Types of Numbers

Natural Numbers
Counting numbers 1, 2, 3, 4, 5,.....are known as natural numbers. The set of all natural
numbers can be represented by : N = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5,....}
Whole Numbers
If we include 0 among the natural numbers, then the numbers 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5..... are called
whole numbers. The set of whole numbers can be represented by : W = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, .... }
Clearly, every natural number is a whole number but 0 is also a whole number which is
not a natural number.
Integers
All counting numbers and their negatives including zero are known as integers. The set of
integers can be represented by: Z or I = {....., –4, –3, –2, –1, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4,......}
Positive integers
+
The set I = {1, 2, 3, 4,....} is the set of all positive integers. Clearly, positive integers and

natural numbers are synonyms.

Negative integers
–
The set I = {....., –3, –2, –1} is the set of all negative integers.

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 🟋 0 is neither negative nor positive.

Rational numbers

The numbers of the form , where p and q are integers and q≠0, are known as rational

numbers, e.g. etc. The set of all rational numbers is denoted by Q.

i.e.

Since every natural number 'a' can be written as , so 'a' is a rational number. Since 0

can be written as and every non-zero integer 'a' can be written as , so 0 and every

non zero integer is also a rational number.

Every rational number has a peculiar characteristic that when expressed in decimal form
is expressible either in terminating decimals or non-terminating repeating decimals.

For example : =3.1428714287, ...., etc.

The recurring decimals have been given a short notation as

0.333...=

4.1555...=

0.323232...=

Irrational numbers
Those numbers which when expressed in decimal form are neither terminating nor

repeating decimals are known as irrational numbers, e.g. π etc.

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⚫ Note, that the exact value of π is not is rational, while π is an irrational

number. is approximate value of π. Similarly, 3.14 is not an exact value of π.

Real numbers
The rational and irrational numbers combined together are called real numbers, e.g.

, etc. are real numbers. The set of real numbers is denoted by R.

⚫ Note that, the sum, difference or non-zero product of a rational and irrational

number is irrational.

e.g. 3 + ,4– , are all irrational.

🟋 Prime numbers

Except 1, each natural number which is divisible by only 1 and itself is called as
prime number e.g., 2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17, 19, 23, 29, 31,.....etc.
⚫ There are total 25 prime numbers upto 100 and 45 upto 200.

⚫ 2 is the only even prime number and the least prime number.

⚫ 2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17, 19, 23, 29, 31, 37, 41, 43, 47, 53, 59, 61, 67, 71, 73, 79, 83, 89, 97

are prime numbers upto 100.

🟋 Co-prime

A pair of two natural numbers having no common factor, other than 1, is called a
pair of co-prime.
For example: (3, 5), (4, 5), (5, 6), (7, 9), (6, 7) etc, are co-primes.

🟋 Twin primes

Prime numbers differing by 2 are called twin primes, e.g. (3, 5), (5, 7), (11, 13) etc,
are called twin primes.
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 🟋 Composite numbers

All-natural numbers except 1, which are not prime are composite numbers. If C is
the set of composite numbers then C = {4, 6, 8, 9, 10, 12.....}

🟋 1 is neither prime nor composite.

Euclid's division lemma

Euclid's division lemma states that "For any two positive integers a and b, there exist

unique integers q and r such that a = bq + r, 0 ≤ r < b."

e.g.
(i) Consider number 23 and 5, then :
23 = 5 × 4 + 3
Comparing with a = bq + r

we get, a = 23, b = 5, q = 4, r = 3 and 0 ≤ r < b (as 0 < 3 < 5)

(ii) Consider positive integers 18 and 4

18 = 4 × 4 + 2

For 18 (= a) and 4 (= b) we have q = 4, r = 2 and 0 ≤ r < b

In the relation a = bq + r, where 0 ≤ r < b is nothing but a statement of the long division of

number a by b in which q is the quotient obtained and r is the remainder.

e.g. Long division of 25 by 7.

7
25
3
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21
4
So, 25 = 7 × 3 + 4
Here, quotient = 3, remainder = 4

Prove that every odd integer is of the form 2q + 1, where q is an integer.

Explanation
Let a be any positive integer. By using Euclid division lemma with a and b = 2

we have a = 2q + r, where q is integer ≥ 0 and 0 ≤ r < 2

Since 0 ≤ r < 2, ∴ r = 0, 1

For r = 0, a = 2q + r = 2q (even integer)

and for r = 1, a = 2q + r = 2q + 1
Now, we know that an integer is either even or odd and a = 2q + 1 is not an even integer

∴ a = 2q + 1 is an odd integer.

"The product of two consecutive positive integers is divisible by 2". Is this

statement true or false? Give reasons.
Explanation
True, because n(n + 1) will always be even, as one of the factors is odd and other is even.

A positive integer is of the form 3q + 1, q being a natural number. Can you write its
square in any form other than 3m + 1, i.e., 3m or 3m + 2 for some integer m? Justify
your answer.
Explanation
No, because (3q + 1)2 = 9q2 + 6q + 1 = 3(3q2 + 2q) + 1 = 3m + 1 {where m = 3q2 + 2q}

[ 67 ]
 Show that the square of any positive integer cannot be of the form 5q + 2 or 5q + 3
for any integer q.
Explanation
We know that any positive integer can be of the form 5m, 5m + 1,
5m + 2, 5m + 3 or 5m + 4 for some integer m.
Thus, we have :
Case (i) : (5m)2 = 25m2 = 5(5m2) = 5q, q is an integer.
Case (ii) : (5m + 1)2 = 25m2 + 10m + 1 = 5(5m2 + 2m) + 1 = 5q + 1, q is an
integer.
Case (iii) : (5m + 2)2 = 25m2 + 20m + 4 = 5(5m2 + 4m) + 4 = 5q + 4, q is an
integer.
Case (iv) : (5m + 3)2 = 25m2 + 30m + 9 = 5(5m2 + 6m + 1) + 4 = 5q + 4, q is an
integer.
Case (v) : (5m + 4)2 = 25m2 + 40m + 16 = 5(5m2 + 8m + 3) + 1 = 5q + 1, q is an
integer.
Thus, the square of a positive integer cannot be of the form 5q + 2 or
5q + 3 for any integer q.

Prove that if x and y are both odd positive integers, then x2 + y2 is even but not
divisible by 4.
Explanation
Let x = 2m + 1 and y = 2n + 1 for some integers m and n.

∴ x2 + y2 = (2m + 1)2 + (2n + 1)2

= 4m2 + 4m + 1 + 4n2 + 4n + 1 = 4(m2 + n2) + 4(m + n) + 2 = 4q + 2

where q = (m2 + n2) + (m + n)

⇒ x2 + y2 is even and leaves remainder 2 on dividing by 4

⇒ x2 + y2 is not divisible by 4.

HCF by Euclid's division algorithm

If 'a' & 'b' are positive integers such that a = bq + r, then, every common divisor of 'a' & 'b'
is a common divisor of 'b' & 'r' and vice-versa.

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In mathematics, the Euclid's Algorithm is an efficient method for computing the greatest
common divisor (GCD) or highest common factor (HCF).
So, let us state Euclid's division algorithm clearly.
To obtain the HCF of two positive integers, say c and d, with c > d follow the steps below:
Step-1 : Apply Euclid's division lemma, to c and d. So, we find whole numbers, q and

r such that c = dq + r, 0 ≤ r < d.

Step-2 : If r = 0, d is the HCF of c and d. If r ≠ 0, apply the division lemma to d and r.

Step-3 : Continue the process till the remainder is zero. The divisor at this stage will
be the required HCF.
This algorithm works because HCF (c, d) = HCF (d, r) where the symbol HCF
(c, d) denotes the HCF of c and d.

Explain the principle behind Euclid's division algorithm.

Explanation
The Euclid's division algorithm is based on the principle that the greatest common divisor
of two numbers does not change if the smaller number is subtracted from the larger
number.
Consider two numbers 252 and 105 whose HCF is 21.
252 = 21 × 12 and 105 = 21 × 5
252 – 105 = 147, the HCF (147, 105) is also 21.
Since the larger of the two numbers is reduced, repeating this process gives successively
smaller numbers until one of them is zero. When that occurs, the GCD is the remaining
non-zero number

Step-1 : 252 = 105 × 2 + 42

Step-2 : 105 = 42 × 2 + 21

Step-3 : 42 = 21 × 2 + 0

Required HCF (252, 105) = 21

[ 69 ]
 Use Euclid's division algorithm to find the HCF of 441, 567, 693.
Solution
In order to find the HCF of 441, 567 and 693, we first find the HCF of 441 and 567 by
Euclid's division algorithm.
Using division algorithm, we get
567 = 441 × 1 + 126
441 = 126 × 3 + 63
126 = 63 × 2 + 0
So, HCF (567, 441) = 63
Now, we find the HCF of 63 and 693
693 = 63 × 11 + 0

∴ HCF (63, 693) = 63

Hence HCF (441, 567, 693) = 63

Fundamental theorem of arithmetic
The Fundamental Theorem of Arithmetic tells us something important about the
relationship between composite numbers and prime numbers. It is usually stated as
follows :
"Every composite number can be expressed as a product of primes, and their
decomposition is unique, apart from the order in which the prime factors occur."
e.g. 12600 = 23 × 32 × 52 × 7
Thus we have expressed the composite number 12600 as product of powers of primes in
ascending order and this decomposition is unique.
HCF and LCM of numbers
HCF (Highest common factor)
The HCF of two or more numbers is the greatest number that divides each one of them
exactly.
LCM (Least common Multiple)

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The least number which is exactly divisible by each one of the given numbers is called
their LCM.
In order to find HCF and LCM of given numbers by Prime Factorisation Method or
Fundamental Theorem of Arithmetic, express each number as the product of primes, then
HCF = Product of least powers of common factors.
LCM = Product of highest powers of all the factors.
Important relation
Product of two numbers = (Their HCF) × (Their LCM)

The numbers 525 and 3000 are both divisible only by 3, 5, 15, 25 and 75. What is
HCF (525, 3000)? Justify your answer.
Explanation
Since HCF of given numbers is the greatest number that divides each one of them exactly.
Therefore, HCF (525, 3000) = 75.

Find the LCM and HCF of 1296 and 2520 by applying the fundamental theorem of
arithmetic method i.e. using the prime factorisation method.
Solution
1296 = 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 × 3 × 3 × 3 × 3 = 24 × 34
2520 = 2 × 2 × 2 × 3 × 3 × 5 × 7 = 23 × 32 × 5 × 7
LCM = 24 × 34 × 5 × 7 = 45360
HCF = 23 × 32 = 72

Given that HCF (306, 657) = 9. Find LCM (306, 657).

Solution
HCF (306, 657) = 9 means HCF of 306 and 657 = 9
Required LCM (306, 657) means required.
LCM of 306 and 657.
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 For any two positive integers;

their LCM (a, b) =

i.e., LCM (306, 657) = = 22,338

What is the relation between the LCM, HCF (of 3 numbers) and the HCF's of them taken
by pairs?
Exploring the Concept
Consider any three natural numbers (say N1, N2 and N3). Find their LCM and HCF. Find
HCF of N1 and N2, the HCF of N2 and N3 and the HCF of N1 and N3. Find the product of the
three numbers.
Drawing conclusions
Study some more examples draw up a table and discover.
N1, HCF HCF HCF LCM HCF Product
N2, of of of of of of
N3 N1 & N2 N2 & N3 N3 & N1 N1, N2, N3 N1, N2, N3 N1, N2, N3
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

State your discovery.

Important relation

LCM (p, q, r) =

HCF (p, q, r) =

Can two numbers have 18 as their HCF and 380 as their LCM? Give reason.
Explanation
No, because HCF (18) does not divide LCM (380).

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🟋 LCM of two numbers must be divided by their HCF.

Find the largest number that divides 1251, 9377 and 15628 leaving remainders 1,
2 and 3, respectively.
Explanation
Consider the numbers 1251 – 1, 9377 – 2 and 15628 – 3 or 1250, 9375 and 15625.
Required number is the HCF of 1250, 9375 and 15625.
Now, 1250 = 2 × 54
9375 = 3 × 55
15625 = 56
HCF = 54 = 625

On a morning walk, three persons step off together and their steps measure 40 cm,
42 cm and 45 cm, respectively. What is the minimum distance each should walk so
that each can cover the same distance in complete steps?
Explanation
40 = 23 × 51
42 = 21 × 31 × 71
45 = 32 × 51
Minimum distance covered = LCM of 40, 42, 45
23 × 32 × 51 × 71 = 8 × 9 × 35 = 2520 cm

Explain why 7 × 11 × 17 + 17 is a composite number.

Explanation
Let 7 × 11 × 17 + 17 = (7 × 11 + 1) × 17
(77 + 1) × 17 = 78 × 17

⇒ 7 × 11 × 17 + 17 = 2 × 3 × 13 × 17

2 × 3 × 13 × 17 is a composite number as having more than two distinct factors.

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 Show that 12n cannot end with digit 0 or 5 for any natural number n.
Explanation
12n = (2 × 2 × 3)n = 22n × 3n
So, the only primes in the factorisation of 12n are 2 and 3.
For 12n to end with digit 0 or 5, it must have 5 as a prime factor. But by fundamental
theorem of arithmetic, it cannot have 5 as a prime factor.
Hence 12n cannot end with digit 0 or 5 for any natural number n.
Revisiting irrational numbers
An irrational number is a real number that cannot be expressed as the ratio of two

integers. The numbers , e, etc. are examples of irrational numbers.

The decimal representation of irrational numbers is non-terminating and non-repeating.

e.g. 0.101001000100001....
Theorem : Let p be a prime number. If p divides a2, then p divides a also, where
a is a positive integer.
Proof : Let the prime factorisation of a be as follows :
a = p1p2 ... pn, where p1p2, ...., pn are primes, not necessarily distinct.

Therefore, a2 = (p1, p2 ... pn) (p1,p2 ... pn) = ... .

Now, we are given that p divides a2. Therefore, from the Fundamental Theorem of
Arithmetic, it follows that p is one of the prime factors of a2. However, using the
uniqueness part of the Fundamental Theorem of Arithmetic, we realise that the only

prime factors of a2 are ... .So p is one of p1p2 ... pn.

Now, since a = p1p2 ... pn, p divides a.

Theorem : Prove that square root of 2 is irrational
Proof : We shall prove this by the method of contradiction.

If possible, let us assume that is a rational number.

Then = , b ≠ 0 where a, b are integers having no common factor other than 1.

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⇒ (squaring both sides)

⇒ 2=

⇒ b2 = … (1)

⇒ 2 divides a2 (by fundamental theorem of arithmetic)

⇒ 2 divides a, therefore let a = 2c for some integer c.

⇒ a2 = 4c2

⇒ b2 = (From equation (1))

⇒ = c2

⇒ 2 divides b2 (by fundamental theorem of arithmetic)

⇒ 2 divides b
Thus, 2 is a common factor of a and b.
But it contradicts our assumption that a and b have no common factor other than 1.

So, our assumption that is a rational, is wrong.

Hence, is irrational.

Show that is irrational.

Explanation
Let us assume, to the contrary, that is rational.

⇒ (b ≠ 0, a and b are coprime)

[ 75 ]
 Since 3, a and b are integers,

⇒ is rational, and so is rational. But this contradicts that is irrational.

So, we conclude that is irrational.

Prove that 2 + is irrational.

Explanation
Let 2 + be a rational number equals to r

∴ 2+ =r

=r–2
Here L.H.S is an irrational number while R.H.S. r – 2 is rational.
∴ L.H.S ≠ R.H.S

Hence it contradicts our assumption that 2 + is rational.

∴ 2+ is irrational.

🟋 2+ is not equal to 2

Prove that is irrational.

Explanation
Let be rational number say 'x' ⇒ x =
Squaring both side
x2 = 2 + 3 + =5+

⇒ x2 = 5 + ⇒ =
As x, 5 and 2 are rational.

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⇒ is a rational number.

⇒ So, also is a rational number.

Which is contradiction of the fact that is an irrational number.

Hence our assumption is wrong ⇒ is an irrational number.

🟋 is not equal to

Prove that is irrational, where p, q are primes.

Explanation

Let us suppose that be rational.

Let = r, where r is rational.

Therefore =r–
Squaring both sides, we get

p = r2 + q – 2r . Therefore
Now, R.H.S. is a rational number, since r is rational.
⇒ r2 is rational, q, p are both rational (since p, q are primes).

But is irrational, since q is prime.

∴ We arrive at a contradiction

∴ Our supposition is wrong.

Hence is irrational.
Revisiting rational numbers and their decimal expansion

[ 77 ]
 In Mathematics, a rational number is any number that can be expressed as the quotient

of two integers, with the denominator b not equal to zero.

🟋 The decimal representation of rational number is either terminating or non-

terminating but repeating.

e.g. , 2, 0, – 5, 2.6, 2.7777 ... etc.

Nature of the decimal expansion of rational numbers
Theorem 1 : Let x be a rational number whose decimal expansion terminates. Then we

can express x in the form , where p and q are co-primes, and the
prime factorisation of q is of the form 2m× 5n, where m, n are
non-negative integers.

Theorem 2 : Let x = be a rational number, such that the prime factorisation of q is of

the form 2m× 5n, where m, n are non-negative integers . Then, x has a
decimal expansion which terminates.

Theorem 3 : Let x = be a rational number, such that the prime factorisation of q is not
of the form 2m× 5n, where m, n are non-negative integers. Then, x has
a decimal expansion which is non-terminating repeating.
e.g.

(i)
we observe that the prime factorisation of the denominator of this rational number

is of the form 2m × 5n, where m, n are non-negative integers. Hence, has

terminating decimal expansion.

(ii) =

[ 78 ]
 we observe that the prime factorisation of the denominator of this rational number

is not of the form 2m × 5n, where m, n are non-negative integers. Hence has non-
terminating and repeating decimal expansion.

(iii) =

So, the denominator 8 of is of the form 2m × 5n, where m, n are non-negative

integers.

Hence has terminating decimal expansion.

(iv) =

Clearly, 455 is not of the form 2m×5n. So, the decimal expansion of is non-
terminating repeating.

Without actually performing the long division, find if will have terminating
or non-terminating (repeating) decimal expansion. Give reason for your answer.
Explanation

Terminating decimal expansion, because and 500 = 53 × 22.

A rational number in its decimal expansion is 327.7081. What can you say about

the prime factors of q, when this number is expressed in the form ? Give reasons.
Explanation
Since 327.7081 is a terminating decimal number, so q must be in the form of 2m × 5n
where m, n are natural numbers.

[ 79 ]
 The decimal expansion of the rational number will terminate after how
many places of decimals?
Solution

∴ Given rational number will terminate after four places of decimals.

Why is it so that the denominator of the rational number must be in the form 2m ×
5n (where m and n are non-negative integers) so as to have the decimal expansion
of that rational number as terminating?
Explanation

Let be a rational number (HCF (p, q) = 1)

Let q be not in the form of 2m. 5n
then it can be decomposed into prime factors other than 2 and 5.
Let's say q = 3m.7n
Then the rational number will not terminate because for any terminating decimal its
denominator should be of the form 10n, where n ∈ I+

e.g.

[ 80 ]
[ 81 ]