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Lesson 2: Theories and Perspectives in the Context of the Social

Environment

Introduction
In this lesson, we will explore various theories and perspectives that
provide a foundation for understanding the social environment in social work
practice. These include General Systems Theory, Ecological Systems Theory,
Ethnic Sensitive and Culture Theory, Sikolohiyang Pilipino,
Strengths/Empowerment and Anti-Oppressive Perspectives,
Structural/Functional Perspectives, Rights-based Perspectives, and Gender
and Development Perspectives. Each of these frameworks offers unique
insights and tools for addressing the complexities of human behavior and
social interactions.
Lesson Objectives
By the end of this lesson, students will be able to:
1. Describe the key concepts of General Systems Theory and its
application in social work.
2. Explain the principles of Ecological Systems Theory and how it relates
to human development.
3. Discuss Ethnic Sensitive and Culture Theory and its importance in
culturally competent practice.
4. Understand Sikolohiyang Pilipino and its relevance to social work in the
Filipino context.
5. Identify the principles of the Strengths Perspective, Empowerment
Approach, and Anti-Oppressive and Liberation-Based Social Work
Practice.
6. Differentiate between Structural and Functional Perspectives in social
work.
7. Articulate the principles of Rights-based and Gender and Development
Perspectives and their application in social work practice.

Theory is a logical system of concepts that provides a framework for

organizing and understanding observations. Theories frequently offer
comprehensive and dependable principles for the explications and prediction
of observable phenomenon. Theory is social work practice helps explain why

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people do what they do. It provides explanation for what is happening in a

given practice situation between client and social worker.
Theories and Perspectives in the Context of Social Environment
1. General Systems Theory
2. Ecological Systems Theory
3. Ethnic Sensitive and Culture Theory
4. Sikolohiyang Pilipino
5. Strengths/Empowerment and Anti Oppressive Perspectives
6. Structural/Functional Perspectives
7. Rights-based Perspectives
8. Gender and Development Perspectives

General Systems Theory

A system is a holistic, organized unit of interdependent, transacting
and mutually influencing parts (individuals or collectives and their subunits)
within an identifiable environment. Systems are those elements in lives that
relate and interrelate, which have contact and impact on our ability to
function. Systems theory’s utility for social work practice is that it draws
attention to the need for social worker to examine the multiple systems in
which an individual functions.

History of General Systems Theory

Originally proposed by biologist Ludwig von Bertalanffy in 1928.
According to von Bertalanffy, a system is characterized by the interactions of
its components and the non-linearity of those interactions.
In 1951, von Bertalanffy extended systems theory to include biological
systems and years later, it was popularized by Lotfi Zadeh, an electrical
engineer at Columbia University.
Elements of General Systems Theory
In order to study the systems present in our society within the
framework of General System Theory, it is essential that each element within
the systems are properly scrutinized. The systems are generally made of
elements such as environment, output, input, throughput, feedback,
equilibrium and boundaries.

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1. Environment: The elements outside a system that could potentially

affect all or part of the system. It is made up of various other systems
outside a particular system therefore its impact on a system should not
be disregarded in understanding the processes within a system.
2. Input: what has been put into a system to achieve an output. Open
systems import energy from surrounding environment. Human body as
a biology system takes inputs such as air and food from surrounding
the environment. Like the body, social units work to get inputs e.g.
financial resource from around the environment. That indicates there is
a continuous interaction between the systems and the environment.
3. Output: information and energy produced by the system from inputs.
Outputs are the obtained results which reflect the capability of system
to achieve its objectives. The more objectives achieved, the more
efficient the system is
4. Input-transformation-output process (Throughput) : a process
transferring inputs e.g. material, energy or data into outputs. In other
words, it is a process which enables system to achieve goals.
5. Feedback: information concerning the outputs or the process of the
system is fed back as an input into the system. Feedback is a path of
communication in a system.
6. Equilibrium: refers to homogeneity of internal structures of the system
and cooperation amongst its parts. The system should be adapted into
surrounding environment.
7. Boundaries: parametric conditions demarcate and define the system
and set it apart from its environment and from other systems.
Two Types of General System Theory

1. Open System - A system which continuously interacts with its

environment. The interaction can take the form of information, energy
or material transfers into or out of the system boundary, depending on
the discipline which defines the concept.

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2. Closed System - An isolated system that has no interaction with its

external environment.

General Systems Theory and Social Work

The influence of GST to social work is significant. Many sociologists
have made contributions in developing GST in the social work. Their
contributions were to create models for practices and understand situations
in order to provide valid diagnosis for social problems.
For example, Pincus and Minahan (1973) developed a model based on GST.

Pincus-Minahan Model. The model emphasizes looking beyond a client's

presented problems to assess the complexities and interrelationships of
problems. Through a system analysis of a case, the most effective
intervention targets and strategies can usually be identified. Pincus and
Minahan theorize that there are four basic systems in social work practice as
follows:

1. Change agent system: is composed of professionals who are

employed specifically for the purpose of creating planned change.
2. Client system: is composed of the people who sanction or ask for the
change from agents‟ services, who are the expected beneficiaries of
the service, and who have a working agreement or contract with the
change agent.
3. Target system: is composed of the people, agencies, and
organizational practices that the worker wishes to change in some
measurable way to reach the goals of the change agent
4. Action system: to describe those with whom the social workers works
to accomplish the tasks and achieve the goals of the change effort.

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To help in apprehending problems, the model suggests a strategy to make a

planned intervention in social work. Intervention aims to help individuals,
families and groups to meet their needs and issues. The intervention follows
steps such as assessing problem, collecting data, making initial contact,
negotiations and contracts, and executing the action system.

Ecological Systems Theory

The ecological model was developed by Urie Bronfenbrenner in 1979. This
model looks at the individual as being conditioned by the five systems that
create their environment—individual, micro, meso, exo and macro. These
five systems make up an individual’s current state of affairs from their sex
and age at the individual level, to the culture they were raised in at the
macro level.

The Five Environmental Systems

1. The Micro System. The micro system's setting is the direct
environment we have in our lives. Your family, friends, classmates,
teachers, neighbors and other people who have a direct contact with
you are included in your micro system. The micro system is the setting
in which we have direct social interactions with these social agents.
The theory states that we are not mere recipients of the experiences

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we have when socializing with these people in the micro system

environment, but we are contributing to the construction of such
environment.
2. The Mesosystem. The mesosytem involves the relationships between
the microsystems in one's life. This means that your family experience
may be related to your school experience. For example, if a child is
neglected by his parents, he may have a low chance of developing
positive attitude towards his teachers. Also, this child may feel
awkward in the presence of peers and may resort to withdrawal from a
group of classmates.
3. The Exosystem. The exosystem is the setting in which there is a link
between the context where in the person does not have any active
role, and the context where in is actively participating. Suppose a child
is more attached to his father than his mother. If the father goes
abroad to work for several months, there may be a conflict between
the mother and the child's social relationship, or on the other hand,
this event may result to a tighter bond between the mother and the
child.
4. The Macrosystem. The macrosystem setting is the actual culture of
an individual. The cultural contexts involve the socioeconomic status of
the person and/or his family, his ethnicity or race and living in a still
developing or a third world country. For example, being born to a poor
family makes a person work harder every day.
5. The Chronosystem. The chronosystem includes the transitions and
shifts in one's lifespan. This may also involve the socio-historical
contexts that may influence a person. One classic example of this is
how divorce, as a major life transition, may affect not only the couple's
relationship but also their children's behavior. According to a majority
of research, children are negatively affected on the first year after the
divorce. The next years after it would reveal that the interaction within
the family becomes more stable and agreeable.

Tool in Assessing the Micro Systems

When focusing on a client by providing case management or support to an

individual that is facing hardships, we often look at a person’s microsystem.
Looking at a person’s environment allows us as social workers to help
identify problem areas or what is negatively impacting their lives.

1. Eco-maps. This is usually done by making an eco-map to g ive the

client a visual aide during the identifying process. An eco-map is a

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diagram that shows the social and personal relationships of an

individual with his or her environment.
Eco-maps were developed in 1975 by Dr. Ann Hartman, a social worker
who is also credited for developing the genogram (Genachte, 2009).

Eco-maps will vary in what they look like as each map will cater to the
specific client/family, and will highlight the stressors (negatives),
positives, and relationships.

2. Genogram - A genogram mimics a family tree. Normally when you

look at a family tree you often find branches and each branch
represent a family. A genogram digs deeper and identifies
relationships, deaths, marriages, births, divorce, and adoptions just to
name a few. When collecting information to complete a genogram it is
useful to understand a family’s dynamics (Johnson & Yanca, 2010.)

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Genograms can help clients identify their roots and culture.

While completing genograms also be aware that while unraveling a
client’s history, past trauma or closed wounds can be reopened. As a
social worker you need to be prepared to discuss and address these
issues to help your client address their past trauma.

Ethnic Sensitive and Culture Theory

Culture defined
Culture can be conceptualized as the shared beliefs, attitudes,
norms, roles, and behaviors transmitted among members of a group”
(Triandis, 1995, p. 4). Culture is the way of life of a society and life
patterns related to conduct or ways of behavior, beliefs, traditions, values,
art, skills, and social relationships. Culture perpetuates the sharing of ideas,
attitudes, values, and beliefs among individuals of that culture” (Lum, 2007,
p. 54).

Components of Culture:
1. Beliefs: For example, some cultures conceptualize health and well-
being as the harmonious relationship between individuals and the
spiritual world, among individuals and with the community
2. Behaviors such as funeral practices, birth practices, transitions to
adulthood.

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3. Norms such as gender role expectations, attitudes toward the elderly,

and expressions of emotion.
4. Values such as the value of sense of self that is connected to
community identity or a sense of self that is connected to an individual
identity

Cultural Sensitivity
Cultural sensitivity, also sometimes referred to as cross-cultural
sensitivity or simply cultural awareness, is the knowledge, awareness, and
acceptance of other cultures and others' cultural identities. It is related to
cultural competence (the skills needed for effective communication with
people of other cultures, which includes cross-cultural competence), and
sometimes regarded as the precursor to the achievement of cultural
competence, but is a more widely used term than cultural competence. On
the individual level, cultural sensitivity enables travellers and workers to
successfully navigate a different culture with which they are interacting.

Cultural sensitivity counters ethnocentrism, and involves

intercultural communication and other skills. Many countries' populations
include minority groups comprising indigenous peoples and immigrants from
other cultures, and workplaces, educational institutions, media and
organisations of all types are mindful of being culturally sensitive to these
groups. Increasingly, training is being incorporated into workplaces and
students' curricula at all levels. The training is usually aimed at the dominant
culture, but in multicultural societies may also be taught to migrants to teach
them about other minority groups, and it may also be taught to expatriates
working in other countries.

Terms
1. Ethnocentrism - means to apply one's own culture or ethnicity as a
frame of reference to judge other cultures, practices, behaviors,
beliefs, and people, instead of using the standards of the particular
culture involved.
2. Intercultural communication - is a discipline that studies
communication across different cultures and social groups, or how
culture affects communication. It describes the wide range of
communication processes and problems that naturally appear within
an organization or social context made up of individuals from different
religious, social, ethnic, and educational backgrounds.
3. Cultural Humility - Cultural humility, a process of reflection and
lifelong inquiry, involves self-awareness of personal and cultural biases
as well as awareness and sensitivity to significant cultural issues of

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others. Core to the process of cultural humility is the researcher's

deliberate reflection of her/his values and biases.

Cultural Competence
At the individual social worker level, cultural competence can be
described as an ongoing process in which the social worker deepens self-
awareness of her or his own culturally based beliefs, values, and norms that
inform his or her perceptions and actions in any situation. This process
involves developing awareness and knowledge of the cultural experiences of
others and strengthening skills at developing working relationships with
those of differing cultural backgrounds.

Lee (2010) extends this general concept of cultural competence by focusing

on the interaction between a social worker and client and arguing that
cultural competence is not solely located in the social worker. The social
worker must recognize the place where her or his cultural experience,
internalized understanding of the cultural experience, and personal
characteristics meet the client’s or client system’s cultural experience,
internalized understanding of the cultural experience, and personal
characteristics.

This expanded conceptualization of cultural competence—cross cultural

competence (Lee, 2010)—requires that the social worker has knowledge of
the general cultural experience of the client, but seeks to learn from the
client
1. the points of intersection and divergence with the generalized
description of the culture,
2. the meaning of cultural influences in the client’s life, and
3. the relationship of these issues to the presenting concerns.

Sikolohiyang Pilipino

A psychology that takes into account study of emotions and

experienced knowledge(kalooban and kamalayan), awareness of one’s
surrounding (ulirat), information and understanding (isip), habits and
behavior (another meaning of diwa), and the soul (kaluluwa) which is the
way to learning about the people’s conscience. Spearheaded by Dr. Virgilio
Enriquez, the father of Filipino Psychology.

Pakikipagkapwa (shared identity)

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This idea of ‘shared’ self opens up the heart-doors of the ‘I’ to include
the ‘Other” Here, it is not important if you are rich or poor, or status in
society. ‘People are just people in spite of their age, clothes, diplomas, color
or affiliations.

Kapwa is the core construct of Filipino Psychology. It means unity of the

one-of-us-and-the-other. And it also means ‘togetherness’. As a general
description, the distinct values system of Filipinos can be summarized and
summed up into having dominant characteristics of moderation or having
just enough or being sufficient, having the family as the center and priority in
life, trust in God, nationalistic traditions of independence.

Kapwa has two categories, Ibang Tao and Hindi Ibang Tao.
 Ibang Tao ("outsider") There are five interaction levels under this
category:
o Pakikitungo: civility – right behavior meant right demeanor
towards authorities (Parents, Elders, etc.).
o Pakikisalamuha: act of mixing – This is a social value that is
primarily communitarian. It espouses the ability to adapt.
o Pakikilahok: act of joining – This translates to participation of the
entire community to help a person.
o Pakikibagay: conformity – This runs into conflict with individuality
which many Filipinos in fact willingly throw away in favor of
conformity with demands of those who are in charge.
o Pakikisama: being united with the group.
 Hindi Ibang Tao ("one-of-us") There are three interaction levels under
this category:
o Pakikipagpalagayang-loob: it is the act of mutual trust
o Pakikisangkot: act of joining others
o Pakikipagkaisa: being one with others

Strengths/Empowerment and Anti Oppressive Perspectives

Strengths Perspectives

A foundational perspective of Social Work is the Strengths Perspective.

All people have strengths and abilities that allow them to grow and adapt.
This perspective takes the focus off the problem and allows us to identify
ways for clients to use their strengths in achieving their goals. Clients are
seen as the experts of their experiences. We utilize their insights to explore
times of resiliency and partner with them to identify supports and solutions
and help support their ability to grow. It is also important to remember to

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evaluate the environment for possible barriers and impacts while assessing
needs and strengths.

Michael Dennis Saleebey was an American academic credited with

codifying and promoting the social work practice of Strength Based Practice
during his time at the University of Kansas. He was Emeritus Professor of
Social Welfare there at the School of Social Welfare.

Every person, group and community has the following qualities that can be
build on to enable them to reach their goals. Here is the Strengths Insitute
model, people have:
1. Competences, capacities, courage, character and
2. Promise, purpose, possibilities, positive expectations and
3. Resources, resilience, relationships, resourcefulness, resolve, reserves.

Strength-Discovery Questions
There are many different questions that can be used to discover internal and
external strengths. Nevertheless, strength-discovery questions are endless.

1. Survival questions: How have you managed to overcome/survive the

challenges that you have faced? “What have you learned about
yourself and your world during those struggles?”

2. Support questions: Who are the people that you can rely on? Who has
made you feel understood, supported, or encouraged?

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3. Exception questions: “When things were going well in life, what was
different?”

4. Possibility questions: What do you want to accomplish in your life?

What are your hopes for your future, or the future of your family?

5. Esteem questions: What makes you proud about yourself? What

positive things do people say about you?

6. Perspective questions: “What are your ideas about your current

situation?”

7. Change questions: What do you think is necessary for things to

change? What could you do to make that happen?

Empowerment Approach
It involves educating people about unequal and unjust social and
structural conditions and analyzing power relations with those who are
oppressed. Similar to strength-based perspectives supports client
participation in all aspects of the decision-making process affecting their
lives.

Theories of empowerment build on people’s strengths, resiliency, and

resources. Theories of empowerment are more concerned with helping
people realize their highest strengths and engage in actions that promote
social justice and change. Empowerment theories seek to articulate the
linkages between the personal and the political, building on the traditions of
self-help, mutual support, and collective action.

To achieve empowerment - Identify and address any personal and

political barriers and dynamics that maintain discrimination and oppression.

Useful techniques:
1. Consciousness raising
2. Collective efforts to challenge oppressive social conditions.
3. The effects of powerlessness, and the attainment of empowerment,
occur in three different levels:

Individual level- a person feels positive about their self-esteem, self-

efficacy and mastery, is able to set goals and take action to achieve
these goals, while viewing oneself with a “good-of-fit” with the
environment.

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Interpersonal level - a person feels assertive about interpersonal

interactions, is able to form partnerships with people and gains respect
and honor from others.

Socio-political level - a person has knowledge about his/her own

right, holds positive attitudes toward possibility of changing the
environment by taking collective action and is willing to make action to
pursue social justice.

Anti-Oppressive and Liberation-Based Social Work Practice

Is formed by the radical, progressive, anti-racist, anti-discriminatory,
Critical, Feminist, postmodern and structural social work theory. It promotes
equity, inclusion, transformation, and social justice.
Key Terms
1. Radical social work- is deemed to be the foundation in the
development of theories such as anti-discriminatory and anti-
oppressive practice and critical social work theory. It is said to have
transformed the social work value base to include anti-oppressive
values
2. Structural social work- is a moral theory. It suggests that the
underlying causes for social problems are the “differential control of
resources and political power” inherent in capitalistic societies
3. Marxist social theory- Conflict theory states that capitalist societies are
built on the conflict between social classes.

Key Principles
1. Engaging in Critical Self Reflection - Writing on anti-oppressive
social work refer to critical self reflection, critical consciousness,
reflexivity and critical self-analysis, all of which refer to social workers
examining their own values in relation to others.
1. Self-awareness also allows for truly starting where the participants “is”
instead of starting where the social work might think they “should be”
2. Assessing Participants experience of oppression- Critical
assessment of participants intersecting identities and social locations
can provide insight into forms of oppression that the participants are
experiencing.

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3. Empowering Participants - is premised on a recognition and

analysis of power, mutual support through consciousness raising, and
collective efforts to challenge and change stereotypes.
4. Empowerment in a practice context means providing participants with
the tools and skills to address cultural, structural, and personal barriers
that prevent them from gaining control of their lives.
5. Working in Partnership -It is crucial that the participants are
informed about the approaches taken by the social worker and act as
collaborators in the change process. Open and clear communication
and dialogue are essential.
6. Maintaining minimal intervention - This approach to practice has
been informed by the frequent role that social workers engage in as
representatives of the state.

Structural/Functional Perspectives

Structural Perspective
Generally, the term structure refers to how the parts of any community
are organized to become one whole. Additionally, structure involves how the
components of the whole relate to each other. Although a bit vague, the
point is that there are many ways of viewing a community’s structure, three
of which
we identify here.

Power structure
A community can be assessed according to which of its units have the
most power and influence over what happens within it. For instance,
wealthier residents typically have greater power. It’s likely, then, that they
will exert greater influence over decisions made in the community than will
the community’s poorer citizens.

‘‘Power groups’’ within a community, notes Barker, involve members

‘‘who, because of their social status and positions, influence the decisions
made on behalf of the community and who have greatest access to
resources’’ He notes that power group members generally include elected
politicians, business executives, clergy, and other local leaders

Functional Perspective
Functionalist theories emphasize a community’s purpose or function
and how that community can continue working to attain that purpose.

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Functionalist perspective views society as ‘‘a stable, orderly system

composed of a number of interrelated parts, each of which performs a
function that contributes to the overall stability of society’’
Manifest and Latent Functions
Not all social functions work out as they’re planned. Kendall explains:
Manifest functions are intended and recognized consequences
of an activity or social process. A manifest function of education, for
example, is to provide students with knowledge, skills, and cultural
values. In contrast, latent functions are the unintended consequences
of an activity or social process that are hidden and remain
unacknowledged by participants (Merton, 1968).
The latent functions of education include the babysitter
function of keeping young people off the street and out of the full-time
job market and the matchmaking function whereby schools provide
opportunities for students to meet and socialize with potential
marriage partners. These functions are latent because schools were
not created for babysitting or matchmaking, and most organizational
participants do not acknowledge that these activities take place.
Rights-based Perspectives

A human rights-based approach to social work understands our service

users as experts and partners, rather than passive recipients of charity and
services (Mapp et al. 2019).

It also empowers—and challenges—us to promote our core

professional values, even (and especially) when those values may be
threatened by austerity-promoting public policies (Reynaert et al. 2019) and
authoritarian power grabs.

Today, as we address the fallout from the coronavirus in a time of

reduced social spending and increasing social inequality (Ferguson et al.
2018), it is time for social work to embrace the rights-based approach.

The PANEL principles

There are some underlying principles which are of fundamental importance
in applying a human rights based approach in practice. These are:

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1. Participation - Everyone has the right to participate in decisions which

affect their human rights. Participation must be active, free,
meaningful and give attention to issues of accessibility, including
access to information in a form and a language which can be
understood.
2. Accountability - Accountability requires effective monitoring of human
rights standards as well as effective remedies for human rights
breaches. For accountability to be effective there must be appropriate
laws, policies, institutions, administrative procedures and mechanisms
of redress in order to secure human rights.
3. non-discrimination and equality - means that all forms of discrimination
in the realisation of rights must be prohibited, prevented and
eliminated. It also requires the prioritisation of those in the most
marginalised situations who face the biggest barriers to realising their
rights.
4. empowerment - means that individuals and communities should know
their rights. It also means that they should be fully supported to
participate in the development of policy and practices which affect
their lives and to claim rights where necessary.
5. Legality - requires the recognition of rights as legally enforceable
entitlements and is linked in to national and international human rights
law.

Gender and Development Perspectives

Gender and Development is a development perspective that

recognizes the unequal status and situation of women and men in society.

Women and men have different development needs and interests,

which is institutionalized and perpetuated by cultural, social, economic and
political norms, systems and structures.

Goal — As a development approach, GAD seeks to equalize the status

and condition of and relations between women and men by influencing the
process and output of policy-making, planning, budgeting, implementation
and monitoring, and evaluation so that they would deliberately address the
gender issues and concerns affecting the full development of women.

Gender Equity
Means giving more opportunities to those who have less and those
who are historically and socially disadvantaged based on their needs for
them to operate on a level playing field. “Focusing on the needs of women

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does not mean discriminating against men or putting them at a

disadvantage”

UN–CEDAW (United Nations Convention on the Elimination of All Forms

of Discrimination Against Women) recognized the need to remove the biases
against and provide special attention to women through affirmative action. It
is a temporary measure that will be discontinued when the objectives of
equality of opportunity and treatment have been achieved.

Gender Mainstreaming
Is the Philippine government’s strategy for making agencies work for
women’s empowerment and gender equality. It is the process of analyzing
existing development paradigms, practices, and goals; assessing the
implications for women and men of existing legislation policies, programs,
projects, and mechanisms.

Women’s Empowerment
Is a goal of and an essential process for women’s advancement. Is a
process and condition by which women mobilize to understand, identify, and
overcome gender discrimination and achieve equality. Women become
agents of development and not just beneficiaries.

A kind of participation in development that enables women to make

decisions based on their own views and perspective. To empower women,
access to information, training, technology, market, and credit is necessary.

References:

1. Chriss, J. J. (2013). Human behavior and the social environment: Social

systems theory. Routledge.
2. Cohen, L. E. (2018). Introduction to social work: A critical thinking
approach. Sage Publications.
3. DuBois, B., & Miley, K. K. (2018). Social work: An empowering
profession (7th ed.). Pearson.
4. Friedman, B. M. (2011). The social environment and human behavior:
A social systems approach. Springer.
5. Howe, D. (2009). Social work: A critical approach. Palgrave Macmillan.
6. Jaffe, E. A. (2015). Social work practice: A systems approach. Oxford
University Press.
7. Murphy, J. W. (2007). Ecological perspectives on human development.
Routledge.

COLLEGE OF SOCIAL SCIENCES AND PHILOSOPHY

DON HONORIO VENTURA STATE UNIVERSITY
SOCIAL ENVIRONMENT AND SOCIAL WORK (SWA4) 19
BACHELOR OF SCIENCE IN SOCIAL WORK

8. Walsh, J. B. (2018). Theories for direct social work practice (4th ed.).
Cengage Learning.
9. Personal Notes

COLLEGE OF SOCIAL SCIENCES AND PHILOSOPHY

DON HONORIO VENTURA STATE UNIVERSITY
SOCIAL ENVIRONMENT AND SOCIAL WORK (SWA4) 20
BACHELOR OF SCIENCE IN SOCIAL WORK

COLLEGE OF SOCIAL SCIENCES AND PHILOSOPHY

DON HONORIO VENTURA STATE UNIVERSITY