Module 5: Combinatorics: Counting Techniques and Applications
Combinatorics is the branch of mathematics concerned with counting, both as a means and an
end in obtaining results, and certain properties of finite structures.
Basic Counting Principles:
o Rule of Sum (Addition Principle): If there are 'm' ways to do one thing and 'n'
ways to do another, and these two things cannot be done at the same time, then
there are m + n ways to do either one.
Example: You have 3 different novels and 5 different textbooks. You can
choose either a novel or a textbook in 3 + 5 = 8 ways.
o Rule of Product (Multiplication Principle): If there are 'm' ways to do one thing
and 'n' ways to do another, then there are m × n ways to do both.
Example: You have 3 shirts and 4 pants. You can create 3 × 4 = 12 different
outfits.
Permutations: Arrangements of objects where order matters.
o The number of permutations of 'n' distinct objects is n! (n factorial).
o The number of permutations of 'n' objects taken 'r' at a time is:
P(n,r)=(n−r)!n!
Example: How many ways can you arrange 3 letters from the word "CAT"?
P(3,3)=(3−3)!3!=16=6 (CAT, CTA, ACT, ATC, TAC, TCA).
Combinations: Selections of objects where order does not matter.
o The number of combinations of 'n' objects taken 'r' at a time is:
C(n,r)=(rn)=r!(n−r)!n!
Example: How many ways can you choose 2 fruits from a basket of 4 fruits
(apple, banana, orange, grape)?
C(4,2)=(24)=2!(4−2)!4!=2×224=6 (AB, AC, AD, BC, BD, CD).
Applications:
o Probability calculations.
o Computer science (algorithm analysis, data structures).
o Cryptography.
o Scheduling problems.
2. Graph Theory: Graph Representations, Algorithms, and Applications
Graph theory studies graphs, which are mathematical structures used to model pairwise relations
between objects.
Graph Representations:
o Adjacency Matrix: A square matrix where the entry at row 'i' and column 'j'
indicates whether there is an edge between vertices 'i' and 'j'.
o Adjacency List: A list of neighbors for each vertex.
o Example: A graph with vertices A, B, and C, with edges (A, B) and (B, C).
Adjacency Matrix:
[010]
[101]
[010]
Adjacency List:
A: B
B: A, C
C: B
Graph Algorithms:
o Depth-First Search (DFS) and Breadth-First Search (BFS): Algorithms for
traversing graphs.
o Dijkstra's Algorithm: Finds the shortest path between two vertices.
o Minimum Spanning Tree (MST) Algorithms (Kruskal's, Prim's): Finds a subset
of edges that connects all vertices with minimum total weight.
Applications:
o Network routing.
o Social network analysis.
o Scheduling and resource allocation.
o Circuit design.
o Map coloring.
o Database relations.
3. Recurrence Relations and Generating Functions
Recurrence Relations: Equations that define a sequence recursively, where each term is
defined as a function of preceding terms.
o Example: The Fibonacci sequence: F(n)=F(n−1)+F(n−2), with F(0)=0 and F(1)=1.
o Solving Recurrence Relations: Techniques like substitution, iteration, and the
characteristic equation method.
Generating Functions: Power series that encode a sequence.
o Example: The generating function for the sequence 1, 1, 1, ... is:
G(x)=1+x+x2+x3+...=1−x1
o Generating functions can simplify solving recurrence relations and counting
problems.
Applications:
o Analysis of algorithms.
o Combinatorial counting.
o Probability theory.
4. Asymptotic Analysis
Asymptotic Analysis: Studies the limiting behavior of functions as input size grows.
o Big O Notation (O): Describes the upper bound of a function's growth rate.
Example: f(n)=3n2+5n+1 is O(n2).
o Big Omega Notation (Ω): Describes the lower bound of a function's growth rate.
o Big Theta Notation (Θ): Describes the tight bound of a function's growth rate.
Importance:
o Analyzing the efficiency of algorithms.
o Comparing the performance of different algorithms.
o Understanding the scalability of algorithms.
Examples:
o Linear Search is O(n)
o Binary search is O(log n)
o Bubble sort is O(n^2)
o Merge sort is O(n log n)
