) =
6 3 6 2 6
Clearly 𝑃(𝐸 ∩ 𝐹) = 𝑃(𝐸). 𝑃(𝐹)
Hence E and F are independent events.

Example 11 An unbiased die is thrown twice. Let the event A be 'odd number on the first throw' and B the event 'odd number on the
second throw'. Check the independence of the events A and B.
Solution If all the 36 elementary events of the experiment are considered to be equally likely, we have
Also
18 1 18 1
P(A) = = and P(B)
36 2 36 2
P(A ∩ B) = P( odd number on both throws )
9 1
= =
36 4
Now

248
 1 1 1
P(A)P(B) = × =
2 2 4
Clearly
P(A ∩ B) = P(A) × P(B)
Thus, 𝐴 and 𝐵 are independent events

Example 12 Three coins are tossed simultaneously. Consider the event E 'three heads or three tails', 𝐹 'at least two heads' and G 'at most
two heads'. Of the pairs (E, F), (𝐸, 𝐺) and (𝐹, 𝐺), which are independent? which are dependent?
Solution The sample space of the experiment is given by
S = {HHH, HHT, HTH, THH, HTT, THT, TTH, TTT}
Clearly
E = {HHH, TTT}, F = {HHH, HHT, HTH, THH}
and
G = {HHT, HTH, THH, HTT, THT, TTH, TTT}
Also E ∩ F = {HHH}, E ∩ G = {TTT}, F ∩ G = {HHT, HTH, THH}
Therefore
2 1 4 1 7
P(E) = = , P(F) = = , P(G) =
8 4 8 2 8
and
1 1 3
P(E ∩ F) = , P(E ∩ G) = , P(F ∩ G) =
8 8 8
Also

a
1 1 1 1 7 7
P(E) ⋅ P(F) = , P(E) P(G)
4 2 8 4 8 32
and
1 7 7
P(F) ⋅ P(G) =
2 8 16
Thus

and
m 𝑃(𝐸 ∩ 𝐹) = 𝑃(𝐸) ⋅ 𝑃(𝐹)
𝑃(𝐸 ∩ 𝐺) ≠ 𝑃(𝐸) ⋅ 𝑃(𝐺)
𝑃(𝐹 ∩ 𝐺) ≠ 𝑃(𝐹) ⋅ 𝑃(𝐺)

Hence, the events ( 𝐸 and 𝐹 ) are independent, and the events ( 𝐸 and 𝐺) and (F and G) are dependent.

Example 13 Prove that if E and F are independent events, then so are the events E and F ′ .
F=
Solution Since 𝐸 and 𝐹 are independent, we have
P(E ∩ F) = P(E) ⋅ P(F)
From the venn diagram in Fig 13.3 , it is clear that E ∩ F and E ∩ F ′ are mutually exclusive events and also E = (E ∩ F) ∪ (E ∩ F ′ ).

Therefore
𝑃(𝐸) = 𝑃(𝐸 ∩ 𝐹) + 𝑃(𝐸 ∩ 𝐹 ′ )
or
P(E ∩ F ′ ) = P(E) − P(E ∩ F)
= P(E) − P(E) ⋅ P(F)
( by (1))
= P(E)(1 − P(F))
= P(E) ⋅ P(F ′ )

Hence, E and F ′ are independent

Example 14 If 𝐴 and 𝐵 are two independent events, then the probability of occurrence of at least one of A and B is given by 1 − P(A′ )P(B′ )
Solution We have

249
 P( at least one of A and B) = P(A ∪ B)
= P(A) + P(B) − P(A ∩ B)
= P(A) + P(B) − P(A)P(B)
= P(A) + P(B)[1 − P(A)]
= P(A) + P(B). P(A′ )
= 1 − P(A′ ) + P(B)P(A′ )
= 1 − P(A′ )[1 − P(B)]
= 1 − P(A′ )P(B′ )

Bayes' Theorem

Consider that there are two bags I and II. Bag I contain 2 white and 3 red balls and Bag II contains 4 white and 5 red balls. One ball is drawn
1
at random from one of the bags. We can find the probability of selecting any of the bags (i.e., ) or probability of drawing a ball of a
2
particular colour (say white) from a particular bag (say Bag I). In other words, we can find the probability that the ball drawn is of a
particular colour if we are given the bag from which the ball is drawn. But can we find the probability that the ball drawn is from a particular
bag (say Bag II), if the colour of the ball drawn is given? Here, we have to find the reverse probability of Bag II to be selected when an event
occurred after it is known. The famous mathematician, John Bayes' solved the problem of finding reverse probability by using conditional
probability. The formula developed by him is known as the ‘Bayes theorem' which was published posthumously in 1763. Before stating
and proving the Bayes' theorem, let us first take up a definition and some preliminary results.

Partition of a sample space

a
A set of events 𝐸1 , 𝐸2 , … , 𝐸𝑛 is said to represent a partition of the sample space 𝑆 if
(a) E𝑖 ∩ E𝑗 = 𝜙, 𝑖 ≠ 𝑗, 𝑖, 𝑗 = 1,2,3, … , 𝑛 (b) E1 ∪ E2 ∪ … ∪ E𝑛 = S and
(c) P(E𝑖 ) > 0 for all 𝑖 = 1,2, … , 𝑛.
In other words, the events E1 , E2 , … , E𝑛 represent a partition of the sample space S if they are pairwise disjoint, exhaustive and have
nonzero probabilities.

𝜙 and E ∪ E′ = S.
m
As an example, we see that any nonempty event E and its complement E′ form a partition of the sample space S since they satisfy E ∩ E′ =

From the Venn diagram in Fig 13.3, one can easily observe that if E and F are any two events associated with a sample space S, then the set
{E ∩ F ′ , E ∩ F, E′ ∩ F, E′ ∩ F ′ } is a partition of the sample space 𝑆. It may be mentioned that the partition of a sample space is not unique.
There can be several partitions of the same sample space.
F=
We shall now prove a theorem known as Theorem of total probability.

Theorem of total probability

Let {𝐸1 , 𝐸2 , … , 𝐸𝑛 } be a partition of the sample space 𝑆, and suppose that each of the events E1 , E2 , … , E𝑛 has nonzero probability of
occurrence. Let A be any event associated with S, then

P(A) = P(E1 )P(A ∣ E1 ) + P(E2 )P(A ∣ E2 ) + ⋯ + P(E𝑛 )P(A ∣ E𝑛 )

𝑛

= ∑ P(E𝑗 )P(A ∣ E𝑗 )
𝑗=1

Proof Given that E1 , E2 , … , E𝑛 is a partition of the sample space S (Fig 13.4). Therefore,
S = E1 ∪ E2 ∪ … ∪ E𝑛
and
E𝑖 ∩ E𝑗 = 𝜙, 𝑖 ≠ 𝑗, 𝑖, 𝑗 = 1,2, … , 𝑛
Now, we know that for any event 𝐴,
250
 A =A∩S
= A ∩ (E1 ∪ E2 ∪ … ∪ E𝑛 )
= (A ∩ E1 ) ∪ (A ∩ E2 ) ∪ … ∪ (A ∩ E𝑛 )

Also A ∩ E𝑖 and A ∩ E𝑗 are respectively the subsets of E𝑖 and E𝑗 . We know that E𝑖 and E𝑗 are disjoint, for 𝑖 ≠ 𝑗, therefore, A ∩ E𝑖 and A ∩ E𝑗
are also disjoint for all 𝑖 ≠ 𝑗, 𝑖, 𝑗 = 1,2, … , 𝑛.
Thus,
P(A) = P[(A ∩ E1 ) ∪ (A ∩ E2 ) ∪ … . .∪ (A ∩ E𝑛 )]
= P(A ∩ E1 ) + P(A ∩ E2 ) + ⋯ + P(A ∩ E𝑛 )
Now, by multiplication rule of probability, we have
P(A ∩ E𝑖 ) = P(E𝑖 )P(A ∣ E𝑖 ) as P(E𝑖 ) ≠ 0∀𝑖 = 1,2, … , 𝑛
Therefore,
𝑃(𝐴) = 𝑃(𝐸1 )𝑃(𝐴 ∣ 𝐸1 ) + 𝑃(𝐸2 )𝑃(𝐴 ∣ 𝐸2 ) + ⋯ + 𝑃(𝐸𝑛 )𝑃(𝐴 ∣ 𝐸𝑛 )
or
𝑛

P(A) = ∑ P(E𝑗 )P(A ∣ E𝑗 )

𝑗=1

Example 15 A person has undertaken a construction job. The probabilities are 0.65 that there will be strike, 0.80 that the construction job
will be completed on time if there is no strike, and 0.32 that the construction job will be completed on time if there is a strike. Determine
the probability that the construction job will be completed on time.
Solution Let A be the event that the construction job will be completed on time, and B be the event that there will be a strike. We have to

a
find P(A).
We have
P(B) = 0.65, P( no strike ) = P(B′ ) = 1 − P(B) = 1 − 0.65 = 0.35
P(A ∣ B) = 0.32, P(A ∣ B′ ) = 0.80
Since events 𝐵 and B′ form a partition of the sample space S, therefore, by theorem on total probability, we have
m P(A) = P(B)P(A ∣ B) + P(B′ )P(A ∣ B′ )
= 0.65 × 0.32 + 0.35 × 0.8
= 0.208 + 0.28 = 0.488
Thus, the probability that the construction job will be completed in time is 0.488.
We shall now state and prove the Bayes' theorem.

Bayes' Theorem If 𝐸1 , 𝐸2 , … , 𝐸𝑛 are 𝑛 non empty events which constitute a partition of sample space 𝑆, i.e. E1 , E2 , … , E𝑛 are pairwise
disjoint and E1 ∪ E2 ∪ … ∪ E𝑛 = 𝑆 and 𝐴 is any event of nonzero probability, then
F=
P(E𝑖 )P(A ∣ E𝑖 )
P(E𝑖 ∣ A) = 𝑛 for any 𝑖 = 1,2,3, … , 𝑛
∑𝑗=1 P(E𝑗 )P(A ∣ E𝑗 )
Proof By formula of conditional probability, we know that
P(A ∩ E𝑖 )
P(E𝑖 ∣ A) =
P(A)
P(E𝑖 )P(A ∣ E𝑖 )
= (by multiplication rule of probability)
P(A)
P(E𝑖 )P(A ∣ E𝑖 )
= 𝑛 (by the result of theorem of total probability)
∑𝑗=1 P(E𝑗 )P(A ∣ E𝑗 )

Remark The following terminology is generally used when Bayes' theorem is applied.
The events E1 , E2 , … , E𝑛 are called hypotheses.
The probability P(E𝑖 ) is called the priori probability of the hypothesis E𝑖
The conditional probability P(E𝑖 ∣ A) is called a posteriori probability of the hypothesis E𝑖 .
Bayes' theorem is also called the formula for the probability of "causes". Since the E𝑖 's are a partition of the sample space S, one and only
one of the events E𝑖 occurs (i.e., one of the events E𝑖 must occur and only one can occur). Hence, the above formula gives us the probability
of a particular E𝑖 (i.e., a "Cause"), given that the event A has occurred.
The Bayes' theorem has its applications in a variety of situations, a few of which are illustrated in the following examples.

Example 16 Bag I contain 3 red and 4 black balls while another Bag II contains 5 red and 6 black balls. One ball is drawn at random from
one of the bags and it is found to be red. Find the probability that it was drawn from Bag II.
Solution Let E1 be the event of choosing the bag I, E2 the event of choosing the bag II and A be the event of drawing a red ball.
Then
1
P(E1 ) = P(E2 ) =
2
251
 3
Also P(AE E1 ) = P( drawing a red ball from Bag I) =
7
5
and P(A ∣ E2 ) = P( drawing a red ball from Bag II ) =
11
Now, the probability of drawing a ball from Bag II, being given that it is red, is P(E2 ∣ A)
By using Bayes' theorem, we have
1 5
𝑃(𝐸2 )𝑃(𝐴 ∣ 𝐸2 ) × 35
𝑃(𝐸2 ∣ 𝐴) = = 2 11 =
𝑃(𝐸1 )𝑃(𝐴 ∣ 𝐸1 ) + 𝑃(𝐸2 )𝑃(𝐴 ∣ 𝐸2 ) 1 × 3 + 1 × 5 68
2 7 2 11

Example 17 Given three identical boxes I, II and III, each containing two coins. In box I, both coins are gold coins, in box II, both are silver
coins and, in the box III, there is one gold and one silver coin. A person chooses a box at random and takes out a coin. If the coin is of gold,
what is the probability that the other coin in the box is also of gold?
Solution Let E1 , E2 and E3 be the events that boxes I, II and III are chosen, respectively.
1
Then P(E1 ) = P(E2 ) = P(E3 ) =
3
Also, let A be the event that 'the coin drawn is of gold'
2
Then P(A ∣ E1 ) = P( a gold coin from bag I) = = 1
2
𝑃(𝐴 ∣ 𝐸2 ) = 𝑃( a gold coin from bag II ) = 0
1
P(A ∣ E3 ) = P( a gold coin from bag III) =
2
Now, the probability that the other coin in the box is of gold
= the probability that gold coin is drawn from the box I.

a
= P(E1 ∣ A)
By Bayes' theorem, we know that
𝑃(𝐸1 )𝑃(𝐴 ∣ 𝐸1 )
𝑃(𝐸1 ∣ 𝐴) =
𝑃(𝐸1 )𝑃(𝐴 ∣ 𝐸1 ) + 𝑃(𝐸2 )𝑃(𝐴 ∣ 𝐸2 ) + 𝑃(𝐸3 )𝑃(𝐴 ∣ 𝐸3 )
1
×1 2
3
m =
1
3
1
×1+ ×0+ ×
3
1 1 3
3 2

Example 18 Suppose that the reliability of a HIV test is specified as follows:

=

Of people having HIV, 90% of the test detect the disease but 10% go undetected. Of people free of HIV, 99% of the test are judged HIV-ive
but 1% are diagnosed as showing HIV+ive. From a large population of which only 0.1% have HIV, one person is selected at random, given
the HIV test, and the pathologist reports him/her as HIV+ive. What is the probability that the person actually has HIV?
Solution Let E denote the event that the person selected is actually having HIV and A the event that the person's HIV test is diagnosed as
F=
+ive. We need to find P(E ∣ A). Also E′ denotes the event that the person selected is actually not having HIV.
Clearly, {E, E′ } is a partition of the sample space of all people in the population. We are given that
0.1
P(E) = 0.1% 0.001
100
′
P(E ) = 1 − P(E) = 0.999
P(A ∣ E) = P( Person tested as HIV+ive given that he/she
is actually having HIV )
90
= 90% 0.9
100
and
P(A ∣ E′ ) = P( Person tested as HIV + ive given that he/she is actually not having HIV)
1
= 1% = = 0.01
100
Now, by Bayes' theorem
P(E)P(A ∣ E)
P(E ∣ A) =
P(E)P(A ∣ E) + P(E)P(A ∣ E)
0.001 × 0.9 90
= =
0.001 × 0.9 + 0.999 × 0.01 1089
= 0.083 approx.
Thus, the probability that a person selected at random is actually having HIV given that he/she is tested HIV+ive is 0.083 .

Example 19 In a factory which manufactures bolts, machines A, B and C manufacture respectively 25%, 35% and 40% of the bolts. Of their
outputs, 5,4 and 2 percent are respectively defective bolts. A bolt is drawn at random from the product and is found to be defective. What
is the probability that it is manufactured by the machine B ?
Solution Let events 𝐵1 , 𝐵2 , 𝐵3 be the following:
B1 : the bolt is manufactured by machine 𝐴
252
B2 : the bolt is manufactured by machine B
B3 : the bolt is manufactured by machine C
Clearly, B1 , B2 , B3 are mutually exclusive and exhaustive events and hence, they represent a partition of the sample space.
Let the event 𝐸 be 'the bolt is defective'.
The event 𝐸 occurs with 𝐵1 or with 𝐵2 or with 𝐵3 . Given that,
P(B1 ) = 25% = 0.25, P(B2 ) = 0.35 and P(B3 ) = 0.40
Again P(E ∣ B1 ) = Probability that the bolt drawn is defective given that it is manufactured by machine A = 5% = 0.05
Similarly, P(E ∣ B2 ) = 0.04, P(E ∣ B3 ) = 0.02. Hence, by Bayes' Theorem, we have
P(B2 )P(E ∣ B2 )
P(B2 ∣ 𝐸) =
P(B1 )P(E ∣ B1 ) + P(B2 )P(E ∣ B2 ) + P(B3 )P(E ∣ B3 )
0.35 × 0.04
=
0.25 × 0.05 + 0.35 × 0.04 + 0.40 × 0.02
0.0140 28
= =
0.0345 69

Example 20 A doctor is to visit a patient. From the past experience, it is known that the probabilities that he will come by train, bus, scooter
3 1 1 2 1 1 1
or by other means of transport are respectively , , and . The probabilities that he will be late are , , and , if he comes by train, bus
10 5 10 5 4 3 12
and scooter respectively, but if he comes by other means of transport, then he will not be late. When he arrives, he is late. What is the
probability that he comes by train?

Solution Let 𝐸 be the event that the doctor visits the patient late and let T1 , T2 , T3 , T4 be the events that the doctor comes by train, bus,
scooter, and other means of transport respectively.

a
3 1 1 2
Then P(T1 ) = , P(T2 ) = , P(T3 ) = and P(T4 ) = (given)
10 5 10 5
1
P(E ∣ T1 ) = Probability that the doctor arriving late comes by train =
4
1 1
Similarly, P(E ∣ T2 ) = , P(E ∣ T3 ) = and P(E ∣ T4 ) = 0, since he is not late if he comes by other means of transport.
3 12
Therefore, by Bayes' Theorem, we have
m
P(T1 ∣ E) = Probability that the doctor arriving late comes by train

=
P(T1 )P(E )
∣ T1 + P(T2 )P(E
𝑃( T1 )P(E ∣ T1 )
∣ T2 ) + P(T3 )P(E ∣ T3 ) + P(T4 )P(E ∣ T4 )
F=
1
Hence, the required probability is . Example 21 A man is known to speak truth 3 out of 4 times. He throws a die and reports that it is a six.
2
Find the probability that it is actually a six.
Solution Let 𝐸 be the event that the man reports that six occurs in the throwing of the die and let 𝑆1 be the event that six occurs and 𝑆2 be
the event that six does not occur.
1
Then P(S1 ) = Probability that six occurs =
6
5
P(S2 ) = Probability that six does not occur =
6
P(E ∣ S1 ) = Probability that the man reports that six occurs when six has actually occurred on the die
3
= Probability that the man speaks the truth =
4
P(E ∣ S2 ) = Probability that the man reports that six occurs when six has not actually occurred on the die
3 1
= Probability that the man does not speak the truth 1
4 4
Thus, by Bayes' theorem, we get
P(S1 ∣ E) = Probability that the report of the man that six has occurred is actually a six
𝑃(𝑆1 )𝑃(𝐸 ∣ 𝑆1 )
=
𝑃(𝑆1 )𝑃(𝐸 ∣ 𝑆1 ) + 𝑃(𝑆2 )𝑃(𝐸 ∣ 𝑆2 )

3
Hence, the required probability is .
8

253
Random Variables and its Probability Distributions

We have already learnt about random experiments and the formation of sample spaces. In most of these experiments, we were not only
interested in the particular outcome that occurs but rather in some number associated with that outcome as shown in following
examples/experiments.
i. In tossing two dice, we may be interested in the sum of the numbers on the two dice.
ii. In tossing a coin 50 times, we may want the number of heads obtained.
iii. In the experiment of taking out four articles (one after the other) at random from a lot of 20 articles in which 6 are defective, we want
to know the number of defectives in the sample of four and not in the particular sequence of defective and non-defective articles.

In all of the above experiments, we have a rule which assigns to each outcome of the experiment a single real number. This single real
number may vary with different outcomes of the experiment. Hence, it is a variable. Also, its value depends upon the outcome of a random
experiment and, hence, is called random variable. A random variable is usually denoted by X.

If you recall the definition of a function, you will realise that the random variable X is really speaking a function whose domain is the set of
outcomes (or sample space) of a random experiment. A random variable can take any real value; therefore, its co-domain is the set of real
numbers. Hence, a random variable can be defined as follows:

Definition 4 A random variable is a real valued function whose domain is the sample space of a random experiment.
For example, let us consider the experiment of tossing a coin two times in succession. The sample space of the experiment is S =
{HH, HT, TH, TT}.

a
If X denotes the number of heads obtained, then X is a random variable and for each outcome, its value is as given below:
X(HH) = 2, X(HT) = 1, X(TH) = 1, X(TT) = 0.
More than one random variable can be defined on the same sample space. For example, let Y denote the number of heads minus the number
of tails for each outcome of the above sample space 𝑆.
Then Y(HH) = 2, Y(HT) = 0, Y(TH) = 0, Y(TT) = −2.
m
Thus, 𝑋 and 𝑌 are two different random variables defined on the same sample space 𝑆.

Example 22 A person plays a game of tossing a coin thrice. For each head, he is given Rs 2 by the organizer of the game and for each tail,
he has to give Rs 1.50 to the organiser. Let X denote the amount gained or lost by the person. Show that X is a random variable and exhibit
it as a function on the sample space of the experiment.

Solution 𝑋 is a number whose values are defined on the outcomes of a random experiment. Therefore, X is a random variable.
F=
Now, sample space of the experiment is
S = {HHH, HHT, HTH, THH, HTT, THT, TTH, TTT}
Then X(HHH) = Rs (2 × 3) = Rs 6
X(HHT) = X(HTH) = X(THH) = Rs (2 × 2 − 1 × 1.50) = Rs2.50
X(HTT) = X(THT) = (TTH) = Rs (1 × 2) − (2 × 1.50) = −Re 1
and X(TTT) = −Rs(3 × 1.50) = − Rs 4.50
where, minus sign shows the loss to the player. Thus, for each element of the sample space, X takes a unique value, hence, X is a function
on the sample space whose range is
{−1,2.50, −4.50,6}

Example 23 A bag contains 2 white and 1 red balls. One ball is drawn at random and then put back in the box after noting its colour. The
process is repeated again. If X denotes the number of red balls recorded in the two draws, describe X.
Solution Let the balls in the bag be denoted by 𝑤1 , 𝑤2 , 𝑟. Then the sample space is
S = {𝑤1 𝑤1 , 𝑤1 𝑤2 , 𝑤2 𝑤2 , 𝑤2 𝑤1 , 𝑤1 𝑟, 𝑤2 𝑟, 𝑟𝑤1 , 𝑟𝑤2 , 𝑟𝑟}
Now, for
𝜔∈𝑆
𝑋(𝜔) = number of red balls
Therefore
𝑋({𝑤1 𝑤1 }) = X({𝑤1 𝑤2 }) = X({𝑤2 𝑤2 }) = X({𝑤2 𝑤1 }) = 0
X({𝑤1 𝑟}) = X({𝑤2 𝑟}) = X({𝑟𝑤1 }) = X({𝑟𝑤2 }) = 1 and X({𝑟𝑟}) = 2
Thus, 𝑋 is a random variable which can take values 0,1 or 2.

254
Probability distribution of a random variable

Let us look at the experiment of selecting one family out of ten families 𝑓1 , 𝑓2 , … , 𝑓10 in such a manner that each family is equally likely to
be selected. Let the families 𝑓1 , 𝑓2 , … , 𝑓10 have 3,4,3,2,5,4,3,6,4,5 members, respectively.
Let us select a family and note down the number of members in the family denoting X. Clearly, X is a random variable defined as below:

X(𝑓1 ) = 3, X(𝑓2 ) = 4, X(𝑓3 ) = 3, X(𝑓4 ) = 2, X(𝑓5 ) = 5

X(𝑓6 ) = 4, X(𝑓7 ) = 3, X(𝑓8 ) = 6, X(𝑓9 ) = 4, X(𝑓10 ) = 5

Thus, X can take any value 2,3,4,5 or 6 depending upon which family is selected.
Now, 𝑋 will take the value 2 when the family 𝑓4 is selected. 𝑋 can take the value 3 when any one of the families 𝑓1 , 𝑓3 , 𝑓7 is selected.
Similarly X = 4, when family 𝑓2 , 𝑓6 or 𝑓9 is selected X = 5, when family 𝑓5 or 𝑓10 is selected
and 𝑋 = 6, when family 𝑓8 is selected. Since we had assumed that each family is equally likely to be selected, the probability that family 𝑓4
1
is selected is .
10
1 1
Thus, the probability that 𝑋 can take the value 2 is . We write 𝑃(𝑋 = 2) = Also, the probability that any one of the families 𝑓1 , 𝑓3 or 𝑓7
10 10
is selected is
3
P({𝑓1 , 𝑓3 , 𝑓7 }) =
10
3
Thus, the probability that 𝑋 can take the value 3 =
10
We write

a
3
𝑃(𝑋 = 3) =
10
Similarly, we obtain
3
P(X = 4) = P({𝑓2 , 𝑓6 , 𝑓9 }) =
10
2

and
m P(X = 5) = P({𝑓5 , 𝑓10 }) =

1
P(X = 6) = P({𝑓8 }) =
10
10

Such a description giving the values of the random variable along with the corresponding probabilities is called the probability distribution
of the random variable 𝑋.
In general, the probability distribution of a random variable X is defined as follows: Definition 5 The probability distribution of a random
F=
variable X is the system of numbers
X : 𝑥1 𝑥2 ⋯ 𝑥𝑛
P(X) : 𝑝1 𝑝2 ⋯ 𝑝𝑛
Where,
𝑝𝑖 0, 𝑝𝑖1 = 1, 𝑖 = 1,2, … , 𝑛

The real numbers 𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , … , 𝑥𝑛 are the possible values of the random variable X and 𝑝i (𝑖 = 1,2, … , 𝑛) is the probability of the random
variable X taking the value 𝑥𝑖 i.e., P(X = 𝑥𝑖 ) = 𝑝𝑖 Note If 𝑥𝑖 is one of the possible values of a random variable 𝑋, the statement X = 𝑥𝑖 is true
only at some point (s) of the sample space. Hence, the probability that X takes value 𝑥𝑖 is always nonzero, i.e. P(X = 𝑥𝑖 ) ≠ 0.
Also for all possible values of the random variable 𝑋, all elements of the sample space are covered. Hence, the sum of all the probabilities
in a probability distribution must be one.

Example 24 Two cards are drawn successively with replacement from a well-shuffled deck of 52 cards. Find the probability distribution
of the number of aces.
Solution The number of aces is a random variable. Let it be denoted by X. Clearly, X can take the values 0,1 , or 2 .
Now, since the draws are done with replacement, therefore, the two draws form independent experiments.
Therefore,
P(X = 0) = P( non-ace and non-ace )
= P( non-ace ) × P( non-ace )
48 48 144
= × =
52 52 169
P(X = 1) = P( ace and non-ace or non-ace and ace )
= P( ace and non-ace ) + P( non-ace and ace )
= P( ace ). P( non-ace ) + P (non-ace ). P( ace )
4 48 48 4 24
= × + × =
52 52 52 52 169
255
and
P(X = 2) = P( ace and ace )
4 4 1
=
52 52 169
Thus, the required probability distribution is
𝐗 0 1 2

144 24 1
𝐏(𝐗)
169 169 169

Example 25 Find the probability distribution of number of doublets in three throws of a pair of dice. Solution Let X denote the number of
doublets. Possible doublets are
(1,1), (2,2), (3,3), (4,4), (5,5), (6,6)
Clearly, X can take the value 0,1,2, or 3.
6 1
Probability of getting a doublet
36 6
1 5
Probability of not getting a doublet 1
6 6
Now
5 5 5 125
P(X = 0) = P( no doublet ) =
6 6 6 216
P(X = 1) = P (One doublet and two non-doublets)

a
1 5 5 5 1 5 5 5 1
=
6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6
P(X = 2) = P( two doublets and one non-doublet )
1 1 5 1 5 1 5 1 1 1 5 15
= 3
6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 62 6 216
and
P(X = 3) = P( three doublets )
=
1 1 1 1
6 6 6 216
m
Thus, the required probability distribution is
𝐗 0 1 2 3

125 75 15 1
F=
𝐏(𝐗)
216 216 216 216

Verification Sum of the probabilities

𝑛
125 75 15 1
∑ 𝑝𝑖 =
216 216 216 216
𝑖=1
125 75 15 1
=
216
216
=
216
=1

Example 26 Let X denote the number of hours you study during a randomly selected school day. The probability that X can take the values
𝑥, has the following form, where 𝑘 is some unknown constant.
0.1, if 𝑥 = 0
𝑘𝑥, if 𝑥 = 1 or 2
P(X = 𝑥) = {
𝑘(5 − 𝑥), if 𝑥 = 3 or 4
0, otherwise
(a) Find the value of 𝑘.
(b) What is the probability that you study at least two hours ? Exactly two hours? At most two hours?
Solution The probability distribution of X is

𝐗 0 1 2 3 4

𝐏(𝐗) 0.1 𝑘 2𝑘 2𝑘 𝑘

256
(a) We know that ∑𝑛𝑖=1 𝑝𝑖 = 1
Therefore 0.1 + 𝑘 + 2𝑘 + 2𝑘 + 𝑘 = 1 i.e. 𝑘 = 0.15
(b) P( you study at least two hours)
= P(X ≥ 2)
= P(X=2)+ P {X=3)+ P {X=4)
= 2𝑘 + 2𝑘 + 𝑘 = 5𝑘 = 5 × 0.15 = 0.75
P( you study exactly two hours)
= P(X = 2)
= 2𝑘 = 2 × 0.15 = 0.3
P (You study at most two hours)
= P(X ≤ 2)
= P(X = 0) + P(X = 1) + P(X = 2)
= 0.1 + 𝑘 + 2𝑘 = 0.1 + 3𝑘 = 0.1 + 3 × 0.15
= 0.55

Mean of a random variable

In many problems, it is desirable to describe some feature of the random variable by means of a single number that can be computed from
its probability distribution. Few such numbers are mean, median and mode. In this section, we shall discuss meaning only. Mean is a
measure of location or central tendency in the sense that it roughly locates a middle or average value of the random variable.

a
Definition 6 Let X be a random variable whose possible values 𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , 𝑥3 , … , 𝑥𝑛 occur with probabilities 𝑝1 , 𝑝2 , 𝑝3 , … , 𝑝𝑛 , respectively. The
mean of 𝑋, denoted by 𝜇, is the number ∑𝑛𝑖=1 𝑥𝑖 𝑝𝑖 i.e., the mean of X is the weighted average of the possible values of X, each value being
weighted by its probability with which it occurs.
The mean of a random variable X is also called the expectation of X, denoted by E(X).
Thus,
m E(X) = 𝜇 = 𝑛𝑖1 𝑥𝑖 𝑝𝑖 = 𝑥1 𝑝1 + 𝑥2 𝑝2 + ⋯ + 𝑥𝑛 𝑝𝑛 .
In other words, the mean or expectation of a random variable 𝑋 is the sum of the products of all possible values of X by their respective
probabilities.

Example 27 Let a pair of dice be thrown and the random variable X be the sum of the numbers that appear on the two dice. Find the mean
or expectation of X.
Solution The sample space of the experiment consists of 36 elementary events in the form of ordered pairs (𝑥𝑖 , 𝑦𝑖 ), where 𝑥𝑖 = 1,2,3,4,5,6
F=
and 𝑦𝑖 = 1,2,3,4,5,6.
The random variable X i.e. the sum of the numbers on the two dice takes the values 2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10,11 or 12 .
Now
1
P(X = 2) = P({(1,1)})
36
2
P(X = 3) = P({(1,2), (2,1)})
36
3
P(X = 4) = P({(1,3), (2,2), (3,1)})
36
4
P(X = 5) = P({(1,4), (2,3), (3,2), (4,1)})
36
5
P(X = 6) = P({(1,5), (2,4), (3,3), (4,2), (5,1)})
36
6
P(X = 7) = P({(1,6), (2,5), (3,4), (4,3), (5,2), (6,1)})
36
5
P(X = 8) = P({(2,6), (3,5), (4,4), (5,3), (6,2)})
36
4
P(X = 9) = P({(3,6), (4,5), (5,4), (6,3)})
36
3
P(X = 10) = P({(4,6), (5,5), (6,4)})
36
2
P(X = 11) = P({(5,6), (6,5)})
36
1
P(X = 12) = P({(6,6)})
36

257
The probability distribution of X is
𝐗 or 𝒙𝒊 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

1 2 3 4 5 6 5 4 3 2 1
𝐏(𝐗) or 𝒑𝒊
36 36 36 36 36 36 36 36 36 36 36

Therefore,
𝑛
1 2 3 4
𝜇 = E(X) = ∑ 𝑥𝑖 𝑝𝑖 = 2 × +3× +4× +5×
36 36 36 36
𝑖=1
5 6 5 4 3 2 1
6 7 8 9 10 11 12
36 36 36 36 36 36 36

Thus, the mean of the sum of the numbers that appear on throwing two fair dice is 7.

Variance of a random variable

The mean of a random variable does not give us information about the variability in the values of the random variable. In fact, if the variance
is small, then the values of the random variable are close to the mean. Also random variables with different probability distributions can
have equal means, as shown in the following distributions of X and Y.

a
𝐗 1 2 3 4

1 2 3 2
𝐏(𝐗)
8 8 8 8

𝐏(𝐘)
m -1

1
0

2
4

3
5

1
6

1
8 8 8 8 8

1 2 3 2 22
Clearly E(X) = 1 × + 2 × + 3 × + 4 × = = 2.75
8 8 8 8 8
F=
1 2 3 1 1 22
and E(Y) = −1 × + 0 × + 4 × + 5 × = 6 × = = 2.75
8 8 8 8 8 8
The variables X and Y are different, however their means are same. It is also easily observable from the diagramatic representation of these
distributions (Fig 13.5).

To distinguish X from Y, we require a measure of the extent to which the values of the random variables spread out. In Statistics, we have
studied that the variance is a measure of the spread or scatter in data. Likewise, the variability or spread in the values of a random variable
may be measured by variance.

Definition 7 Let X be a random variable whose possible values 𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , … , 𝑥𝑛 occur with probabilities 𝑝(𝑥1 ), 𝑝(𝑥2 ), … , 𝑝(𝑥𝑛 ) respectively.
Let 𝜇 = 𝐸(𝑋) be the mean of 𝑋. The variance of 𝑋, denoted by Var (𝑋) or 𝑥 2 is defined as
𝑛

𝜎𝑥2 = Var (X) = ∑ (𝑥𝑖 − 𝜇)2 𝑝(𝑥𝑖 )

𝑖=1

258
or equivalently
𝑥 2 = E(X − 𝜇)2
The non-negative number
𝑛

𝜎𝑥 = √Var (X) = √∑ (𝑥𝑖 − 𝜇)2 𝑝(𝑥𝑖 )

𝑖=1

is called the standard deviation of the random variable X.

Another formula to find the variance of a random variable. We know that,
𝑛

Var (X) = ∑ (𝑥𝑖 − 𝜇)2 𝑝(𝑥𝑖 )

𝑖=1
𝑛

= ∑ (𝑥𝑖2 𝜇2 2𝜇𝑥𝑖 )𝑝(𝑥𝑖 )

𝑖1
𝑛 𝑛 𝑛

=∑ 𝑥𝑖2 𝑝(𝑥𝑖 ) +∑ 𝜇2 𝑝(𝑥𝑖 ) − ∑ 2𝜇𝑥𝑖 𝑝(𝑥𝑖 )

𝑖=1 𝑖=1 𝑖=1
𝑛 𝑛 𝑛

= ∑ 𝑥𝑖2 𝑝(𝑥𝑖 ) + 𝜇2 ∑ 𝑝(𝑥𝑖 ) − 2𝜇 ∑ 𝑥𝑖 𝑝(𝑥𝑖 )

𝑖=1 𝑖=1 𝑖=1
𝑛 𝑛 𝑛

= ∑ 𝑥𝑖2 𝑝(𝑥𝑖 ) + 𝜇2 − 2𝜇2 [since ∑ 𝑝(𝑥𝑖 ) = 1 and 𝜇 = ∑ 𝑥𝑖 𝑝(𝑥𝑖 )]

𝑖=1 𝑖=1 𝑖=1

a
𝑛

= ∑ 𝑥𝑖2 𝑝(𝑥𝑖 ) − 𝜇2
𝑖=1
or
2
𝑛 𝑛

𝑥𝑖2 𝑝(𝑥𝑖 ) −

or
m Var (X) = ∑
𝑖=1
(∑ 𝑥𝑖 𝑝(𝑥𝑖 ))
𝑖=1

Var (X) = E(X 2 ) − [E(X)]2 , where E(X 2 ) = ∑ 𝑥𝑖2 𝑝(𝑥𝑖 )

𝑛

𝑖=1

Example 28 Find the variance of the number obtained on a throw of an unbiased die.
F=
Solution The sample space of the experiment is 𝑆 = {1,2,3,4,5,6}.
Let X denote the number obtained on the throw. Then X is a random variable which can take values 1,2,3,4,5, or 6 . Also
1
P(1) = P(2) = P(3) = P(4) = P(5) = P(6) =
6
Therefore, the Probability distribution of X is
𝐗 1 2 3 4 5 6

1 1 1 1 1 1
𝐏(𝐗)
6 6 6 6 6 6

Now
𝑛
E(X) = 𝑖1 𝑥𝑖 𝑝(𝑥𝑖 )
1 1 1 1 1 1 21
= 1× +2× +3× +4× +5× +6× =
6 6 6 6 6 6 6
Also
1 1 1 1 1 1 91
E(X 2 ) = 12 × + 22 × + 32 × + 42 × + 52 × + 62 × =
6 6 6 6 6 6 6
Thus,
Var (𝑋) = 𝐸(𝑋 2 ) − (E(X))2
91 21 2 91 441 35
= −( ) = −
6 6 6 36 12

Example 29 Two cards are drawn simultaneously (or successively without replacement) from a well shuffled pack of 52 cards. Find the
mean, variance and standard deviation of the number of kings.
Solution Let X denote the number of kings in a draw of two cards. X is a random variable which can assume the values 0,1 or 2 .
Now
259
 48!
48
C2 2! (482)! 48 188
𝑃(𝑋 = 0) = 𝑃no king) 52 51
C2 52! 47 221
2! (522)!
4 C 48 C
1 1
P(X = 1) = P( one king and one non-king ) = 52
C2
4 × 48 × 2 32
= =
52 × 51 221
4𝐶 4×3 1
and 𝑃(𝑋 = 2) = 𝑃( two kings ) = 52 𝐶
2
= =
2 52×51 221
Thus, the probability distribution of X is
𝐗 0 1 2

188 32 1
𝐏(𝐗)
221 221 221

Now
X = E(X) = 𝑥𝑖1 𝑝(𝑥𝑖 )
Mean of 188 32 1 34
=0× +1× +2× =
221 221 221 221
Also
𝑛

E(X 2 ) = ∑ 𝑥𝑖2 𝑝(𝑥𝑖 )

a
𝑖=1
188 32 1 36
= 02 × + 12 × + 22 × =
221 221 221 221
Now
Var (X) = E(X 2 ) − [E(X)]2

Therefore
m =
36
221
−(
34 2
221
) =

√6800
6800
(221)2

𝜎𝑥 = √Var (𝑋) = = 0.37

221

Bernoulli Trials and Binomial Distribution

F=
Bernoulli trials
Many experiments are dichotomous in nature. For example, a tossed coin shows a 'head' or 'tail', a manufactured item can be 'defective' or
'non-defective', the response to a question might be 'yes' or 'no', an egg has 'hatched' or 'not hatched', the decision is 'yes' or 'no' etc. In
such cases, it is customary to call one of the outcomes a 'success' and the other 'not success' or 'failure'. For example, in tossing a coin, if
the occurrence of the head is considered a success, then occurrence of tail is a failure.

Each time we toss a coin or roll a die or perform any other experiment, we call it a trial. If a coin is tossed, say, 4 times, the number of trials
is 4 , each having exactly two outcomes, namely, success or failure. The outcome of any trial is independent of the outcome of any other
trial. In each of such trials, the probability of success or failure remains constant. Such independent trials which have only two outcomes
usually referred as 'success' or 'failure' are called Bernoulli trials.

Definition 8 Trials of a random experiment are called Bernoulli trials, if they satisfy the following conditions :
(i) There should be a finite number of trials.
(ii) The trials should be independent.
(iii) Each trial has exactly two outcomes: success or failure.
(iv) The probability of success remains the same in each trial.
For example, throwing a die 50 times is a case of 50 Bernoulli trials, in which each trial results in success (say an even number) or failure
(an odd number) and the probability of success (𝑝) is same for all 50 throws. Obviously, the successive throws of the die are independent
1 1
experiments. If the die is fair and have six numbers 1 to 6 written on six faces, then 𝑝 = and 𝑞 = 1 − 𝑝 = = probability of failure.
2 2

Example 30 Six balls are drawn successively from an urn containing 7 red and 9 black balls. Tell whether or not the trials of drawing balls
are Bernoulli trials when after each draw the ball drawn is
(i) replaced

260
(ii) not replaced in the urn.
Solution
7
(i) The number of trials is finite. When the drawing is done with replacement, the probability of success (say, red ball) is 𝑝 = which is
16
same for all six trials (draws). Hence, the drawing of balls with replacements are Bernoulli trials. (ii) When the drawing is done without
7 6 7
replacement, the probability of success (i.e., red ball) in first trial is , in 2 nd trial is if the first ball drawn is red or if the first ball
16 15 15
drawn is black and so on. Clearly, the probability of success is not same for all trials, hence the trials are not Bernoulli trials.

Binomial distribution
Consider the experiment of tossing a coin in which each trial results in success (say, heads) or failure (tails). Let S and F denote respectively
success and failure in each trial. Suppose we are interested in finding the ways in which we have one success in six trials.

Clearly, six different cases are there as listed below:

SFFFFF, FSFFFF, FFSFFF, FFFSFF, FFFFSF, FFFFFS.

6!
Similarly, two successes and four failures can have combinations. It will be a lengthy job to list all of these ways. Therefore, calculation
4!2!
of probabilities of 0,1,2, …, 𝑛 number of successes may be lengthy and time consuming. To avoid the lengthy calculations and listing of all
the possible cases, for the probabilities of number of successes in 𝑛-Bernoulli trials, a formula is derived. For this purpose, let us take the
experiment made up of three Bernoulli trials with probabilities 𝑝 and 𝑞 = 1 − 𝑝 for success and failure respectively in each trial. The
sample space of the experiment is the set
S = {SSS, SSF, SFS, FSS, SFF, FSF, FFS, FFF}

a
The number of successes is a random variable 𝑋 and can take values 0,1,2, or 3 . The probability distribution of the number of successes is
as below :
P(X = 0) = P( no success )
= P({FFF}) = P(F)P(F)P(F)
m = 𝑞 ⋅ 𝑞 ⋅ 𝑞 = 𝑞3 since the trials are independent
P(X = 1) = P( one successes )
= P({SFF, FSF, FFS})
= P({SFF}) + P({FSF}) + P({FFS})
= P(S)P(F)P(F) + P(F)P(S)P(F) + P(F)P(F)P(S)
= 𝑝 ⋅ 𝑞 ⋅ 𝑞 + 𝑞 ⋅ 𝑝 ⋅ 𝑞 + 𝑞 ⋅ 𝑞 ⋅ 𝑝 = 3𝑝𝑞2
P(X = 2) = P( two successes )
= P({SSF, SFS, FSS})
F=
= P({SSF}) + P({SFS}) + P({FSS})
= P(S)P(S)P(F) + P(S)P(F)P(S) + P(F)P(S)P(S)
= 𝑝 ⋅ 𝑝. 𝑞. +𝑝. 𝑞. 𝑝 + q.p.p = 3𝑝2 𝑞
and
P(X = 3) = P( three success ) = P({SSS})
= P(S) ⋅ P(S) ⋅ P(S) = 𝑝3
Thus, the probability distribution of X is
𝐗 0 1 2 3

𝐏(𝐗) 𝑞3 3𝑞2 𝑝 3𝑞𝑝2 𝑝3

Also, the binominal expansion of (𝑞 + 𝑝)3 is

𝑞3 + 3𝑞2 𝑝 + 3𝑞𝑝2 + 𝑝3
Note that the probabilities of 0,1,2 or 3 successes are respectively the 1 st, 2 nd, 3 rd and 4 th term in the expansion of (𝑞 + 𝑝)3 .
Also, since 𝑞 + 𝑝 = 1, it follows that the sum of these probabilities, as expected, is 1 .
Thus, we may conclude that in an experiment of 𝑛-Bernoulli trials, the probabilities of 0,1,2, … , 𝑛 successes can be obtained as
1st, 2nd, … , (𝑛 + 1)th terms in the expansion of (𝑞 + 𝑝)𝑛 . To prove this assertion (result), let us find the probability of 𝑥-successes in an
experiment of 𝑛-Bernoulli trials.
Clearly, in case of 𝑥 successes (𝑆), there will be (𝑛 − 𝑥) failures (𝐹).
𝑛!
Now, 𝑥 successes (S) and (𝑛 − 𝑥) failures (F) can be obtained in ways.
𝑥!(𝑛𝑥)!
In each of these ways, the probability of 𝑥 successes and (𝑛 − 𝑥) failures is
= P(𝑥 successes ) ⋅ P(𝑛 − 𝑥) failures is
= P(S)
⏟ ⋅ P(S) … P(S) P(F)⏟ ⋅ P(F) … P(F) = 𝑝 𝑥 𝑞𝑛−𝑥
𝑥 times (𝑛𝑥) times

261
 𝑛!
Thus, the probability of 𝑥 successes in 𝑛-Bernoulli trials is 𝑝 𝑥 𝑞𝑛−𝑥 or 𝑛 C𝑥 𝑝 𝑥 𝑞𝑛−𝑥
𝑥!(𝑛−𝑥)!
Thus
P(𝑥 successes ) = 𝑛 C𝑥 𝑝 𝑥 𝑞𝑛−𝑥 , 𝑥 = 0,1,2, … , 𝑛. (𝑞 = 1 − 𝑝)
Clearly, P(𝑥 successes ), i.e. 𝑛 C𝑥 𝑝 𝑥 𝑞𝑛−𝑥 is the (𝑥 + 1)th term in the binomial expansion of (𝑞 + 𝑝)𝑛
Thus, the probability distribution of number of successes in an experiment consisting of 𝑛 Bernoulli trials may be obtained by the
binomial expansion of (𝑞 + 𝑝)𝑛 . Hence, this distribution of number of successes X can be written as
𝐗 0 1 2 ⋯ 𝑥 ⋯ 𝑛

𝑛 C 𝑞𝑛 𝑛 C 𝑞𝑛−1 𝑝1 𝑛 C 𝑞𝑛−2 𝑝 2 𝑛 C 𝑞𝑛−𝑥 𝑝 𝑥 𝑛 C 𝑝𝑛

𝐏(𝐗) 0 1 2 𝑥 𝑛

The above probability distribution is known as binomial distribution with parameters 𝑛 and 𝑝, because for given values of 𝑛 and 𝑝, we
can find the complete probability distribution.
The probability of 𝑥 successes P(X = 𝑥) is also denoted by P(𝑥) and is given by
P(𝑥) = 𝑛 C𝑥 𝑞𝑛−𝑥 𝑝 𝑥 , 𝑥 = 0,1, … , 𝑛. (𝑞 = 1 − 𝑝)
This P(𝑥) is called the probability function of the binomial distribution.
A binomial distribution with 𝑛-Bernoulli trials and probability of success in each trial as 𝑝, is denoted by B(𝑛, 𝑝).
Let us now take up some examples.

Example 31 If a fair coin is tossed 10 times, find the probability of

(i) exactly six heads
(ii) at least six heads

a
(iii) at most six heads
Solution The repeated tosses of a coin are Bernoulli trials. Let X denote the number of heads in an experiment of 10 trials.
1
Clearly, X has the binomial distribution with 𝑛 = 10 and 𝑝 =
2
Therefore

Here
1
𝑛 = 10, 𝑝 , 𝑞 = 1 − 𝑝 =
2
1
2
m
P(X = 𝑥) = 𝑛 C𝑥 𝑞𝑛−𝑥 𝑝 𝑥 , 𝑥 = 0,1,2, … , 𝑛

Therefore
1 10−𝑥 1 𝑥 1 10
P(X = 𝑥) = 10 C𝑥 ( ) ( ) = 10 C𝑥 ( )
2 2 2
10
F=
10 𝐶 (1) 10! 1 105
Now (i) 𝑃(𝑋 = 6) = 6 2 = =
6!×4! 210 512
(ii) P (at least six heads ) = P(X ≥ 6)
= P(X = 6) + P(X = 7) + P(X = 8) + P(X = 9) + P(X = 10)
1 10 1 10 1 10 1 10 1 10
= 10 C6 ( ) + 10 C7 ( ) + 10 C8 ( ) + 10 C9 ( ) + 10 C
10 ( )
2 2 2 2 2
10! 10! 10! 10! 10! 1 193
= =
6! 4! 7! 3! 8! 2! 9! 1! 10! 210 512
(iii) P (at most six heads ) = P(X ≤ 6)
= P(X = 0) + P(X = 1) + P(X = 2) + P(X = 3)
+P(X = 4) + P(X = 5) + P(X = 6)
1 10 1 10 1 10 1 10
= ( ) + 10 C1 ( ) + 10 C2 ( ) + 10 C3 ( )
2 2 2 2
10
1 10 10 1 10 10 1 10
+ C4 ( ) + C5 ( ) + C6 ( )
2 2 2
848 53
= =
1024 64

Example 32 Ten eggs are drawn successively with replacement from a lot containing 10% defective eggs. Find the probability that there
is at least one defective egg.
Solution Let X denote the number of defective eggs in the 10 eggs drawn. Since the drawing is done with replacement, the trials are
10 1
Bernoulli trials. Clearly, X has the binomial distribution with 𝑛 = 10 and 𝑝 .
100 10
Therefore
9
𝑞 = 1−𝑝 =
10
Now P( at least one defective egg) = P(X ≥ 1) = 1 − P(X = 0)

262
 10 𝐶 (
9 10 910
=1− 0 ) = 1 − 10
10 10

Multiple Choice Questions

1. What is the probability of an impossible event?
A. 1 B. 0
C. Insufficient data D. Not defined
Answer: B
Explanation:
If the probability of an event is 0, then it is called as an impossible event.

2. Two unbiased coins are tossed. What is the probability of getting at most one head?
A. 3⁄4 B. 1⁄6
C. 1⁄3 D. 1⁄2
Answer: A
Explanation:
Total outcomes = (HH, HT, TH, TT)
Favorable outcomes = (TT, HT, TH)
At most one head refers to a maximum one head,

a
Therefore, probability = 3⁄4.

3. Who provided the definition for probability?

A. Archimedes B. Einstein
C. Euclid D. Simon Laplace
Answer: D
Explanation:
m
The definition of probability was given by Pierre Simon Laplace in the year 1795. Probability can be defined as the ratio of the number of
favorable outcomes to the total number of possible outcomes.

4. A bag contains 5 green and 3 blue balls. Two balls are picked at random. What is the probability that both are of the same colour?
A.
𝐶15 ∗𝐶13 B. 0.5
F=
𝐶28
𝐶25 𝐶23 𝐶25 ∗𝐶23
C. + D.
𝐶28 𝐶28 𝐶28
Answer: C
Explanation:
Total no. of balls = 5G + 3 B = 8
No. of ways in which 2 balls can be picked = 8 C2
Probability of picking both balls as green = 5 C2 / 8 C2
Probability of picking both balls as blue = 3 C2 / 8 C2
𝐶25 𝐶23
∴ required probability + .
𝐶28 𝐶28

5. Company A produces 10% defective products, Company B produces 20% defective products and 𝐶 produces 5% defective products.
If choosing a company is an equally likely event, then find the probability that the product chosen is defective.
A. 0.11 B. 0.21
C. 0.22 D. 0.12
Answer: D
Explanation:
Let 𝐴 be the event of selecting a defective item. Let Ei be the event of selecting a company. Then,
𝑃(𝐴) = 𝑃(𝐸1 )𝑃(𝐴 ∣ 𝐸1 ) + 𝑃(𝐸2 )𝑃(𝐴 ∣ 𝐸2 ) + 𝑃(𝐸3 )𝑃(𝐴 ∣ 𝐸3 )
1 10 1 20 1 5
= ( )( ) + ( )( ) + ( )( )
3 100 3 100 3 100
0.35
= = 0.12
3

6. The probability that at least one of the events 𝑄 and 𝑅 occur is 0.6. If 𝑄 and 𝑅 have probability of occurring together as 0.2 , then
𝑃(𝑄‾ ) + 𝑃(𝑅‾) is?
263
 A. 1.2 B. 0.8
C. 0.4 D. Indeterminate
Answer: A
Explanation:
Given: 𝑃(𝑄 ∪ 𝑅) = 0.6, 𝑃(𝑄 ∩ 𝑅) = 0.2
𝑃(𝑄 ∪ 𝑅) + 𝑃(𝑄 ∩ 𝑅) = 𝑃(𝑄) + 𝑃(𝑅)
2 − (𝑃(𝑄 ∪ 𝑅) + 𝑃(𝑄 ∩ 𝑅)) = 2 − (𝑃(𝑄) + 𝑃(𝑅))
= (1 − 𝑃(𝑄)) + (1 − 𝑃(𝑅))
2 − (0.6 + 0.2) = 𝑃(𝑄‾ ) + 𝑃(𝑅‾)
𝑃(𝑄‾ ) + 𝑃(𝑅‾) = 2 − 0.8
= 1.2

7. If the probability of hitting the target is 0.3, find mean and variance.
A. 0.3, 0.16 B. 0.3, 0.21
C. 0.6, 0.16 D. 0.6, 0.24
Answer: B
Explanation:
p = 0.3
q = 1-p
= 1-0.3 = 0.67
Therefore, mean = p = 0.3 and
Variance = pq = (0.3) (0.7) = 0.21.

a
8. If ' 𝑝 ', ' 𝑞 ' and ' 𝑛 ' are probability of success, failure and number of trials respectively in a Binomial Distribution, what is its Standard
Deviation?
A. (𝑛𝑝)2 B. √𝑛𝑝
C. √𝑛𝑝𝑞
Answer: C
Explanation:
m D. √𝑝𝑞

The variance (𝑉) for a Binomial Distribution is given by 𝑉 = 𝑛𝑝𝑞 Standard Deviation = √ variance = √𝑛𝑝𝑞.

9. A number is selected from the first 20 natural numbers. Find the probability that it would be divisible by 3 or 7 ?
7 12
A. B.
20 37
F=
24 19
C. D.
67 46
Answer: A
Explanation:
Let X be the event that the number selected would be divisible by 3 and 𝑌 be the event that the selected number would be divisible by 7 .
Then 𝐴 u 𝐵 denotes the event that the number would be divisible by 3 or 7 . Now, 𝑋 = {3,9,12,15,18} and 𝑌 = {7,14} whereas 𝑆 = {1,2,
3, … ,20}. Since 𝐴 ∩ 𝐵 = Null set, so that the two events 𝐴 and 𝐵 are mutually exclusive and as such we have,
5 2
𝑃(𝐴 ∪ 𝐵) = 𝑃(𝐴) + 𝑃(𝐵) ⇒ 𝑃(𝐴 ∪ 𝐵) = +
20 20
7
Therefore, 𝑃(𝐴 ∪ 𝐵) = .
20

10. A programmer has a 95% chance of finding a bug every time she compiles his code, and it takes her three hours to rewrite the code
every time she discovers a bug. Find the probability that she will finish her program by the end of her workday. (Assume that a
workday is 9 hours)
A. 44% B. 76%
C. 28% D. 37%
Answer: C
Explanation:
In this instance, success is a bug-free compilation, and a failure is the discovery of a bug. The programmer needs to have 0,1 or 2 failures,
so her probability of finishing the program is: 𝑃(𝑋 = 0) + 𝑃(𝑋 = 1) + 𝑃(𝑋 = 2) = (0.95)0 (0.1) + (0.95)1 (0.1) + (0.95)2 (0.1) = 0.28% =
28%.

11. A jar contains ' 𝑦 ' black colored balls and ' 𝑥 ' yellow-colored balls. Two balls are pulled from the jar without replacing. What is the
probability that the first ball Is black and second one is yellow?
𝑦 2 −𝑦 𝑥𝑦−𝑦
A. B. 2 2
𝑥 2 +𝑦 2 +2𝑥𝑦−(𝑥+𝑦) 𝑥 +𝑦 +2𝑥𝑦−(𝑥−𝑦)

264
 𝑥𝑦−𝑦 𝑥𝑦
C. D.
𝑥 2 +𝑦 2 +2𝑥𝑦−(𝑥+𝑦) 𝑥 2 +𝑦 2 +2𝑥𝑦−(𝑥+𝑦)
Answer: D
Explanation:
Number of black balls = 𝑦
Number of Yellow balls = 𝑥
Total number of balls = 𝑥 + 𝑦
Probability of Black ball first = 𝑦/𝑥 + 𝑦
No. of balls remaining after removing one = 𝑥 + 𝑦 − 1

𝑥
Probability of pulling secondball as Yellow =
𝑥+𝑦−1

𝑦 𝑥 𝑥𝑦
Required porbability = =
(𝑥+𝑦) (𝑥+𝑦−1) 𝑥 2 +𝑦 2 +2𝑥𝑦−(𝑥+𝑦)

12. The probability that person A completes all the tasks assigned is 50% and that of person B is 20%. Find the probability that all the
tasks are completed.
A. 0.35 B. 0.45
C. 0.15 D. 0.25
Answer: A
Explanation:
Let A be the event that all tasks are completed, and Ei is the event that a person is selected.

a
Then,
𝑃(𝐴) = 𝑃(𝐸1 )𝑃(𝐴 ∣ 𝐸1 ) + 𝑃(𝐸2 )𝑃(𝐴 ∣ 𝐸2 )
1 50 1 20
= ( )( ) + ( )( )
2 100 2 100
= 0.35

C. 36
Answer: A
m
13. Find the number of ways of arranging the letters of the words DANGER, so that no vowel occupies odd place.
A. 144 B. 96
D. 48

Explanation:
The given word is DANGER. The number of letters is 6. Number of vowels is 2 (i.e., A, E). The number of consonants is 4 (i.e., D,N,G,R). As
the vowels cannot occupy odd places, they can be arranged in even places. Two vowels can be arranged in 3 even places in 3P2 ways i.e., 6.
F=
The rest of the consonants can be arranged in the remaining 4 places in 4! ways. The total number of arrangements is 6 x 4! = 144.

14. If the probability that a bomb dropped from a place will strike the target is 70% and if 10 bombs are dropped, find mean and variance?
A. 4, 1.6 B. 0.4, 0.16
C. 7, 2.1 D. 0.7, 0.21
Answer: C
Explanation:
Here, p = 70% = 0.7 and q = 1-p = 30% = 0.4 and n = 10
Therefore, mean = np = 7
Variance = npq = (10) (0.7) (0.3)
= 2.1.

15. Consider Jack draws 3 cards from a pack of 52 cards. What is the probability of getting no kings?
A. 0.8726 B. 0.7862
C. 0.8762 D. 0.7826
Answer: D
Explanation:
The Random Experiment follows hypergeometric distribution with, N = 52 since there are 52 cards in a deck.
𝑘 = 4 since there are 4 kings in a deck.
𝑛 = 3 since we randomly select 3 cards from the deck.
𝑥 = 0 since we want no kings.
ℎ(𝑥; 𝑁, 𝑛, 𝑘) = [ 𝑘 𝐶𝑥 ][ 𝑁−𝑘 𝐶𝑛−𝑥 ]/[ 𝑁 𝐶𝑛 ]
ℎ(0; 52,4,3) = [ 4 𝐶0 ][ 48 𝐶3 ]/[ 52 𝐶3 ]
ℎ(0; 52,4,3) = 0.7826.

265
16. A coin is tossed up 4 times. The probability that tails turn up in 3 cases is?
1 1
A. B.
4 6
1 1
C. D.
3 2
Answer: D
Explanation:
𝑝 = 0.5 (Probability of tail)
𝑞 = 1 − 0.5 = 0.5
n = 4 and x is binomial variate.
𝑃(𝑋 = 𝑥) = 𝑛 𝐶𝑥 𝑝 𝑋 𝑞𝑛−𝑥 .
𝑃(𝑋 = 3) = 4 𝐶3 (0.5)3 = 1/2.

17. Suppose 5 men out of 100 men and 10 women out of 250 women are colour blind, then find the total probability of colour blind people.
(Assume that both men and women are in equal numbers.)
A. 0.5 B. 0.05
C. 0.045 D. 0.45
Answer: C
Explanation:
Let A be the event of selecting a colour blind person and Ei be the event of selecting a person. Then,
𝑃(𝐴) = 𝑃(𝐸1 )𝑃(𝐴 ∣ 𝐸1 ) + 𝑃(𝐸2 )𝑃(𝐴 ∣ 𝐸2 )
1 5 1 10
= ( )( ) + ( )( )
2 100 2 250

a
= 0.045

18. A fair coin is tossed thrice, what is the probability of getting all 3 same outcomes?
A. 1⁄4 B. 3⁄4
C. 1 ⁄6 D. 1⁄2
Answer: A
Explanation:
m
S = {HHH, HHT, HTH, HTT, THH, THT, TTH, TTT}
All 3 same outcomes mean either all head or all tail
Total outcomes = 8
Favourable outcomes = {HHH, TTT} = 2
∴ required probability = 2⁄8 = 1⁄4.
F=
19. A problem is given to 5 students 𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶, 𝐷, 𝐸. If the probability of solving the problem individually is 1/2,1/3,2/3,1/5,1/6 respectively,
then find the probability that the problem is solved.
A. 0.57 B. 0.27
C. 0.47 D. 0.37
Answer: D
Explanation:
Let 𝑀 be the event that the problem is solved. Let 𝐸𝑖 be the event that a student is chosen. Then,
𝑃(𝑀) = 𝑃(𝐸1 )𝑃(𝑀 ∣ 𝐸1 ) + 𝑃(𝐸2 )𝑃(𝑀 ∣ 𝐸2 ) + 𝑃(𝐸3 )𝑃(𝑀 ∣ 𝐸3 ) + 𝑃(𝐸4 )𝑃(𝑀 ∣ 𝐸4 ) + 𝑃(𝐸5 )𝑃(𝑀 ∣ 𝐸5 )
1 1 1 1 1 2 1 1 1 1
= ( )( ) + ( )( ) + ( )( ) + ( )( ) + ( )( )
5 2 5 3 5 3 5 5 5 6
= 0.37

20. If the probability that a bomb dropped from a place will strike the target is 70% and if 10 bombs are dropped, find mean and variance?
A. 4, 1.6 B. 0.4, 0.16
C. 7, 2.1 D. 0.7, 0.21
Answer: C
Explanation:
Here, p = 70% = 0.7 and q = 1-p = 30% = 0.4 and n = 10
Therefore, mean = np = 7
Variance = npq = (10) (0.7) (0.3)
= 2.1.

21. The probability that person A completes all the tasks assigned is 50% and that of person B is 20%. Find the probability that all the
tasks are completed.
A. 0.35 B. 0.45
266
 C. 0.15 D. 0.25
Answer: A
Explanation:
Let A be the event that all tasks are completed, and Ei is the event that a person is selected.
Then,
𝑃(𝐴) = 𝑃(𝐸1 )𝑃(𝐴 ∣ 𝐸1 ) + 𝑃(𝐸2 )𝑃(𝐴 ∣ 𝐸2 )
1 50 1 20
= ( )( ) + ( )( )
2 100 2 100
= 0.35

22. In a Poisson Distribution, if ' 𝑛 ' is the number of trials and ' 𝑝 ' is the probability of success, then the mean value is given by?
A. 𝑚 = 𝑝 B. 𝑚 = 𝑛𝑝(1 − 𝑝)
C. 𝑚 = (𝑛𝑝)2 D. 𝑚 = 𝑛𝑝
Answer: D
Explanation:
For a discrete probability function, the mean value or the expected value is given by Mean (𝜇) = ∑𝑛𝑥=0 𝑥𝑝(𝑥)
𝑒 −𝑚 𝑚𝑥
For Poisson Distribution 𝑃(𝑥) = substitute in above equation and solve to get 𝜇 = 𝑚 = 𝑛𝑝.
𝑥!

23. How many outcomes are possible when drawing a card from a deck of cards?
A. 1 B. 13
C. 52 D. 26
Answer: C
Explanation:

a
The deck of cards contains 52 cards. There are 13 cards of hearts, spades, clubs, and diamonds. The 13 cards are A, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10,
J, Q, K.

24. What is the probability of getting a number greater than 6 on dice?

A. 1 B. 1/3
C. 1/2 D. 0
Answer: D
Explanation:
m
Since a number greater than 6 cannot appear on dice so probability of getting a number greater than 6 is zero.

25. The annual salaries of workers in a manufacturing factory are normally distributed with a meaning of Rs. 48,000 and a standard
deviation of Rs. 1500. Find the probability of workers who earn between Rs. 35,000 and Rs. 52,000.
A. 20% B. 42.1%
C. 64% D. 76.2%
F=
Answer: B
Explanation:
For x = 45000, z = -2 and for x = 52000, z = 0.375. Now, the area between z = -2 and z = 0.375 is equal to 0.421 or 42.1% earn between Rs.
45,000 and Rs. 52,000.

26. In a bucket there are 5 blue, 15 yellow, and 25 orange balls. If the ball is picked up randomly, find the probability that it is neither
yellow nor blue? In a bucket there are 5 purple, 15 grey and 25 green balls. If the ball is picked up randomly, find the probability that
it is neither grey nor purple?
51 2
A. B.
43 7
5 12
C. D.
9 13
Answer: B
Explanation:
If the ball is neither yellow nor blue, then it must be orange. There are 45 balls in total of which 25 are orange and so the probability of
25 5
picking a purple ball is = .
45 9

27. If 𝑃(𝐶) = 5/13, 𝑃(𝐷) = 7/13 and 𝑃(𝐶 ∩ 𝐷) = 3/13, evaluate 𝑃(𝐶 ∣ 𝐷).
A. 2/7 B. 3/5
C. 3/7 D. 1/7
Answer: C
Explanation:
We know that 𝑃(𝐶 ∣ 𝐷) = 𝑃(𝐶 ∩ 𝐷)/𝑃(𝐷). (By formula for conditional probability) Which is equivalent to (3/13)/(7/13), hence the value
of 𝑃(𝐶 ∣ 𝐷) = 3/7.

28. What is the probability of a sure event?

A. 1 B. 0
C. 1/4 D. 1/2
267
Answer: A
Explanation:
Sure, an event has all outcomes in favour i.e., number of outcomes in favour equal to the total number of possible outcomes.
And probability is ratio of number of outcomes in favour to the total number of possible outcomes.
So, the probability of a sure event will be 1.

29. Find the Expectation of a Hypergeometric Distribution such that the probability that a 4-trial hypergeometric experiment results in
exactly 2 successes, when the population consists of 16 items.
A. 1/3 B. 1/8
C. 1/4 D. 1/2
Answer: D
Explanation:
In Hypergeometric Distribution the Mean or Expectation 𝐸(𝑋) is given as
𝐸(𝑋) = 𝑛 × 𝑘/𝑁
Here 𝑛 = 4, 𝑘 = 2, 𝑁 = 16.
Hence 𝐸(𝑋) = 1/2.

30. If the probability of hitting the target is 0.3, find mean and variance.
A. 0.3, 0.16 B. 0.3, 0.21
C. 0.6, 0.16 D. 0.6, 0.24
Answer: B
Explanation:
p = 0.3
q = 1-p

a
= 1-0.3 = 0.67
Therefore, mean = p = 0.3 and
Variance = pq = (0.3) (0.7) = 0.21.

Question/Answer
Very Short Questions
m
1. If A and B are two independent events, prove that A’ and B are also independent.
Answer: Since A and B are independent events, [Given]
.-. P (A ∩ B) = P (A). P(B) … (1)
Now P(A’∩B) = P (B) – P (A ∩ B)
= P(B) – P (A) P (∩ B) [Using (1)]
F=
= (1 – P(A)) P(B) = P(A’) P(B).
Hence, A’ and B are independent events.

2. One card is drawn from a pack of 52 cards so that each card is equally likely to be se-lected. Prove that the following cases are in-
dependent:
• A: “The card drawn is a spade”
B: “The card drawn is an ace.”
• A: “The card drawn is black”
B: “The card drawn is a king.”
13 1 4 1
Answer: (a) P(A) = = , P(B) = =
52 4 52 13
1 1 1
P(A∩B) = = ⋅ = p(A). p(B)
52 4 13
Hence, the events A and B are independent.
26 1 4 1
(b) P(A) = = , P(B) = =
52 2 52 13
2 1 1 1
P(A∩B) = = = ⋅ = P(A). P(B)
52 26 2 13
Hence, the events A and B are independent.

3. A pair of coins is tossed once. Find the probability of showing at least one head.
Answer: S, Sample space = {HH, HT, TH, TT}
where H ≡ Head and T ≡ Tail.
3
∴ P (at least one head) = .
4

4. P(A) = 0.6, P(B) = 0. 5 and P(A/B) = 0.3, then find P (A∪ B).
Answer: We have: P(A/B) = 0.3
268
𝑃(𝐴∩𝐵)
= 0.3
𝑃(𝐵)
𝑃(𝐴∩𝐵)
= 0.3
0.5
P (A ∩ B) = 0.5 x 0.3 = 0.15.
Now, P(A∪B) = P(A) + P(B) – P (A ∩ B)
= 0.6 + 0.5 – 0. 15
Hence, P (A ∪ B) = 1.1 – 0.15 = 0.95.

5. One bag contains 3 red and 5 black balls. Another bag contains 6 red and 4 black balls. A ball is transferred from first bag to the
second bag and then a ball is drawn from the second bag. Find the probability that the ball drawn is red.
Answer:
P (Red transferred and red drawn or black transferred red drawn)

Solution:

P(A∪B) = P(A) + P(B) – (A ∩ B)

a
Short Questions
1. Given that A and B are two independent events such that P(A) = 0.3 and P(B) = 0.5. Find P(A/B).
Answer: We have:
P(A)= 0.3 and P(B) = 0.5.
Now P (A ∩ B) = P(A). P(B)
[∵A and B are independent events]
= (0.3) (0.5) = 0.15.
m
2. A bag contains 3 white and 2 red balls, another bag contains 4 white and 3 red balls. One ball is drawn at random from each bag.
Find the probability that the balls drawn are one white and one red.
F=
Answer: Reqd. probability
= P (White, Red) + P (Red, White)

1 1 1
3. The probabilities of A, B and C solving a problem independently are , and respectively. If all the three try to solve the problem
2 3 4
independently, find the probability that the problem is solved.
Answer:

Probability that the problem is solved.

= Probability that the problem is solved by at least one person

4. A die marked 1, 2, 3 in red and 4, 5, 6 in green is tossed. Let A be the event “number is even” and B be the event “number is marked
red”. Find whether the events A and B are independent or not.
Answer: Here, A: number is even i.e.,
A = {2,4,6}
and B: number is red i.e.,
B = {1,2,3}
269
And,
1
P (A ∩ B) = P (Number is even and red) = .
6
Thus, P (A ∩ B) ≠ P(A). P(B)

Hence, the events A and B are not independent.

5. A die is thrown 6 times. If “getting an odd number” is a success, what is the probability of (i) 5 successes (ii) at most 5 successes?
Answer:
Probability of getting an odd number is one 3 1

Probability of getting an even number in one 3

Also, n = 6.
(i) P (5 successes) = P (5) = 6C5 q1 p5
(ii) P (at most 5 successes)
= P (0) + P (1) + … + P (5) = 1 – P(6)
= 1 - 6C6 q0 p6

a
6. The random variable ‘X’ has a probability distribution P(X) of the following form, where ‘k’ is some number:

Determine the value of ‘P.

Answer:
m
We have: P (X = 0) + P (X = 1) + P (X = 2) = 1
⇒ k + 2k + 3k = 1
⇒ 6k = 1.
F=
7. Out of 8 outstanding students at a school, in which there are 3 boys and 5 girls, a team of 4 students is to be selected for a quiz
competition. Find the probability that 2 boy and 2 girls are selected.
Answer:

8. 12 cards numbered 1 to 12 (one number on one card), are placed in a box and mixed up thoroughly. Then a card is drawn at random
from the box. If it is known that the number on the drawn card is greater than 5, find the probability that the card bears an odd number.
Answer: Let the events be as:
A: Card bears an odd number.
B: Number on the card is greater than 5.
A∩B = {7, 9, 11}.

Long Questions
1. A black and a red die are rolled together. Find the conditional probability of obtaining the sum 8, given that the red die resulted in a
number less than 4.
Answer: Let the events be as:
E: Sum of numbers is 8

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F: Number of red dice less than 4.
E: {(2, 6), (3, 5), (4, 4), (5, 3), (6, 2)}
F = {(1, 1), (2, 1), … (6, 1), (1, 2), (2, 2), … (6, 2), (1, 3), (2, 3), … (6, 2) (6, 3)}
and E ∩ F = {(5, 3), (6, 2)}

2. Two numbers are selected at random (with-out replacement) from the first five positive integers. Let X denote the larger of the two
numbers obtained. Find the mean and variance of X.
Answer:
The first five positive integers are 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5.
We select two positive numbers in 5 x 4 = 20 way.
Out of three, two numbers are selected at ran-dom.
Let ‘X’ denote the larger of the two numbers.
X can be 2, 3, 4 or 5.
∴ P (X = 2) = P (Larger number is 2)
2
{(1, 2), (2,1)} =

a
20
4
Similarly, P (X = 3) = ,
20
6
P (X = 4) =
20
8
and P (X = 5) =
20
Hence, the probability distribution is:
m
F=

3 5
3. The probabilities of two students A and B coming to the school in time are and respectively. Assuming that the events, ‘A coming
7 7
in time’ and ‘B coming in time’ are independent, find the probability of only one of them coming to the school in time.
3
Answer: We have: P(A) = Probability of student A coming to school in time =
7
5
P(B) = Probability of student B coming to school in time =
7

∴ Probability that only one of the students coming to school in time.

4. A speaks truth in 80% cases and B speaks truth in 90% cases. In what percentage of cases are they likely to agree with each other in

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 stating the same fact?
Answer:

∴ P(Agree) = P (Both speak the truth, or both tell a lie)

Hence, the reqd. percentage = 74%.

a
m
F=

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