Basic Electrical Engineering (EE1101)

JSPM’s
RAJARSHI SHAHU COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
TATHAWADE, PUNE-33
Autonomous Institute Affiliated to Savitribai Phule Pune University

Unit IV: Single Phase Transformer

Syllabus
Construction and principle of working, EMF equation, Different losses in transformer, Ideal and practical
transformer, equivalent circuit, Voltage regulation and efficiency, condition for maximum efficiency.
Autotransformer. Introduction to Electrical Drives and Control.
Introduction
We know that the a.c. electrical energy is generated at low or economical voltage. It has to be transmitted at
high voltages for better efficiency. For distribution purpose again, the voltage needs to be reduced. The rising
or lowering of voltages can be done very easily with the help of a static device, the transformer. The
transformer is the static device which transforms electrical energy from one alternating current circuit to
another with the desired change in voltage or current and without any change in frequency. The transformers
are design to operate either on single phase or three phase supply our discussion in this unit is restricted to
single phase transformer only.
Constructional Features
The transformer mainly consists of the core and the windings. However, as the size (capacity) and the
operating voltages increase, some other parts such as a suitable tank, the bushings, the conservator, the
breather, the explosion vent, the Buchholz relay, etc. are needed. The various parts of it are briefly described
below
(a) Magnetic Core :
It usually made up of magnetic material such as high grade silicon steel and is limited with a thickness of
0.35 mm. limbs are vertical portions of the core on which the windings are placed where as yokes the top
and the bottom portions. Use of high grade of silicon steel is used to reduced hysteresis losses where as
laminations are done to reduce eddy current losses. Yoke and limb laminations are usually interleaved to
reduced reluctance and energy losses.
(b) Windings :
In the elementary transformer, the primary and secondary windings are wound on the separate limbs. These
are insulated from each other. These windings are made up of copper. However, in actual practice primary
and secondary windings are placed on the same limb. This is done so that there will not be any appreciable
flux leakage between the primary and secondary windings.
Concentric windings, and (ii) sandwiched windings.Concentric windings are used in the core type
transformer where as sandwiched windings in the shell type transformers .
(c) Transformer Tank :
The whole of the transformer assembly is placed in a fabricated sheet metal tank and immersed in the oil
which serves both the purpose of providing insulation and cooling. The coil rencolves the heat generated in
the winding and the core. The tank is usually used for higher capacity transformer.
(d) Terminal Bushings :
The leads of the transformer brought out from the tank are insulated from it with the help of porcelain
bushings. These bushings are fitted to the tank.
(e) Conservator :
The conservator is an air tight metal drum supported on the transformer tank. This drum is connected by pipe
to the transformer tank and is always partly filled with oil. The expansion and contraction of the oil in the
tank with the change of temperature is now taken up by the conservator. With this arrangement since the
main tank is always full with the oil, the surface of the oil is not directly exposed to air. The conservator
takes care of the breathing of the transformer where on, when the transformer becomes warm, the oil expands

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and the air at the top of the oil in the conservator is expelled. When the transformer cools, the oil cons tracts
and outside air is drawn into the transformer.
(f) Breather :
The breather is device connected with the conservator. It consists of a drying agent such as calcium chloride
or silica gel. It absorbs the moisture from the atmospheric air coming into the conservator and hence into the
transformer there by allowing the dry air into the transformer. If breather were not there, air from the
atmosphere entering conservator with moisture in it will start reducing its insulating value. This slow
detraction of oil insulation is presented by the breather.
(g) Buchholz Relay :
It is a protective device connected in between the main tank and the conservator. It has an alarm circuit and
a tripping circuit. When the fault in the transformer (called incipient fault) is in the initial stage it gives an
alarm so that proper preventive action is taken. If the fault condition is serious, it gives tripping command
and isolates the transformer from the supply mains to prevent further damage.
(h) Explosion Vent :
The bent up pipe fitted on the upper surface of the tank is known as explosion vent or relief value. It is made
out of glass sheet, and aluminum foil or a Bakelite sheet. In the event of fault, if the excessive pressure is
developed inside the tank due to liberated gases, the diaphragm in the explosion vent bursts and releases the
pressure, thus avoiding damage to the transformer.

Fig.
6.1. Schematic of Transformer
Principle of Working

Fig. 6.2. Elementary Transformer

The operation of the transformer is based on the principal of mutual induction between two circuit linked by
a common magnetic field. Let us consider an elementary transformer as shown in the figure 6.1. It essentially
consists of two windings ( P and S) electrically separated but wound on a common laminated steel core( C ).
The vertical portions of the core on which the windings are placed are known as limbs. The top and bottom
portions are known as yokes. The winding (P) which is connected to the existing supply system and which
receives energy from it is known as the primary winding. The other winding (S) delivering energy to the load
at the desired voltage is known as secondary winding. Let N1 & N2 represents the number of turns of primary
and secondary windings respectively. When the primary winding is connected to the a. c. supply, the applied
voltage circulate an alternating current through it. This current produce an alternating flux (ф ) as shown in
figure 6.2. most of this flux links with the secondary winding through the core and induces an alternating
e.m.f. in the winding. This is according to Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction and the phenomena
of an e.m.f. being induced in the secondary winding due to current in the primary winding is known as mutual
induction. The e.m.f. so induced is known as mutually induced e.m.f. or e.m.f. of mutually induction. The

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frequency of this e.m.f. is same as that of the supply voltage. If a load is connected through the secondary
winding, a current will flow through it. Thus there is a transfer of energy from primary to the secondary
circuit through the core magnetically.
It should be noted that the transformer should not be connected to the direct current (d.c.) source or
supply. This is so because, when we try to connected a d.c. supply to the primary winding. There will be a
constant flux produced and due to this constant flux through the core, as it is not varying, no e.m.f. will be
induced. In fact, with d.c. supply connected, the primary winding will draw very large amount of current
from the supply and this may damage the winding. However with a a.c. supply, there will be counter e.m.f.
in the primary winding and the primary current is mainly limited by it as it oppose the applied voltage.
Types of Transformers
Based on the arrangement of core and windings, the transformer are classified as follows:
1. Core type transformers
2. Shell type transformer
3. Berry type transformer
1. Core type transformer :

Fig. 6.3. Core Type of Transformer

The figure here shows the arrangement of a core type transformer. The sailent or main feature of this of
transformer is as follows.
(i) It has a single magnetic circuit
(ii) The winding are cylindrical.
(iii) As the windings are placed on the separate limbs of the core, natural cooling is more effective.
(iv) The winding surround major portion of the core.
(v) Maintenance or repairs is easy as windings can be withdrawn for repairs just by dismantling the
laminations of the top yoke.
2. Shell type Transformer :
The figure below shows the arrangement of a shell type transformer. The main features of this transformer
are explained below:
(i) It has a double magnetic circuit
(ii) The primary and the secondary windings are wound on the central limb and the outer limb
provides the low reactance path.
(iii) The voltages and high voltages windings are placed alternatively like a sandwich. Therefore
such a winding is also known as sandwich winding.
(iv) The core for shell type transformer is made up of U & T shape.
(v) Natural cooling is surrounded by a core
(vi) It is difficult to maintain and repair as winding cannot be easily dismantled.
(vii) The shell type transformer gives better supports against electromotive forces.

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Fig. 6.4. Shell Type

of Transformer
Comparison between core and shell
type transformers:
Sr. No. Core type transformer Shell type transformer

1. Windings of the transformer encircle the core Core of the transformer encircle the windings
2. Core has only on window Core has two windows
3. Concentric cylindrical type of windings are used Sandwich type of windings are used for this
for this transformer transformer

4. As windings are outside the core, natural cooling As windings are inside the core, natural
is possible cooling is not possible hence forced cooling
is required.
5. As windings are outside maintenance of As windings are inside maintenance of
windings is easy. windings is difficult.
6. Used for high current applications Used for low current applications
7. Used as power or distribution transformer Used in electronic circuits

E.M.F. Equation of a Transformer

Let us derive the mathematical expression for the e.m.f. induces in the primary and the secondary windings
of a single phase transformer.
As soon as the primary windings of the transformer is connected across the a.c. supply an alternating current
flows through it. It produces an alternating flux. This flux links, through the core, the secondary winding and
induce an e.m.f. in it by mutual induction. This flux also links the turnsof the primary winding and induce
an e.m.f. in it.
Let N1 = No. of turns in primary
N2 = No. of turns in secondary
Φ m = Maximum flux in core in webers = Bm × A
f = Frequency of a.c. input in Hz
As shown in Fig., flux increases from its zero value to maximum value Φm in one quarter of the cycle i.e.
in 1/4 f second

Φ𝑚
Average rate of change of flux= 1/4𝑓 = 4f Φ m wb/sec or volts

Now, rate of change of flux per turn means induced e.m.f. in volts.

Average e. m. f per turn = 4f Φ m volts

If flux Φ varies sinusoidally, then r.m.s. value of induced e.m.f. is obtained by multiplying the average value
with form factor.

𝑟.𝑚.𝑠.𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒
Form Factor = 𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 = 1.11

RMS value of e. m. f per turn = 1.11 X 4f Φ m volts = 4.44 f Φ m volts

Now, r.m.s. value of the induced e.m.f. in the whole of primary winding

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= (induced e.m.f/turn) × No. of primary turns

E1= 4.44 f N1 Φ m =4.44 f N1 B m A

Similarly, r.m.s. value of the e.m.f. induced in secondary is,

Again, for an ideal transformer, input VA = output VA.

𝐼2 𝑉1 1
𝑉1 𝐼1 = 𝑉2 𝐼2 𝑜𝑟 = =
𝐼1 𝑉2 𝐾

Voltage and Current Ratio of a Transformer

Fig. 6.5. Voltage and Current Ratio of Transformer

Refer transformer with its secondary winding connected to the load.
Voltage Ratio
The ration of primary to secondary terminal voltage is known as the voltage ratio = V1 / V2

Voltage Transformation Ratio (K)

We know, Primary induced emf is

E1= 4.44 f N1 Φ m =4.44 f N1 B m A
Secondary induced emf is
E2= 4.44 f N2 Φ m =4.44 f N2 B m A
From above equations, we get
𝐸2 𝑁2
= =𝐾
𝐸1 𝑁1

This constant K is known as transformation ratio.

1. If N2 > N1 i.e. K > 1, then transformer is called step-up transformer.

2. If N2 < N1 i.e. K < 1, then transformer is known as step-down transformer.
3. If N2 = N1 i.e. K = 1, then transformer is known as Isolation transformer or 1: 1 transformer.

Turns ratio
The ratio of primary to secondary turns is known as the turns ratio, Thus the turns ratio = N1 / N2.
Current ratio
The ratio of primary to secondary current is known as the current ratio = I1 / I2
Relation between V1 , V2, I1 , I2, N1 & N2
As the transformer transfers electrical power from one circuit to another circuit very efficiently with
negligible power loss, power input = power output , V1 I1 cosф1 = V2 I2 cosф2
Where cosф1 and cosф2 are power factor of primary and secondary circuits respectively. These are hereby
equal. Hence, V1 I1 = V2 I2 , I1 / I2 = V2/ V1
But we have V2/ V1 = N2 / N1 = K
I1 / I2 = V2/ V1 = N2 / N1 = K
Ratings of a Transformer

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The primary voltage, secondary voltage, supply frequency and type (single phase or three phase) are
mentioned on the transformer name plate.
KVA ratings (Kilo volt – Ampere rating) : It is also mentioned on the name plate of a transformer. If I1 &I2
are full load currents and V1& V2 are rated voltages of the primary and secondary , then KVA ratings = V1 ,
I1 / 1000 = V2 ,I2 / 1000
The transformer is designed for a particular value of operating value output power. The load connected across
the secondary side of the transformer may be lagging, leading or unity. Thus for the same operating voltage
and current , the output power can be different at different leading conditions. Hence only operating voltage
and operating current are specified. These are known as rated voltage and rated current respectively. Their
product i.e. the product of rated voltage and rated current are known as volt – ampere rating. This term
divided by 1000 gives the kilo volt – ampere rating.
The KVA rating of the transformer can be define as the KVA output which it can deliver at rated voltage and
rated frequency under usual service conditions with out exceeding the standards limits of temperature rise.
Concept of an Ideal Transformer
An ideal transformer possesses following properties :
(i) The permeability of the core is so high that only a negligible current is required to establish the
flux in it
(ii) There is no magnetic leakage. In other words, all the flux is confined to the iron core only and links
both the windings.
(iii) Its windings have no ohmic residence.
(iv) It has no losses.

It is not possible have an ideal transformer in practice. However it is required to have the concept of an ideal
transformer to understand the theory of practical transformers.
Ideal transformer on No load

Fig. 6.6. Ideal transformer on No load

The arrangement is shown in figure (a) and the corresponding phasor diagram in figure (b). Here V1 is the
applied voltage, Imag is the magnetizing current (very small value, ideally zero ) , ф is the flux established in
the core in time phase with I mag E1 is the e.m.f. induced in the primary winding windings and E2 is the e.m.f.
induced in the secondary windings.
As the primary winding is properly inductive I mag lags behind V1 by 90°. Imag & ф are in phase with each
others, E1 is in phase opposition with V1 E2 & V2 are equal and E1 & E2 lag behind ф by 90°. With negligible
voltage drop in the primary windings V1 will be equal and opposite to E1.
Practical Transformers
The practical transformer has core losses, winding resistance and magnetic leakage. Since the core of the
practical transformer is subjected to an alternating flux, core losses (i.e. hysteresis and eddy current losses)
are always presents to some extent each through the core is laminated to reduce eddy currents and hysteresis
is minimize by the use of high grade silicon steel. Follows, therefore, that even under no load condition (i.e.
with the secondary winding open – circuited), the source must be supply enough power to the primary
winding to over come the core losses. Therefore, in practical transformers, on no load, the primary winding
carries a small current I0which has two components.
(i) A reactive or wattles magnetizing component Imag. It produces the magnetic flux and therefore is in
phase with it.
(ii) An active or power or core loss component Ic. it supplies mainly the core losses and the negligible copper
loss in the primary winding.

This component is in phase with component – E1 of the impressed voltage.

The figure (a) below shows the phasor diagram for a practical transformer on no load. From the diagram. We
find that, no load current I0 = (Ic2 + Imag )2
And power factor on no load = cosф0= Ic / I0
With Ic being very small compared to Imag, the no load power factor is very low.

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Fig. 6.7. Practical transformer on No load
Equivalent Circuit of Single Phase Transformer:
The figure below shows a practical transformer on load :

Here R1 & X1 represents resistance and reactance of the primary winding respectively, similarly, R 2 & X2
represents the resistance and reactance of the secondary winding respectively. Also I1 & I2 are currents in
primary and secondary windings respectively.
Now, primary copper losses = I12 R1
Similarly, secondary copper losses = I22 R2
Here output is always less then the input power. Also efficiency is less then 100% and regulation is 1 to 5 %
Referred Values

Analysis of a practical transformer becomes simple if the parameters are transferred to any one side either
primary or secondary side.
Let R1 = resistance of the primary winding
R2 = resistance of the secondary winding
X1 = inductive reactance of the primary winding due to leakage flux
X2 = inductive reactance of the secondary winding, due to leakage flux
When the resistance is transferred from, say, secondary side to the primary side, then equivalent resistance
of windings as referred to primary will be
R1e = R1 + (R2 / K2 ) = R1 + R2’
Where R2’ = (R2 / K2)
Similarly, when the inductive reactance is transferred to primary, from secondary side, then the equivalent
inductive reactance, as referred to primary will be
Xle = X1 + ( X2 / K2 ) = X1 + X2’
Where X2’ = (X2 / K2)
In the similar way, we write the equivalent resistance and inductive reactance, as referred to secondary side
as,
R2e = K2 R1 + R2 = R1’ + R2
Where R1’ = K2 R1
And X 2e = K2 X1 + X2 = X1’ + X2
Where X1’ = K2 X1

Transformer Losses
The losses that take place in a transformer are of two types: Iron loses or core loses (constant losses). And
copper losses (variable losses)
1. Iron or Core losses
There losses are caused by the alternating flux in the transformer core. These losses consist of hysteresis and
eddy current loses.
A. Hysteresis loss :
This loss takes place in the transformer core because it is continuously subjected to rapid reversals of
magnetization by the alternating flux.
Hysteresis loss ,
Ph = Kn Bm1.6 f v watts ,
where f is the frequency in hertz, Bm is the maximum flux density in tesla, V is the volume of magnetic
material in cubic meters and Kn is a constant.
B. Eddy current loss :
Pe = K e Bm2 f 2 t2 v watts.
Where t is the thickness of the laminations, f is the frequency in hertz, Bm is the maximum flux density in
tesla, V is the volume of magnetic material and Ke is the constant.
These core losses are nearly constant and independent of the magnitude of the current delivered by the
transformer. They are reduced by choosing silicon steel having small value of K L and Ke as a core material
and by using laminated construction for the core.
2. Copper losses

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These losses are caused due to current flowing in the two windings, made up generally of copper material
and are due to loss of power caused by the resistance of the windings. These losses are proportional to the
square of the current through the windings. If R1 and R2 are the primary and the secondary resistance
respectively and I1 and I2 are the corresponding currents, then total copper losses = I12 R1 + I22 R2. These
copper losses are proportional to the square of the KVA output. These are reduced by using the material with
good conductivity, like copper, for the windings of the transformer.
Efficiency of a Transformer
It is defined as the ratio of the output power to the input power in a transformer.
Transformer efficiency (ɳ) = output power / input power
= output power / output power + losses
Output power of the transformer = V2I2 cosф2 losses in the transformer
= copper losses + core or iron losses
= Pcu + Pi
Where Pcu = copper loss and Pi = core or iron loss.
Efficiency n = V2I2 cosф2 / V2I2 cosф2 + Pcu + Pi
If Pcu is the full load copper loss, then efficiency on full load is given by ,
Full load efficiency = full load output / full load output + Pcu + Pi
Full load efficiency = full load rating (in VA) x p.f. / full load rating (in VA) x p.f. x Pcu + Pi
Similarly efficiency at any other load, where x is the degree of loading or percent of full load is given by,
Efficiency at (X x full load)
= X . (full load rating (in VA)) / X x (full load rating (in VA)) x p.f. x Pcu + Pi
It should be remembered that at 25 % load, the value of X will be 0.25, at 50% load it will 0.5 .
Condition for maximum Efficiency of a Transformer
The efficiency of a transformer depends on the load condition. On no load, the efficiency is zero. At light
loss, the constant losses(i.e. core losses) being relatively large compared with the output, transformer
efficiency is low. But as the load is increased, the efficiency rises until it reaches a maximum value. It then
start to fall more and more as the load is increased. This is because copper losses become relatively large
under this condition. The general shape of the efficiency curve is shown in the figure given below.
It can be mathematically shown that, efficiency of a transformer is a maximum for that load which makes
the variable copper losses are equal to the constant iron losses, i.e. under maximum efficiency condition,
variable losses = constant losses. Proof:

Or Copper Loss = Iron Loss

Note : The transformer, being a static device is free from function and wind age losses. Therefore, it is the
most efficient equipment with the efficiency of about 96 % to 99% at its rated output.
Voltage Regulation of a Transformer
The secondary terminal voltage of the transformer gets reduced from its no load value as soon as the load
currents starts increasing, because of the internal impedance of the transformer. Regulation or voltage
regulation of a transformer is defined as the variation of secondary voltage from no load to full load
expressed as percentage of no load voltage, the primary voltage being assumed constant.
No load secondary voltage – full load secondary voltage
Voltage regulation = no load secondary voltage
V2 (N. L. ) − V2 (F. L. )
=
V2 (N. L. )
E2 − V2
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑅𝑒𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 =
E2
Percentage of voltage regulation can also be expressed as,
% voltage regulation = I2 R2e Cos ф + I2 x 2e sin ф / V2 (N.L.)
Where I2 = rated secondary current
V2 = rated secondary voltage
R2e = equivalent resistance of the windings referred to the secondary side.
X2e = equivalent reactance of the windings referred to the secondary side,
Cos ф = the load power factor
It can also be expressed as

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% voltage regulation = = I1 R1e Cos ф + I1 x 1e sin ф / V1 (N.L.)
Where I1 = rated primary current
V1 = rated primaryvoltage
R1e = equivalent resistance of the windings referred to the primaryside.
X1e = equivalent reactance of the windings referred to the primary side,
Cos ф = the load power factor
Ideally the regulation value should be zero. In practice its value should be as low as possible. Its value can
be positive or negative. For capacitive loads its value will be positive and for negative loads its value will be
negative.
Auto transformers
An auto transformer is a transformer having only one winding on laminated magnetic core, the part of this
winding common to both the primary and secondary circuits. It can used as step down or step up transformer
as shown in the figure.

Fig. 6.8. Step Down and Step Up Autotransformer

In figure (a), the winding Ac forms the primary and the portion BC forms the secondary. On the other hand,
in figure (b) the winding Ac forms the secondary and its portion Bc forms the secondary. Similarly to the
two-winding transformer neglecting the losses, the leakage reactance amp the magnetizing current, we have
V2 / V1 = I1 / I2 = N2 / N1 =K (with usual notations)
Advantages of the auto transformer :
1. As compared to a two winding transformer, an auto transformer is cheaper as lesser copper is required
for the windings.
2. The regulation is better as compared to a two winding transformer as the resistance and leakage
reactance values are lesser.
3. Efficiency is higher then a two winding transfer as I2R losses being lesser.

Disadvantages of the autotransformer:

There is always a rise of serious electric state especially when it is used in high voltage circuit, as the low
voltage and high voltage sides are not electrically separate.
Applications of the auto transformers:
1. For starting of equirrel cage synchronous motor
2. Coupling the a.c. system having nearly the same operating voltage.
3. As various for getting continuous a.c. supply
4. As booster to rise the voltage in a.c. feed back
5. As furnace transformer for getting suitable supply voltage .

Fig. 6.9. AC Variac

Introduction to Electrical Drives and Control
Motor is required in large numbers of applications in industry. Systems employed for motion control are
called as drives and may employ any of the prime movers. Drives which employes electric motors are called
electric drives.
Nowadays, Electrical energy is generated in the large amount for uses in industries, agriculture, domestic
needs and also for electric traction. In all these electrical applications, electric motor is essential. This motors
in the application are also terms as electrical drives.
Electrical drives have many advantages over other mechanical drives. Electrical drives are more popular for
its simple constructions, reliability, cleanliness, and smooth easy speed control. In electrical drives, both
types of electrical motors, AC and DC motors are used for applications.
In electrical drives choice, AC drive is preferred because of the following points,
 It cost less
 AC power can be transmitted with low line losses
 It is possible to increase or decrease voltage without more losses of power
Sometimes DC drives are also used because,

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 Speed control of DC motor is easier than AC motor.
 For electric traction, DC series motor is used because of high starting torque.
 In some conditions, such as electrochemical and battery charging, DC is the only power which is suitable.
The electric drive system can be easily explained with the block diagram of that system.

Block Diagram of Electric Drive System

The electrical drive system can be explained in much easier with the help of a block diagram of the system.
Electrical drive system contains source, power modulator, motor, sensing unit, controlling unit and load.

Electrical drive system block diagram is shown in the figure. Working and the importance of each block in
the system is given below.

Fig. 6.10. Block Diagram of Electrical Drive

1. Source
A source can be anything AC or DC used in the system. 1 -Φ or 3 Φ, 50 Hz Ac is mostly used in the drive
system in most locations. Lower power drives are generally fed from the single phase supply and high power
drives are generally fed from the 3 phase supply. Some of the drives are also fed from the battery source.

2. Power Modulator
Power modulator has numerous function in the system.
 The main function of power modulator is to modulate the flow of power from a source to the motor. It
modulates the power as per torque-speed characteristics required by the load.
 It is used for selection of mode operation of the motor.
 It converts the energy in a suitable form which required by the motor.
 It regulates source and motor currents within some required value. It regulates the current in starting,
braking and some speed reversal conditions.

3. Electrical Motor
Motor is generally used in the system to convert electrical of energy into electrical energy. Motors used in
electric drives are induction motors. synchronous motors, Dc motors, stepper motors and also reluctance
motors. In past, induction motors and synchronous motors are only used for constant speed applications. But
nowadays, AC motors are used in variable speed drives due to some development in some modern electronic
devices. Dc motors are used in battery drives.

4. Load
Load can be anything which consumes power. It is machinery, such as fans, blowers, pumps, robots and
machines which performs a given task. According to Load requirement, motors and source can be
chosen.Load are broadly classified as industrial load, domestic load, agriculture load etc.

5. Sensing Unit
This unit is consists of current sensor or speed sensor. It senses the output speed or required quantity. Speed
is sensed in the system by tachometer which is coupled with the motor. Current sensing is required in the
system for current limit control. Sensing unit is directly attached to the controlling unit.

6. Controlling unit
Sensed Output is given to the controlling unit. In controlling unit, Sensed output and required output is
compared and some input command given to the controller for getting the required output. Various types of
controllers are used in electric drives. Control unit controls the function of power modulator.
The nature of the controller is used according to power modulator used. When semiconductor converters are
used, the control unit consists of some firing circuits in it. Other types of the controller are also used in
electrical drive system.

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Advantages of Electrical Drives

Electrical Drives have numerous advantages over other drives. Advantages of electrical drives are as below:
 They have a longer life span than other drives systems.
 They are pollution free as there are no flue gases in that.
 It is more economical.
 No need of any fuel storage and transportation.
 It has High efficiency.
 Various speed control methods available.
 They require less space.
 It is reliable and economical source of power.
 It can be remotely controlled.
 Available in wide range of various parameters like speed, torque, and power.
 Electrical energy can be transported to long distances by transmission lines.

Disadvantages of Electrical Drive

With some advantages of the electrical drive, there are also some disadvantages of electrical drives. Some
disadvantages are as shown below:
 It cannot be installed where electricity is not available. For installation of electric motor electrical energy
is necessary.
 On the failure of electrical supply, the electrical drive system cannot work.
 It can cause noise pollution.
 The initial cost of the system is high.
 It has a poor dynamic response.

Application of Electrical Drives

It is used in a large number of industrial and domestic applications like transportation systems, rolling mills,
paper machines, textile mills, machine tools, fans, pumps, robots, and washing, etc.

Numerical

Ex. 1) A single phase transformer has 400 turns on primary and 1000 turns on secondary. Voltage per turn
on primary winding is 0.5 volts. Find (a) EMF induced in secondary winding. (b) EMF induced in secondary
winding. (c) Maximum value of flux density in core if core has cross sectional area of 150 cm 2. (d) kVA
rating of the transformer if primary full load current is 12A and frequency 50 Hz.

Solution: N1 =400, N2 = 1000, A= 150 cm2 = 150 x 10-4 m2, f = 50 Hz.

EMF in primary winding

E1 = N1 x Voltage per turn
E1 = 400 x 0.5 = 200V
EMF in secondary winding
E2 = E1 x N2/N1
E2 = 200 x 1000/400 =500V.
Maximum flux density
E2 = 4.44 N2 Øm f
500 = 4.44 x 1000 x Øm x 50
Øm = 2.25 mWb.

Bm = Øm/A
Bm = 2.25 x 10-3/150 x 10-4

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Bm = 0.15 T.
kVA rating of transformer
kVA rating = V2 I2fl x10-3 = V1 I1fl x 10-3
kVA rating = 200 x 12 x 10-3
kVA rating = 2.4 kVA.

Ex.2) A 1.5 kVA, 220/110V, 50Hz, single phase transformer has iron loss of 32 W and full load copper loss
of 44 W. Find efficiency of the transformer at (a) Full load and 0.8 p.f lagging. (b) 70 % of the full load
and 0.8 p.f. lagging (c) Half load and 0.8 p.f lagging.
Solution : E1 = 220 V, E2 = 110 V, Wi =32 W, Wc = 44 W, kVA = 1.5.

Full load efficiency

kVA x CosØ
%η = x 100
kVA x CosØ + W𝑖𝑟𝑜𝑛 + W𝑐𝑜𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑟

1.5 x 0.8
%η = x 100
1.5 x 0.8 + 0.032 + 0.044

= 94.04 %
Efficiency at 70% of full load

0.7 x 1.5 x 0.8

%η = x 100
0.7 x 1.5 x 0.8 + 0.032 + 0.72 x 0.044

= 94 %
Efficiency at half load

0.5 x 1.5 x 0.8

%η = x 100
0.5 x 1.5 x 0.8 + 0.032 + 0.52 x 0.044

= 93.31 %

Ex. 3) A single phase 100 kVA, 3.3 kV/230 V, 50 Hz transformer has 89.5 % efficiency at 0.85 lag p.f. both
at full load and also at half load. Find efficiency of the transformer at 75 % of the full load and 0.9 p.f.
leading.

Solution: kVA = 100, f=50 Hz.

Full load efficiency

kVA x CosØ
%η = x 100
kVA x CosØ + W𝑖𝑟𝑜𝑛 + W𝑐𝑜𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑟

100 x 0.85
0.895 =
100 x 0.85 + W𝑖𝑟𝑜𝑛 + W𝑐𝑜𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑟

100 x 0.85
100 x 0.85 + W𝑖𝑟𝑜𝑛 + W𝑐𝑜𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑟 =
0.895

W𝑖𝑟𝑜𝑛 + W𝑐𝑜𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑟 = 9.972067 (1)

Half load efficiency

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0.5 x 100 x 0.85
0.895 =
0.5 x 100 x 0.85 + W𝑖𝑟𝑜𝑛 + 0.52 x W𝑐𝑜𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑟

0.5 x 100 x 0.85

0.5 x 100 x 0.85 + W𝑖𝑟𝑜𝑛 + 0.52 x W𝑐𝑜𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑟 =
0.895

W𝑖𝑟𝑜𝑛 + 0.52 x W𝑐𝑜𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑟 = 4.986033 (2)

Solving equations (1) and (2)
Wiron =3.324022 kW.
Wcopper = 6.648044 kW.

Efficiency at 75 % of full load and 0.9 p.f. leading,

0.75 x 100 x 0.9

%η = x 100 = 90.52 %
0.75 x 100 x 0.85 + 3.324 + 0.752 x 6.648

Questions for Practice

Q.1 What is transformer? What are its functions? Mention it’s applications.

Q.2 With neat sketches, explain the various types of laminations used for the construction of core of single
phase transformer.
Q.3 Obtain the EMF equation of single phase transformer.
Q.4 Compare core type and shell type transformer.
Q.5 What is an Autotransformer? State the different advantages and applications of an autotransformer.
Q.6 Explain the losses taking place in transformer.
Q.7 Define efficiency of transformer. How to obtain efficiency at different load.
Q.8 What is the voltage regulation of transformer? State its importance? Why secondary terminal voltage
reduces on load.
Q.9 Derive the condition for maximum efficiency for a transformer.
Q.10 Compare autotransformer with two winding transformer.

Q.11 Draw and explain block diagram of electrical drive system.

Numerical
Q.1 A 3300/110 V,50Hz,50KVA transformer has full load copper loss of 1600 watts and iron loss of 1800
Watts. Estimate the transformer efficiency at:

a) Full load and 0.7 lagging p.f

b) Half load and 0.85 lagging p.f

Q.2 A 10 KVA ,3300/220 V ,1 Phase ,50 Hz transformer has emf per turn equal to 10,Calculate:
a) Turns on primary side
b) Turns on secondary side
c) Maximum flux in the core
d) Primary and secondary full load current

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Q.3 A single phase 50 Hz transformer has 300 primary turns and 750 secondary turns. The net cross
sectional area of the core is 64cm2.If the primary induced emf is 400 V find,
a) Maximum Flux in the core
b) Maximum flux density in the core
c) Emf induced in the secondary
Q.4 A 50 KVA, single phase transformer has a turns ratio of 300/20.The primary winding is connected to
a 2200V,50Hz supply. Calculate,
a) The secondary voltage at no load
b) The approximate value of primary current on full load
c) The approximate value of secondary current on full load

Q.5 A 5KVA single phase transformer having turns ratio of 8:2, connected to supply voltage of
3500 V. Determine the value of secondary resistance and primary current.
Q.6 A 55 KVA single phase transformer has primary winding of 460 turns and secondary winding of 160
turns. The input side of transformer is supplied with voltage of 2500 V, 50 Hz supply. Calculate :-
(1) Vs (2) I1FL , I2FL (3) Φm
Q.7 An 80 KVA, 3200/400 V, 50Hz single phase transformer has 111 turns on the secondary. Calculate ,
a) No.of turns on the primary
b) Secondary full load current
c) Cross sectional area of core if the maximum flux density is 1.2 tesla.

Q.8 A 30 KVA, 6000/200V, 50 Hz single phase transformer has an iron loss of 500 Watt. It’s primary and
secondary winding resistance are 6 Ω and 0.02 Ω respectively. Find it’s efficiency on full load at
unity p.f
Q.9 A 10KVA,3300/240 V,single phase 50Hz, transformer has a core area of 300cm2.the flux density is
1.3 tesla.Calculate,
a) Number of primary turns
b) Number of secondary turns
c) Primary full load current
Q.10 A 200 KVA, single phase transformer has primary voltage of 2000V and secondary voltage 500V.The
supply frequency is 50 Hz. The total effective resistance and reactance referred the primary are 0.5Ω
and 2Ω respectively. Calculate the voltage regulation of the transformer at full load unity p.f.

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