FIRST TERM E-LEARNING NOTE

SUBJECT: CHEMISTRY CLASS: JSS 3

SCHEME OF WORK

WEEK TOPIC

1. Non living things (Elements, compound and mixtures)

2. Molecules
3. Valency
4. Metals and non metals

5. Electroplating
6. Mid-term examination
8. Radioactivity
9. Uses of Radioactivity
10. Revision
11. Examination

SIMPLE MOLECULES AND THEIR SHAPES

Simple Molecules and their shapes

A molecule is the smallest particle of a substance that can exist alone and still retains the chemical
properties of that substance. Molecules are made up of atoms.

The factors that is responsible for the shape of simple covalent molecules are
1. sharing of electron that leads to overlapping of two atomic orbital
2. the central atom and their valence shell electron.

Covalent Molecules
Let consider methane is an example (CH4).
The central atom is carbon with electronic configuration of IS22S2P2 which can be spined as

During the bond formation between the carbon and hydrogen, one electron is promoted from 2S to
2P2. That is IS22S12P1x2P1y2P1 or
In the molecule of methane, the carbon atom has four bond pairs of electrons in its valence shell (the
octet rule is obeyed).
The C-H bond in methane are identical. If the 2S and three 2P orbitals are hybridized to from four
new orbital which are identical, this new hybrid orbitals are called SP3. That is one S and three P
orbitals are combined. The electron are negatively charged and they move to the corners of a regular
tetrahedron. These carbon lies at the apices of the tetrahedron.

Shape of methane

EVALUATION
1. State two (2) factors that determines the shape of simple covalent molecule
2. Draw the shape of methane and explain its formation

Ammonia
In ammonia, NH3, the central atom is Nitrogen with configuration 1S22S2P3 or
The three unpaired electron in the 2P from the covalent bond with an election of hydrogen atom. It
remain one lone pair in the outermost valence shell of nitrogen and the octect rule is satisfied.
The electron clouds of 4 pairs of electrons spaced out but not of the same shape as methane because
ammonia contains one lone pair of electrons. This give ammonia a triagonal pyramidal shape.
Shape of Ammonia

Trigonal pyramidal shape of ammonia.

Crystalline Solids
a. the crystalline solids have definite geometric shape
b. the shape of the crystal depend on
i. the force of attraction between the particle
ii. whether the particles are the same or different.
iii. The relative sizes of the particles if they are different.

There are 3 types of unit cell crystal based on cubic structure.

b. Simple cubic: the particles are placed one at each corner of the cube
c. Faced centred cubic: the particles are located at each corner and one in the centre of each
face of the cube.
d. Body-centred cubic: there is a particle at each corner and one at the centre of the cube.

Types of Crystalline Solids

Crystals can be grouped according to the chemical nature of their particles
i. covalent crystalline solid
ii. ionic crystalline solid
iii. molecular crystalline solid
iv. metallic crystalline solid.

Covalent Crystalline Solid

The best example is chemical crystal which is octahedral in shape. The crystal lattice is build frfom a
basic three- dimensional tetrahedral unit cell. The carbon atom is lined to four other carbon atoms by
covalent bonds which are directed towards the apices of a regular tetrahedron. Thus, the unit cell is
repeated several times to form a giant three-dimensional molecule.
Tetrahedral unit of diamond crystal

Octahedral shape of the diamond crystal

Arrangement of the carbon atoms in the diamond

EVALUATION
1. Explain the crystalline solid
2. Draw the structure of
(a) ammonia
(b) octahedral shape of diamond

Ionic Solids
Examples are NaCl and CuSO4 crystal. The shape of these crystals are determined according to how
positive and negative ions are arranged, and according to the sizes and changes of the ions.

Molecular Crystals
There the molecules are arranged in regular patterns to give lattices. The molecules are held together
by weak intermolecular forces e.gVander Waals force, hydrogen bond, depol-depole.
Examples of the molecules are Naphthalene, iodine and dry ice crystal.

Metallic Solid
The metallic particles are held together in a crystal lattice of closely – packed sphere.
The strength of the metallic bonds varies among different metals e.g iron is more stronger than
sodium and potassium.

GENERAL EVALUATON
1. Write short notes on the following
a. ionic solid
b. molecular crystals
c. metallic solid
2. What are the types of attractive forces present in each of the following substances at room
temperature and pressure?
(a) Methane (b) Argon
(c) Diamond (d) Water
(e) Aluminium
READING ASSIGNMENT
New School Chemistry by O.Y. Ababio pages 286-294.

WEEKEND ASSIGNMENT
1. A lone pair of electron is found in (a) ammonia (b) methane (c) water (d) carbon(iv) oxide
2. Examples of covalent molecules with linear shapes are except (a) oxygen (b) hydrogen (c)
water (d) hydrogen chloride
3. Example of compound with double bonds is (a) water (b) carbon(iv) oxide (c) methane (d)
ammonia
4. The following are types of crystalline solid except (a) covalent (b) ionic (c) metallic (d)
methane
5. The unit cells based on the cubic structure are the following except (a) simple cubic (b)
complex cubic (c) body-centred cubic (d)face-centred cubic

THEORY
1. State three (3) examples of crystalline solids with their shape
2. Explain the following simple covalent molecules and draw their shape (a) methane (b) Water
(c) carbon (iv) oxide.

ELEMENTS, COMPOUNDS AND MIXTURES

ELEMENTS AND SYMBOLS
An element is a substance which cannot be split into simpler units by ordinary chemical process. There
are over one hundred known elements.

SYMBOLS OF ELEMENTS
There are three ways in which symbols of elements are derived.
1. From the first letter of the name of the element
Element Symbols
Hydrogen H
Oxygen O
Iodine I
Fluorine F
Nitrogen N
Sulphur S
Carbon C
Phosphorus P
2. The first letter written in capital letter and one other letter from its name written in small letter.
Element Symbol
Chlorine Cl
Bramine Br
Calcium Ca
Aluminium Al
Magnesium Mg
Berylium Be
Helium He
Neon Ne
Lithium L
1. The symbols of some elements were derived from their Latin names.
Elements Latin name Symbols
Mercury Hydragyrium Hg
Sodium Natrium Na
Iron Ferrum Fe
Copper Cuprum Cu
Silver Argentum Ag
Tin Stannum Sn
Gold Aurum Au
Potassium Kalium K
Lead Plumbum Pb

EVALUATION
1. How many elements are discovered now?
2. Write the symbols for the following elements: silicon, iodine, fluorine, sulphur, silver, Iron,
copper, potassium and sodium.

CLASSIFICATION OF ELEMENTS
Elements can be classified into metals and non-metals.
Examples of metals include iron, zinc, tin, aluminium, copper etc.
Examples of non-metals are: Chlorine, oxygen, sulphur, fluorine, hydrogen etc.
Some elements however possess the properties of metals as well as non-metals. They are called
metalloids, examples are silicon and germanium.

THE DIFFERENCES BETWEEN METALS AND NON-METALS

Metal Non - metals
1. They are solids (except mercury) They are solids, liquids and gases
2. Good conductors of heat Poor conductors of heat and electricity
and electricity (except graphite which conduct electricity)
3. Malleable Brittle
4. Ductile Not ductile
5. Shiny Not shiny
1. Often very dense Usually less dense(low density)
(high density)

EVALUATION
1. What are metalloids?
2. State two differences between metals and non-metals.

COMPOUND
A Compound is a substance which contains two or more elements chemically combined together. A
compound is formed as a result of chemical change.
Examples of compounds are
Compound Constituent Elements
Water Hydrogen, oxygen
Sand silicon, oxygen
Limestone calcium, carbon, oxygen
Common salt sodium, chlorine
Ethanol carbon, hydrogen, oxygen

PROPERTIES OF A COMPOUND
1. It has properties different from those of its component elements.
2. Its formation often requires large amount of heat.
3. It cannot be separated by physical means.
4. The components of a compound have a fixed ratio by mass.
5. Compounds are homogenous.

EVALUATION
1. Define a compound.
2. Give three examples of a compound.
FORMULAE OF COMPOUNDS
When an element exists as a molecule, a number is written as a subscript after the symbol of that
element. For example, hydrogen is written as H2 and oxygen as 02.
A compound contains whole numbers of atoms of the component elements. Its molecular formula is
written as follows.
1. The symbols of all the component elements are written close together as a group.
2. The number of atoms of each component element is written as a subscript after the symbol of
that element.

Examples
Compound Formula
Hydrochloric acid HCl
Water H20
Ammonia NH3
Carbon(IV)oxide C02
Lead II chloride PbCl2
Calcium trioxonitrate(V) Ca(NO3)2

WRITING FORMULA FROM VALENCIES

Formulae of compounds can be deduced from the valencies of the component elements or radicals,
following the rules below.
i. Write the symbols of the element or radicals in a compound
ii. Write their valencies below the symbols of elements/radicals
iii. Exchange their valencies.
iv. Now write the formula of the compound bringing the symbols of the element or radicals together

Examples
1. Write the formula of sodium tetraoxosulphate(VI)
Rule 1 Na S04
Rule 2 & 3 1 2
Rule 4 Na2S04

2. Write the formula of calcium chloride

Rule 1 Ca Cl
Rule 2 & 3 2 1
Rule 4 CaCl2

EVALUATION
1. Write the formulae of; (i) tetraoxosulphate(vi) acid (ii) Magnesium Chloride
2. State three properties of a compound

MIXTURES
A mixture contains two or more constituents which can easily be separated by physical methods.
Examples of mixtures with their constituents are outlined below:
Mixture Constituents
Air Oxygen, Carbon (iv)oxide, nitrogen, rare gases, dust,
moisture
Soil Sand, clay, humus, water, air, mineral salts
Urine urea, water, mineral salt
Palm wine water, sugar, alkanol, mineral salts, vitamins, yeast,
protein, fat
Coca-cola water, sugar, cola, CO2
Milk water, sugar, fat, protein, mineral salts, vitamin
Sea water water, mineral salts, bacteria, remains of organic matter
Brass copper and zinc

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN MIXTURES AND COMPOUNDS

Mixture Compound
1. It may be homogenous It is always homogenous.
or heterogeneous.
2. It can be separated into It cannot be separated into its
its constituents by physical components by physical means.
means
3. The constituents can be The components are present in a
added in any ratio by mass fixed ratio by mass. Hence a
Hence a mixture cannot be compound can always be repre-
represented by a chemical sented by a chemical formula.
Formula.
4. The properties of a mixture The properties of a compound
are the sum of those of its are entirely different from those
individual constituents. of its components.

EVALUATION
1. List five (5) compounds and their formulae
2. What is a mixture?
3. State four differences between compound and mixture

READING ASSIGNMENT
• New School Chemistry for SSS by O.Y Ababio. Pg 11, 36 to 37

GENERAL EVALUATION/REVISION
1. State the valency of the following elements and radicals: Na, K, S, O, SO42-, NO3-, CO32-
2. Write the formula of: a) Lead (ii) tetraoxosulphate (vi) b) Hydrochloric acid c) Sodium
trioxocarbonate (iv) d) Calcium hydroxide

WEEKEND ASSIGNMENT
1. Which of the following is a mixture? (a) water(b) sugar(c) milk (d) starch
2. Which of the following is a compound? (a) water (b) soil (c) diamond (d) graphite
3. Which of these formulae represents ammonia? (a) NH3 (b) NH4+ (c) NH2 (d) CH4
4. The formula for sand is (a) C02 (b) SO2 (c) NO2 (d) SiO2
5. Compounds are always (a) heterogeneous (b) homogeneous (c) homogeneous or
heterogeneous (d) chemogeneous
THEORY
1. a. Define (i) Compound (ii) Mixture
b. Give two examples each of compound and Mixtures
2. a. State four differences between compound and mixture
b. What is the formula of
i) tetraoxosulphate (vi) acid
ii) Ammonium sulphide
iii) Sodium tetraoxophosphate

VALENCY
Valency is the combining power of an element. It can also be defined as the number of hydrogen atoms
that can combine with or replace one atom of that element.
Valency of an element depends on the structure of that element. At times it corresponds to the number
of electrons in the outermost shells called valence electrons.
Below are the valencies of some elements:

Element Symbol Valency

Aluminium Al +3
Argon Ar Nil
Calcium Ca +2
Chlorine Cl -1
Sulphur S -2, -4 or -6
Sodium Na +1
Magnesium Mg +2
Copper Cu +1 or +2
Carbon C -2 or -4
Barium Ba +2
Silver Ag +1
Iron Fe +2 or +3

Valencies have either positive or negative values showing whether electrons are gained or lost. If an
element gains electrons, its value is negative but positive when it loses electrons.
Generally, metals exhibit positive valencies while non - metal tend to have negative valencies. Some
element exhibits more than one valency. Valency can also be called oxidation number or state.

RADICALS
A radical is a group of atoms having an electric charge either positive or negative which keeps its identity
and react as a single unit. Any small group of atoms carrying a negative charge is called an acid radical.
Examples of acid radicals include S042-, C032-, N03-
The valency of a radical corresponds to the charge it carries.

Radical Formula Valency

Ammonium NH4+ +1
Hydroxide 0H- -1
Trioxonitrate(V) N03- -1
Dioxonitrate(III) N02- -1
Trioxocarbonate(IV) C032- -2
Tetraoxosulphate(VI) S042- -2
Hydrogen trioxocarbonate HC03- -1
GENERAL EVALUATION/REVISION
1. Define (i) valency (ii) Radical
2. Write the valency of: a) Oxygen (b) Potassium c) Sulphur d) S042- e) NH4+
3. Classify the following into physical or chemical changes: a) Rusting of iron b) Fermentation of
palm wine c) Evaporation of a salt solution d) Melting of ice
READING ASSIGNMENT
• New School Chemistry for SSS by O.Y Ababio. Pg 26, 32-33

WEEKEND ASSIGNMENT
1. The combining power of oxygen is (a)+2 (b)-2 (c)-1 (d)+1
2. Which of the following is a metalloid? (a) sulphur (b) iron (c) silicon (d) carbon
3. The symbol Au represents (a) silver (b) lead (c) copper (d) gold
4. Which of the following elements is used as a standard in defining valency?
(a) oxygen (b) copper (c) carbon (d) hydrogen
5. Which of the following metals is a liquid at room temperature?
(a) iron (b) gold (c) tin (d) mercury

THEORY
1. a. Define an element.
e. Write the symbols of the following elements
(i) Manganese (ii) Caesium (iii) Cobalt
2. a. What are metalloids?
b. Give two differences between metals and non-metal

Metals and non-metals definition

As previously mentioned, elements are divided into two broad categories; metals and non-metals.
Metals are elements that chemically react by losing their outer electrons to form positive ions.
Non-metals are elements which do not form positive ions when going through a chemical reaction.
A way in which we can differentiate between a metal and a non-metal is by analysing the way they
behave in a chemical reaction. Elements try to achieve better stability by having a full outer shell of
electrons.

In the Bohr model of the atom, the first electron shell can only hold a maximum of two electrons,
while the second and third shells contain eight electrons when filled up. Inner shells must be filled up
before electrons start to fill outer shells. You do not need to worry about electron shells past the third
shell at this level.
They can do this in two ways:

1. by gaining electrons,
2. by losing electrons.

Elements that lose electrons in chemical reactions end up forming positive ions are metals. While the
elements that do not form positive ions, instead gain electrons to form negative ions. Furthermore,
elements in group 0 (which already have a full outer shell of electrons) exhibit the properties and
characteristics of non-metals too.

Ions are atoms or molecules that have an electric charge due to gaining or losing electrons.
Nevertheless, there can be exceptions. Some elements have the characteristics of elements from
metals and non-metals. These types of metals are called metalloids or semi-metals.

One example of this is silicon, which has an atomic structure like metal but cannot conduct electricity
well.

In the periodic table, we have a general trend. As you move across the period from left to right on the
periodic table the metal characteristics of elements decrease. As you go down a group, the metal
characteristics of elements increase.

Characteristics of metals and non-metals

Now that we know what metals and non-metals are let us explore the difference between the two. We
can start by looking at their electron configurations. Metals of a low atomic number will generally have
1-3 outer shell electrons and non-metals will have 4-8 outer shell electrons.

Let's move on to bonding, metals bond through metallic bonding via the loss of the outer electrons.
Non-metals use other types of bonding such as covalent bonding, where electrons are instead
shared between atoms in molecules.

In terms of conductivity, metals are very good conductors of electricity but non-metals are bad
conductors of electricity.

Conductivity is the ability of a substance to transfer heat energy or electrical current from one place
to another.
Let's move on to how metals and non-metals react chemically with a couple of common substances.
When reacting with oxygen, metals form basic oxides with some being amphoteric. Non-metals form
acidic oxides which can sometimes be neutral. In addition, metals can readily react with acids,
whereas non-metals tend to not react with acids.

A molecule or ion that is amphoteric has the ability to react with a base and an acid.
An acid oxide which is neutral displays none of the typical properties of acids and cannot form salts.
Looking at the physical properties of metals on metals and non-metals. Metals tend to be shiny, are
solid at room temperature (apart from mercury), are malleable, ductile and have a high melting and
boiling point. On the other hand, non-metals are dull and do not reflect light, their states at room
temperature vary, they are brittle and have relatively low melting and boiling points.

Malleability is a measure of how easy it is to bend a material into shape.

Ductility is how easily a material can be drawn into thin wires.
Fig. 3 - A bundle of copper wire. It is malleable and ductile, therefore exhibiting the characteristics of
a metal.

Characteristic Metal Non-metal

Electron configuration 1-3 outer electrons 4-7 outer electrons
Conductivity Good conductor Bad conductor
Forms metallic bonds by losing Forms covalent bonds by
Bonding
electrons sharing electrons
Forms basic oxides with some Forms acidic oxides with
Oxide
being amphoteric some being neutral
Reacting with acids Readily reacts with acids Tends to not react with acid
Physical properties Shiny Not shiny
Solid at room temperature Different states at room
(except mercury) temperature
Ductile and malleable Brittle
High boiling point Low boiling point
High melting point Low melting point
Table. 1 - Characteristics of metals and non-metals

Metal and non-metal elements

So we have discussed what metals and non-metals are, and their characteristics. But which elements
are metal and non-metals? Let us explore a few common examples.

Oxygen

Oxygen is a non-metal and has the chemical symbol O. It is one of the most common elements found
on earth and the second-most abundant element in the atmosphere. Oxygen is an important element
as it is required for the survival of both plants and animals. Oxygen is not found by itself, rather
scientists have to separate it from other elements. Oxygen has two allotropic forms (diatomic and
triatomic) that occur in nature, molecular oxygen O2 and ozone O3.

An element can be allotropic if it can exist in more than one physical form.
By itself, oxygen is colourless, odourless and has no taste. Oxygen has many practical applications.
For example, animals and plants require oxygen to carry out respiration which produces energy.
Oxygen is also used in manufacturing and fueling rocket engines.

Carbon

Fig. 4 - A synthesised diamond, which is an allotropic form of carbon.

Carbon is also a non-metal and has the chemical symbol C. Carbon is another element that is
important for life. Virtually all molecules in all living organisms contain carbon as it can readily form
bonds with many other types of atoms, which allows the flexibility and function that most
biomolecules require.
Carbon is allotropic and can exist as graphite and diamonds, which are both valuable materials. Also,
substances that have large amounts of carbon, like coal, are burned to provide us with energy to
power our daily lives, these are known as fossil fuels.

Aluminium

Aluminium is a metal and has the chemical symbol al. Aluminium is one of the most abundant metals
on earth. It is lightweight and its metallic properties allow it to be used in a variety of industries such
as transportation, building and more. It is key to how we live our modern-day lives.
Magnesium

Magnesium is a metal and has the chemical symbol Mg. Magnesium is another metal that is
lightweight and abundant. Like oxygen, magnesium is not found by itself. Rather, it is usually found as
a part of compounds in the rocks and soil. Magnesium can also be used to separate other metals from
their compounds, as it is something called a reducing agent. As it is not very strong, it is often
combined with other metals to make alloys to become more useful as a construction material.
Metals and non-metals examples

We have so far explored the definition of metals and non-metals, their different characteristics and
some examples of their elements and their uses. Let us consolidate our knowledge and answer some
practice questions.

Question
What is a metalloid and give an example of one.
Solution
Elements that have the characteristics of elements from metals and non-metals. An example of this is
silicon, which has a structure like metal but cannot conduct electricity well.
Question 2
Give three differences between a metal and a non-metal.
Solution 2
Metals are good conductors of electricity but non-metals are bad conductors of electricity. Metals
readily react with acids and non-metals do not. Finally, metals form metallic bonds, and non-metals
form covalent bonds.
Question 3
An element has a group number of 2 and a period number of 2. Without consulting the periodic table,
do you expect this element to be a metal or a non-metal?
Solution 3
The element has a period number of 2, which means it has a small atomic number. The element also
has a group number of 2, which means it has 2 electrons in its outer shell. At a low atomic number, it
is easier for this element to attain stability by losing two electrons than by gaining 6.
By losing 2 negatively-charged electrons the element becomes a positively charged ion. This element
is a metal.
ELECTROPLATING
Electroplating is a method of coating the surface of one metal with another metal, usually copper, silver,
chromium, nickel, or gold by means of electrolysis.
The main objectives of electroplating are
1. Decoration
2. Protection against corrosion.
Article which are usually plated include cutlery, jewellery and iron or steel objects such as the metallic
parts of motor cars

Silver – plating of a spoon

In Silver plating of an iron spoon
a. The anode is a silver rod
b. The cathode is the spoon
c. The electrolyte is a soluble silver salt, usually a silver trioxonitrate V solution

At the anode: Ag(s) Ag+ + e-

At the cathode: Ag+(aq) + e- Ag(s)

GENERAL EVALUATION/REVISION
3. In silver – plating an iron spoon, which electrode is the spoon made?
4. Electrolytes used in silver – plating is.

READING ASSIGNMENT
New School Chemistry for Senior Secondary Schools by O. Y. Ababio (6th edition) pages 210-212.

RADIOACTIVITY
Radioactivity is a process in which nuclei of certain elements undergo spontaneous disintegration
without excitation by any external means. The elements whose atoms disintegrate and emit radiations
are called radioactive elements.

The radioactivity may be broadly classified into two types.

(1) If a substance emits radiations by itself, it is said to possess natural radioactivity
(2) If a substance starts emitting radiations on exposure to rays from some natural radioactive
substance, the phenomenon is called induced or artificial radioactivity.
Radioactivity can be detected and measured by a number of devices like ionisation chamber, Geiger
Muller counter, scintillation counter, Wilson cloud chamber etc.

Nuclear Reaction
This is the spontaneous emission of radiation that involves the nuclei of radioactive element.

Nuclear Fusion
This is the process in which two or more light nuclei of elements combine together to form a heavier
nucleus with release of both energy and radiation.
This process is used to produce hydrogen bomb, it is also believed to be the source of energy of the
sun and stars.

Nuclear Fission
This is the process in which the nucleus of a heavy element is split into two nuclei of nearly equal
mass with a release of energy and radiation. The process is used to produce atomic bomb.

EVALUATION
1. Write short notes about
c. Nuclear fission
d. Nuclear fusion
2. What is the principle of atomic bomb.

Effect of Radioactivity
1. It causes changes in cell structure and body chemistry
2. It leads to anemia, cancer, leukemia and genetic mutations, even death
The thick blocks of lead, iron and high density concrete can be used to get shielded from the harmful
effect of radioactive rays.

APPLICATION OF RADIOACTIVITY
1. sterilization
2. medical uses
3. industrial uses
4. agricultural uses
5. as radioactive tracers
6. used for dating techniques

Differences Between Nuclear Reaction and Chemical Reactions

Nuclear Reaction Chemical Reaction
1. Release large amount of energy Release little amount of energy when
compared to that of nuclear reaction
2. It involves nuclei of atoms of radioactive It revolves the outer most electrons of
elements atoms.
3. This produces different elements The compound produces contain the same type of
element from the reactants.
4. It produces radiation No radiation produce
5. Temperature and pressure have no effect Both temperature and pressure have
on chemical reaction efects on chemical reaction
Artificial Transmutation
This is the process of transmutation of an element by bombarding it with fast moving atomic particles
e.g neutrons, protons, deuterons and alpha particles.
7N + 0n 6C + 1P
14 1 14 1

N.B: If the nucleus being bombarded is heavy it captures the neutron to produce an isotope of the
original element
27Co + 10n 27CO
59 60

Binding Energy
If mathematical calculations is carried out between the parent nucleus and daughter nuclei together
with neutrons and protons on either nuclear fussion or nuclear fission, it will be found that the values
are differed.
The loss of mass is known as mass defect and can be accounted for by Albert Einsteins theory of
relativity.
E = MC2
E is energy in joule (j)

Radioactive Disintegration
This is the process by which radioactive elements decay spontaneously to release radiation.
During this process, there is usually transmutation of an atom . That is formation of daughter nucleus
from the disintegrating nucleus.

Alpha Decay
When an atom losses ά particles during disintegration, the atomic number and atomic mass of the
atoms is reduced by 2 and 4 respectively. This can be represented as
ZK Z-2L + 4 2He
A A-4

e.g 238
U 235
Th + 4
2He

Beta Decay
During beta decay the atomic number of the atom increases by one unit, but the atomic mass number
remains unaltered.
A
K (2+1)L + -1 e

234
Th 234
Pa + -1 e

Gamma Decay
Gamma rays usually accompany the emission of either alpha or beta particles e.g
234
Th 234
Pa + -1e + y

Radioactive Decay Series

Sometimes, if the nuclei of the new elements produced during radioactive decay is not stable, the
disintegration continue until a stable nucleus is finally produced e.g. Uranium series, the thorium
series and the actinium series.
M is the loss in mass in kilogram (kg) and C is the velocity of light in ms-1

GENERAL EVALUATION
 a. Define the following with an example each (a) Nuclear Fission (b) Nuclear Fusion
b. (a) State two effects of radioactivity.
(b) State two differences between nuclear reaction and chemical reaction.

READING ASSIGNMENT
New School Chemistry by O. Y. Ababio pages 304-310.

WEEKEND ASSIGNMENT
1. Examples of radioactive elements are except (a) Uranium (b) Polonium (c) Thorium (d) Oxygen
2. 235 92U + 1n → 141 56Ba + 92 36Kr + 3 1 0n
The above nuclear reaction represents (a) nuclear fission (b) nuclear fusion (c) oxidation
reaction (d) esterification reaction.
3. 238 92U 234
90Th + A. In the equation, A represents (a) hydrogen (b) beryllium
(c) helium (d) oxygen
4. Chain reaction helps during the preparation of ____ (a) Solar bomb (b) atomic bomb (c)
hydrogen bomb (d) nuclear fusion
5. 23 11Na + 01n 24
11Na The reaction represents (a) artificial radioactivity (b) Natural
radioactivity (c) Nuclear fission (d) Binding energy.

THEORY
1. Explain briefly the principle of the operation of a nuclear power plant
2. State five (5) uses of radioactivity