Topic: SAMPLING

Subject: RESEARCH METHODS

BS PSYCHOLOGY
5th Semester
Submitted By
• Mehreen khan
• Marium bibi
• Hafsa johar
• Kiran manzoor
Submitted To:
MA’AM MASHAL SHERIN

ARMY BURN HALL COLLEGE FOR GIRLS ABBOTTABAD

  Population vs Sample:
Population refers to the larger group. It refers to the entire group that you want to draw
conclusion about.
Sample refers to a group of individuals drawn from some larger group. It refers to the
specific group from which data is collected.
 Sampling:
Sampling is a technique of selecting individual members or a subset of the population to
make statistical inferences from them and estimate characteristics of the whole population.
o Types of Sampling Strategies:

Different sampling methods are widely used by researchers.

Types of Sampling Strategies

Probability sampling Non probability sampling

Random Systematic Stratified Cluster Convinient purposive Quota

Sampling sampling sampling sampling sampling sampling sampling

PROBABILITY SAMPLING
Probability sampling is a sampling technique in which researchers choose
samples from a larger population using a method based on the theory of probability. This
sampling method considers every member of the population and forms samples based on
a fixed process.
For example, in a population of 1000 members, every member will have a
1/1000 chance of being selected to be a part of a sample. Probability sampling eliminates
bias in the population and gives all members a fair chance to be included in the sample.
o TYPES OF PROBABILITY SAMPLING
 Simple random sampling
In a simple random sample, every member of the population has an
equal chance of being selected. The sampling frame includes whole
population.
• How to draw simple random sample:
• To conduct this type of sampling:
• Number each element in sample.
• Decide sample size for the study e.g 50.
• Use Random number generator to select the sample from
entire population.
or
• Choose starting point in random number table.
• DECIDE prior to selection that you will go up,
down, right left etc or you will use middle 2
digits? Last 2 digits?
• Identify numbers to be included as sample in study.
• List names corresponding each number.
 Example
You want to select a sample of 100 employees of Company X.
You will number each member of that company and form a list. Later
you will use random number generator or random number table to
select desired number of individuals as your sample.
 Issues in Simple Random Sampling
This type of sampling technique might be impossible if
population is extremely large.
 Systematic sampling
Systematic sampling is similar to simple random sampling, but it is
usually slightly easier to conduct. Every member of the population is listed
with a number, but instead of randomly generating numbers, individuals are
chosen at regular intervals.
• How to draw systematic sample:
 Calculate Kth value (interval size):
K= Sample frame/ sample size
E.g 40/5 = 8
 Select starting point by random process.
 Start calculating Nth value: (selected value)
• First nth value: first random number selected.
 • For further finding next values:
• N1= randomly selected
• N2 = n1 + k
• N3= n2+ k etc
Or
• Select Nth value.
• Select each number after an equal interval of Kth value.
Example
All employees of the company are listed in alphabetical order.
From the first 10 numbers, you randomly select a starting point: number
6. From number 6 onwards, every 10th person on the list is selected (6,
16, 26, 36, and so on), and you end up with a sample of 100 people.

 Stratified sampling
This technique divides the elements of population into small
subgroups (strata) based on similarities in such a way that all elements within
groups are homogeneous and heterogeneous among other subgroups formed.
Elements are then randomly selected from each strata.
• How to draw stratified sample (propionate strata):
• Arrange sampling frame into strata.
• Number each element in each stratum
• Select sample size.
• Draw equal size sample from each stratum.
 • Follow steps of random sampling to select sample.
• List elements corresponding to selected numbers.
• How to draw stratified sample (disproportionate strata):
• Find total no. of elements in each strata.
• Calculate %age of students in each strata.
• Select sample in proportion to size of each stratum (e.g sample
size 150)
• Randomly select individuals from each strata.
Example
If you want to collect data from different schools, you take
schools as separate strata. Each school has different number of
individuals so you opt for stratified sampling (disproportionate). You
will follow following steps:
o Step 1: Find total number of students in each strata
 1050 + 565 + 1554 + 306 = 3475
o Step 2: Check proportion of students in each strata
 1050/ 3475 = 0.30
 565/3475 = .16
 1554/3475= .45
 306/ 3475 = .09
o Step 3: Find sample size for each strata based upon their
population size.
 150 *.30= 45
 150 *.16= 24
 150 *.45= 67
o Step 4: Select students from each school by random
sampling
 School 1= 45 students
 School 2= 24 students
 School 3= 67 students
 Cluster sampling
Cluster sampling is defined as a sampling method where the
researcher creates multiple clusters of people from a population where they
are indicative of homogeneous characteristics and have an equal chance of
being a part of the sample.
For example
 Consider a scenario where an organization is looking to survey the performance
of smartphones across Germany. They can divide the entire country’s population
into cities (clusters) and select further towns with the highest population and also
filter those using mobile devices.
Types of cluster sampling
i. Single stage cluster sampling
ii. Two stage cluster sampling
iii. Multi-stage cluster sampling
Single-stage cluster sampling:
In this kind of sampling, the entire cluster is selected randomly for
sampling.
Example:
An example of single-stage cluster sampling – An NGO wants to create a
sample of girls across five neighbouring towns to provide education. Using
single-stage sampling, the NGO randomly selects a town (single cluster) to form
a sample and extend help to the girls deprived of education in those towns.
o Two Stage Cluster Sampling

In this type of cluster sampling, a cluster is selected randomly and then,

the elements are randomly selected from that cluster.
o Multiple stage cluster sampling:

Multiple-stage cluster sampling takes a few steps further than two-stage

sampling.
In this kind of sampling, a population is divided into clusters. These
clusters are divided into subgroups based on similarities. Then, one or more
stratum can be randomly selected from each stratum. This process continues until
clusters can’t be divided anymore.
 o Advantages of probability sampling

There are multiple advantages of probability sampling:

• Reduce Sample Bias:
Using the probability sampling method, the bias in the sample derived from a
population is negligible to non-existent. The selection of the sample mainly
depicts the understanding and the inference of the researcher. Probability
sampling leads to higher quality data collection as the sample appropriately
represents the population.
• Diverse Population:
When the population is vast and diverse, it is essential to have adequate
representation so that the data is not skewed towards one demographic.
• Create an Accurate Sample:
Probability sampling helps the researchers plan and create an accurate sample.
This helps to obtain well-defined data.
 NON-PROBABILITY SAMPLING
In a non-probability sample, individuals are selected based on non-random criteria,
and not every individual has a chance of being included.
This type of sample is easier and cheaper to access, but it has a higher risk of
sampling bias. That means the inferences you can make about the population are weaker
than with probability samples, and your conclusions may be more limited. If you use a non-
probability sample, you should still aim to make it as representative of the population as
possible.
Non-probability sampling techniques are often used in exploratory and qualitative research. In
these types of research, the aim is not to test a hypothesis about a broad population, but to
develop an initial understanding of a small or under-researched population.
TYPES OF NON-PROBABILITY SAMPLING

Non probability
sampling

Convenient Purposive Snowball

Quota sampling
sampling sampling sampling
• Convenient sampling
A convenient sampling simply includes the individuals who happen to be most easily
accessible to the researcher. This is an easy and inexpensive way to gather initial data, but
there is no way to tell if the sample is representative of the population, so it can’t produce
generalizable results.
Example
You are researching opinions about student support services in your university, so
after each of your classes, you ask your fellow students to complete a survey on the topic.
This is a convenient way to gather data, but as you only surveyed students taking the same
classes as you at the same level, the sample is not representative of all the students at your
university.
• Purposive sampling
This type of sampling, also known as judgement sampling, involves the researcher using
their expertise to select a sample that is most useful to the purposes of the research.
It is often used in qualitative research, where the researcher wants to gain detailed
knowledge about a specific phenomenon rather than make statistical inferences, or where the
population is very small and specific. An effective purposive sample must have clear criteria
and rationale for inclusion.
Example
You want to know more about the opinions and experiences of disabled students at
your university, so you purposefully select a number of students with different support needs
in order to gather a varied range of data on their experiences with student services.
• Snowball sampling
• If the population is hard to access, snowball sampling can be used to recruit
participants via other participants. In this method, initial respondents identify other
respondents. The number of people you have access to “snowballs” as you get in contact
with more people.
Example
You are researching experiences of homelessness in your city. Since there is no list
of all homeless people in the city, probability sampling isn’t possible. You meet one person
who agrees to participate in the research, and she puts you in contact with other homeless
people that she knows in the area.
• Quota sampling
 In Quota sampling, the selection of members in this sampling technique happens
based on a pre-set standard. In this case, as a sample is formed based on specific attributes,
method of collecting samples.
o Advantages of non-probability sampling
 Budget and time constraints:
The non-probability method when there are budget and time constraints,
and some preliminary data must be collected. Since the survey design is not rigid,
it is easier to pick respondents at random and have them take the survey or
questionnaire.
 SAMPLING IN OBSERVATIONAL RESEARCH
When a complete record of behavior cannot be obtained, researchers seek to obtain a
representative sample of behavior. Before conducting an observational study, a researcher must
make a number of important decisions about “when” and “where” observations will be made. In
some cases it might be possible to observe all the behavior of interest but in some cases observer
needs to something less than complete record of behavior e.g. observer may need to record
frequency of behavior or observer may find it necessary to observe the time and context of
behavior.
TYPES OF SAMPLING IN OBSERVATIONAL RESEARCH

Types

Time Event Situational

sampling sampling sampling

• Time Sampling:
In this type of sampling, researcher decides the time intervals at which
observations are made. Researcher selects the type of time sampling by keeping in mind
the goal of obtaining representative of sample behavior. Intervals for observation are
chosen either systematically or randomly.
• Systematic time sampling: The researcher makes observations at equal time
intervals. For example, he may decide to make 10 minute observation after every
2 hours.
• Randomly time sampling: In this type, researcher only decides the number of
observations and then make observations at random time intervals. For example,
he may decide to take a total of 10 observations in one day and may observe at
random intervals may be if he makes first 10 minute observation at 2pm then, he
might make 2nd observation at 3:30 pm and 3rd observation at 6:00pm.
 Event Sampling:
 In this type of sampling, researcher observes behavior of an individual in a
specific event. Occurrence of significant event defines when observations is to be made.
For example, research on child reaction special event such as Christmas play.

 Situational Sampling:
In this type of sampling, observations are made to study behavior in different
circumstances, locations, and conditions. This kind of sampling technique enhances
external validity. By sampling in different situations researchers reduce the chance that
their results will be peculiar to certain set of circumstances and condition
SAMPLING SIZE
Sample size refers to measures the number of individuals required as sample for
research.
Sample size in research is selected on basis of (THNK)
• Time and Cost
• Heterogeneity
• Non-response
• Kind of analysis
 SAMPLE SIZE ESTIMATION:
Researchers use G power effect software to calculate sample size for researches in
social sciences. Sample size estimation in g power requires effect size and alpha
value.
 SAMPLING BIAS
Sampling bias occurs when some members of a population are systematically more
likely to be selected in a sample than others.
Sampling bias limits the generalizability of findings because it is a threat to external
validity, specifically population validity. In other words, findings from biased samples can only
be generalized to populations that share characteristics with the sample. Some factors to be
considered in sampling bias are:
 Non sampling bias
 Experimenter bias
 Sampling variability
 Haphazard sampling
o NON SAMPLING BIAS:
Non-sampling error refers to an error that arises from the result of data
collection, which causes the data to differ from the true values. It is different
 from sampling error, which is any difference between the sample values and the
universal values that may result from a limited sampling size.
o EXPERIMENTAR BIAS:
In research, an experimenter bias, also known as research bias, occurs
when a researcher unconsciously affects results, data, or a participant in an
experiment due to subjective influence. It is difficult for humans to be entirely
objective which is not being influenced by personal emotions, desires, or biases.

Experimenter bias can occur at any phase of the research process from the
initial background research to the final write-up of results. It is very important to
consider experimenter bias as a possible issue in any research setting.

 SAMPLING VARIABILITY:
The term “sampling variability” refers to the fact that the statistical
information from a sample (called a statistic) will vary as the random sampling is
repeated. Sampling variability will decrease as the sample size increases. ...
Samplings vary because each sample is based upon a different set of the
population.
 HAPHAZARD SAMPLING:
Haphazard sampling is a sampling method in which the auditor does not
intend to employ a systematic approach to selecting a sample. ... It can be
difficult for bias not to enter into this type of selection, since the auditor may be
tempted to select items that are more convenient to access.