Unit 02: Solar Energy Collection

Subject: Renewable Energy Sources Class: TY BTech Electrical

Unit: 02
Solar Energy Collection
Unit content:
Flat plate and concentrating collectors, classification of concentrating collectors, orientation and
thermal analysis, advanced collectors.

2.0: Introduction
Solar energy is a clean, cheap and abundantly available renewable energy source. Solar energy can
be used in two ways: (i) directly as thermal energy and (ii) indirectly using solar photovoltaic cells
to convert it to electricity. In cold climate region or other regions in winter, a large amount of
thermal energy is required to heat air to maintain comfort conditions in space and to heat water for
washing, cleaning and drying, both for domestic and industrial needs.
Solar energy collectors are the devices similar to heat converter which are used to obtain thermal
energy from solar energy. Solar energy is available during daytime from sunrise to sunset. Solar
energy of 5–7.5 kWh/m2 is commonly available in most places in India. The solar energy can be
used either in solar power plant or in solar photovoltaic (SPV) cells to get electricity.
Indian Renewable Energy Development Agency and the Ministry of Non-Conventional Energy
Sources are working continuously to install solar energy in more than a million houses in the
shortest time and to increase the uses of solar energy for (i) domestic lighting, (ii) solar water
heating, (iii) street lighting, (iv) village electrification, (v) railway signals, (vi) desalination of
saline water, (vii) water pumping, (viii) space heating, (ix) solar cooking, (x) space cooling, (xi)
solar greenhouse and (xii) powering of remote telecommunication stations.
Solar Collector:
Solar collector is a device for collecting solar radiation and then transferring the absorbed energy
to a fluid passing through it.
A solar collector absorbs solar energy in the form of heat and simultaneously transfers this heat
to a fluid so that the heat can be transported by the fluid.
The transport fluid takes this transferred heat from the collector and delivers it to a thermal storage
tank, boiler or heat exchanger so that it can be utilized in a solar thermal system. Hence, solar
collector is essential and it forms the first basic unit in a solar thermal system.
2.1: Classification of solar collectors
A solar collector is a device (i) to collect and absorb solar radiation and (ii) to transfer the absorbed
heat energy to the fluid (generally air or water) in contact or passing through it. There are mainly
two types of solar collectors (i) non-concentrating or flat plate type solar collector and (ii)
concentrating type solar collector as shown in Figure below. The solar energy collector with its
associated absorber is the essential component of any solar collector for the conversion of solar
radiation energy into more usable form of energy such as heat or electricity.

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Fig. Classification of solar collectors

The important features of a solar collector are as follow:
 Collector efficiency
 Concentrating ratio (CR)
 Temperature range
Collector efficiency:
It is defined as the ratio of energy actually absorbed by the collector to the energy incident on the
collector. The absorbed energy by a collector is the solar energy which is transferred to the
transport fluid as heat energy.
𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑎𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑟𝑏𝑒𝑑
𝜂=
𝑆𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦
Concentrating ratio (CR):

Fig. Concentrating ratio of a collector

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It is defined as the ratio of the area of aperture of the collector system to the area of the receiver.
The aperture of the system is the projected area of collector facing or normal to the sun as shown
in above figure. The radiation is incident on an aperture area Ao which is then concentrating on a
smaller area on receiver or absorber plate given by Ar. The concentration ratio is
𝐴𝑜 1
𝐶𝑅 = and 𝐶𝑅(max) =
𝐴𝑟 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑚𝑎𝑥

Temperature range:
It is the range of temperature to which the heat transporting fluid is heated up by the collector. The
temperature range depends upon the concentration ratio.
2.2: Flat plate collector or non-concentrating collector
A Flat plate collector is a solar panel device that uses solar energy to generate thermal energy. It
converts solar power into thermal energy.
A Flat plate solar collector receives the solar radiation and transmits heat to the functioning
medium. It is suitable for several thermal applications. The average temperature range of this
device is 100° C. Besides, these devices have an economical cost of investment.
The Flat plate collector devices are the backbone of solar thermal devices. They have diverse
applications from household to commercial sectors. Flat plate collector devices are commonly
used for active space heating and water heating for further usage.

Fig. Flat plate solar collector: (a) Layout of transparent cover, absorber and fluid tubes, (b) Fluid
tube connection and fluid flow.
Construction:
A flat plate collector consists of following essential components:
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i) Absorber plate: It is meant to intercept and absorb incident solar radiation. It is primarily a
blackened heat absorbing plate usually made of copper, aluminium or steel. It may also be given
a coating to minimize the emission of heat from its surface.
ii) Transparent cover: It is made of one or more transparent sheets of glass or plastic. It is placed
above the absorber plate. The cover allows radiation to reach the absorber plate but it prevents any
reradiation and heat loss due to convection.
iii) Fluid tubes or channels: Fluid tubes or channels are arranged in thermal contact with the
absorber plate so that heat can be transferred from the absorber plate to the fluid in the tubes or
channels.
iv) Thermal insulation: The thermal insulation is provided under the absorber plate and fluid
tubes to minimize any heat loss by transmission or convection from the absorber plate and fluid
tubes.
v) Tight container or box: All the above components of the collector are protected by a tight
container or box as shown in above figure.
Working:
The operation of a flat plate collector is based on heat transfer. Solar radiation falls on the heat-
absorbing plate of the collector. When incident solar radiation hits the absorbing plate surface, part
of its energy is converted into heat. Consequently, the temperature of the solar collector increases.
This heat transfers to the fluid flowing through the fluid tubes. The heated fluid becomes less dense
and rises to the top of the collector, where it exits and moves to the storage tank or the load. The
colder fluid from the tank or the load enters the bottom of the collector and replaces the heated
fluid, creating a continuous loop. The fluid can be water, air, or a mixture of water and antifreeze,
depending on the application and the climate.
The characteristic features/advantages of a flat plate collector are as follows:
 It absorbs both direct and diffuse solar radiation.
 It does not need any sun tracking system. Hence, it is mechanically stronger than other
collectors which require tracking system.
 It has simple construction requiring a little maintenance.
Disadvantages:
 Low efficiency in cold weather
 Limited to low-temperature applications
 Requires large surface area
 Can overheat in high temperatures
2.3: Classification of concentrating collectors
A concentrating solar collector is a solar collector that uses reflective surfaces to concentrate
sunlight onto a small area, where it is absorbed and converted to heat.
Concentrators are capable of increasing the radiant power of sunlight a few hundred times. This
type of solar collector is generally used for high-temperature applications.

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The classification of concentrating collectors as follows.

Fig. Classification of concentrating collectors

Focus type collector:
Focus type collectors intercept direct radiation over a large area and focus it onto a small absorber
area. These collectors can provide high temperatures more efficiently than flat-plate collectors,
since the absorption surface area is much smaller.
Non-focus type collector:
In these type of collectors, the solar radiations are allowed to fall on the absorber after using
reflection in the mirror.
Line focus collector:
Line-focusing collectors are solar energy collectors that concentrate solar radiation onto a narrow
line for heat generation.
Point focus collector:
A point-focusing collector is a type of solar energy collector that concentrates solar radiation onto
a single point or small focal area for heat generation or power production.
2.4: Concentrating collectors
2.4.1: Modified flat plate collector
Modified flat plate collector is a non-focus concentrating type collector. It is a modified form of
the flat plate collector as it has plain reflectors at its edges to reflect additional radiation to the
absorber or receiver and so there is some concentration of solar radiation at the receiver. The mirror
reflectors are called booster mirrors which increase the acceptance angle and concentration ratio

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of the flat plate reflector from l to 4. The arrangement of the reflecting mirrors is shown in figure
below.

Fig. Modified flat plate collector

2.4.2: Compound Parabolic Concentrator (CPC) type collector
Compound Parabolic Concentrator is a non-focus concentrating type collector. It is mainly a flat
collector having two parabolic mirror reflectors attached at the edge of the flat plate collector as
shown in figure below.

Fig. Compound Parabolic Concentrator (CPC) type collector

The parabolic mirrors are so adjusted that the focus of one mirror is located at the bottom end of
the other mirror in contact with the receiver. The arrangement helps in increasing the acceptance
angle. The concentration ratio achieved by this type of collectors ranges from 3 to 7.
2.4.3: Cylindrical Parabolic Collector

Fig. Cylindrical parabolic concentrator. (a) Focussing of sun’s rays, (b) Arrangement of
cylindrical concentrator and fluid tube.

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Cylindrical parabolic collector is line focus type concentrating collector. Cylindrical parabolic
concentrator or parabolic trough collector consists of a cylindrical parabolic trough reflector with
a metallic fluid tube or receiver tube containing fluid at its focal line as shown in figure above. In
order to have better absorption of solar radiation, the fluid tube is blackened at outer surface. The
concentrated solar radiation reaching the fluid tube heats up the transport fluid flowing through it.
The collector with such concentrator has to be oriented to any of the following three directions: (i)
East–West, (ii) North–South and (iii) Polar. Hence, such collector needs one-axis tracking system
which can move the collector as per the sun’s movements in sky. These types of collectors have
the concentration ratio in the range of 5 - 30.
2.4.4: Fixed Mirror Solar Concentrator

Fig. Fixed Mirror Solar Concentrator

Fixed mirror solar concentrator is line focus type concentrating collector. The concentrator consists
of a number of long narrow mirror strips fixed on the circumference of a certain reference cylinder
with a tracking receiver or fluid tube moving at the same circular circumference or focal circle as
shown in figure below. The mirrors are arranged in such a manner that the incident radiation on
them is focused on the receiver tube on their common focal circle. The receiver tube is made to
move along the focal circle by a tracking device as per the movement of the sun in the sky. The
concentration ratio of the concentrator is equal to the number of mirrors used for the concentration
of radiation.
2.4.5: Linear Fresnel Lens Collector
Linear Fresnel lens collector is line focus type concentrating collector. In this type of collectors, a
concentrator in the form of Fresnel lens is used. The Fresnel lens consists of fine and linear grooves
formed on one of the surfaces of some refracting materials sheet while its other surface is flat. The
grooves provided on the sheet are designed in such a manner that these behave similar to spherical
lens to every incident light rays. The incident radiation, therefore, converges on the focal line of
the lens system where fluid tube is provided as shown in figure below. The heat is transferred to
the transport fluid flowing in the fluid tube.
A concentration ratio ranging from l0 to 30 is achieved. The temperature range of such collectors
varies from l50 to 300°C.

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Fig. Linear Fresnel Lens Collector

2.4.6: Paraboloidal Dish Collector

Fig. Paraboloid point focus solar collector. (a) Generation of paraboloid surface. (b) Parabolic
surface concentrating radiation
Paraboloidal dish collector is point focus type concentrating collector. A point-focus collector has
a dish of the shape of a paraboloidal, that is, the surface produced when a parabola is rotated about
its axis. The paraboloidal surface can concentrate all incident radiation parallel to its axis to a point
focus where the receiver tube is positioned. In order to ensure proper incidence of radiation, the
parabolic dish collector should be provided with two axes tracking: (i) by rotating the support
structure about the vertical axis for dish alignment and (ii) the dish is rotated about a horizontal
axis for elevation tracking as shown in figure above.
This type of collectors can have concentration ratio ranging from l0 to l000 which helps to produce
temperature up to 3000°C.
2.4.7: Circular Fresnel Lens Concentrator
Circular Fresnel lens concentrator is a point focus type concentrating collector. The principle of
working of this type of collector is similar to the linear Fresnel collector and the only difference is
that this type of collector is designed to concentrate the radiation at one focal point instead of line
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focus. These Fresnel lenses concentrators are used where high concentration of radiation is
required, for examples, with silicon solar cell receiver. The concentrator has a number of thin
circular zones with fine grooves so designed that the lens concentrator behaves optically as a thin
spherical lens. The sun rays are made to refract and converge at a point as shown in figure below.
The concentration ratio obtained by this concentrator is very high with a value of about 2000.

Fig. Circular Fresnel Lens Concentrator

2.4.8: Hemispherical Bowl Mirror Concentrator

Fig. Hemispherical bowl mirror concentrator.

The hemispherical bowl mirror concentrator is a point focus concentrator in which reflector
remains stationary and the receiver is made to track about two axes as per the movement of the
sun in the sky so that solar radiation can be converged at the receiver kept at the focal point. The
hemispherical fixed mirror, absorber with two axes tracking system and supporting structure of
the collector are as shown in figure above. All the sun rays entering the hemisphere after reflection
are concentrated at focal point. The absorber should be moved in such a way that it is always at
the converging point of the sun rays after the reflection.
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2.4.9: Central Tower Receiver Collector

Fig. Heliostats and the receiver in a central tower receiver collector.

Central tower receiver collector is a point focus type concentrating collector. In this type of
collectors, the receiver is located at the top of a tower and solar radiation is reflected on it from a
large number of independently controlled flat mirrors called heliostats. The heliostats can be
moved independently about two axes so that the reflected solar radiation is always directed towards
the absorber mounted on the tower as shown in figure above.
The heliostats are spread over a large area on ground surrounding the absorber mounted on the
tower. The number of heliostats can be as high as thousands and they simultaneously track the sun
to reflect the solar radiation from all sides on the receiver. These heliostats together act as a very
large paraboloidal dish collector.
The concentration ratio as high as 3000 can be obtained by this point type concentrator called
central tower receiver collector. The solar radiation at the receiver is converted into heat, which is
transported to a heat engine or any other device for use.
2.5: Advantages and Disadvantages of Concentrating Collectors over Flat plate type
collectors
Advantages of Concentrating Collectors over Flat Plate Type Collectors:
1. Higher Temperature Output: Concentrating collectors can achieve much higher
temperatures compared to flat plate collectors, making them suitable for applications
requiring high-temperature heat or steam generation.
2. Improved Efficiency: Concentrating collectors have better efficiency in capturing and
converting solar radiation into usable energy, thanks to their focusing or concentrating
mechanisms.

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3. Compact Design: Concentrating collectors can achieve higher energy output with a
smaller surface area compared to flat plate collectors, making them more space-efficient.
4. Versatility: Concentrating collectors can be used for a variety of applications, including
power generation, industrial process heat, and solar thermal technologies.
5. Reduced Material Usage: Due to their smaller surface area, concentrating collectors
require less material for construction, which can lead to cost savings.
Disadvantages of Concentrating Collectors over Flat Plate Type Collectors:
1. Complexity and Cost: Concentrating collectors involve more complex designs, including
mirrors or lenses, which can increase their manufacturing and installation costs.
2. Tracking Requirements: Concentrating collectors often require sun-tracking
mechanisms to maintain optimal alignment with the sun’s position, adding complexity and
potential maintenance requirements.
3. Limited Acceptance of Diffuse Radiation: Concentrating collectors are more reliant on
direct solar radiation and may not effectively capture diffuse or scattered sunlight, limiting
their performance on cloudy or overcast days.
4. Higher Maintenance: Concentrating collectors with moving parts, such as sun-tracking
systems, may require regular maintenance and calibration to ensure optimal performance.
5. Potential for Glare: Concentrating collectors can produce intense beams of focused
sunlight, which may pose a glare hazard for nearby structures or occupants if not properly
managed.
2.6: Difference between concentrating collectors and flat plate type collectors.
Flat plate type collectors Concentrating Solar Collector
These collectors are also called as non- These collectors are also called as focusing
concentrating type solar collectors. type solar collectors.
In this type of solar collector, the collector In this type of solar collector, the collector
area is equal to the absorber area. area is very large sometimes hundreds of
times more than that of the absorber area.
The intensity of insolation is small. The intensity of insolation is very large.
The reflecting surfaces require more material. The reflecting surface requires less material.
The working fluid in this type of collector The working fluid in this type of collector
does not attain a high temperature. attains very high temperatures.
There is no use of mirrors and lenses to For focusing the sun's radiation, an
concentrate the sun's rays. arrangement of lenses and mirrors is
designed.
The efficiency of the flat plate collector is The efficiency of concentrating type collector
low. is high.
These collectors are cheaper. These collectors are expensive.
Surface treatment required to reduce heat Surface treatment required to reduce heat
losses and to improve collector efficiency is losses, and to improve the collector efficiency
not economical. is economical.
The absorber gets uniform solar flux. The absorber gets non-uniform solar flux.

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2.7: Orientation and thermal analysis
Orientation of collector:
To reduce the losses owing reflection of incident radiation from the absorbing surface, it is
essential that incident radiation should strike the absorbing surface at the right angle. But the
incident radiation changes its direction as per the movement of the sun in the sky. The angle of
incidence of the sun rays also depend on (i) latitude of the place, (ii) time of the day and (iii) time
of the year.
Ideally, the collector should follow the sun in order to get maximum radiation. However, this will
require a huge amount of electrical energy for tracking device to keep the collector facing the sun
as it moves in the sky. It is neither advisable nor economical in the context of flat plate collector
having low energy output. The flat plate collectors are, therefore, kept facing south so that the
maximum amount of energy can be extracted for all places in the northern hemisphere. The
collector is also always kept inclined to horizontal position, with optimum inclination facing the
sun so that maximum solar radiation is received throughout the day. The optimum inclination is
kept as follows:
 In summer, inclination = lattitude –l5°
 In winter, inclination = lattitude +l5°
 Round the year, inclination = lattitude.
Thermal analysis of collector:

Fig. Performance testing procedure.

The performance testing of solar collector is carried out by comparing liquid heating by the
collector using the solar radiation with the incident solar radiation on the collector. A pyranometer
is used to measure the solar radiation on the plane of the collector. The steady flow of the liquid
in the collector using a liquid loop is shown in figure above.
The figure shows the (i) pump to circulate liquid, (ii) heat exchanger to remove heat from the liquid
transferred to it by the collector, (iii) heater to maintain a constant temperature at the inlet of the
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collector, (iv) flowmeter to measure liquid flow, (v) valve to control flow, (vi) temperature sensors
to measure inlet and outlet temperatures to the collector and (vii) collector.
The liquid is heated by the collector depending upon incident solar radiation. The liquid flow is
controlled by the pump and temperatures at inlet and outlet are kept constant by liquid flow and
amount of heat rejected at heat exchanger or heat input by the heater. In the condition of
equilibrium, the heat transferred to liquid by the collector is calculated as

Where, m is the mass of liquid flow and Cp is the specific heat of the liquid.
If solar global radiation as measured by pyranometer is Ig and collector area is Ac, then the
efficiency of the collector is given by

2.8: Advanced collectors

Evacuated Tube Solar Collector

Fig. Evacuated Tube Solar Collector

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The evacuated tube collector (ETC) consists of a number of sealed glass tubes which have a
thermally conductive copper rod or pipe inside allowing for much high thermal efficiency and
working temperature compared to the flat plate solar collectors even during a freezing cold day.
These glass tubes are cylindrical in shape. Therefore, the angle of the sunlight is always
perpendicular to the heat absorbing tubes which enables these collectors to perform well even
when sunlight is low such as when it is early in the morning or late in the afternoon, or when
shaded by clouds. Evacuated tube collectors are particularly useful in areas with cold, cloudy
wintry weathers.
Evacuated tube collectors are made up of a single or multiple rows of parallel, transparent glass
tubes supported on a frame. Each tube consists of a thick glass outer tube and a thinner glass inner
tube, which is covered with a special coating that absorbs solar energy but inhibits heat loss. The
tubes are made of borosilicate or soda lime glass, which is strong, resistant to high temperatures
and has a high transmittance for solar irradiation.
Unlike flat panel collectors, evacuated tube collectors do not heat the water directly within the
tubes. Instead, air is removed or evacuated from the space between the two tubes, forming a
vacuum (hence the name evacuated tubes).
This vacuum acts as an insulator reducing any heat loss significantly to the surrounding
atmosphere either through convection or radiation making the collector much more efficient than
the internal insulating that flat plate collectors have to offer. With the assistance of this vacuum,
evacuated tube collectors generally produce higher fluid temperatures than they’re flat plate
counterparts so may become very hot in summer.
Inside the each glass tube, a flat or curved aluminium or copper fin is attached to a metal heat pipe
running through the inner tube. The fin is covered with a selective coating that transfers heat to the
fluid that is circulating through the pipe. This sealed copper heat pipe transfers the solar heat via
convection of its internal heat transfer fluid to a “hot bulb” that indirectly heats a copper manifold
within the header tank.
These copper pipes are all connected to a common manifold which is then connected to a storage
tank, thus heating the hot water during the day. The hot water can then be used at night or the next
day due to the insulating properties of the tank.
The insulation properties of the vacuum are so good that while the inner tube may be as high as
150oC, the outer tube is cooler to touch. This means that evacuated tube water heaters can perform
well and can heat water to fairly high temperatures even in cold weather when flat plate collectors
perform poorly due to heat loss.
Evacuated tube collectors are overall more modern and more efficient compared to the standard
flat plate collectors as they can extract the heat out of the air on a humid, dull overcast days and
do not need direct sunlight to operate. Due to the vacuum inside the glass tube, the total efficiency
in all areas is higher and there is a better performance even when the sun is not at an optimum
angle.
Types of Evacuated Tube Solar Collector:
There are primarily two types of vacuum tube collectors. They are listed below:

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1. Direct-flow evacuated tube solar collector

It is also known as a U-pipe collector. It has two pipes inside the tube. One pipe is for the fluid
inlet, and the other is for the outlet. The pipes are properly fixed because they allow the flow of
fluid inside and outside the tube. Therefore, it is difficult to replace them.
It is generally believed that direct flow evacuated tubes are more energy efficient because there
isn’t any heat exchange between the fluids. Moreover, this collector can trap diffuse and direct
solar radiation without the requirement of solar tracking.
2. Heat pipe evacuated tube solar collector

It has a copper heat pipe that attaches to an absorber plate inside a sealed solar tube. The heat pipe
has a hollow and evacuated space, which contains liquids like alcohol or special additives.
The evacuated space allows heating of fluid at normal atmospheric pressure. As the sun rays hit
the surface of the absorber, the liquid inside it starts boiling, and the hot vapour rises to the top of
the pipe.
The fluid picks up the heat when it flows through the manifold. Afterward, the fluid in the heat
pipe cools down and flows back to the tube. This process of heating and condensation keeps
repeating till the sun shines.

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Questions:
1. Explain Solar Energy Collector. Also state the classification solar energy collector.
2. Describe concentrating type solar energy collectors & explain classification of it.
Explain following terms of solar energy collector.
i. Collector efficiency
3.
ii. Concentrating ratio (CR)
iii. Temperature range
Draw and explain flat plate collector. Also state the advantages and disadvantages of flat plate
4. collector.
5. Explain the difference between concentrating collectors and flat plate type collectors.
Draw & explain following type of collectors.
i. Modified flat plate collector
6.
ii. Compound Parabolic Concentrator (CPC) type collector
iii. Cylindrical Parabolic Collector
Explain following type of collectors with neat diagram.
i. Fixed Mirror Solar Concentrator
7.
ii. Linear Fresnel Lens Collector
iii. Paraboloidal Dish Collector
Draw & explain following type of collectors.
i. Circular Fresnel Lens Concentrator
8.
ii. Hemispherical Bowl Mirror Concentrator
iii. Central Tower Receiver Collector
9. Explain orientation and thermal analysis of solar collector.
10. State the types of advanced solar collectors. Explain any one.

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