COMMUNICATION THEORY AND PRACTICE

Definitions of Communication
Communication is a field that has been studied by various scholars. These
scholars have revealed that field of communication is very dynamic. It is not
static. This is evident in the various definitions of communication that have been
posted by various scholars. Now, let us look at the various definitions provided
below.
In a common man’s understanding, communication is the ability of people to
reach to each other using various means and gadgets. Others may say, that
communication is a practice during which human being are able to transmit
meaning amongst themselves. This can be via sharing information,
ideas/concepts and through their feelings. In the absence of meaning, there is
no communication. Communication has not taken place.
Here are the different ways in which communication has been defined by various
scholars and writers.

Some more definitions:

"Communication is the process by which information is transmitted between

individuals and / or organizations so that an understanding response results."
~ Peter Little

Communication is an exchange of facts, ideas, opinions or emotions by two or

more persons." ~ W.H.Newman

"Administrative communication is a process which involves the transmission and

accurate replication of ideas ensured by feedback for the purpose of eliciting
actions which will accomplish organizational goals."~ William Scott

The process of passing the information and understanding from one person to
another. It is essentially a bridge of meaning between the people. By using the
bridge a person can safely cross the river of misunderstanding’. ~ Keith Davis

‘Communication is the sum total of all the things that a person does, when he
wants to create an understanding in the mind of another. It involves a systematic
and continuous process of telling, listening and understanding’. ~ Louis A. Allen

All the above definitions of communication indicate that communication is an

activity that involves two or more persons, sharing information meaningful.
COMMUNICATION AS A TWO-WAY PROCESS
Communication is a complete process - it starts with communicators sending
messages to receivers, the communicatees. An experienced sender of message,
whether oral or written, would think of the audience as his customer. He would
try to gauge or guess the kind of level of communication the receiver is
comfortable with. Thereafter, he would craft his message in a manner and in the
language, words, phrases and idioms that the receiver is familiar with.

Each receiver of message is really a customer whose needs and wants should be
as well known to the sender as it happens in a market place. Obviously, like the
sender who chooses words, phrases and idioms from his vocabulary depending
on own learning, experience and exposure, receiver also has his own mental filter
that is the product of his learning, experience and exposure. To absorb the
message in his mind, he does the abstraction of the message in to words, phrases
and idioms that he is familiar with or has command over. This leads to his
formulating his response to the message received. Once again, it goes through
the mind filter and ultimately comes out of the communicatee and starts its
return journey to the sender of the message. It conveys back what is understood
by the receiver.

Characteristics of communication
Communication has the following characteristics –

It is Unavoidable – It is impossible to not communicate, since we communicate

unintentionally all the time, even without the use of words. Our body language,
the way we dress, our behaviors and the physical environment in which we work
and learn, all convey certain messages to others.

It is a Two-way Exchange of Information – Communication is sharing of

information between two or more persons, with continuous feedback. This
indicates that communication is a continuous process.

It involves a Sender and a Receiver of Information – Any communication

starts with a sender of a message and requires a receiver to attach some meaning
to that message.

It could be Verbal or Non-verbal – Communication could be through the use of

words in spoken or written form, or through the use of body language such as
gestures and facial expressions.
Communication becomes successful, when the receiver clearly interprets the
meaning of the idea sent by the sender as intended. However, the receiver may
not attach the same meaning to the message as the sender. It is important to
note, communication failure may occur when the message is wrongly
interpreted, due to various reasons.

PROCESS / ELEMENTS OF COMMUNICATION,

What is the communication process?

The communication process refers to a series of actions or steps taken in order
to successfully communicate. It involves several components such as the sender
of the communication, the actual message being sent, the encoding of the
message, the receiver and the decoding of the message. There are also various
channels of communication to consider within the communication process. This
refers to the way a message is sent. This can be through various mediums such
as voice, audio, video, writing email, fax or body language. The overall goal of the
communication process is to present an individual with information and have
them understand it. The sender must choose the most appropriate medium in
order for the communication process to have worked successfully.

Components of Communication Process

Communication is a process of exchanging verbal and non verbal messages. It

is a continuous process. Pre-requisite of communication is a message. This
message must be conveyed through some medium to the recipient. It is essential
that this message must be understood by the recipient in same terms as
intended by the sender. He must respond within a time frame. Thus,
communication is a two way process and is incomplete without a feedback from
the recipient to the sender on how well the message is understood by him.
Communication Process/Elements of communication

The main components of communication process are as follows:

1. Sender / Encoder - Sender / Encoder is a person who sends the message. A

sender makes use of symbols (words or graphic or visual aids) to convey the
message and produce the required response. For instance - a training
manager conducting training for new batch of employees. Sender may be an
individual or a group or an organization. The views, background, approach,
skills, competencies, and knowledge of the sender have a great impact on the
message. The verbal and non verbal symbols chosen are essential in
ascertaining interpretation of the message by the recipient in the same terms
as intended by the sender.

2. Message - Message is a key idea that the sender wants to communicate. It is

a sign that elicits the response of recipient. Communication process begins
with deciding about the message to be conveyed. It must be ensured that the
main objective of the message is clear.

3. Medium/channel - Medium is a means used to exchange / transmit the

message. The sender must choose an appropriate medium for transmitting
the message else the message might not be conveyed to the desired recipients.
The choice of appropriate medium of communication is essential for making
 the message effective and correctly interpreted by the recipient. This choice
of communication medium varies depending upon the features of
communication. For instance - Written medium is chosen when a message
has to be conveyed to a small group of people, while an oral medium is chosen
when spontaneous feedback is required from the recipient as
misunderstandings are cleared then and there.

4. Recipient / Decoder - Recipient / Decoder is a person for whom the message

is intended / aimed / targeted. The degree to which the decoder understands
the message is dependent upon various factors such as knowledge of
recipient, their responsiveness to the message, and the reliance of encoder on
decoder.

5. Noise - Noise is the first enemy of communication. Noise is distortion in a

message which affects the flow of communication. This is anything that
interferes with the flow of communication right from the sender to the
receiver. Noise could be due to internal as well as external sources. Noise
creates barriers in communication and it could be of many types. There are
various types of noises which have implication in the process of
communication.

6. Feedback - Feedback is the main component of communication process as it

permits the sender to analyze the efficacy of the message. It helps the sender
in confirming the correct interpretation of message by the decoder. Feedback
may be verbal (through words) or non-verbal (in form of smiles, sighs, etc.). It
may take written form also in form of memos, reports, etc.

Feedback is an integral part of communication, and it allows the sender of a

message to judge how effective it has been. Feedback is the final link or
component in the communication chain or cycle. When the receiver of a
communication sends a response or reply to the message, it is called feedback.
Feedback is essential in all communications as it indicates successful
transmission of the message. Feedback can be defined as the process by which
the decoder's (receivers) reaction to the message is transmitted to the encoder
(sender). Feedback is the backbone of the communication.

1. Positive / Negative
Feedback is an intelligent understanding of the encoded message by the decoder.
Feedback may be positive or negative. Positive feedback means a very good and
satisfactory response of the decoder to the encoder's encoded message Negative
feedback means an indifferent response to the encoder's encoded message.
2. Immediate / Delayed
Feedback can be immediate or delayed. In inter-personal communication the
receiver of the message conveys, that he has received through smiling or
frowning. When we write letters or broadcast on the radio, the feedback becomes
delays as the message is conveyed little slow.

3. Simple / Complex
Feedback can be simple through a nod of the head, conveying a brief yes or no,
or it can be complex as a lengthy written response. Feedback involves circling
back of information to a control device to adjust behavior. For example, when
management communicates through a public welfare officer to the striking
workers in the factory, the workers respond either positively or negatively and
this feedback helps the management to take an effective decision to send the
workers back to work.

4. Profits / Losses
Feedback can enhance the profits of an organization. If a business reacts
positively to feedback, it changes its marketing strategy and achieves progress.
A negative feedback may be responsible for weak and lop sided business. Thus,
feedback constitutes the most vital aspect of the process of communication.

7. Context
Context is the environment you are communicating in. This environment
involves both environment that you are in and that your audience is in. It is
physical, social and psychological.

Physical environment may be your location at the moment of your

communication, for example, in a taxi park characterized by noise, noise from
neighborhood which destroys your effective communication or calm, and noise
free situation that facilitates effective communication. For instance, if you are
making a phone call in a disco hall with high volume turned on, your physical
environment is noise.

Social environment includes the culture of your organization(s), and elements

such as relationships between you and your audience. For example, the
communication context in the corporate world is that one person, who is the
public relations officer, should speak for the organization. Therefore, it should
require you to refer to the Public relations office if that communication you want
to make concerns the organization and you are not among the employees to
speak for the organization. It is also organizational culture to follow formal
business communication like writing memos, notices and to seek for permission
from office responsible for notice board when you want to pin a notice. There is
also a communication situation of being superior and inferior. Consider, the
environment you are in when communicating to your boss and that one you are
in when you are communicating with a friend?

Psychological situation or environments of communication include your

emotional state or emotional state of your audience, and health status of both of
you and your audience. If you are sick or your audience is sick, then the
psychological environment is sickness. Also consider when you have a sick
person in critical situation or when you have family problems or when you have
just been sent away from your job or just been chucked by your girlfriend or
boyfriend. All of these situations hamper effective communication.

Communication context helps in determining the message tone and style. To

understand these contexts ask yourself how differently you communicate to each
of these groups: colleagues and friends, strangers and people you know,
subordinates and bosses, friends and enemies.

There are four types of noise that can interrupt a message.

Physical noise (also called external noise) involves any stimuli outside of the
receiver that makes the message from your professor if someone was moving the
lawn machine outside the classroom. Physical noise can also take the form of
something a person is wearing such as ‘loud jewelry’ or sunglasses, that may
cause a receiver to focus on the object rather than the message.

Physical noise
Physiological noise
Technical noise
Organizational noise
Cultural noise
Psychological noise
Semantic noise (language, words)
Physical Noise
Physical noise is interference that comes from an external source, or the
environment in which the communication is occurring. During the lecture, it
starts raining outside, meeting rooms in a building near the roadside,
conversations during a presentation, not muting your sound while on zoom (an
online) meeting all constitute physical noise. Physical noise also can be non-
auditory in nature. Just as a co-worker gesturing outside of your office window
while you are in an online meeting creates visual noise. Sometimes you can
control physical noise, as in asking directly at the start of on online meeting for
participants to mute their sound when they are not talking. Other times you will
have no control over physical noise. As a communicator, realize that you’ll need
to be prepared to deal with physical noise.

Some strategies to help your audience understand your message, even with
physical noise present, include repeating key information, following up an in-
person meeting or presentation with an emailed summary, or repeating
questions that participants ask during an online meeting.

Physiological Noise
Physiological noise deals with your own abilities to see and hear, your state of
health, whether you are tired or hungry at the time of the communication, or
any of many different physiological issues that can interfere with paying
attention to a message. While you cannot do much as a communicator to allay
other individuals’ physiological noise, you can pick up visual cues during in-
person, real-time communications and adjust your message accordingly. For
example, you can speak more slowly or loudly, or be more succinct if you see
your audience’s interest waning before lunch. Physiological noise exists, and be
prepared to adjust to the communication situation and your audience’s needs.

Technical Noise
Technical equipment issues can interfere with your audience receiving and
understanding your message. Online or video conferencing equipment may not
work for everyone, connectivity may be slow, or servers may go down. To reduce
technical noise, make sure that you practice with the equipment you need to
use, and have a back-up plan for communicating lengthy or very important
messages using a lower-tech format.

Organizational Noise
Organizational noise can occur if you are unaware of, or disregard, expected
communication channels in your organization. Some organizations are
structured so that employees at certain levels only communicate with employees
at similar levels, while other organizations are less structured with their
communication channels. As a communicator, make sure you understand your
organizational culture as much as possible. Don’t be afraid to ask peers or
supervisors about appropriate channels of communication so that others focus
on your message and not the route or persons to whom it was sent.

Cultural Noise
Cultural noise occurs when cultural expectations, etiquette, attitudes, and
values differ. Many different cultures exist based on nationalities, ages, genders,
regions, social positions, work groups, and more, and individuals belong to
multiple cultures. As a communicator, your task is to try to reduce cultural
noise by being as informed as possible about your communication audience;
trying to anticipate and address questions from other points of view; and using
inclusive, non-biased language.

Psychological Noise
Psychological noise occurs as a result of personal attitudes, assumptions, and
biases. People have particular perspectives and world views; communication
noise occurs when content, language, and perceived attitudes of the
communicator and the audience do not network. Just as with cultural noise,
your task as a communicator dealing with psychological noise is to realize that
people will interpret your message differently, depending on their own
perspectives. Try to reduce psychological noise by offering your communication
very clearly and directly, using inclusive and unbiased language, and responding
calmly and thoughtfully to questions and issues raised.

Semantic Noise
Semantic noise deals with words and language. Is the language of the
communication clear and easy to understand? Is it free from professional jargon
(if the audience is at a low or mixed level of professional understanding)? Are
abstract concepts backed up by concrete examples? Is the language free from
grammatical and technical errors? Are the sentences clear in their structure and
easy to read or listen to? Are concepts offered in an order logical to the
communication’s purpose and appropriate to its audience? Is there too much
information, and/or are there too many words? All of these language issues,
however small, can derail focus from the content of your message.

Semantic noise occurs when senders and receivers apply different meanings to
the same message. Semantics noise may take the form of jargon, technical
language, and other words and phrases that are familiar to the sender but that
are not understood by the receiver. For example, eno mike ya zig ddi, bino bye
biruma abayaye, omudda n’ekippiisi etc.

As a communicator, you should work to eliminate semantic noise through

careful revision. Also, whenever possible, request feedback from others to
determine whether your audience understands your language in the way you
intended.
Importance of Communication in an Organization
Effective Communication is significant for managers in the organizations so as
to perform the basic functions of management, i.e., Planning, Organizing,
Leading and Controlling.
Communication helps managers to perform their jobs and responsibilities.
Communication serves as a foundation for planning. All the essential
information must be communicated to the managers who in-turn must
communicate the plans so as to implement them. Organizing also requires
effective communication with others about their job task. Similarly leaders as
managers must communicate effectively with their subordinates so as to achieve
the team goals. Controlling is not possible without written and oral
communication.
Managers devote a great part of their time in communication. They generally
devote approximately 6 hours per day in communicating. They spend great time
on face to face or telephonic communication with their superiors, subordinates,
colleagues, customers or suppliers. Managers also use Written Communication
in form of letters, reports or memos wherever oral communication is not feasible.

Thus, we can say that “effective communication is a building block of

successful organizations”. In other words, communication acts as
organizational blood.

The importance of communication in an organization can be summarized

as follows:

1. Communication promotes motivation by informing and clarifying the

employees about the task to be done, the manner they are performing the
task, and how to improve their performance if it is not up to the mark.

2. Communication is a source of information to the organizational members

for decision-making process as it helps identifying and assessing alternative
course of actions.

3. Communication also plays a crucial role in altering individual’s attitudes,

i.e., a well informed individual will have better attitude than a less-informed
individual. Organizational magazines, journals, meetings and various other
forms of oral and written communication help in moulding employee’s
attitudes.

4. Communication also helps in socializing. In todays life the only presence of

another individual fosters communication. It is also said that one cannot
survive without communication.
5. As discussed earlier, communication also assists in controlling process. It
helps controlling organizational member’s behaviour in various ways. There
are various levels of hierarchy and certain principles and guidelines that
employees must follow in an organization. They must comply with
organizational policies, perform their job role efficiently and communicate any
work problem and grievance to their superiors. Thus, communication helps
in controlling function of management.
An effective and efficient communication system requires managerial proficiency
in delivering and receiving messages. A manager must discover various barriers
to communication, analyze the reasons for their occurrence and take preventive
steps to avoid those barriers. Thus, the primary responsibility of a manager is to
develop and maintain an effective communication system in the organization.

Communication Barriers - Reasons for Communication Breakdown

Communication is a process beginning with a sender who encodes the message
and passes it through some channel to the receiver who decodes the message.
Communication is fruitful if and only if the messages sent by the sender is
interpreted with same meaning by the receiver. If any kind of disturbance blocks
any step of communication, the message will be destroyed. Due to such
disturbances, managers in an organization face severe problems. Thus the
managers must locate such barriers and take steps to get rid of them.
There are several barriers that affects the flow of communication in an
organization. These barriers interrupt the flow of communication from the sender
to the reciever, thus making communication ineffective. It is essential for
managers to overcome these barriers. The main barriers of communication are
summarized below.
Following are the main communication barriers:

1. Information Overload: Managers are surrounded with a pool of

information. It is essential to control this information flow else the
information is likely to be misinterpreted or forgotten or overlooked. As a
result communication is less effective.

2. Inattention: At times we just not listen, but only hear. For example a
traveler may pay attention to one “NO PARKING” sign, but if such sign is
put all over the city, he no longer listens to it. Thus, repetitive messages
should be ignored for effective communication. Similarly if a superior is
engrossed in his paper work and his subordinate explains him his
problem, the superior may not get what he is saying and it leads to
disappointment of subordinate.

3. Time Pressures: Often in organization the targets have to be achieved

within a specified time period, the failure of which has adverse
consequences. In a haste to meet deadlines, the formal channels of
communication are shortened, or messages are partially given, i.e., not
completely transferred. Thus sufficient time should be given for effective
communication.

4. Distraction/Noise: Communication is also affected a lot by noise to

distractions. Physical distractions are also there such as, poor lightning,
uncomfortable sitting, unhygienic room also affects communication in a
meeting. Similarly use of loud speakers interferes with communication.

5. Emotions: Emotional state at a particular point of time also affects

communication. If the receiver feels that communicator is angry he
interprets that the information being sent is very bad. While he takes it
differently if the communicator is happy and jovial (in that case the
message is interpreted to be good and interesting).

6. Complexity in Organizational Structure: Greater the hierarchy in an

organization (i.e. more the number of managerial levels), more is the
chances of communication getting destroyed. Only the people at the top
level can see the overall picture while the people at low level just have
knowledge about their own area and a little knowledge about other areas.

7. Poor retention: Human memory cannot function beyond a limit. One cant
always retain what is being told specially if he is not interested or not
attentive. This leads to communication breakdown.
Overcoming Communication Barriers
There are a lot of communication barriers faced these days by all. The message
intended by the sender is not understood by the receiver in the same terms and
sense and thus communication breakdown occurs. It is essential to deal and
cope up with these communication barriers so as to ensure smooth and effective
communication.

As, in the previous section we have discussed the major barriers of

communication. Let’s talk about how to overcome these barriers of
communication.

1. Use of Simple Language: Use of simple and clear words should be

emphasized. Use of ambiguous words and jargons should be avoided.

2. Reduction and elimination of noise levels: Noise is the main

communication barrier which must be overcome on priority basis. It is
essential to identify the source of noise and then eliminate that source.

3. Active Listening: Listen attentively and carefully. There is a difference

between “listening” and “hearing”. Active listening means hearing with
proper understanding of the message that is heard. By asking questions
the speaker can ensure whether his/her message is understood or not by
the receiver in the same terms as intended by the speaker.

4. Emotional State: During communication one should make effective use

of body language. He/she should not show their emotions while
communication as the receiver might misinterpret the message being
delivered. For example, if the conveyer of the message is in a bad mood
then the receiver might think that the information being delivered is not
good.

5. Simple Organizational Structure: The organizational structure should

not be complex. The number of hierarchical levels should be optimum.
There should be a ideal span of control within the organization. Simpler
the organizational structure, more effective will be the communication.

6. Avoid Information Overload: The managers should know how to

prioritize their work. They should not overload themselves with the work.
They should spend quality time with their subordinates and should listen
to their problems and feedbacks actively.

7. Give Constructive Feedback: Avoid giving negative feedback. The

contents of the feedback might be negative, but it should be delivered
 constructively. Constructive feedback will lead to effective communication
between the superior and subordinate.

8. Proper Media Selection: The managers should properly select the

medium of communication. Simple messages should be conveyed orally,
like: face to face interaction or meetings. Use of written means of
communication should be encouraged for delivering complex messages.
For significant messages reminders can be given by using written means
of communication such as : Memos, Notices etc.

9. Flexibility in meeting the targets: For effective communication in an

organization the managers should ensure that the individuals are meeting
their targets timely without skipping the formal channels of
communication. There should not be much pressure on employees to meet
their targets.
LISTENING SKILL

• Howatt and Dakin (1974) define listening as the ability to identify and
understand what others are saying. This involves understanding a speaker’s
accent and pronunciation, his grammar and his vocabulary and grasping his
meaning.
• Listening is the ability to accurately receive and interpret messages in the
communication process.
• “Listening is the process of receiving, constructing meaning from, and
responding to spoken.
Listening is an important skill in effective communication process. Surprisingly,
most of us think that it is an instinctive skill that does not require one to train,
which is not true. This has resulted into poor listening habits in communication
process which leads to communication breakdown and conflicts caused by
accusations such as„ I am talking to you; why are you not listening?‟
When people talk to you, pay maximum attention to their message or else they
will feel discouraged and disappointed causing them to stop talking to you as
they seem to be an inconvenience to you.

Our sessions on listening, therefore, focus on aspects of listening objectives,

effective listening, Social or cultural contexts of listening, coping with different
accents and dialects (1st language conditioning), rapid speech, using
paralinguistic cues in listening, listening problems and their sources, attitudes
to develop for effective listening, barriers to effective listening and solutions.

The difference between listening and hearing

Hearing and listening are different. The two differ in the following ways:-

• Hearing perceives the message stimuli like sound while listening is

deliberate process that involves understanding.

• Hearing is passive while listening is active. In hearing, you just receive

sound waves something that does not require preparation whereas
listening requires paying attention, interpretation, analyzing,
remembering and giving feedback.

• Hearing is instinctive while listening is learnt.

 • Hearing is a part of listening whereas listening is the bigger process, or
listening includes much more than hearing.

EFFECTIVE LISTENING
Effective listening refers to the process of paying deliberate attention to the
speaker. Effective listening requires keen interest in the speaker‟s message. In
effective listening you need to pay maximum attention, receive, interpret,
remember, attach meaning to messages and give reply to sustain the
communication process.

OBJECTIVES OF LISTENING
Objectives of listening skills are the purposes or reasons why we listen. We listen
because of the following objectives/reasons:-

Acquiring information
Effective listening enables us to take in information from speakers. It all starts
with sensing stimuli through hearing. Take an example of studying; you start
with hearing the tutor‟s voice to which you deliberately pay attention to acquire
information about the topic. In an office environment or context, subordinates
pay attention to their manager to receive instructions and guidelines on how to
perform their duties.

Analyzing information
Listening requires maximum deliberate attention to messages. This is done to
judge whether the information received is relevant or not, true or false, complete
or incomplete. We do this through listening process component of interpreting
and attaching a meaning. Can you make a flash back on college orientation
week? You paid attention to every message, interpreted it and picked what was
relevant to you.

Identifying key sections of the message

If the message is relevant to you, do you have to remember everything? Is each
section in the message key to you? No. Messages, as you will find out in the
speaking skill session, have key information sections that you as a listener
should not miss. This key section is one that calls for your action. For example,
in “The government of Uganda has proposed health insurance for its working
citizens.” The key sections in this message are health insurance and working
citizens.
Asking questions
Listening is important for asking questions to speakers during the
communication process. Make a flash back again to the last time you asked a
question to your tutor, partner or a friend. When was that? Why did you ask the
question anyway? You will find that it was after you had listened especially, for
more clarification on the message. You can, therefore, only be able to ask a
question in a tutorial session or conversation after paying attention or else you
may ask irrelevant questions that do not apply to the context and message and
you end up looking confused.

Giving feedback
Giving feedback is part of effective listening. Feedback should be appropriate to
the message. Therefore, you should listen in order to give a response either by
giving constructive criticism or comments to the speaker. You can also give a
feedback by use of non-verbal cues like head nodding. Head nodding sustains a
conversation because it is a sign to the speaker that you are listening.

Types of Listening
Listening can be categorized according to the contexts or situations each type is
applied to and the degree of the listener’s involvement. The type of listening you
apply when listening to your tutor facilitating is not the same to the one you
apply while listening to music in your living room. In a court room you cannot
apply the same listening like you do at a burial function. Note that all stages of
listening apply to each category. The categories are the following:-

Informational listening
This is type of listening that involves maximum attention, interpretation,
analysis of meaning, asking questions for clarifications and note taking. This
type of listening applies to situations which require retaining information. You
can apply this type in tutorials.

Critical listening
This is the type of listening that you apply when you want to find out whether
the speaker is biased in any way. Examples given under this type of listening is,
when you are listening to a judge giving a verdict in a court of law or to a
politician on campaign rally looking for votes. Under both listening contexts, you
listen critically to judge whether the judge in a court of law or the politician
campaigning is biased in either way. This type of listening applies to contexts
like court hearing and political rallies, among others.
Reflective listening
This type of listening is also referred to as empathetic listening. It is the type of
listening that you apply to reflect your affection or empathizing with speakers to
share feelings. At times your loved ones go through an experience that they feel
they should seek advice or counseling from you. In a situation in which your
spouse converses with you about that relative in comma at one of the referral
hospitals, do you criticize? What do you do? What if she leans on your shoulders?
You should listen for feelings and share sorrows with her.
This type of listening applies to situations that require sharing feeling, whether
happiness or sorrows like in counseling sessions and burial.

Listening for enjoyment

This is the type of listening applied in a relaxation situation like listening to
music. However, this type of relaxation listening, like other types of
communication, involves the five stages of listening. You may still need to recall
that soft message in one of your classical music. Listening for enjoyment applies
to situations like clubs, comedy theatres and when watching movies or listening
to music being played to any of your favourite radio stations.

Relational listening
We engage in this type of listening when we are trying to focus on supporting
another person or maintaining a relationship. This is the type of listening we
engage in with our closest friends and our relatives.

Listening to discriminate
We engage in this type of listening when we are discriminating between sounds.
This is the type of listening a parent does when he hears his baby crying. The
parent is discriminating between a “I am hurt” cry, a “I am hungry” cry, or a “I
am alone is there someone out there?” cry.
The Listening Process
Listening, like the main communication process, is continuous and takes place
in context full of both external and internal interferences.
Interference refers to all messages in communication context perceived both
internally and externally, including noise. External messages in listening process
are the actual message from the speaker being interfered by external noise like
people conversing in corridors, shouting in the venue and hooting by moving
vehicles on nearby road, while internal interferences are the speaker’s thoughts
and ideas constituting his message being hampered by internal noise like fear,
anxiety about impeding deadlines, etc.
The listening process involves the following steps:

1. Being mindful: This is your conscious decision to focus on the here and now
– to be engaged in the moment.

2. Physically receive message: This is the part where your ear drum responds
to sound wave stimuli.

3. Selecting and Organizing Material: This is where your brain chooses what
to focus on and what to ignore. This is also where you compare the sound with
others you’ve heard before and you apply cognitive schemata to the sounds to
categorize them (remember that term from our discussion of perception?).

4. Interpreting communication: Interpretation of a verbal or nonverbal

message involves more than physically hearing or seeing the message. We put
together all we have selected and organized to make sense of the situation.

5. Responding: This is where we communicate that we are paying attention,

show interest in the communication, and we share our views.

6. Remembering: This is where you remember or retain what you hear. It is

important for us to realize that we remember less than 50% of what we hear and
the longer the time goes by, we remember even less than the 50%!

Listening and Gender

Gender plays a huge role in listening and talking behaviors. Men tend to spend
more time listening than women do while women use more words in a given day
than men do. Men, however tend to communicate and listen to accomplish tasks
(i.e. they are “work” oriented) while women tend to communicate and listen to
build relationships (i.e. they are “emotion” oriented. Men tend to listen to the
words only (i.e. the “literal” meaning) while women tend to listen for the hidden
meanings in each message (i.e. they interpret and “read into” the message more).
Obstacles to Effective Listening
There are many things that we have to overcome in the listening process:

1. Message overload: When we think about the number of messages we hear in

a given day, it is not surprising that we can’t listen to them all. In fact, we are
inundated by thousands of messages that we chose to ignore because there are
just too many messages to pay attention to. Just like many of us screen our
phone calls to avoid telemarketers, we also screen the sounds we hear in our
daily lives.

2. Message complexity: The more complicated a message is, the more difficult
it is for us to process and interpret. This is why we might tune out messages that
are above our head or we may need to hear things two or three times if it’s
complex to interpret it correctly.

3. Environmental distractions: Our environment is filled with a cacophony of

noises. Good listening means that we have to eliminate outside distractions so
we can focus on important communication.

4. Preoccupation: This is when we are more worried about what is going on in

our own lives or emotional state than on what is happening in the
communication. Good listening means that we need to set aside our
preoccupation to effectively listen.

5. Prejudgments: A prejudgment is when we impose our preconceptions on

another rather than listening to the actual message. Needless to say, prejudging
another is a dangerous activity that will impede your communication. How can
you listen to another’s perspective if you’ve already prejudged them? Are you
really listening to them?

6. Lack of effort: Listening takes effort and sometimes we don’t have the time
or energy to invest the effort into the communication. To be effective
communicators means that we may need to postpone some conversations until
we have the time to listen effectively.

7. Not accommodating diverse listening styles: Listening patterns are

culturally dependent and a personal choice. This means that each person has a
different set of personal rules for turn-taking in a conversation and listening.
Cultural and personal adjustment is necessary in all aspects of communication,
including listening.

Types of Nonlistening
While the following nonlistening behaviors might sound a bit rude, they are
actually very common in conversation. As you read the description of each, think
about the people you know who exhibit the behavior. By identifying a person
with each of these nonlistening behaviors, it will be easier for you to keep each
behavior straight in your mind.

1. Pseudolistening: This is when we pretend to listen to another person but

don’t really participate in the conversation. Generally, this is not meant as a
deliberately rude behavior as most people who engage in pseudolistening do so
because they don’t want to hurt the other person’s feelings so they will pretend
to listen and will engage in listening-like behaviors including making utterance
in response to the other person’s communication.

2. Monopolizing: This is when we dominate the conversation by keeping all the

attention focused on ourselves instead of using a turn taking approach in a
conversation.

3. Selective listening: This is when we focus on only certain parts of the

communication. Think about how many messages a day you screen out!

4. Defensive listening: This is when we deliberately listen for what we perceive

to be personal attacks, criticism, or hostile undertones when no offense was
intended by the other person. We listen on the defensive instead of actually
hearing the message.

5. Ambushing: This is when we listen for the purpose of attacking the other
person. We listen deliberately to gain ammunition for our next attack rather than
for the message the other person might be saying.

6. Literal listening: This is when we listen only for the content but ignore the
relationship level of the meaning.

Effective Listening Techniques

To become a more effective listener, practice the following tips:

1. Be mindful: Stay engaged to be an effective listener. Being mindful is a choice,

so chose to participate in the communication!

2. Control obstacles: Eliminate obstacles in your communication – anything

that is hindering or blocking your ability to listen should be controlled or
eliminated.

3. Ask questions: Asking questions lets you clarify areas of uncertainty or

confusion.
4. Use aids to recall: There are many ways to recall information as we engage
in listening. We can repeat information to ourselves or out loud which helps us
set the information in our brains and we can make rhymes to help us remember
certain information – just like most of us do to study for an exam!

5. Organize information: The more we can categorize information into

recognizable chunks, the easier it will be for us to comprehend it all.

6. Suspend judgment: Avoid making judgments as we communicate. Only

supply a judgment if one is requested, otherwise try your hardest to avoid
judging as you communicate.

7. Understand the other’s perspective: Effective listening is really about

understanding what the other person is saying, feeling, and meaning which
means that we must step out of our own viewpoint so we can see things through
the other person’s eyes. Use paraphrasing as a method of repeating the other
person’s perspective out loud. This confirms the other person and shows how
much you understand their perspective. Use minimal encouragers in your
communication to express interest in the other person’s perspective.

8. Express support: Even if we don’t agree with the other person, we should at
least support the other person.
FORMS/CATEGORIES OF COMMUNICATION
These are communication situations which can be classified according to the
level of interaction and the number of people involved.

Intra-personal
This is communication to oneself or a situation where a person communicates
to himself or herself internally. Intra-personal communication develops in a
situation when a person has several thoughts and feelings being processed and
interpreted by his/her own brain. The feedback occurs in sense that, you ‘talk’
to yourself, you make decisions or discards some ideas and replaces them with
some others. It is communication that occurs in your own mind. It is the basis
of your feelings, and beliefs

For example, when an individual is wondering about who to tell about

complicated issues like debts, complicated disease like being HIV positive, etc.
When you make any kind of decision like on what to eat or wear. When you think
about what you want to do on the weekend or when you think about another
person, like your Ex. This happens especially when one is not yet ready to share
this information with somebody else.

Inter-personal
Inter-personal communication is a situation in which communication is between
two individuals. Inter-personal communication is basically face-to-face
interactions at home and place of work. You cannot spend time alone because of
the need to fulfill your personal needs that will compel you to communicate to
the other. For example, when you are talking to your friends. A teacher and
student discussing an assignment

Small group communication

Small group communication is a context or situation in which sending and
receiving messages is between small groups of people between three to twelve
individuals. For instance, you may be a member of a discussion group at
Makerere University or a member of a saving group at your work group. Other
examples of small groups which involve group communication includes: family
and social groups among others. Therefore, when you are in your saving group
meeting or university group discussions, you are involved in small group
communication. In small group communication each member should be able to
interact.

Organizational communication
Organizational communication is the communication that takes place within an
organization. This form of communication is further described according to the
flow of the message. When the message is from director or a manager or
supervisor to subordinates, it is downward communication since the message is
from the person who is top level to a low level recipient, for instance where the
collage principal communicates to a lecturer. When a subordinate sends a
message to his director, manager or supervisor, it is up-ward communication.
Example includes a lecturer sending a message to the college principal.

Organizational communication can also be in a horizontal form, where peers are

sharing messages. For instance, a communication context in which a lecturer
communicates to a fellow lecturer. The very last form of organizational
communication flow is diagonal communication which is form of communication
that takes place between a superior and subordinate in situations like training
workshops where both learn from each other without considering who is superior
and subordinate.

Public communication
This is public speaking that takes place in public and not in private settings.
Public speaking is usually one-way formal communication in which audience
pays maximum attention to a speaker. To succeed in public speaking you should
be loud to make sure that each individual in the public feel that you are talking
to him or her. Examples of public communication are a public lecture and a
political rally, among others.

Mass communication
Mass communication refers to the transmission of a message to a mass audience
through electronic gadgets like books, journal, TV. Mass communication is
significantly different from other forms of communication because, it is one–way
since a mass communicator is far distant from the receiver. The mass
communicator must be a professional communicator using either radio,
television and other forms of printed forms of mass channel like newspaper,
magazines and newsletters. Feedback in mass communication is limited. In a
radio talk show, you can only give feedback if the programme allows phone-ins
from listeners who wish to contribute to topic being discussed.

BARRIERS TO INTRA AND INTERPERSONAL COMMUNICATION

Intrapersonal Barriers to Communication?

Intrapersonal barriers are obstacles within the self that stop us from sending
and receiving information effectively. Individuals have their own preconceptions
due to their personality, education, experiences, culture and values. Not
everyone interprets a message in the same way.
Intrapersonal barriers stem from an individual’s attitudes or habits

Intrapersonal Barriers
Individuals are unique because of differences in perceptions, experiences,
education, culture, personality, etc.
Each of us interprets the same information in different ways, as our thinking
varies. These differences lead to certain inbuilt or intrapersonal barriers. Some
examples of intrapersonal barriers could be:

Wrong assumptions:
Wrong assumptions are generally made because the sender or the receiver does
not have adequate knowledge about the other’s background or entertains certain
false concepts, which are fixed in his/her mind.

Varied perceptions:
This is when different individuals hold different viewpoints about the same
situation.

Differing background:
Backgrounds can be different due to different education, culture, language,
environment, financial status, etc. Our background plays a significant role in
how we interpret a message.

Wrong inferences:
Inferences are more dramatic than facts, and for this reason they can provide
more scope for gossip and rumour to spread. When professionals analyse
material, solve problems, and plan procedures, it is essential that inferences be
supported by facts to avoid miscommunication.

Blocked categories:
Usually, we react positively to information only if it is in consonance with our
own views and attitudes. Conversely, when we receive information that does not
conform to our personal views, habits, and attitudes, or appears unfavorable to
us, we tend to react negatively or even disbelieve it. Rejection, distortion, and
avoidance are three common, undesirable, and negative reactions to unfavorable
information.

Categorical thinking:
People who feel that they ‘know it all’ are called pansophists. This type of thinking
exists in people who feel that they know everything about a particular subject,
and therefore refuse to accept any further information on that topic. This type of
thinking can pose a major barrier, leading to a failure in communication. In such
instances, the receivers refuse information because of their ‘know-it all’ attitude.

Overcoming Intrapersonal Barriers in Communication

Often messages are misinterpreted because of intrapersonal barriers. Luckily,
these obstacles can be overcome for communicating effectively. Here are some
ways to overcome intrapersonal barriers in communication:

• Nurture a broader, unbiased perspective

• Practice empathy whenever possible
• Identify the other person’s background and be sensitive to it
• Use phrases such as ‘in my opinion’ or ‘evidence suggests’ to interpret facts
that have not been established yet
• Don’t jump to conclusions or make hasty assumptions
• Stick to the subject

Intrapersonal barriers can occur at any stage of the communication process. It

can put work at jeopardy, cause deals to fall through and result in wasted
resources and time. It causes confusion and misunderstandings. Overcoming
these barriers will help with effective communication and conveying messages
clearly and concisely.

INTERPERSONAL BARRIERS TO COMMUNICATION

Interpersonal communication barriers refer to obstacles or factors that prevent
effective and meaningful communication between two or more individuals. These
barriers can disrupt the exchange of information or thoughts, leading to
breakdowns in communication.

Interpersonal barriers occur due to the inappropriate transaction of words

between two or more people.

Interpersonal barriers creep in as a result of the limitations in the

communication skills of the encoder or the decoder, or of both. In addition, they
may also occur because of some disturbance in the channel or medium of
communication. If two people are involved in communication, the traits that
distinguish them as individuals can be the root cause of a communication
problem. The most common reasons for interpersonal barriers are:
Limited vocabulary:
Inadequate vocabulary can be a major hindrance in communication. At times,
we find ourselves searching for the exact word or phrase that would be
appropriate for what we are trying to express.

Incompatibility of verbal and non-verbal messages:

A communicator should acclimatize himself to the communication environment,
think from the angle of the listener, and then communicate. Misinterpreted non-
verbal communication acts as another barrier to effective information flow
instead of enhancing and enlivening verbal communication.

Emotional outburst:
Excessive emotional involvement can be an obstacle in communication. For
example, extreme anger can create such an emotionally charged environment
that a rational discussion becomes impossible.

Communication selectivity:
When the receiver in a communication process pays attention only to a part of
the message, he/ she is imposing a barrier known as communication selectivity.

Poor listening skill:

A common obstacle to communication is poor listening habits. We should
remember that listening and hearing are not the same. Hearing is a passive
exercise while listening requires careful attention and accurate decoding of the
signals received from the speaker.

Noise in the channel:

Noise is any unwanted signal that acts as a hindrance in the flow of
communication. It is not necessarily limited to audio disturbances, but can also
occur in visual, audio-visual, written, physical, or psychological forms. All these
forms of noise communicate extraneous matter which may distract the receiver
from the message, and even irritate him/her.

Interpersonal communication barriers examples

Example 1.1
Consider a situation where two individuals speak different languages, and they
need to collaborate on a task. The language barrier can prevent communication,
making it challenging for them to convey ideas or understand each other fully.

Example 1.2
Suppose a manager provides feedback to an employee about their performance.
However, the employee perceives this feedback through their own biases and
preconceptions, causing them to misinterpret the feedback as criticism rather than
constructive input. This perceptual filter can hamper effective feedback and
communication.

Example 1.3
In academic or technical fields, experts may use specialized terminology that is
difficult for non-experts to understand. This language complexity can create a
barrier, making it challenging for those with less knowledge in the field to follow
and contribute to the conversation effectively.

Why is interpersonal communication important?

Interpersonal communication is of utmost importance in various aspects of our
personal, professional, and social lives. Here are several key reasons why
interpersonal communication is crucial:

Building and Maintaining Relationships

Effective interpersonal communication is essential for forming and nurturing
meaningful relationships. Whether in personal life or the workplace, the ability
to connect, share, and understand one another strengthens bonds and fosters
trust.

Conflict Resolution
Interpersonal communication skills are vital for resolving conflicts and
disagreements. Clear, open, and respectful communication enables individuals
to address issues, express concerns, and find mutually acceptable solutions.
Effective Collaboration
In workplaces, it’s often necessary to work together as a team and collaborate to
accomplish shared objectives. Interpersonal communication facilitates the
exchange of ideas, delegation of tasks, and coordination among team members,
leading to improved productivity and outcomes.

Effective Decision-Making
Communication is central to the decision-making process. It involves gathering
information, discussing options, and reaching conformity. Effective
communication ensures that decisions are well-informed and accepted by all
relevant parties.

Cross-Cultural Communication
As the world becomes more interconnected through globalization, the skill to
communicate effectively with people from different backgrounds becomes more
and more important. Interpersonal communication skills help connect cultural
gaps and avoid misunderstandings.

Organizational Barriers
Every organization, irrespective of its size, has its own communication
techniques, and each nurtures its own communication climate.

3. Organizational Barriers
Every organization, irrespective of its size, has its own communication
techniques, communication policies, and each nurtures its own communication
climate. If the flow of communication is downward, feedback is not guaranteed.
It is the structure and complexity of this protocol that usually causes
communication (organizational) barriers.

The main organizational barriers are as follows:

a. Too many transfer stations:

This occurs when there are more communication links between the main sender
and receiver. The message between them gets distorted as there are several
layers of communication channels. It is not only due to poor listening, but also
of several other reasons like filtering the message or considering it as
unimportant. Transfer stations serve a purpose, but having too many is a barrier.
Ex: A professor asks his assistant to inform a student to meet him on Friday
instead that day, as he is going out of station the next day. Then assistant asks
his friend to inform the student that he should meet the professor tomorrow, as
the professor is going out of station that day.
And this friend of an assistant informs the student to meet the professor that
day, as he will not be available the next day.

Overcome: The best way to overcome this barrier is to avoid too many transfer
stations which is always the obstacle for an effective communication.

b. Fear of superiors:
This barrier happens when inferiors have fear of superiors in organizations. An
employee is not free enough to speak directly with his superior, as he was
restricted with power. Some employees may even avoid a mild talk with their
superiors, or else give all the information to them in an extreme level of fear. This
is because they feel that they will be viewed in an unfavorable light by leaving
out some information. In written communication, this results in bulky reports,
where essential information is clubbed with unimportant details.

Overcome: The best way to avoid this barrier is by creating an open environment
to the employees to increase their confidence. Moreover, by encouraging active
participants from their subordinates, senior officers pave the way for more ideas,
resources, or solutions to come forth from their subordinates.

c. Negative tendencies:
Every organization has groups like social, music, sports etc. This happens when
there is a conflict between the members and non-members of a particular group.
This type of opposition gives rise to insider-outsider equations, which in turn
pave the way for negative tendencies in the organization. Once these develop,
they create noise in interpersonal communication too.

Ex: The student members of the sports club of an educational institution may
be annoyed with non-members who oppose the club for allocating more funds to
purchase sports equipment.

Overcome: The best way to overcome this barrier is to create an environment

where all the members can respect and like each other’s group and also realizing
that every group is important in order to facilitate the things forward.

d. Use of inappropriate media:

Media like graphs and charts, telephones, boards, email, films and slides,
computer presentations, teleconferencing and zoom are used in organizations in
order to pass the information. If the media chosen isn’t appropriate that leads to
barrier and creates miscommunication.

Examples:
1. Telephone would not be an ideal medium for conveying confidential
information.
2. WhatsApp platform isn’t an apt medium for conveying students’ information
to their parents or vice versa

e. Information Overload:
This happens when there is inefficiency in manual handling of huge amount of
data. The usual results of this barrier are fatigue (tiredness), disinterest, and
boredom. In this barrier, usually, important information gets mixed up with too
many irrelevant details, and is therefore causes confusion, errors and finally
ignored by the receiver.

Ex: A teacher gives too much information at once for the students to handle as
he has very short time to finish the syllabus.

Overcome: The ways to overcome this barrier is to reduce the information given,
screen the information, highlight only
PERCEPTION

Perception is the organisation, identification, and interpretation of sensory

information in order to represent and understand the environment.
All perception involves signals in the nervous system, which in turn result from
physical or chemical stimulation of the sense organs.

It is not the passive receipt of these signals but is shaped by learning, memory,
expectation, and attention.

The study of these perceptual processes shows that their functioning is affected
by three classes of variables – the objects or events being perceived, the
environment in which perception occurs, and the individual doing the perceiving.

Definition of Perception
According to Joseph Reitz; “Perception includes all those processes by which an
individual receives information about his environment—seeing, hearing, feeling,
tasting and smelling.”

According to S. P. Robbins, perception can be defined as “the process by which

individuals organise and interpret their sensory impressions in order to give
meaning to their environments.”

Perceptual Process
The perceptual process allows us to experience the world around us.

Although perception is a largely cognitive and psychological process, how we

perceive the people and objects around us affects our communication.

The perception process is a sequence of steps that begins with the environment
and leads to our perception of a stimulus and action in response to the stimulus.

3 stages of the perception process are;

1.Selection.
2.Organization.
3.Interpretation.

1. Selection
The world around us is filled with an infinite number of stimuli that we might
attend, but our brains do not have the resources to pay attention to everything.

Thus, the first step of perception is the decision of what to attend to.

When we attend to one specific thing in our environment — whether it is a smell,

a feeling, a sound, or something else entirely — it becomes the attended
stimulus.
Selecting is the first part of the perception process, in which we focus our
attention on certain incoming sensory information. In selection, we choose
stimuli that attract our attention.

We focus on the ones that stand out to our senses (sight, sound, smell, taste,
and touch). We take information through all five of our senses, but our
perceptual field includes so many stimuli that it is impossible for our brains to
process and make sense of it all.

So, as information comes in through our senses, various factors influence what
actually continues on through the perception process.

2. Organisation
Once we have chosen to attend to a stimulus in the environment, the choice sets
off a series of reactions in our brain.

This neural process starts with the activation of our sensory receptors (touch,
taste, smell, sight, and hearing).

Organizing is the second part of the perception process, in which we sort and
categorize information that we perceive based on innate and learned cognitive
patterns.

Three ways we sort things into patterns are by using proximity, similarity, and
difference.

3. Interpretation
After we have attended to a stimulus, and our brains have received and organized
the information, we interpret it in a way that makes sense using our existing
information about the world. Interpretation simply means that we take the
information that we have sensed and organized and turn it into something that
we can categorize.

By putting different stimuli into categories, we can better understand and react
to the world around us.

Perception of others involves sensing, organizing, and interpreting information

about people, and what they say and do. The sensation is a main characteristic
of perception as it relates to outside input. In the perceptual process, firstly the
perceiver should select what will be perceived.
Then, the organisation takes place when listeners identify the type of sound and
compare it to other sounds heard in the past.

Interpretation and categorization are generally the most subjective areas of

perception, as they involve decisions about whether listeners like what they hear
and want to keep listening.

We make immediate evaluations that cause automatic judgments of positive and

negative reactions toward others, which occur outside of our awareness.

The selection, organisation, and interpretation of perceptions can differ among

different people.

On the basis of these, the perceptual output that means, values, attitudes,
behaviour, etc. of the perceiver may differ.

Therefore, when people react differently in a situation, part of their behaviour

can be explained by examining their perceptual process, and how their
perceptions are leading to their responses.

Errors in Perception
There are some errors in perception;

1.Illusion.
2.Hallucination.
3.Halo Effect.
4.Stereotyping.
5.Similarity.
6.Horn Effect.
7.Contrast.

1. Illusion
Illusion is false perception. Here the person will mistake a stimulus and perceive
it wrongly.

For example, in the dark, a rope is mistaken as a snake or vice versa. The voice
of an unknown person is mistaken as a friend’s voice. A person standing at a
distance who is not known may be perceived as a known person.
2. Hallucination
Sometimes we come across instances where the individual perceives some
stimulus, even when it is not present.

This phenomenon is known as a hallucination. The person may see an object,

person, etc. or he may listen to some voice though there are no objects and
sounds in reality.

3. Halo Effect
The individual is evaluated on the basis of perceived positive quality, feature or
trait. When we draw a general impression about an individual on the basis of a
single characteristic, such as intelligence, sociability, or appearance, a halo effect
is operating.

In other words, this is the tendency to rate a man uniformly high or low in other
traits if he is extraordinarily high or low in one particular trait: If a worker has
few absences, his supervisor might give him a high rating in all other areas of
work.

4. Stereotyping
People usually can fall into at least one general category based on physical or
behavioural traits then they will be evaluated. When we judge someone on the
basis of our perception of the group to which he or she belongs, we are using the
shortcut called stereotyping.

For example, a boss might assume that a worker from Uganda is lazy and cannot
meet performance objectives, even if the worker tried his best.

5. Similarity
Often, people tend to seek out and rate more positively those who are similar to
themselves. This tendency to approve of similarity may cause evaluators to give
better ratings to employees who exhibit the same interests, work methods, points
of view or standards.

6. Horn Effect
When the individual is completely evaluated on the basis of a negative quality or
feature perceived. This results in an overall lower rating than an acceptable rate.
E.g. He is not formally dressed up in the office, that’s why he may be casual at
work too.

7. Contrast
The tendency to rate people relative to other people rather than to the individual
performance he or she is doing. Rather, they will evaluate an employee by
comparing that employee’s performance with other employees.

Basically, we use the above shortcuts when we judge others. Perceiving and
interpreting what others do is burdensome. As a result, individuals develop
techniques for making the task more manageable.

TYPES PF PERCEPTION

Perception can be divided into six types

a) Perception of sound
The ability to receive sound by identifying vibrations.

b) Perception of touch
Identifying objects through patterns of its surface by touching it.

c) Perception of speech
The competence of interpreting and understanding the sounds of language

d) Perception of the social world

It permits people to understand other individuals and groups of their social
world. E.g. John goes to a restaurant and likes their customer service, so he will
perceive that it is a good place to hang out and will recommend it to friends, who
may or may not like it. John’s perception about the restaurant is good.

e) Taste
The ability to receive flavor of substances by tasting it through sensory organs
known as taste buds

f) Other senses
They approve perception through body, like balance, acceleration, pain, time,
sensation felt in the throat and lungs.

Importance of Perception

1. Perception is very important in understanding human behavior because

every person perceives the world and approaches life problems differently.

Whatever we see or feel is not necessarily the same as it really is. When we
 buy something, it is not because it is the best, but because we take it to be

the best.

2. If people behave based on their perception, we can predict their behavior in

the changed circumstances by understanding their present perception of the

environment. One person may view the facts in one way, which may be

different from the facts seen by another viewer.

3. With the help of perception, the needs of various people can be

determined because their needs influence people’s perceptions.

4. Perception is very important for the manager who wants to avoid making

errors when dealing with people and events in the work setting. This problem

is made more complicated by the fact that different people perceive the same

situation differently. In order to deal with subordinates effectively, managers

must understand their perceptions properly.

5. Perception can be important because it offers more than objective output; it

ingests an observation and manufactures an altered reality enriched with

previous experiences.

6. Perception builds character (not necessarily good or bad character) that

defines different roles individuals fall into the clown, the hypocrite, the self-

righteous, the victim, etc.

7. It is vitally important if we want to get along with others to try to see things

from their perspective or walk in their shoes for a while. If we walk in their

shoes, we will gain a new perspective about things and, in that, understand

the other and also can love and help the other more appropriately.

Factors Affecting Perception

Perception is how an individual selects, organizes, and interprets information to

create a meaningful picture. Personal characteristics that affect perception

include attitudes, personality, motives, interests, past experiences, and

expectations.

Strategies for Improving Perceptual Skills

1. Knowing Oneself Accurately: One of the powerful ways to minimize

perceptual distortions is to know yourself.
2. Empathize with Others:
3. Have a Positive Attitude:
4. Postpone Impression Formation:
5. Communicating Openly:
6. Comparing One's Perceptions with that of Others:
7. Introducing Diversity Management Programs
LASSWELL’S COMMUNICATION MODEL
Lasswell’s communication model was developed by communication theorist
Harold D. Lasswell (1902-1978) in 1948. Lasswell’s model of communication
(also known as action model or linear model or one way model of communication)
is regarded as one the most influential communication models.
Lasswell’s communication model has 5 components which is used as an analysis
tool for evaluating the communication process and components. The
components are the questions to be asked to get the answers and keep
communication going.

Explanation of different Components of Lasswell’s Model

Control analysis helps the sender to have all the power.

Content analysis is associated to stereotyping and representation of different

groups politically. It is also related to the purpose or the ulterior motives of the
message.
Media analysis represents which medium should be used to exercise maximum
power against the receivers.

Audience analysis shows who are the target population to be manipulated or

brain- washed.
Effect analysis is done before the process starts. It is used to predict the effect
of message over the target population to be exploited.
Lasswell’s model was developed to study the media propaganda of countries and
businesses at that time. Only rich people used to have communication mediums
such as televisions and radios back them. It was made to show the mass media
culture.

Lasswell Communication Model: five components

The Lasswell Communication Model describes verbal communication and
consists of five elements. Who says what, in Which channel, to Whom, with
What effect?

This model is also called a ‘linear model of communication’, ‘uni-directional

processes or ‘action model, because it describes a one-way process within
communication. It is seen as one of the most influential communication
models. The model consists of five components that are used as an analysis
tool for evaluating the entire communication process. The previous ‘W’
questions are the basis for these components. The answers to these questions
provide insight into the communication between people.

The Lasswell Communication Model consists of the basic questions below,

aimed at a component and the gaining of an analysis:

Who?

Component: This is the communicator, also called the sender, who formulates
and spreads a message. The sender can also be an intermediary.
Analysis: This is about a management and audit analysis that helps the
sender to have the power to communicate.

What?

Component: This is the content of the message or the message that the sender
spreads.
Analysis: The content analysis is related to the aim of the message and/or the
secondary intent.

Which channel?

Component: The channel describes the medium or media that is/are used to
convey and spread the message. The medium can consist of several
communication tools, mass media and social media.
Analysis: The media analysis shows which medium is best used to convey a
message to the receivers as effectively as possible.

To whom?

Component: This describes the receiver(s), such as a target group or an

individual. With mass communication, there’s an audience.
Analysis: The target analysis shows who the message is meant for and how
they are best reached and/or influenced.
Which effect?

Component: The effect is the result the message leads to. The so-called
triangle of success ‘knowledge, attitude, behaviour’ is often used to describe the
desired effect.
Analysis: The effect analysis will need to be started beforehand, so the
messages can be aimed at and fitted to the target audience.

Disadvantages and Criticisms of Lasswell’s Model

The major criticism of Lasswell’s Model is that it does not include feedback and
it ignores the possibility of noise. Without feedback, a communication process
cannot be fruitful. Lasswell’s model is very linear and does not consider barriers
in the communication process.

The model is very simplistic. The model is said to be propaganda based as it is

more focused on the resulting outcome and generally used for media persuasion.

Advantage of Lasswell model of communication:

- It is very simple and easy.
- An effective model.
- Not only for one but good for all type of communication.

Disadvantage of Lasswell model of communication:

-It is a linear model
-There is no feedback mention in this model
-No any noise mentioned in this model
ARISTOTLE'S MODEL OF COMMUNICATION
Aristotle (384-322 B.C) was a Greek philosopher and writer born in Stagira,
Northern Greece. He was also the teacher of Alexander the Great. He studied
physics, logic, mathematics, etc. While exploring the human nature
scientifically, Aristotle developed a linear model of communication for oral
communication known as Aristotle's Model of Communication. This is
considered as the first model of communication and was proposed before 300
B.C. It is also the most widely accepted among all communication models.

Aristotle Model is mainly focused on speaker and speech. It can be broadly

divided into 5 primary elements: Speaker, Speech, Occasion, Audience and
Effect

The Aristotle's communication model is a speaker centered model as the

speaker has the most important role in it and is the only one active. It is the
speaker's role to deliver a speech to the audience. The role of the audience is
passive, influenced by the speech. This makes the communication process one
way, from speaker to receiver.

The speaker must organize the speech beforehand, according to the target
audience and situation (occasion). The speech must be prepared so that the
audience be persuaded or influenced from the speech. He believed "Rhetoric" is
the study of communication and persuasion and different message or speech
should be made for different audiences at different situations to get desired
effects or to establish a propaganda. This model was highly used to
develop public speaking skills and create a propaganda at that time so, it is less
focused on intrapersonal or interpersonal communication. Even if the model is
speaker oriented and focuses on audience interaction in communication, there
is no concept of feedbacks.

For instance, a politician (speaker) gives a speech to get votes from the civilians
(audience) at the time of election (occasion). The civilians only vote if they are
influenced by the things the politician says in his speech so the content must be
very impressive to influence the mass and the speaker must design the message
very carefully. The speech must be clear as well as the speaker must have a very
good non-verbal communication with the audience like eye contact.
This example is a classic case of Aristotle Model of Communication depicting all
the elements in the model.

Elements of Aristotle Model of Communication

Aristotle’s communication model, although not explicitly presented in a modern
diagrammatic form, can be understood through his concepts related to
persuasive communication and rhetoric. Here are five key elements that
represent Aristotle’s communication model:

Speaker (Rhetor)
The communicator or speaker is a central figure in Aristotle’s communication
model. The speaker is responsible for crafting and delivering persuasive
messages to the audience. The speaker’s credibility (ethos), ability to evoke
emotions (pathos), and use of logical arguments (logos) play essential roles in
influencing the audience.

Message (Logos)
The message is the content of communication. Aristotle emphasized the
importance of constructing a well-structured and logically sound argument. This
involves presenting evidence, reasoning, and examples to support the speaker’s
claims and persuade the audience of a particular viewpoint.

Audience (Listener/Viewer)
The audience is a crucial component of the communication process. Aristotle
emphasized the significance of analyzing the audience’s characteristics, beliefs,
emotions, and values. Effective communication requires tailoring the message to
resonate with the audience’s interests and persuading them based on their
specific context.

Occasion
In Aristotle’s model of communication, the “occasion” refers to the specific
context or situation in which communication takes place. While the concept of
occasion is not always explicitly discussed in his works, it is an important
element that underlies his ideas about persuasive communication and rhetoric.
Aristotle believed that effective communication requires a deep understanding of
the occasion, including factors such as the audience, the purpose of
communication, the cultural and social context, and the timing of the message.
The occasion influences how the speaker tailors their message to connect with
the audience and achieve the desired persuasive outcome.

Effect
In Aristotle’s model of communication, the concept of “effect” refers to the
intended impact or outcome of persuasive communication. It is one of the
fundamental elements that the speaker aims to achieve through effective rhetoric
and persuasive discourse. Aristotle’s focus on effect underscores the goal-
oriented nature of communication, where the speaker seeks to influence the
audience’s beliefs, attitudes, and actions.

These five elements—speaker, message, audience, occasion, and effect—form the

core components of Aristotle Model of Communication, which revolves around
the art of persuasion and effective discourse.

CRITICAL ELEMENTS OF A GOOD COMMUNICATOR

Aristotle has given 3 elements that must be present in a good communicator or
public speaker. These elements are related to each other and they reinforce the
other elements.

Ethos
Ethos is the characteristic which makes you credible in front of the audience. If
there is no credibility, the audience will not believe in you and will not be
persuaded by you. Expertise and positions also give credibility to a person. For
instance, the mass will not listen to the promises of a corrupt politician, but if a
politician is known for his good deeds, there's a high change his speech will be
heard.

Pathos
If what you say matters to them and they can connect with it, then they will be
more interested and they will think you are more credible. Emotional bonds will
make the audience captivated and they feel the speaker is one of their own
people. For instance, if people of a village needs water and the politician tells
them that he will help in building roads, the people will not get influenced but
might be more influenced if he says he'll build a dam for drinking water and
irrigation.

Logos
Logos is logic. People believe in you only if they understand what you are trying
to say. People find logic in everything. If there is no logic behind the speaker's
work or time, they do not want to get involved. Everybody has a sense of reason.
You must present facts to the audience for them to believe in you. For example,
a presenter using factual data in an awareness program will attract the
audience's attention and will make them believe in the need of awareness in the
particular matter.

ADVANTAGES OF ARISTOTLE MODEL OF COMMUNICATION

Aristotle’s model of communication, rooted in the principles of rhetoric and
persuasive discourse, offers several advantages that continue to be relevant and
applicable in various communication contexts. Some of the advantages of
Aristotle’s model include:

Emphasis on Persuasion
Aristotle’s model places a strong emphasis on persuasive communication. It
provides insights into how to effectively influence and persuade an audience
through the strategic use of ethos, pathos, and logos. This focus on persuasion
is valuable in fields such as public speaking, marketing, advertising, and politics.

Holistic Understanding
The model considers multiple elements, including the speaker, message,
audience, ethos, pathos, and logos. This holistic approach recognizes that
effective communication is a complex interplay of various factors. It encourages
communicators to consider all these elements when crafting their messages.

Adaptability to Context
Aristotle’s model highlights the importance of analyzing the occasion, audience,
and purpose of communication. This adaptability allows communicators to tailor
their messages to specific situations and audiences, making the model suitable
for diverse contexts.

Focus on Ethical Communication

The concept of ethos in Aristotle’s model promotes ethical communication.
Speakers are encouraged to establish credibility and maintain moral integrity,
fostering a sense of trust and authenticity in their interactions with the audience.

Emotional Appeal
The emphasis on pathos acknowledges the role of emotions in communication.
This aspect is particularly relevant for creating emotional connections, engaging
audiences, and making messages memorable.

Foundation for Communication Studies

Aristotle’s model laid the groundwork for the study of communication and
rhetoric. It continues to be a foundational text in communication education and
theory, providing a historical context for understanding the evolution of
communication scholarship.

Audience-Centered Approach
The model encourages communicators to analyze and adapt to the audience’s
characteristics and preferences. This audience-centered approach is valuable for
tailoring messages to resonate with the intended recipients.

Flexibility and Creativity

Aristotle’s model does not prescribe a rigid step-by-step process, allowing
communicators to exercise creativity and adaptability in their communication
strategies.

DISADVANTAGES OF ARISTOTLE MODEL OF COMMUNICATION

While Aristotle’s model of communication offers valuable insights into
persuasion and rhetoric, it also has certain limitations that need to be
acknowledged in contemporary communication contexts:

Simplicity and Incompleteness

Aristotle’s model is relatively simple and focuses primarily on persuasion. It lacks
the comprehensive structure and detail found in modern communication
models, which consider various elements such as feedback, noise, and multiple
channels of communication.

Limited Interactivity
The model does not adequately address interactive communication, such as two-
way conversations, dialogue, or online interactions, which are common in today’s
communication landscape.

Cultural and Contextual Variation

Aristotle’s model does not fully account for the influence of cultural diversity and
contextual differences in communication. It assumes a relatively uniform
audience response without accounting for variations in cultural norms and
values.

Bias Toward Oratory

The model was developed in the context of persuasive oratory and rhetoric, which
may limit its applicability to other forms of communication, such as
interpersonal, organizational, and mediated communication.

Overemphasis on Persuasion
While persuasion is a central aspect of Aristotle’s model, not all communication
situations involve the intent to persuade. The model may not fully capture
communication for the purpose of sharing information, expressing emotions, or
building relationships.

Lack of Contemporary Technological Considerations

The model was conceived long before the advent of modern communication
technologies. It does not address the role of digital media, social platforms, or
the complexities introduced by electronic communication channels.

Limited Role of Feedback

The model does not explicitly incorporate feedback, which is crucial for
understanding how messages are received and interpreted by the audience.
Feedback is often a dynamic and ongoing process in communication.

Assumption of Rational Audience

The model assumes that audiences are rational and respond primarily to logical
arguments. In reality, emotions, biases, and cognitive heuristics can play a
significant role in shaping audience responses.

Neglect of Nonverbal Communication

The model primarily focuses on verbal communication and logical arguments,
neglecting the important role of nonverbal cues, body language, and visual
elements in communication.

EXAMPLES OF ARISTOTLE MODEL OF COMMUNICATION

Here are a few examples that illustrate how Aristotle Model of Communication
can be applied in various real-life scenarios:

Political Speech
A politician giving a campaign speech aims to persuade the audience to vote for
them. The speaker establishes credibility (ethos) by highlighting their experience
and values, evokes emotions (pathos) by sharing personal stories or discussing
pressing issues, and presents logical arguments (logos) by outlining their policy
proposals and providing evidence of their effectiveness.

Advertising Campaign
An advertisement for a new smartphone emphasizes the credibility of the brand
(ethos) by showcasing its reputation for quality. The ad uses emotional appeal
(pathos) by depicting scenes of people enjoying the phone’s features and benefits.
It also employs logical reasoning (logos) by highlighting the phone’s specifications
and technological advancements.

Motivational Speech
A motivational speaker addresses a group of students. The speaker establishes
credibility (ethos) by sharing their personal journey of overcoming challenges.
They use emotional appeal (pathos) by recounting inspirational stories and
encouraging the audience to believe in themselves. Logical arguments (logos) are
presented through practical steps and strategies for achieving success.

SCHRAMM'S MODEL OF COMMUNICATION

Schramm's Model of Communication was postulated by Wilbur Schramm in
1954, where he suggested that communication is a two way process where both
sender and receiver take turns to send and receive a message. The message is
only sent after encoding so the sender is also called Encoder and the encoded
message is decoded under receipt by the receiver, making him the Decoder. This
model was adapted from the theories of another theorist Osgood, so is also
known as Osgood and Schramm Model of Communication or Encode-
Decode Model of Communication. Osgood replaced the communication with the
circular process of communication and Schramm added the concept of field of
experience to it. This model is described in Schramm's book "The Process and
Effects of Communication".

Different Components of Schramm's Model

Schramm's Model has different components for communications where:

• Sender (transmitter) is the person who sends the message.
• Encoder is the person who converts the message to be sent into codes.
• Decoder is the person who gets the encoded message which has been
sent by the encoder and converts it into the language understandable by
the person.
• Interpreter is the person who tries to understand and analyze the
message. Message is received after interpretation. Interpreter and receiver
is the same person.
• Receiver is the person who gets the message. He/she decodes and
interprets the actual message.
 • Message is the data sent by the sender and information that the receiver
gets.
• Feedback is the process of responding to the received message by the
receiver.
• Medium or media is the channel used to send the message.
• Noise is the interference and interruptions caused during the process. It
is also created when the intended meaning of the message sent by the
sender and the meaning interpreted by the receiver is different which
is known as Semantic Noise.

THEN KEY PRINCIPLES OF COMMUNICATION

The theory explains how we communicate with one another, mainly through
speech, writing and discourse. It emphasizes four key principles:

1. That communication is circular, not linear. The listener can both receive and
send messages (in most instances).

2. That communication is usually equal and reciprocal

3. That there is a lot of interpretation involved when receiving a message

4. That all communication requires three steps: encoding, decoding and

interpreting a message

Principle 1: Circular Communication

Each person is both a sender and a receiver. They are therefore able to
communicate to one another, rather than only in one direction.

This circular feature of the model is very different from other liner models of the
time like the Shannon-Weaver model or Lasswell’s model of communication.

Principle 2: Communication Involves Interpretation

In the process of interpretation, however, a lot of meaning can be lost. We call
the lost or misinterpretation of information “semantic noise” caused by “semantic
barriers”. Semantic barriers are specifically the values, beliefs and background
knowledge that impact how someone sends and how someone receives messages.

As two-way communication keeps on going in its circular pattern, the semantic

noise is ideally reduced because the two communicators can come to shared
meaning and give one another further clarification on what they actually mean.

Principle 3: Communication Requires Encoding, Decoding and Interpreting

You can see in the image above that each actor in the communication sequence
has three roles: encoding, decoding and interpreting.
Encoding: When we want to send a message, we need to think about how to craft
it to get our message across clearly. We need to think of the right words to say
and in what order we should send our messages to communicate our ideas to
the message receiver.

Decoding: When we receive a message, we need to decode it. A message may be

packaged as text, image, advertisement, speech, etc. When receiving a message,
we need to use our reading skills, listening skills, etc. to decode the message so
it makes sense to us. Sometimes someone may ‘mishear’ or ‘misread’ a message
(perhaps if it were mumbled or written by someone who is not a native speaker),
which will interfere with their interpretation.

Principle 4: Equal and Reciprocal Communication

Because both members of the communication have the capacity to encode,
decode and interpret, this model views the two members of the conversation as
equal participants.

This model therefore works very well to understand a face-to-face conversation

or text message exchange, for example, where both members of the conversation
will have a back-and-forth discussion.

This equal communication model is very different to many others, which see
communication as a one-way street where people take the role of either ‘sender’
or ‘receiver’. By contrast, Schramm’s model sees the participants as both sender
and receiver of messages.

Benefits / Strengths in The Osgood-Schramm Model

Shows how feedback can work: This model works well for explaining cyclical
feedback. Other models see communication as being a one-way street, which fail
to account for feedback and dialogue. In this model, the speaker can get feedback
about their language, jokes, choice of words, etc. so they can try to communicate
more and more clearly as the cycle continues.

Recognizes that communication is complex:

By accounting for encoding, decoding and interpretation, this model shows how
sometimes we can mishear and misinterpret information.

Sees us as active communicators:

While other models see people receiving information as passive recipients, this
one shows how we’re active in interpreting information we receive.

Disadvantages / Weaknesses in the Osgood Model

Doesn’t recognize that communication can be unequal:
There are many circumstance where communication may involve one authority
figure talking and one (or many) listeners trying to interpret the message. In such
instances, communication is much less equal than in Schramm’s model.
Therefore, this model doesn’t tend to work in situations where power balances
exist. In fact, this model does a poor job overall of understanding how power
functions in communication.

Doesn’t work for mass communication:

This is another time communication is unequal. One person communicating to
many looks very different to the circular one-to-one model proposed in the
Osgood-Schramm approach (for a more appropriate approach for mass media,
try the Westley-Mclean model or Lasswell’s model of Communication).
BERLO'S SMCR MODEL OF COMMUNICATION

In 1960, David Berlo postulated Berlo's Sender-Message-Channel-Receiver

(SMCR) Model of Communication from Shannon Weaver's Model of
Communication (1949). He described factors affecting the individual
components in the communication making the communication more efficient.
This model also focuses on encoding and decoding which happens before sender
sends the message and before receiver receives the message respectively.

COMPONENTS OF BERLO'S MODEL OF COMMUNICATION

Berlo's Model has mainly, four components to describe the communication
process. They are sender, message, channel and receiver. Each of the
component is affected by many factors.
S -Sender
Sender is the source of the message or the person who originates the message.
The person or source sends the message to the receiver. The following are the
factor related to sender and is also the same in the case of receiver:
• Communication Skills:
Communication skills of a person is a factor that affects the
communication process. If the sender has good communication skills, the
message will be communicated better than if the sender's communication
skills are not good. Similarly, if the receiver cannot grasp the message,
then the communication will not be effective. Communication skills
include the skills to speak, present, read, write, listening, etc.
• Attitude:
The attitude of the sender and the receiver creates the effect of the
message. The person's attitude towards self, the receiver and the
environment changes the meaning and effect of the message.
• Knowledge:
Familiarity with the subject of the message makes the communicated
message have its effect more. Knowledge on the subject matter makes the
communicator send the message effectively.
• Social Systems:
• Values, beliefs, laws, rules, religion and many other social factors affect
the sender's way of communicating the message. It creates difference in
the generation of message. Place and situation also fall under social
systems.
• Culture:
Cultural differences make messages different. A person from one culture
might find something offensive which is very much accepted in another
culture.

M-Message
A message is the substance that is being sent by the sender to the receiver. It
might be in the form of voice, audio, text, video or other media. The key factors
affecting the message are
• Content:
Content is the thing that is in the message. The whole message from
beginning to end is the content.
• Elements:
Elements are the nonverbal things that tag along with the content like
gestures, signs, language, etc.
• Treatment:
Treatment is the way in which the message is conveyed to the receiver.
Treatment also effects the feedback of the receiver.
• Structure:
The structure of the message or the way it has been structured or
arranged, affects the effectiveness of the message.
 • Code:
Code is the form in which the message is sent. It might be in the form of
language, text, video, etc.

C-Channel
Channel is the medium used to send the message. In mass communication and
other forms of communication, technical machines might be used as a channel
like telephone, internet, etc. But in general communication, the five senses of a
human being is the channel for the communication flow and it affects the
effectiveness of the channel.
• Hearing- We receive the message through hearing.
• Seeing- We perceive through seeing. We also get non-verbal messages by
seeing.
• Touching- Many of the non-verbal communication happens from touching
like holding hands.
• Smelling- We collect information from smelling.
• Tasting- Taste also provides the information to be sent as a message.

R- Receiver
Receiver is the person who gets the message sent in the process. This model
believes that the thinking pattern and all other factors mentioned above must be
in sync to that of the sender for the communication to be effective. The message
might not have the same effect as intended if the receiver and sender are not
similar. The receiver must also have a very good listening skill. Other factors are
similar to that of the sender.
• Communication skills
• Attitudes
• Knowledge
• Social Systems
• Culture

Criticisms of Berlo's SMCR Model:

There is no concept of feedback, so the effect is not considered.
There is no concept of noise or any kind of barriers in communication process.
It is a linear model of communication, there is no two way communication.
Both of the people must be similar according to all the factors mentioned above.
HELICAL MODEL OF COMMUNICATION

"If you're born today, you've limited expressions"- Frank Dance

Frank Dance proposed a model inspired by a helix in 1967, known as Helical

Model of Communication. A helix is a three dimensional spring like curve in the
shape of a cylinder or a cone. Helix is compared with evolution of communication
of a human since birth to existence or existing moment. Helical model gives
geometrical testimony of communication. The model is linear as well as circular
combined and disagrees the concept of linearity and circularity individually.

Concept of Helical Model of Communication

Helical model of communication introduces the concept of time where
continuousness of the communication process and relational interactions are
very important. Communication is taken as a dynamic process in helical model
of communication and it progresses with age as our experience and vocabulary
increases. At first, helical spring is small at the bottom and grows bigger as the
communication progresses. The same effect can be seen with communication of
humans, where you know nothing about a person at first and the knowledge
grows steadily as you know the person better. It considers all the activities of the
person, from the past and present.
Communication is affected by the curve from which it emerges which denotes
past behavior and experiences. Slowly, the helix leaves its lower levels of behavior
and grows upward in a new way. It always depends on the lowest level to form
the message. Thus, the communicative relationship reaches to the next level in
which people share more information.

Communication is supposed to be continuous and non-repetitive. It is always

growing and accumulative.

Example of Helical Model of Communication

A child crying at birth signifies the communication of the child to its parents that
he/she is alive. After some years, the child cries whenever the child needs
anything like food or attention. He/she learns words and starts communicating
with words. The child learns specific languages and communicates with the
people who know the language that he/she knows. Communication becomes
more complex as the child grows into adult and to the existing moment. The
adult uses the same pronunciations and use of words or facial expressions that
he/she learned when he/she was a child. Communication is directly dependent
on his/her past behavior as a child but can also modify as the person grows.
In this example, communication evolves with the child crying. This is where the
helix is small at the bottom. And he continues communication, the helix
gradually grows. When the communication becomes more complex, the spiral
grows wider. From then on, it grows steadily as his life goes on.

Advantages of Helical Model of Communication

• The model assumes sender and receiver to be interchangeable and makes
communication process to be two way.
• The model takes the communication process speculative and intellectual.

Disadvantages of Helical Model of Communication

• The model is taken as more simple than it should be.
• Some critics don’t take it to be a model as it has very few variables.
• It is not testable because it is abstract.
• It is not represent in a systematic and orderly way.
• Variables cannot be differentiated in this model.
• Continuity may not always be true for communication. There might be breaks
in situations as well as events can be meaningless, forced or unproductive.
• The purpose of communication is not always growth.