Introduction

We are living in an information age dependent upon digital information. Digital information is electronic
information, the result of computer processing. Every type of job relies upon getting information, using it,
managing it, and relaying information to others. Computers enable the efficient processing and storage of
information.
Do not think of a computer merely as the machine with the keyboard and the mouse, although that might be
true for some types of computers. Embedded computers may be inside your household appliances, the
VCR, the automobile, planes, trains, power plants, water purification plants, calculators, and even inside a
few toys. These embedded computers are very small. They affect our lives each day. Why, even modern
traffic lights operate with computers. They are all around us. Think of additional ways in which computers
affect our lives each day.

What is a computer?
It is a high speed electronic (utilizes electrical signals to process information)device which when given raw
data from an input device, stores them temporarily in its memory waiting to be processed according to
predefined instructions and then produce the required output through output devices.

What is data?
Data is raw facts that do not have much meaning to the user. It includes numbers, letters and symbols. .
Computers manipulate and process data to create information.

What is Information?
Information is data that is organized, has meaning, and is useful. Examples are reports, newsletters, a
receipt, a picture, an invoice, or a check. v

What can a computer do?

1. Accept input data
2. Process data
3. Output Information
4. Stores data or information

Computer Application Areas:

a) Business Applications
Computers are used to reduce inventory costs, analyze new markets, analyze the performance of sales
people, make sophisticated financial analysis, determine production costs, forecast labor needs, and
eliminate production bottlenecks.

The typical business procedures that utilize computers include the following:
(i.) Accounts Receivables: To maintain and process records on money owed to a company by
customers or clients.
(ii.) Accounts payable: To maintain and process records on money owed by the company to vendors.
(iii.) Payroll: To maintain employee payroll records and process payroll checks.
(iv.) Inventory control: To maintain records on items or goods on hand, on quantities ordered, and in
general to maintain inventory files by producing purchase orders on out-of –stock items, o
determine economic order quantities

Computers are widely applicable in the following Business areas:

(i.) Banks:
  Banks use computers to process the huge amount of checks and credit cards transactions that take
place daily.
 The Automated teller machines allow the banking transactions to be carried out day and night. The
customer uses a plastic card and selects the transactions by pressing a series of buttons.
 Electronic Funds Transfer (EFT): This is the automatic recording of account transactions and
money transfers. However, no money actually exchanges hands.

(ii) Retailing:
 By use of the Universal Product Code (UPC), and Point –of- Sale (POS) terminals, computers can
greatly enhance the performance of retail stores. The UPC is a standardized bar code found on most
products in retail outlets. POS terminals are used to record product sales. The sales person using
POS terminal passes the product’s UPC by using an optical scanner programmed to read the code.
The scanner interprets the code, looks it up on the computer files, and retrieves the product name
and price. The computer then records the transaction and a customer is provided with a receipt.
 Retail computers using POS terminals are also used to update inventory levels and calculate the
sales figures.
 In addition, these systems allow determination of the customer’s credit status. A credit card number
can be entered into the system and the computer checks the customer’s account and determines if
the transaction is acceptable.

(iii) Manufacturing.
 Many programs are available to manufacturing facilities. Inventory control is handled by a complex
system called Materials Requirement Planning (MRP). This system allows the manufacturers to
enter future demands into computer and receive a report that lists the scheduling dates and raw
materials needed to manufacture the product to meet the demands.
 Computer assisted design and computer assisted manufacturing (CAD/CAM) have greatly assisted
the manufacturing jobs.
 Process control: Computers are used to process continuous flow materials such as chemicals, petrol,
energy etc. Which are complex activities in nature. Computer equipment is used in these industries
to measure continuously the key variables such as flow of fluid, pressure and temperature. If the
measured quantities deviate from a prescribed standard, the computer will either notify the
supervisor via a terminal of the discrepancy or automatically make the necessary adjustments.
 Numerical Control: This is the use of computers to automatically produce machine tools to required
specification. Numerical control devices can automatically drill, grind, and shape metals according
to some required specifications.

b) Office Automation
Computers perform word processing, electronically handles mails and messages and handles electronic
voice storage and forwarding (using telephone to dial up a computer to leave messages for other people).

c) Science and Engineering

Computers are used to make millions of complex calculations in seconds. They are also used in guidance
and light control, voice print identification, earthquake detection, image processing (using the computer to
enhance better understanding of images or pictures), stolen vehicles identification etc.

d) Healthcare
 Computers are used in hospitals for clerical and administrative functions.
 Personal computers have been used to diagnose potential problems and prescribe their remedies at
the scene of an accident. They have also been used in ambulances to locate invalids quickly.
  Information retrieval functions: many hospitals have recently automated their operations. The
patient sits in front of a television like terminal, where questions are displayed on the screen. The
patient answers the questions by using a pointing device to point to the correct answer on the
screen. Depending on the answer, the computer can ask more questions. The use of this automated
system has greatly reduced the amount of time required of the patient and the doctor.
 Computer Assisted Diagnosis: One of the latest innovations in medical care is the concept of
multiphasic testing. Multiphasic testing occurs when computer equipment is used to perform a
series of tests, store the results of the test, and report the result to the doctor.
 Trained technicians and paramedics use the computer equipment to perform physical examinations.
 Multiphasic centers use computer equipment to perform electrocardiograms, X-rays, blood tests
vision and hearing tests blood pressure tests and height and weight measurements.
 The use of Computed Axial Tomography (CAT Scanners)
 A relatively new diagnostic technique is CTA Scan which has provided doctors with the ability to
obtain information about organs that were previously obtainable only through surgery. The CAT
scanning technique basically involves rotating an X-ray tube around a specific area of the body,
thereby producing a detailed photographic slice of the anatomy. Many hospitals use the computer
to develop colorful and graphic CT scans that can show slices through the brain or any other part of
the body.

e) Sports
Used to analyze and design new plays, make draft picks, scheduling competitors etc.

f) Entertainment and Leisure e.g. Musical sounds, compute games etc.

g) Education
Computer aided instructions (CAI) is used to help the students learn other subjects.
Multiple-choice questions appear on the screen for a student to answer .If the student answers correctly the
computer responds appropriately and asks another question. CAI helps in teaching in all the subjects.

h) Artificial Intelligence and Expert Systems

Using sophisticate programs and computer systems artificial intelligence makes the computer act like a
person making intelligence decisions and judgments.

i) Government and Military

 Use of computerized graphics that reconstruct an accident can be used in court to counter the police
account of what happened. In military, computers are being used to design both conventional and
strategic weapons.
 Military Every branch of the armed forces is involved in the military planning and decision-making.
Many of the decisions are made by high-level officials with the use of computer-generated
information. Computers are also used by military planners to simulate wars. Military commanders
can practice making decisions based on the lifelike situation that the computer presents. This allows
them to gain experience without engaging in real battles..
 Law enforcement agencies and intelligence gathering agencies use the computer systems to store
information plan their operations, and track criminals.

j) Computer in the Home

CB stimulators (CompuServe online chat program) allows one to talk to another person using a personal
computer. It is similar to CB radio but uses a computer.

k) Computers in the arts and the humanities.

  Arts: Computers are used by artists to produce art forms.
 Music: Computer generated music is made possible with the use of music synthesizers.

Benefits of Computers
The following are the features that make a computer a good tool for information processing.
a) Types of information: Computers can process many types of information e.g. Data, texts, voice,
pictorial etc.

b) Speed: It works at a very high speed in taking in data and outputting the information.
c) Storage: It is able to store large amount of information in manageable form.
d) Communications: Advances in telecommunications has made it possible for computers to
communicate with one another over long distances to exchange information with seconds.
e) Accuracy: It is very accurate in its processing.
f) Retrieval: The information stored in the computer can be retrieved by more than one person.
g) Updating of information: It is possible to change stored information without having to retype.

The following are other advantages of a computer

h) Information analysis is very easy using computers.
i) Computers can work continuously without getting bored or tired.
j) They can operate in risky environments such as volcanic sites, lethal chemical plants, where human life
is feared.
k) Using a computer system will reduce the number of persons required for performing various
organizational activities.

Negative impacts of Computers to the society

 Social activities: A high percentage of people who sit at their computer for too long and some
people lose reality as far as social activities and learning social skills.
 Computers can distract a person so much they lose contact with the reality around them such as
taking time with family, friends and children.
 Health: Sitting behind a computer all day strains the eyes.
 Creativity: Being on the computer too much takes away the imagination, though some gain more
imaginations as used in advertising, simulations and digital imagery.
 Immorality: the internet opens up to pornographic sites and other information.
 Crime: Internet crime has been reported to be on the increase and every day more crime is
committed through the Internet.
 Misinformation: More misinformation by SOME people on the Internet can cause problems for the
younger generation.
 Privacy: - It's not possible to know someone well over the Internet. E.g on www.facebook.com
 Spam mail: - this is unsolicited mail which are often annoying.
 Hackers can ruin your computer system and data over the internet.

A computer system is made up of three parts:

a) Hardware - physical components of a computer
b) Software - programs that allows the hardware to function.
c) Lifeware - the human being operating the computer.

A Program is a set of instructions and raw facts written in a computer language and used to make it
perform specific tasks
Categories/Types of Computers
Computers can be classified into four major types:
1. Type of data accepted / Functionality
2. Size and capability
3. Use/ purpose
4. Generation
5. Instruction sets E.g. Reduced/Simple IS, Complex IS
6. Manufacturer e.g. HP, DELL,
7. Process Model/Type e.g. 8086/8088, 80186, 80286, 80386, 80486, Pentium I-IV, Core: duos, i3…i7
etc

1. Classification by the type of data they accept/ functionality

This is the kind of data processed by a particular computer. Computers can be classified into analog, digital
and hybrid.

Analog computers
Analog data is continuous in nature. Computers perform arithmetic operations and logical comparison by
measuring physical magnitude e.g. electrical voltage, pressure temperature e.t.c the application of analog
computers is confined to specialised areas as scientific or engineering experiments manufacturing processes
and military.

Digital Computers
These computers accept data in discrete form .Their operations is based on two states i.e. “on” or “off”.
These computers can process both numeric and alphabetic data. The accuracy of digital computers is
influenced by the memory size and precision of data input. These computers are used in a wider cross
section of the application areas such as scientific, industrial and most of other computer based data
processing applications.

Hybrid computers
These are computers built with both characteristics of analog and digital computers.

2. Categories/Classification of Computers by Size

The four major categories of computers are personal computers, minicomputers, mainframe computers, and
supercomputers. These categories are based on the differences in the size, speed, processing capabilities,
and price of computers. Due to rapidly changing technology, the categories cannot be defined precisely.
For example, the speed used to define a mainframe today may be used to define a minicomputer next year.
Some characteristics may overlap categories. Still, they frequently are used and should be understood.

Super computers
A super-computer is the fastest, most powerful computer - and the most expensive. Capable of processing
more than 64 billion instructions in a single second, supercomputers are used for applications requiring
complex, sophisticated mathematical calculations. For example, a supercomputer would be used for
weather forecasting, nuclear energy research, and petroleum exploration.

Mainframe Computers
A mainframe is a large, expensive, very powerful computer that can handle hundreds or thousands of
connected users simultaneously. They are housed in an environment that can be controlled. Like
minicomputers, mainframes also can act as a server in a network environment. Mainframes can store
tremendous amounts of data, instructions, and information, which users can access with terminals or
personal computers. Storage consists of disk which supports online processing. They are mainly used in
airlines, banks, large insurance companies and universities.
Mini computers
A mini computer is more powerful and larger than a workstation computer. Minicomputers often can
support up to 4,000 connected users at the same time. Users often access a minicomputer via a terminal,
which is a device with a monitor and keyboard. Such terminals - sometimes called dumb terminals because
they have no processing power - cannot act as stand-alone computers and must be connected to the
minicomputer to operate. A minicomputer also can act as a server in a network environment. In this case,
personal computers access the minicomputer.
Personal Computers/ Micro Computer
A (PC) is a computer that can perform all of its input, processing, output, and storage activities by itself;
that is. it contains at least one input device, one output device, one storage device, memory, and a
processor. This type of computer can be used by one person at a time. The processor, sometimes called a
microprocessor, is a central processing unit (CPU) on a single chip and is the basic building block of a PC.
Two major categories of personal computers are desktop computers and portable computers.

Desktop Computers
A desktop computer is designed so the system unit, input devices, output devices, and any other devices fit
entirely on or under a desk or table. In some desktop models, the system unit is placed horizontally on top
of a desk along with the other devices. A tower model, in contrast, has a tall and narrow system unit that is
designed to be placed on the floor vertically. The model of desktop computer you use often is determined
by the design of your workspace.
 Laptop
 Notebooks
 Palmtops

3. Classification by Purpose
General purpose
Designed to perform a variety of tasks. The range of application areas of these computers is influenced by
the volume of data processed, processing powers of the computer, the information required and the i/o
facilities supported by the computer
Special Purpose
Designed to serve a specific purpose e.g. robots used in industries, mobile phone for communication only.
Dedicated
They are general purpose computers that are committed to some processing task. E.g. dedicated to word
processing only.

4. CLASSIFICATION BY USE

a) A personal computer (PC) - a microcomputer designed for independent use by an individual at

work or in the home. Some PC’s are portable.
b) A Home Computer - A low cost microcomputer of limited capabilities designed for domestic use
with programs such as playing games on controlling family finances.

c) Embedded Computers - These computers are within some other devices/systems but are not
accessed directly e.g. Small computers found in digital watches, video recorder, washing machines
etc.
5. Generation of computers
The term computer generation was applied to different types of computers to help separate the major
technological development in hardware and software. Today computers have evolved through five
generations.
First generation computers (1940-1958)
I/O media- Punched cards and magnetic tapes were used to enter and retrieve data into the computer.
Storage media-Magnetic tapes were used to store data. This provided sequential access of data
Main Memory-It was made up of vacuum tubes to control internal operations.
Software- The software used was written in machine language or assembly language
The computer could only run one program at a time.
These computers were huge expensive and often broke down. They were slow compared to today’s
computers. There internal storage capacity was limited.
Examples of first generation computers were IBM 650, UNIAC

Second generation computers (1958-1964)

Main Memory- vacuum tubes were replaced by transistors which made the computer less bulky.
Storage media- There was introduction of magnetic disks that allowed random access of data.
Software- This generation marked the beginning of high level languages.
These computers had increased storage capacity, speed and reliability compared to first generation.
Examples of Second generation computers were IBM 1401, Honey Wall 200, CDC 1604 e.t.c
Advantages of Second generation computers
They were smaller in size compared to first generation
They were more reliable
They generated less heat
They were less prone to hardware failure

Third generation computers (1964-1970)

Main memory- Transistors were replaced by integrated Circuits (I.C)
These computers increased storage capacity and more flexible.
I/O Media-This device were smaller in size and had better performance and reliability.
In this generation there was emergency of micro computers
Software- This lead to emergency of software industries, development of system software such as
Operating system.
These computers began to support multi programming
Examples of third generation computers were IBM, System 360, Burroughs B5500

Fourth generation computers (1971-1989)

Main Memory Use of microprocessors which was a large-scale integrated circuit which contained
thousands of transistors
I/O Media-The device were smaller in size and had better performance and reliability
Size- Small computers lead by Introduction of microcomputers, laptops and palmtops.
They were commonly used in business applications for large business enterprises. Examples include: IBM
308 and Amdahl 508

Fifth generation computers (1989 up to date)

Characterised by emerging telecommunication with computer technology
Scientists are working on this generation to bring machine with genuine I.Q., the ability to reason logically
and with real knowledge of the world. The anticipated computers will be expected to:
Perform parallel processing
Logical inference of operations
Artificial intelligence

COMPUTER SYSTEM

HARDWARE COMPONENTS
A computer consists of a variety of hardware components that work together with software to perform
calculations, organize data, and communicate with other computers.
These hardware components include input devices, output devices, a system unit, storage devices, and
communications devices.

SECONDARY MEMORY OR
AUXILLIARY STORAGE

OUTPUT
INPUT MAIN DEVICES
DEVICES MEMORY

CONTROL UNIT Key:

Data Flow
ARITHMETIC / LOGIC
UNIT Command Flow

The organization of computer Hardware is based on the Von-Newman Architecture, which is based on
the concept of binary representation of numbers in the computer. This organization, also known as the
computer theoretical organization, describes how the different types of computer hardware interact with
each other, in the processing of data, so that the desired results can be achieved.
Figure 1-1 common computer hardware components contemporarily, include a keyboard, mouse,
microphone, system unit, disk drives, printer, monitor, speakers,, and a modem.
Input Devices
An input device allows a user to enter data and commands into the memory of a computer. E.g. keyboard,
mouse e.t.c
Output Devices
An output device is used to convey the information generated by a computer to a user. E.g. Printer,
monitor e.t.c.
System Unit
The system unit is a box-like case made from metal or plastic that houses the computer electronic circuitry.
The circuitry in the system unit usually is part of or is connected to a circuit board called the motherboard.
Storage Devices
A storage device is used to record and retrieve data, instructions, and information to and from storage
medium Storage holds data, instructions, and information for future use. Storage differs from memory, in
that it can hold these items permanently, whereas memory holds these items only temporarily while they
are being processed. E.g. floppy disk drive, a hard disk drive, a CD-ROM drive, and a DVD-ROM drive.
Communications Devices
Communications devices enable computer users to communicate and to exchange items such as data,
instructions, and information with another computer. Communications devices transmit these items over
transmission media, such as cables, telephone lines, or other means, used to establish a connection between
two computers.
Assignment:
Instructions: The following questions should be treated as part of the notes and they should NOT be
answered at the back of the book.
Questions
1. Kenya air force intends to launch an airspace exploration project in order to strengthen their
military air base. State the type of computer that would be most appropriate for this mission. Justify
your answer.
2. Distinguish between mainframe and mini computers
3. Most people confuse between brands of computer and types of computers, list any two brands of
computers
4. State and explain five characteristics of a computer
5. Describe the history of computers citing contribution of the following personalities: John Napier,
Francis Bacon, Blaise Pascal, Charles Babbage, George Boole and Herman Hollerith,

INPUT DEVICES
What Are Input Devices?
An input device is any hardware component that allows you to enter data, programs, commands, and user
responses into a computer.
Input devices are classified into:
1. Keying devices
2. Pointing devices
3. Scanning devices
4. Voice input devices

Keying device
Keyboard
Used to enter data into a computer by pressing the keys on the keyboard. Desktop computer keyboards
usually have from 101 to 105 keys. A computer keyboard includes keys that allow you to type letters of the
alphabet, numbers, spaces, punctuation marks, and other symbols such as the dollar sign ($) and asterisk
(*).

Types of Keyboard Keys

1. Numeric keys located on the right side of the keyboard. A numeric keypad is a calculator-style
arrangement of keys representing numbers, a decimal point, and some basic mathematical operators.
The numeric keypad is designed to make it easier to enter numbers.

2. Function keys are special keys programmed to issue commands and accomplish certain tasks. The
command associated with a function key depends on the program you are using. For example, in
many programs, pressing the function key Fl displays a Help window. Function keys often are used
in combination with other special keys (SHIFT, CTRL, ALT, and others) to issue commands

3. Arrow/Cursor/Direction keys Keyboards also contain keys that can be used to position the
insertion point on the screen. The insertion point is a symbol that indicates where on the screen the
next character you type will display. Depending on the program, the symbol may be a vertical bar, a
rectangle, or an underline. Arrow keys allow you to move the insertion point left, right, up, or down.
4. Data Keys are used to enter letters numbers and symbols.

Assignment:
Instructions: The following questions should be treated as part of the notes and they should NOT be
answered at the back of the book.
Questions
1. Explain the following types of keys giving relevant examples
Sticky keys, Toggle keys, Filter keys
2. Explain the function of each of the following shortcut keys
CTRL+A, CTRL+C, CTRL+X, CTRL+V, CTRL+Z, CTRL+ALT+DEL
3. State the functions of each of the following function keys
F1, F2, F3, F4, F5, F6, F10
4. State the names of the following symbols found on your keyboard
^, &, !, ~, *, #, @

2. Pointing Devices
A pointing device is an input device that allows you to control a pointer on the screen in a graphical user
interface. A pointer often takes the shape of a block arrow, an I-beam (T) or a pointing hand. You can use a
pointing device to move the insertion point; select text, graphics, and other objects; and click buttons,
icons, links, and menu commands.

i. Mouse
The mouse is the most widely used pointing device on desktop computers because it takes full advantage of
a graphical user interface. Designed to fit comfortably under the palm of a hand.
ii. Trackball
A trackball is a stationary pointing device with a ball mechanism on its top. To move the pointer using a
trackball, you rotate the ball mechanism with your thumb, fingers, or the palm of your hand. Around the
ball mechanism, usually a track-ball also has one or more buttons that work just like mouse buttons.
iii. Touchpad
A touchpad or track pad is a small, flat, rectangular pointing device that is sensitive to pressure and motion.
To move the pointer using a touchpad, you slide your fingertip across the surface of the pad. Some
touchpad have one or more buttons around the edge of the pad that work like mouse buttons; on others, you
tap the pad’s surface to simulate mouse operations such as clicking.
iv. Light Pen
A light pen is a handheld input device that contains a light source or can detect light. Some light pens
require a specially designed monitor, while others work with a standard monitor.
v. Touch Screen
A monitor that has a touch-sensitive panel on the screen is called a touch screen. You interact with the
computer by touching areas of the screen with your finger, which acts as an input device.
vi. Graphics Tablet
A graphics tablet, also called a digitizer or digitizing tablet, consists of a flat, rectangular, electronic plastic
board used to input drawings, sketches, or other graphical data. Each location on the graphics tablet
corresponds to a specific location on the screen. When you draw on the tablet with either an electronic pen
or a puck, the tablet detects and converts the movements into digital signals that are sent into the computer.
A puck is a device that looks similar to a mouse, except that is has a window with cross hairs so the user
can see through to the tablet. Users with precise pointing requirements such as mapmakers and architects
use a puck.

3. Scanning Devices
Some devices make the input process more efficient by eliminating the manual entry of data. Instead of a
person entering data using a keyboard or pointing device, these devices capture data from a source
document, which is the original form of the data.

Optical Scanner/Reader
An optical scanner is a light-sensing input device that reads printed text and graphics and then translates the
results into a form the computer can use. A scanner is similar to a copy machine except that it creates a file
of the document instead of a paper copy.

An optical reader is a device that uses a light source to read characters, marks, and codes and then converts
them into digital data that can be processed by a computer. The following sections discuss three types of
optical readers: optical character recognition, optical mark recognition, and bar code.

1. Optical Character Recognition

Optical character recognition (OCR) is a technology that involves reading typewritten, computer-printed, or
handwritten characters from-ordinary documents and translating the images into a form that the computer
can understand. Most OCR devices include a small optical scanner for reading characters and sophisticated
software for analyzing what is read.
For example, suppose you need to modify a business report, but do not have the original word processing
file. You could use a flatbed scanner to scan the document, but you still would not be able to edit the report.
The scanner, which does not differentiate between text and graphics, will save the report as a bitmap image,
which cannot be edited directly in a word processing program. To convert it into an editable text file that
can be edited, you must have optical character recognition (OCR) software that works with the scanner.

2. Optical Mark Recognition (OMR)

Optical mark recognition (OMR) devices read hand-drawn marks such as small circles or rectangles. A
person places these marks on a form, such as test, survey, or questionnaire answer sheet. The OMR device
first reads a master document, such as an answer key sheet for a test, to record correct answers based on
patterns of light; the remaining documents then are passed through the OMR device and patterns of light
are matched against the master document.

3. Bar Code Scanners

A bar code scanner uses leaser beams to read bar codes. A bar code scanner is an identification code that
consists of a set of vertical lines and spaces of different widths. The bar code, which represents some data
that identifies the item, is printed on a product’s package or on a label that is affixed to a product so it can
be read by a bar code scanner. The bar code scanner uses light patterns form the bar code lines to identify
the item. Bar codes are used on a variety of products such as groceries, pharmacy supplies, vehicles, mail,
and books. Each industry uses its own type of bar code.

4. Magnetic Ink Character Recognition Reader

Magnetic-ink character recognition (MICR) reader is used to read text printed with magnetized ink. MICR
is used almost exclusively by the banking industry for check processing. Each check in your check book
has pre-recoded MICR characters on the lower-left edge; these characters represent the bank number, your
account number, and the check number.
When a check is presented for payment, the bank uses an MICR inscriber to print the amount of the check
in MICR characters in the lower-right corner (Figure 3-7). The check then is sorted or routed to the
customer’s bank, along with thousands of others. Each check is inserted into an MICR reader, which sends
the check information - including the amount of the check - to a computer for processing. When you
balance your checkbook, you should verify that the amount printed in the lower-right corner is the same as
the amount written on the check; otherwise, your statement will not balance.

4. Voice Input Device

Its uses microphone to input the voice input. The voice input device (also known as voice recognition
system), recognises spoken words and converts them into electrical signals by comparing the electronics
patterns produced by the speakers voice with a set of pre-recorded pattern of the speaker. If the pattern of
the speaker matches with that which was recorded in the computer it accepts this pattern as part of its
standard vocabulary. This technology can be used by disabled people who cannot use for example hands to
press keys.

Limitations of voice input

1. The spoken words should be exact and pronounced the exact manner , failure to this the computer
will not accept the pattern
2. It is not effective because when a person has a cold, his voice may change thus the computer will
not accept the pattern.

OUTPUT DEVICES
What is Output?
Output is data that has been processed into a useful form called information. That is, a computer processes
input into output. Four common types of output are text, graphics, audio, and video.

What are output devices?

An output device is any computer component capable of conveying information to a user. Commonly used
output devices include display devices, printers, speakers, headsets, data projectors etc.

Output devices can be categorised as hardcopy or Softcopy output devices. Hardcopy output devices are
those devices that are used to produce the results on tangible media e.g. paper while softcopy display
results in non tangible media e.g. computer screen

Softcopy Output Devices

A display device is an output device that visually conveys text, graphics, and video information.
Information shown on a display device often is called soft copy, because the information exists
electronically and is displayed for a temporary period of time. Display devices include CRT monitors, flat-
panel displays, and high-definition televisions.
Monitor/ VDU/Screen
It is used to display Information inform of text , pictures and video enabling the user to monitor what is
going on in the computer. They are mainly categorised into:
1. Cathode Ray Tube (C.R.T)
2. Flat screens

1. Cathode Ray Tube (C.R.T)

A CRT monitor, or monitor, is a display device that consists of a screen housed in a plastic or metal case. A
color monitor displays text, graphics, and video information in color. Color monitors are used widely with
all types of computers because most of today’s software is designed to display information in color.
Monitors that display only one colour are considered monochrome. A monochrome monitor displays text,
graphics, and video information in one color (usually white, amber, or green) on a black background.
Because monochrome monitors are less expensive than color monitors, some organizations use them for
applications that do not require color or detailed graphics, such as order entry.
Advantages of C.R.T
1. Have a good resolution
2. Has the capability of one to be able to differentiate images due to light emission.
Disadvantages of C.R.T
1. It is bulky in size
2. Consume a lot of power
3. They are fragile
4. Some C.R.T flicker

2. Flat Screen
A flat-panel display is a lightweight, thin screen that consumes less power than a CRT monitor. Four
common types of flat-panel displays are LCD, EID, TFT and GPD.

a. Liquid Crystal Display (LCD)

LCD displays commonly are used in laptop computers, handheld computers, digital watches,’ and
calculators because they are thinner and more lightweight than CRT monitors. While most LCD displays
are color, even those on newer models of handheld computers, some devices use monochrome LCD
displays to save battery power. Unlike a CRT monitor, an LCD display does not use a cathode ray tube to
create images on the screen; it instead uses a liquid crystal display (LCD). A liquid crystal display (LCD)
has special molecules (called liquid crystals) deposited between two sheets of material. When an electric
current passes through them, the molecules twist, causing some light waves to be blocked and allowing
others to pass through, this then creates the desired images on the screen.
b. Thin Film Transistor (TFT)
An active-matrix display uses a separate transistor for each color pixel and thus can display high-quality
color that is viewable from all angles. Active-matrix displays sometimes are called TFT displays, named
after the thin-film transistor (TFT) technology they use. Because they use many transistors, active-matrix
displays. require a lot of power.
c. Gas Plasma Display (GPD)
For even larger displays, some large business or power users prefer gas plasma monitors, which can
measure more than 42 inches and hang directly on a wall Gas plasma monitors use gas plasma technology,
which substitutes a layer of gas for the liquid crystal material in an LCD monitor. When voltage is applied,
the gas glows and produces the pixels that form an image. Gas plasma monitors offer larger screen sizes
and higher display quality than LCD monitors but are much more expensive.
d. Electro Illumnescent Display (E.I.D)
Uses a thin film of solid which is a special treated material that glows when current is passed through it. To
form a pixel on to form a pixel on the screen, current is send to the intersection of rows and columns. The
combined voltage from the row and column cause the screen to glow at a point and a picture is formed.
E.I.D. provides high image results and excellent graphics. It generates its own light.
Hardcopy Output Devices
1. Printers
A printer is an output device that produces text and graphics on a physical medium such as paper or
transparency film. Printed information is called hard copy because the information exists physically and is
a more permanent form of output than that presented on a display device (soft copy).Hard copy, also called
a printout, can be printed in portrait or landscape orientation.

Generally, printers can be grouped into two categories:

1. Mode of Printing
- Dot Matrix- like a typewriter, the pins have the letters, symbols etc, presses on the ribbon (colour),
character is imprinted on paper.
Noisy, low image, slow, less expensive
- Inkjet – they spray ink on paper
Less noise, improved image,
- Laserjet – user beam of light. The illuminated part of the paper receives the toner/ink/colour. Most
technology, photocopier, uses LED
- Thermo – use heat on heat-sensitive paper, special paper with special crayons..
2. Capacity of Printing
- Character Printers -one character at a time
- Line Printers – one line at a time
- Page Printers – One page at a time
3. Impact and non impact.
a. Impact Printers
An impact printer forms characters and graphics on a piece of paper by striking a mechanism against an
ink ribbon that physically contacts the paper. Because of the striking activity, impact printers generally
are noisy. Many impact printers do not provide letter quality print. Letter quality (LQ) output is a
quality of print acceptable for business letters. Many impact printers produce near letter quality (NLQ)
print, which is slightly less clear than letter quality. NLQ impact printers are used for jobs that require
only near letter quality, such as printing mailing labels, envelopes, or invoices.Impact printers also are
ideal for printing multipart forms because they easily can print through many layers of paper. Finally,
impact printers are used in many factories and at retail counters because they can withstand dusty
environments, vibrations, and extreme temperatures. Two commonly used types of impact printers are
dot-matrix printers and line printers.
b. Non impact Printers
A non impact printer forms characters and graphics on a piece of paper without actually striking the paper.
Some spray ink, while others use heat and pressure to create images. Because these printers do not strike
the paper, they are much quieter than impact printers. Three commonly used types of non impact printers
are ink-jet printers, laser printers, and thermal printers

2. Plotters
Used to produce high-quality line drawing, such as building plans, charts or circuit diagrams. It is a
specialised output device that is designed to produce high quality graphics in a variety of colour. They are
of two types.
a. Drum plotters
b. Flatbed plotters
a. Drum or pen plotter
Paper is mounted on the surface of the drum. The drum revolves and the pens are horizontally placed over
the target area. When the paper has rotated to the correct point, pens are dropped to the surface and moved
left and right under program control. When the image is complete pens are raised from the surface.
b. Flatbed/electrostatic Plotter
Are designed so that the paper is placed flat and one or more pens are placed horizontally and vertically
across a paper. Flatbed/ Electrostatic plotters use electrostatic charges to create images out of very small
dots on specialized treated paper. Electrostatic are faster and produce high quality results.

3. Computer Output Microfilm (COM)

COM is an output technique that records output from a computer as microscopic images on roll or sheet
film. Information is organised inform of films held in a microfiche, a microfiche uses a small sheet of film,
usually about four inches by six inches to store images. The Microfilms are kept in a roll, uses a 100- to
215-foot roll of film. The stored images are so small they can be read only with a microfilm or microfiche
reader.
Applications of microfilm and microfiche
1. Libraries use these media to store back issues of newspapers, magazines, and genealogy records.
2. Large organizations use microfilm and microfiche to archive inactive files.
3. Banks, for example, use it to store transactions and cancelled checks.
Advantages:
1. It greatly reduces the amount of paper firms must handle
2. It is inexpensive
3. It has the longest life of any storage medium.

Buffers
Special types of memories that are found in I/O devices. Input data is held in the input buffer while
processed output is held in output buffer.e.g. Computer printers have buffers where they can store massive
documents sent by the CPU for printing hence freeing the CPU to perform other urgent tasks as the printer
continues to print in the backgro

Assignment
Discuss three audio and/ or video output devices
STORAGE

MEMORY/PRIMARY STORAGE
The third major component of the CPU is the memory. As its name suggests, this equipment is used for the
temporary storage of information.It is directly accessibly by the processor.Computer memory can be
classified as Read Only Memory (ROM) and Rnadom Access Memory (RAM).

1. ROM (Read Only Memory)

It is used to store programmed instructions and data permanently or semi permanently. Data and
instructions stored in ROM are those to remain unchanged for a long time.

Characteristics of ROM
1. You can only read its content but cannot write on it.
2. It is non volatile i.e. its content is not lost when the computer is switched off.
3. Stores permanent or semi permanent instructions from the manufacturer called firmware. It can
store semi permanent instructions because some variations of ROM chip can be programmed
according to the user specifications.

Types of ROM
1. Read Only Memory (ROM)
Once the content is written on it by the manufacturer it cannot be changed.
2. Programmable Read Only Memory (PROM)
Allows the user to alter it once after the content is written on it.
3. Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory (EPROM)
The content stored in it can be erased by exposing them to ultra violet light and then re programmed for
another use.
4. Electrically Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory (EEPROM)
This can be erased and reprogrammed using electricity. An example of EEPROM is the memory that
stores the BIOS.

2. RAM (Random Access Memory)/Working Storage

Used to hold data and instructions needed by the currently running applications. The information in RAM
is continually read, changed and removed. It is referred to as random access because its content can be read
directly regardless of the sequence in which it was stored. As opposed to ROM the content of RAM is held
temporarily and its content is lost once the computer is turned off.

Characteristics of RAM
1. Data can be read and written in it.
2. It is volatile i.e. its content disappear when the computer is switched off.
3. Its content is user defined i.e. the user dictates what is to be contained in the RAM.

Types of RAM
1. Static RAM (SRAM)
It is a fast type of memory mostly located inside a micro processor. For this reason, SRAM is used on
special purpose memories such as cache memory. Cache memory is used to enhance the processing
speed by holding data and instructions that are instantly required by the processor.
2. Dynamic RAM (DRAM)
DRAM is relatively slower type of RAM compared to SRAM. The term dynamic refers to the tendency
for the stored charge to leak away even with constant power supply. For this reason, DRAM requires
periodic recharging (refresh) to maintain its data storage.
3. Cache Memory
It is a fast type of RAM. There are three types of cache memory i.e.
Level 1: Also known as primary cache located inside the micro processor.
Level 2: Also called external cache that may be inside the micro processor or mounted on the motherboard.
Level 3: The latest type of cache that works with level 2 cache to optimize system performance.

4. Virtual Memory
The computer sometimes uses space on the computers hard disk as an extension of RAM. A computer’s
ability to use disk storage to simulate RAM is called virtual memory.

Virtual memory allows computers without enough real memory to run large programs, manipulate large
data files and run more than one program at a time. One disadvantage of a virtual memory is reduced
performance.

Assignment:
Instructions: The following questions should be treated as part of the notes and they should NOT be
answered at the back of the book.
Questions
1. Using the example of multiplying two numbers explain how information flows from input until the
output is obtained.
2. A school has bought a computer system .The hardware items supplied includes: a 800MHz
processor, 640MB RAM , 12GB Hard disk, a sound card , speaker , floppy disk drive , a CD
read /Write drive. Explain the meaning of the following: 800MHz, 640MB and 12GB.
3. What do the following stand for? Hertz (Hz), Kilohertz (KHz), Gigahertz (GHz)

SECONDARY STORAGE

Storage/Auxiliary/External/Non volatile/Offline
It holds items such as data, instructions, and information for future use. The difference between memory
and secondary storage is based on the reason why data is placed in them. Data is placed in memory when it
is needed for immediate processing while data is placed in secondary storage when it is needed for future
use.
Characteristics of Secondary Storage
1. Non-volatile storage- Data stored in this media is permanent unless erased by user.
2. Mass Storage-Stores large volume of data.
3. Reusability-Stores data can be erased and the media reused to store fresh data and program.

Classification of Secondary storage

1. Removable storage devices
These devices are not housed inside the system unit hence can be used in another computer e.g.
floppy, flash e.t.c
2. Fixed storage devices
These devices are housed inside the computer system unit e.g. hard disk.

Removable storage media

The technology used to store and retrieve data from secondary storage media is either magnetic or optical.
MAGNETIC
1. Magnetic Tapes
One of the first storage media used with mainframe computers was magnetic tape, a magnetically coated
ribbon of plastic capable of storing large amounts of data and information at a low cost. Tape storage
requires sequential access, which refers to reading or writing data consecutively. Like a music tape, you
must forward or rewind the tape to a specific point to access a specific piece of data.
Because sequential access is much slower than direct access, tapes are no longer used as a primary method
of storage. Instead, tapes are used most often for long-term storage and backup. Similar to a tape recorder, a
tape drive is used to read from and write data and information onto a tape. Although older computers used
reel-to-reel tape drives, today’s tape drives use tape cartridges.
2. Floppy Disks/Diskette/Floppies
A floppy disk, or diskette, is a portable, inexpensive storage medium that consists of a thin, circular,
flexible plastic disk with a magnetic coating enclosed in a square-shaped plastic shell. It uses magnetic
patterns to store items such as data, instructions, and information on the disk’s surface. Floppy disks come
in different sizes i.e. 3 ½, 5 ¼ and 8 inches.

Fixed storage device

3. Hard disk
It is a magnetic fixed storage device. With modern technology we also have removable hard disk. Provide
larger storage capacities and much faster access times than floppy disks – it is a primary media for storing
software programs and files. Current personal computer hard disks can store from 4 to 50 GB of data,
instructions, and information. A hard disk usually consists of several inflexible, circular disks, called
platters, on which items are stored electronically. A platter in a hard disk is made of aluminum, glass, or
ceramic and is coated with a material that allows items to be magnetically recorded on both surfaces. On
hard disks, the platters, the read/write heads, and the mechanism for moving the heads across the surface of
the disk are enclosed in an airtight, sealed case that protects the platters from contamination.

Characteristics of a Hard Disk

1. Stores items using magnetic patterns
2. Hard disks are read/write storage media
3. Hard disks undergo two formatting steps, and possibly a third process, called partitioning.
The first format, called a low-level format, organizes both sides of each platter into tracks and sectors to
define where items will be stored on the disk. Because a hard disk often has some bad sectors, the hard disk
manufacturer usually performs the low-level format. After low-level formatting is complete; the hard disk
can be divided into separate areas called partitions. Each partition functions as if it were a separate hard
disk drive.
NB: Partitioning often is performed to make hard disks more efficient (faster) or to allow you to install
multiple operating systems on the same hard disk.
If a hard disk has only one partition, the hard disk usually is called, or designated, drive C. If the hard disk
is divided into two partitions, the first partition is designated drive C and the second partition is designated
drive D, and so on. Unless specifically requested by the consumer, most manufacturers define a single
partition (drive C) on the hard disk.
After low-level formatting and partitioning, a high-level format command is issued through the operating
system to define, among other items, the file allocation table (FAT) for each partition. Recall that the FAT
is a table of information used to locate files on a disk. As with the low-level format, most hard disk
manufacturers perform the high-level format for the consumer. You can partition a hard disk yourself using
special operating system commands. You then must issue a high-level format command for each partition.
How a Hard Disk Works
Most hard disks have multiple platters stacked on top of one another and each platter has two read/write
heads, one for each side. The hard disk has arms that move the read/write heads to the proper location on
the platter. Because of the stacked arrangement of the platters, the location of the read-write head often is
referred to by it cylinder instead of its track. A cylinder is the location of a single track through all platters
.
For example, if a hard disk has four platters (eight sides), each with 1,000 tracks, then it will have 1,000
cylinders with each cylinder consisting of eight tracks (two for each platter). While your computer is
running, the platters in the hard disk rotate at a high rate of speed, usually 5,400 to 7,200 revolutions per
minute. The platters continue spinning until power is removed from the computer.

Maintaining Data Stored on a Hard Disk

To prevent the loss of items stored on a hard disk, you should perform preventative maintenance such as
defragmenting or scanning the disk for errors. Operating systems such as Windows provide many
maintenance and monitoring utilities.

Assignment:
Instructions: The following questions should be treated as part of the notes and they should NOT be
answered at the back of the book.
Questions
1. State and explain advantages of computerized storage
2. Differentiate between storage and memory
3. Using a well labeled diagram of the internal structure of a magnetic tape, explain the process of
recording data in a magnetic tape
4. Floppy disk drives are downward compatible and not upward compatible. Explain the terms
downward compatible and upward compatible with respect to floppy disks.
5. Explain reasons why hard disk should be kept under sterile condition
6. State the command used for partitioning a hard disk
7. State the advantages of a hard disk over a floppy disk
8. Read and make notes on Zip and Jaz disks
Optical Technology
1. Compact Discs
A compact disc (CD) is a flat, round, portable, metal storage medium that usually is 4.75 inches in diameter
and less than one-twentieth of an inch thick. Compact disks store items by using microscopic pits
(indentations) and land (flat areas) that are in the middle layer of the disc. (Most manufacturers place a
silk-screened label on the top layer of the disc so you can identify it.) A high-powered laser light creates the
pits. A lower-powered laser light reads items from the compact disc by reflecting light through the bottom
of the disc, which usually is either solid gold or silver in color. The reflected light is converted into a series
of bits that the computer can process. Land causes light to reflect, which is read as binary digit 1. Pits
absorb the light; this absence of light is read as binary digit 0.
A compact disc stores items in a single track that spirals from the center of the disc to the edge of the disc.
As with a hard disk, this single track is divided into evenly sized sectors in which items are store.

Different Types of Compact Discs

Two basic types of compact discs designed for use with computers are a CD-ROM and DVD-ROM. The
drive designation of a CD-ROM or DVD-ROM drive usually follows alphabetically after that of the hard
disk. For example, if your hard disk is drive C, then the compact disc is drive D.

1. CD-ROMs
A CD-ROM is a silver-colored compact disc that uses the same laser technology as audio CDs for
recording music. Unlike an audio CD, a CD-ROM can contain text, graphics, and video, as well as sound.
The contents of standard CD-ROMs are written, or recorded, by the manufacturer and only can be read and
used. That is, they cannot be erased or modified- hence, the name read-only.
For a computer to read items on a CD-ROM, you must place it into a CD-ROM drive or CD-ROM player.
Because audio CDs and CD-ROMs use the same laser technology, you also can use your CD-ROM drive to
listen to an audio CD while working on your computer.A CD-ROM can hold up to 700 MB of data,
instructions, and information,. Because CD-ROMs have such high storage capacities, they are used to store
and distribute today’s complex software. Some programs even require that the disc be in the drive each
time you use the program.

2. CD-R (compact disc-recordable)

Is a technology that allows you to write on a compact disc using your own computers Whereas the disc’s
manufacturer records the data, instructions, and information on a standard CD-ROM, you record your own
items such as text, graphics, and audio, onto a CD-R (compact disc-recordable). You can write on the disc
in stages - writing on part of it one time and writing on another part at a later time. You can, however, write
on each part only once and you cannot erase it. Once you have recorded the CD-R, you can read from it as
many times as you wish. In order to write on a CD-R, you must have CD-R software and a CD-R drive.

3. CD-RW (compact disc-rewriteable)

Is an erasable disc that you can write on multiple times CD-RW overcomes one of the disadvantages of
CD-R disks - which you can write on them only once. With CD-RW, the disc acts like a floppy or hard
disk, allowing you to write and rewrite data, instructions, and information onto it multiple times. To write
on a CD-RW disc, you must have CD-RW software and a CD-RW drive.

4. DVD-ROMs
Although CD-ROMs have huge storage capacities, even a CD-ROM is not large enough for many of
today’s complex programs. Some software, for example, is sold on five or more CD-ROMs. To meet these
tremendous storage requirements, some software moved from CD-ROMs to the larger DVD-ROM format -
a technology that can be used to store video items, such as motion pictures. A DVD-ROM (digital video
disc-ROM) is an extremely high capacity compact disc capable of storing from 4.7 GB to 17 GB. Not only
is the storage capacity of a DVD-ROM greater than a CD-ROM, a DVD-ROM’s quality also far surpasses
that of a CD-ROM. In order to read a DVD-ROM, you must have a DVD-ROM drive or DVD player.
At a glance, a DVD-ROM looks just like a CD-ROM. Although the size and shape are similar, a DVD-
ROM stores data, instructions, and information in a slightly different manner and thus achieves a higher
storage capacity. A DVD-ROM uses one of three storage techniques. The first technique involves making
the disc denser by packing the pits closer together. A second technique involves using two layers of pits.
For this technique to work, the lower layer of pits is semitransparent so the laser can read through it to the
upper layer.
Assignment:
Instructions: The following questions should be treated as part of the notes and they should NOT be
answered at the back of the book.
Questions
1. Ann Wekesa an architect has many housing designs for sale to home makers and estate developers.
She has been advices to store the designs in Optical disks rather than maintain printed copies in
files. Required:
a. Define the term Optical disks and give two examples of optical disks
b. Describe four characteristics of optical disks that make them suitable for data storage
c. Highlight four precautions Ann Wekesa should take when storing her optical disks.
d. Describe the features of magneto-optical disk
2. Mrs. Rebecca Nyamweya Organization uses a variety of secondary storage devices. Some of them
 are Direct Access Storage (DAS) while others are Serial Access Storage (SAS)Giving an
appropriate example briefly explain DAS and SAS
3. State and explain factors to consider when selecting a storage device

PROCESSORS (CENTRAL PROCESSING UNIT)

The central processing unit (CPU) is the part of the computer configuration which actually processes data.
It can be thought of as the “brains” of the computer, where the actual processing (“thinking”) is executed.
CPU is that part of the computer that decodes and executes instructions.In micro computers the CPU is
housed inside the system unit.It is mounted on a circuit board known as the motherboard or the system
board.

Components of a CPU
The CPU is made up of 3 main parts :
(a) The control unit – brain of the computer..receives instructions, decodes/interpret them and
give micro instructions to other parts of the computer..e.g.
(b) The arithmetic and logic unit (ALU)- to manipulate data and instruction.
(c) The Registers; small memory locations used by the CPU during its execution.

Control Unit
The control unit is the part of the CPU which controls the activities of the rest of the components both
within and outside the CPU. To coordinate these activities the control unit uses a system clock.The system
clock sends electric signals as its means of communication, just like what traffic signals do in a round
about.T he number of pulses per second determines the speed of a micro processor.The computer acts on
instructions. The control unit is the component which interprets these instructions.

Functions of Control Unit

1. Direct the flow of information into the CPU memory and storage.
2. Controls the instructions the CPU will perform next.

The Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU)

The Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU) is the part of the CPU which actually performs the calculations and
operations on the data.All the arithmetic and logical operations are carried out here.The basic arithmetic
operations include addition subtraction, multiplication and division.Logical operation are based on the
computers capacity to compare twoor more values.for example it may compare whether a piece of data is
greater than or less than equal to or nt equal to e.t.c
Inorder for the ALU to be able to process data it has special temporary storage locations called registers
which hold data just before processing and also hold the results after processing.
Functions of ALU
1. Does all the mathematical computation in the computer.
2. Does all the comparisions of values in the computer.

Registers
As opposed to buffers, registers hold one piece of data at a time and are inside the CPU.
Examples of Registers:
a. Accumulators; temporarily holds the last processing step of the ALU.
b. Instruction registers; temporarily hold an instruction just before it is interpreted into a form that the
CPU can understand.
c. Memory Address registers (MAR); temporarily holds the next piece of data waiting to be processed.
 d. Program counter register – holds the contents of a program counter, controlling the sequence of the
program execution
e. General purpose register – purpose not pre-determined before use..the user determines the best way
to use the register
f. Stack pointer register - stack (pop. Push etc)
g. Flag/condition/status register – status of the executed instructions and data

Types of Processors
A processor consists of an inbuilt set of instructions known as instruction set. Processors therefore can be
classified into two categories i.e. Complex Instruction Set and Reduced Instruction Set.
1. Complex Instruction Set
It is made up of large number of complex instruction set.
2. Reduced Instrcustion Set
Used fewer instruction set

INSTRUCTIONS IN THE CPU

- Instructions are commands –
Cateories
1. Data Transfer instruction- move data from one place to another in the computer e.g Copy-Paste, cut-
paste, e.t.c
2. Data Manipulation instructions – they trasform/change the data format e.g. adding two numbers,
2+2=4, draw an image sticks, sh
- Arithmetic logic unit (ALU)-
Arithmetics -addition , subtraction, division, multiplication of numbers
Logic unit – comparison purposes – digital logics e,g, AND, OR, NOR, NAND,
Shift operation – manipulate images, rotate, shear, mirror,
3. Program control instructions – determine the sequence of program execution. Order, flow, of
instructions. Program counter/pointer (from A, go to C, then B) – determines which instruction to
execute in next cycle e.g. Return 0, Skip, Jump, branch..
COMPUTER NETWORKS AND COMMUNICATION
Software / Program
A series of instructions that tells the hardware of a computer what to do. For example, some instructions
direct the computer to allow you to input data from the keyboard and store it in memory. Other instructions
cause data stored in memory to be used in calculations such as adding a series of numbers to obtain a total.

Before a computer can perform, or execute, a program, the instructions in the program must be placed, or
loaded, into the memory of the computer. Usually, they are loaded into memory from storage. For example,
a program might be loaded from the hard disk of a computer into memory for execution.

Software refers to set of instructions that a computer uses to perform or accomplish a specific task.
However, the term software is not only used to mean programs but also the documentation associated with
programs, such as user guidelines.

Computer software may primary be designed to manage the hardware resources to help the user accomplish
tasks.

Therefore, software may be classified as either

- system software or
- application software.

1. System software
System software performs a variety of fundamental operation that avails computer resources to the user.

These functions include:

 Booting of the computer and making sure that all the hardware elements are working properly
 Performing operations such as receiving, loading, executing and storing application software
 Storing and retrieving files.
 Performing a variety of system utility functions

System software can further be subdivided into four main categories.

 Operating system
 Utility software
 Firmware
 Networking software
 Translators

Utility software
Utility software is a special program that performs commonly used services that make certain aspects of
computing go on smoothly. Such services include sorting, copying, file handling, disk management.

Firmware
Firmware also known as stored logic. It is a combination of both the software and hardware recorded
permanently on the electronic chip. Usually it is read only memory chip that is mounted or plugged into the
motherboard. A firmware may hold an operating system, utility programs, and language processor. e. t. c

Networking software
This type software is commonly used to establish the communication between two or more computers by
linking them using a communication channel like cables to create a computer network. Networking
software enables the exchange of data in a network as well as providing data security. Network software
may come independently or integrated in an operating system

Operating system
An operating system consists of complex programs that work together in order to control and coordinate
computer hardware, execution of user programs called application and also acts as an interface between the
user applications and computer hardware. It manages input output devices, input devices and storage media
among other many functions.

Assignment
State and explain four resources managed by the Operating system

Functions of Operating System

It is the work of the OS to manage and control computer resources such as CPU time, main memory,
secondary storage and input/output for use by and application. The OS also has to ensure that no situation
where a particular task holds a needed resource and refuse to release it for use by other tasks. When several
tasks do require a particular resource they cause a deadlock. Therefore, the resource control and allocation
is the core function of OS because it has to determine which task uses a particular resource and at what
time.

Input/output Handling
The input/ output aspect involves the OS coordinating between the I/O and peripheral devices such as data
and their location, storage and retrieval and sorting out any possible confusion

Job scheduling
The OS prepares, schedules, controls and monitors jobs/tasks submitted for execution/processing to ensure
that processor’s time is not wasted. Therefore, the OS has to determine which task will be processed first
and makes sure that the one currently running is closely monitored to avoiding wasting processor time.

Resource control and Allocation

The resources mentioned above are managed by the operating system. Each resource had unique
identification number called interrupt request (IRQ). The operating system uses the IRQ to identify the
resource that has been requested. Poor resource management will to a situation called deadlock which is
undesirable and will cause the computer hang.

Memory management
The memory management function involves the OS calling into memory (RAM) programs and subroutines
as and when required. This is because all data and instructions must be temporary held in the main memory
before and after processing.

Error handling
The operating system also provides the error correction routines to ensure smooth operation within the CPU
many OS usually express what the error is, and where possible make suggestions on how to correct it. The
OS does this by monitoring the status of the computer and performing error checks on both the hardware
and software.

Interrupt handling
An interrupt is a break from the normal sequential processing of instructions in a program. Also this is one
of the most functions of OS. It determines the cause of the problem and returns or transfers the control to
the most appropriate program.
Types of operating System
The OS can be classified as under the number of tasks they can perform at one particular time:-
i Single user
ii Multi-user

Single user OS
This is a type of OS that allows only one user at a time to access the computer. This means the user can
only run one interactive program at time. The user must exit from the program before loading and running
another program. Examples include: - Microsoft Disk Operating System (MS DOS), Ms - Windows and its
versions (95, 98 and 2000)

Multi -user OS
Multi-user OS allow two or more user to access the computer at the same time. The CPU switches its
attention as it receives requests for processing. It can be installed in a computer that can be accessed by
more than one user. Examples of such operating system includes: - UNIX, Novel, Linux, and windows
NT/2000

Classification of OS as per the interface

OS can classified as per the interface which is the method used by user to interact with the computer and it
determines hoe easy the user can operate the computer. Currently the three human computer interfaces are:-

Command Line Interface

This is interface where the user types the command at the command prompt found on the command line. A
computer reads the command from the command line and executes them. Example Ms DOS

Menu Driven interfaces

This is a type of interface that provides the user with the lists of options to choose from. The interface
therefore, is suitable for beginners who may have difficulties recalling commands The driven interfaces
allows the user to select the commands from the list using the keyboard or the mouse.

Graphical user Interface

A graphical user interface (GUI) typically includes some or all of the commands
It represents commands using the small icons on the screens called icons, such as files folders and
programs.
A graphical pointer which is controlled by use of a pointing device, typically the mouse is used to select
icons and execute commands
Windows which are in regular form used for display purposes

Factors to consider when choosing an operating system

 Hardware configuration or provision of computer. e.g. memory, hard disk capacity, type of
Processor
 Basic design of the computer. e.g. IBM, Apple, compact
 Applications intended for the computer
 User friendliness or human computer interface. i.e. command line, menu driven & user interface
based
 Availability in the market
 Cost-how expensive it the OS
 Reliability i.e. can it run without crashing or hanging
Factors to consider when choosing software
User needs: The operating / application software must meet the end users’ specifications.

User Friendliness: - the software must be easy to operate and use the user. Menu driven and graphical user
interfaces software is easy and user friendly.

System Requirements:-This is because some operating systems and applications software can only run on
particular hardware facilities. The user has to evaluate which are programs that are supported by hardware
he/she has.

Cost: - The cost of software is also taken into account. How affordable the software is.

Compatibility: - this is relatively to software to function on different systems set-up. Example a program
able to run at 64MB, 32MB OR 16mb of RAM

Documentation: - These are the user and technical manuals that accompany the software. Manual will help
the user to reference when he/she is stuck.

Portability: - ability of the software to installed on different computer systems in the laboratory.

Copyright: - The buyer should be able to genuine software which is not pirated. The program must be
licensed to prove as the owner to a beyond a reasonable doubt.

Application software
Performs all the specialized tasks that computers are used for: payroll, video editing, gif animator,
computer aided design, airline reservations, email, and chat. They are grouped into two i.e. Tailor made and
Packaged.
Tailor made software meet organization specific needs and are made according to organizations
specifications while Packaged are bought from the shop and used the way they are.

CATEGORIES OF APPLICATION SOFTWARE

1. In house developed (Bespoke)/ Tailor made/ Customized
This programs are designed to serve a particular purpose for specific groups or people e.g. in banks for
managing their operations. Airlines for booking e.t.c

2. Off-the-shelf (Packaged)
This programs are standard in nature and can be purchased through a vendor e.g. Microsoft office.

What is a computer package?

It is a ready made program in standard form used to meet user general needs. Computer packages are
categorised into Word processors e.g. Ms-Word, Spreadsheets e.g. Ms-Excel, Database Management e.g.
Ms Access, Presentation e.g. Ms-Power Point, Desktop Publisher e.g. PageMaker and Graphic e.g.
AutoCAD.

Criteria for evaluating application packages

a. Portability- ability to run on other computers
b. Interfacing- Should link conveniently with existing modules
c. Peripherals- Does it require special I/O devices?
 d. Storage- It should not take too much primary or secondary storage
e. Documentation- Does it have adequate documentation?
f. Comprehensive- Should achieve if not all at least most of the objectives of the organization
g. Suitability- Should meet the user’s needs.

Advantages of packages
a. Cost saving- They save time and cost for system design, programming and testing since they are
ready made
b. Reduced implementation time- They are readily available and ready for use
c. Reduced errors- They are standard, proven software and can be used for most applications, since
they are consistent and predictable.
d. Portability- They can be used in different machines with different environment

Disadvantages of packages
a. Lead to loss of jobs to local computer experts
b. Can lead to storage problems
c. Incur additional expenses such as VAT or anti virus software

Tailor made
They are application s/wares able to meet a user specific needs e.g. student registration system
Assignment
Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of tailor made software

Categories of computer packages

Computer packages can be categorized into six groups depending on what they can do.

1. Word processor- It is an application software that enable users to create, save, edit, format and print
documents.

Purpose of word processor

Used for: Typing letters, Memos, Essays, Books, Reports, Minutes Circulars e.t.c

Examples of word processor programs

Microsoft Word, Word Perfect, Word star, AmiPro, PC-write, notepad, WordPad e.t.c

2. Spreadsheets
It is a ledger sheet that enables the user enters, edit and manipulate numerical data.

Application areas of spreadsheets

a. Accounting- Used to record daily transactions and keeping financial records. It comes with built in
functions that make the accounting task easier.
b. Data Management- Enable neat arrangement of data in tabular structure. Data management
functions include sorting, filtering, using forms to enter and view records.
c. Statistical analysis-Spreadsheets have inbuilt statistical analysis tools that can speed up data
manipulation. E.g. Average, Maximum, Minimum e.t.c
d. Forecasting (what if analysis)- It involves changing the value of one of the argument in a formula to
see the difference the change would make on the result of the calculation
e. Home/ personal use-This involves tracking cash flow, preparing household budgets and personal
financial statements.
Example of spreadsheet programs
VisCal, Lotus 123, Ms- Excel, VP-Planner

3. Database
A database is a collection of data stored in a computer system in some organized manner to make the
retrieval of data easy.

Traditional filling method

Data is stored within a single paper file.

Computerized filing method

Use of database management software (DBMS) to manipulate data

Functions of DBMS
a. Allows the user to add or delete records
b. Update or modify existing records
c. Organize data for easy access, retrieval and manipulation
d. Ensure security of data

Examples of DBMS
Ms- Access, Oracle, FoxPro, Dbase iv, Dbase v

4. Presentation
Used for making presentation by including slide transitions, designs and animations. E.g. PowerPoint.
Creates eye catching presentations

5. Desktop Publisher (DTP)

Application software used in producing publication work within the computer framework of art and design.
Able to display information and graphics in WYSIWYG (What You See Is What You Get) Examples of
publications cards, posters, newspapers, calendars, newsletter and brochures.

Application of DTP
a. Designing text and images
b. Producing publications
c. Editing texts and graphics
d. Composing templates

Example of DTP
PageMaker, Coral draw, Ms-Publisher, Ms-illustrator

6. Graphical packages
Has comprehensive ability to draw general shapes. E.g. AutoCAD and Arch CAD