CH1 - INFORMATION REPRESENTATION

Prefix; denary & binary

DENARY
 base 10 with digits 0-9

BINARY
 base 2 system, represented with 1 and 0
 All inputs need to be converted to binary for computers

DECIMAL PREFIXES
 Kilobyte = 1000 bytes = 10^3

 Megabyte = 10^6
 Gigabyte
 Terabyte

BINARY PREFIXES (power of 10)

 Kibibyte = 1024 bytes = 2^10
 Mebibyte = 2^20
 Gibibyte
 Tebibyte

*Nibble = 4 bits
*Byte = 8 bits

Converting Negative Decimal Numbers into Binary Numbers

1. One’s Complement
 Process: Turn all ‘0’s to ‘1’s and the ‘1’s to ‘0’s
 Example: 01000011 → 10111100
2. Two’s Complement
 Process: Turn all ‘0’s to ‘1’s and the ‘1’s to ‘0’s, and add 1
 Ex: 0111 → 1000 → 1001
: 1111 → 0000 → 0001
: -65 → 65 → 01000001 → 10111110 → 10111111
 Added together to get another ‘1’ at the beginning of the binary (to be ignored,
tally bit, overflow)
 If it is a positive number already, just convert it like normal.

BINARY ARITHMETIC
 Overflow
 The largest number of bits a register can hold at a time is exceeded
 CPU discards the overflow digit (It will think it is 255 + 1)
 Ex: 11111111 + 1 → 1 00000000 → 00000000

BINARY CODED DECIMALS (BCD)

= binary encodings of decimal numbers where each digit is represented by a fixed number of
bits
1. Unpacked
  A numeral encoded into one byte (8 bits, first 4 0s insignificant)
 Ex: 8 5 0 3 → 00001000 00000101 00000000 00000011
2. Packed
 A numeral encoded into a nibble (4 bits, most significant), typically used for
transmission, can be made into 2 bytes
 Ex: 8 5 0 3 → 1000 0101 0000 0011 → 10000101 00000011
Applications of BCD:
 Digital Calculator
 Digital Clock
 Digital Thermometer
 Currency Values

HEXADECIMAL (base 16)

Why
 Easier to debug as it is close to human language
 Reduces errors as less digits to write
When
 MAC addresses
 RGB colors in HTML

ASCII CODE (AMERICAN STANDARD CODE FOR INFORMATION INTERCHANGE)

 Has a unique binary code for each character known as, Character Code
 7 bit code, uses 1 byte of memory per character and extended ascii uses 8 bits
 Typically used for storing, displaying or printing text
Limitations:
 Only supports up to 256 characters
 Does not support many symbols from international languages (not enough space to
store)
Special features:
 Uppercase letters only differ from lowercase letters in bit 6
 Ex: a (01100001) → A (01000001)
 It is in alphabetical order

UNICODE
 Covers majority of different languages across the world
 Uses 16 bits/32bits (4 digits only, represents 2 bytes)
Limitations:
 Requires more space compared to ASCII (16 bits instead of 8 bits)


 More bits are required for non-ASCII characters

Special features:
 Big enough to handle all existing characters and symbols
 Characters from the same language are grouped together and are in its natural order (if
can be made possible)
IMAGES
VECTORS BITMAP

Adobe Illustrator, Adobe Photoshop (SVG, JPEG, PNG

CGM)

 To edit the design, need to change  Consists of a matrix of individual dots (or
each of the geometric shapes pixels) that all have their own color (made
 File size is small since made up of up of binary)
geometric shapes  Made up of pixels
 Created by a drawing package or a  Image built from pixel by pixel, final
computer-aided design (CAD) image are usually very realistic
 Constructed using mathematical  Can edit each pixel to change the design
formulas, which makes it scalable of the image
 Has a drawing list  Most images are typically stored as a
bitmap
 Bitmap image usually have a file header

 limited number of geometric  very large file size because of pixel

shapes causes graphics to not (accurate designs)
appear to be very realistic  Poor quality when zoomed in
 Only can be displayed on a graph  Decimation: throwing away pixels when
plotter (expensive hardware), not zooming out which changes the image in
cost effective an unacceptable manner
 Slow reading and rendering process (due
to expansion of compressed data)

*Drawing list = set of commands used to define a property (thickness, style, colour, fill colour)
of the object

*Vectors = scalable and do not pixelate like a bitmap image therefore are used by corporations
to create logos as they can resized without losing quality

*Pixel= small blocks of addressable areas & the color they have is represented by binary and
stored as bits
*File header = a few bytes of binary and represents basic information about the graphic, such
as image resolution, size, and number of colors
*Image resolution = the amount of pixels an image contains per inch
*Screen Resolution = the number of pixels per row by the number of pixels per column
*Color depth = number of bits used to represent the color of a single pixel
 The higher the color depth/image resolution, the better the color quality and. file size
*Bit depth = the number of bits used to represent each pixel in an image

SOUND
= vibrations that travels through a medium
 continuous in nature

1. Analogue to Digital Converter (ADC):

  Converts analogue sound to digital signals which can be digitally stored
 Analogue wave is picked up by a microphone and send to an ADC in the form of
analogue electrical signals
 Once the sound wave is converted into a digital form it can be stored and manipulated

2. Digital to Analogue Converter (DAC)

 converts digital signals into analogue signal that can be output
 DACs take a binary number of the digital form of audio and turn it into an analog voltage
or current that, when done, can create a wave of audio that represents the digital signal
 It creates the analog version of the digital audio in "steps" of each digital reading

HOW SAMPLING WORKS

 amplitude of the sound wave is first determined at set time intervals (sampling rate)
 Gives an approximate representation of the sound wave
 Sound wave is then encoded as a series of binary digits

*Sampling rate = number of samples taken per second

 higher sampling rate means the waveform will be converted from analog to digital form
more accuracy
*Sampling Resolution = number of bits assigned to each sample
 sampling resolution allows user to set the range of volumes storable for each sample
 Quality of sound produced using a sound sampler depends on the sampling
rate/resolution
 High Sampling rate/resolution
 less sound distortion
 better sound quality
 Larger dynamic range
 Larger file size
 Longer to transmit/download files
COMPRESSION
= technique to reduce the size of a file without reducing the quality in the use of the file
Why?
 files tend to have large file size
 Transfer speed is slow

LOSSLESS LOSSY

PNG jpeg, MP3

 compressed file which can be  Unnecessary data is permanently removed

restored to its original file size  The unnecessary sounds (such as background noises)
 Save the color code for every can be removed from the audio file to reduce the file
pixel size.
 Use run length encoding  an image which has a large background could be
encoded so the background pixels have a lower
resolution
 Colors such as blue, to which the human eye is less
sensitive could be encoded at a lower resolution

RUN LENGTH ENCODING

= compression in which sequences with the same data value in many consecutive values are
stored as a single data value and count


 form of lossless file compression that reduce the size of a string
 Can be used on images, text
 Ex: 000012341111 => (0-4)1234(1-4)

METHODS ON FILE COMPRESSION

1. Movie Files
 reduce the sampling rate used
 Reduce the sampling resolution
 Reduce frame rate
2. Image Files
 crop the image
 Decrease color/bit depth
 Reduce image resolution

CH2 - COMMUNICATION AND NETWORKING TECHNOLOGIES

LOCAL AREA NETWORK (LAN)

= network contained within a small building
  belong to an organisation/private
 Geographically small
 Use cable/low powered radio (wireless) for connections (twisted pair)
Benefits:
 Resource sharing, a number of devices can share the same resources such as printers
 More secure than wide area network as it is easier to implement security measures due
to small area

 Cheaper,less expensive to install especially in small areas

 Expense of installing application software on each pc could be saved by installing
the software on the application server attached to a LAN
 Instead of using many cheap printers for each pc, can use one good quality
printer attached to a LAN
 Efficient
 File server that's attached to LAN allows user to store and share large files
 Paperless office - can be save on file server
Disadvantage:

 managing can be difficult and complex

 Malware and hacking can affect the entire network
 Central dependency many LAN can depend on a single point or server
 Limited range they are confined to a small area
 Performance issues as more devices are added to LAN network performance can
degrade

HARDWARE:
1. hubs
 Connects devices to form LANS
 Send data packets to every computer in the network this leads to security risks
and wastes bandwidth
2. Switch
 Connects devices to form LAN send the data packets to appropriate node thus
more secure than hubs
 Devices within a network that forward packets within the network itself
 Allow multiple computers to connect to a network through a single node
1. Server
 Computer or system that provides resources, data, service to computers, known
as clients
2. Network Interface Card (NIC)
 Computer hardware component that connects a wire-based computer to a
computer network usually the company’s network
 It allows computers to connect to networks such the internet.
3. Wireless Network Interface Card (WNIC)
 Computer hardware component that connects a radio-based computer to a
computer network usually the company’s network
 Use antennas to communicate with the computer via microwaves
 And usually plugged to the USB port
4. Wireless Access Point (WAP)
  Access pint which allows wired devices to connect to a wired network the wap
itself is connected to the wired network.
 Hardware device on a LAN that allows wireless capable devices and wired
networks to connect through a wireless standard (WiFi or Bluetooth).
5. Cables
 Wired transmission medium that allow communication in wired networks
 Coaxial, Twisted Pair, and Fibre optic cables
6. Bridge
 Connect two lans with the same protocols
 Connect multiple devices that has the same protocol & provide communication
between them
7. Repeater
 Extend the range of a network by regenerating and amplifying signals allowing
signals to reach long distances
 Prevents dead spots
 Non logical devices as the boost all signals detected
 Unmanageable
 latency
 Expanding network coverage by combining 2 LAN signals
WIDE AREA NETWORK (WAN)
= network that extends over a large area
 created by joining several LAN together
 Used by company to connect different sites but not owned by the company
 Provided from a PSTN(Public switched telephone network)
 Use fibre optic Cable, satellite radio, and microwave radio
Benefits:
 Wider reach : can connect locations over large distances allowing businesses to
operate in different cities.
 Resource sharing organisation can share resources such as servers database and
applications
 Scalability, they are easily expandable
 Job can be run on a remote computer that had the required application software
 Data archive that was stored on a remote computer can be access
 Message could be transmitted electronically to a user on a remote computer
Disadvantages:
 Expensive to setup due to the need of dedicated lines and routers
 More complex to manage than LAN need specialised knowledge and skills
 Security vulnerability the larger the network the increase in potential attacks
HARDWARE
1. Routers
 Connect 2 different network using the same protocol.
 Regulate network traffic
 Assign private IP address
 Calculates the most efficient route for data packets to be sent
 Receive and forward packets from a network using the most efficient route
2. Gateways
 Connect 2 network using different protocol
 Regulate network traffic
 Assign private IP address
 Convert data packets from one protocol to another
 Receive and forward packets from a network
 3. Server
Computer or system that provides a specific function for computers using a

network such as file storage, delivery of web pages, etc
4. modems
 It allows the computer to connect to the internet by turning digital data into an
analogue signal so it can travel over phone lines and cable wires

INTERNET WORKING
= shortened to Internet
INTERNET is massive network of networks which are made up of various computers and
electronic devices
 uses IP protocol/ transmission control protocols (TCP)
 Access provided by internet service providers
 Forms a collection of connected networks and is a packet-switched network
 All network traffic is made up of packets of data with a source address and destination
address
 There will be a large number of available paths for the transmission of any data packet

FUNDAMENTAL REQUIREMENTS TO CONNECT TO THE INTERNET

 A device
 Telephone line connection or a mobile network connection
 A router
 Internet service provider
 A web browser

Hardware to support the Internet/COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS:

1. Public Switched Telephone Network (PSTN): traditional network used for telephone
communications
= switching centre that connects all networks together
 allows any telephone to communicate with each other
 Dedicated channel used between 2 points for the duration of the call via
circuit switching
 Always open whether or not somebody is talking
 Connection maintain throughout the telephone call
 Line remain active even in a power outage,they have their own power
source
 Bidirectional communication
2. Dedicated Line:private communication channels reserved exclusively for a specific user
or organisation. Used for
-telecommunication,uninterrupted voice calls
-internet access, high speed connections and uninterrupted access to the web
-data transfer,secure connections and consisted data transfer
= permanent connection that is used for business purposes
 Not commonly shared among multiple users bought/leased
 Allows consistent data transfer speed
 Hence allow users to maintain a continuous, uninterrupted calls
 3. Cell Phone Networks: communication systems that allows mobile phones to
connect to each other / telephone networks and the internet.through a series of
interconnected CELLS EACH served by a BASE STATION
= Wireless network spread over large areas called ‘cells’
 each cell is served by at least 1 fixed location transceiver = base station
 Each cell uses a different set of frequencies to avoid interference
 When joined together, cells provide radio coverage over a wide geographical
area
4. Internet Service Provider
= organisation that provides services for accessing and using the internet

CLIENT SERVER MODEL

= server based network where the the clients send requests data to the server and the server
processes and sends the data to the client
 clients sends a request to the server and server find requested data and send it back to
client
Benefit:
 More secure
 Users need username and password
 Files and resources are centralised hence easier to manage
 Provide backup solutions due to centralised storage
Costs
 Expensive to set up and maintain servers
 If the servers goes down the network stops as well
Types of Servers:
1. File Server
 all software and user data files can be stored on the server
2. Email Server
 send, receive, and store emails
3. Print Server
 manages print jobs from network client computers
4. Database Server
 manages a database management system; MySQL
5. WebServer
 manages pages available from a website
PEER-TO-PEER
Decentralised network where each node connected to each other stores its own data and
acts as a client and server
= consist of a direct link between 2 computers, therefore not needing any server
 no central server
 Nodes can share files with each other and each nodes will have its own data
Benefits:
 faster and more reliable because its a direct connection/less network traffic each peer
can simultaneously receive data from different sources
 No need to authentic users
 Scalability is easier
 Cheaper since there is reduce need of servers in the network
 If one node goes down the network still works

Disadvantages:
 used in small areas
  Security risks as there is no authentication
 Data integrity issues data is accessed by many clients hence may be inconsistent
 Max nodes = 10
 Performance issues.

THIN-CLIENT
= a client that only provides input and receive output from the application
 choose an app to run on the server
 Sends input data to the server when requested by app
 Received output from the app
Benefits:
 cheap to expand
 Hardwares are cheap
 All devices are linked to a server
 Update and new softwares installation done centrally
 Server can offer protection against malwares and hacking
Disadvantages:
 High reliance on server
 Goes down = devices won't work
 Startup cost is high

THICK CLIENT
= a client that carries out at least some of the processing itself
 Choose an app provided by the server
 Possibly carries out some processing before running the app on the server and also
after receiving the output from the app
 Possibly download the app from server and runs the app by itself
Benefits:
 More robust
 Can carry out processing even without connection to server
 Clients have more control
 Store their own programs and data/files
Disadvantages:
 Less secure
 Rely on client to keep own data secure
 Each client need to update data and software individually
 Data integrity issues
 Many clients access the same data which can lead to inconsistencies

THIN CLIENT THICK CLIENT

 relies on a connection to a remote  can run some features even without connection to
server the server
 Requires very few local resources;  Relies heavily on local resources
SSD, RAM  More tolerant on slow network connections
 Relies on good, stable, and fast  Can store data on local resources; HDD, SSD
connection
 Data is stored on a remote server
ETHERNET
Protocol used by wired lans which allows devices in the lan to send data between themselves
via cables
Made up of:
A node(any device on LAN)
medium(path used by LAN devices such as ethernet cables)
frame(data is transmitted in frames which are made up of source address and destination
addresses)

CONFLICTS
Occurs when devices on the same network have the same IPaddress . it is impossible for
devices without unique IP addresses to connect to the internet .
Occurs when one device having a dynamic IP address has the same address as a device
having a static ip address.
To resolve this a router may need to be restarted.

COLLISION
Occurs when two nodes are transmitting data on the same channel at the same time
Carrier sense multiple access with collision detector(CSMA/CD)
Carrier sense
First detects if a collision has occurred if a collision has occurred then a device stops
transmitting frame and transmits a jamming signal.
The device waits a random amount of time before restarting/retrying
Collision
= if 2 end systems were to transmit message at the same timeCarrier Sense Multiple Access /
Collision Detection (CSMA/CD)
1. Workstation tune in to the communication channel
2. If no data is being transmitted, computer can send data
3. If collusion occurs, each workstation waits at random time before transmitting

CLOUD COMPUTING; allows computers to access or store data and application over the
internet instead of local computers and servers
= the provision of computing services usually via the internet
Benefits:
 Accessibility,can be accessed from anywhere where internet is available.
 Acts as a backup for any accidental data loss.
 Scalability, easy to adjust to cope with an organisations requirement.

Disadvantages:
 Security risks, data stored can be vulnerable to hacking.
 Internet dependency , requires stable internet.
 Downtime cloud service providers may experience outages that may make data unable
to access.
 Ongoing costs such as subscription fees.

1. Private Cloud
= owned by one organisation and only accesses by one organisation
  the organisation take full responsibility for creating and managing the cloud
installed on-site and connected to a private network.
 The organisation outsources to a third party the creation and management of an
on-site installation to a private network
 The organisation outsources the creation and management of an internet
accessible system by a third-party
Benefits:
 Enhanced security, since resources are only for one organisation which means
greater control over security measures reducing risk of data breach.
 Flexibility, can scale resource up or down based on their needs.
 Customization organisation can tailor infrastructure and applications to meet
specific requirements.
Disadvantage:
- more expensive, due to the need of purchasing hardware and having top personnel.
- complex to maintain and manage need high level skills.

2. Public Cloud: computing services are provided over the internet by a third party provider
= owned by a cloud service provider for general access.
Advantages
-Cost effective, users only pay for the resources they consume while the costs of
maintenance is take upon by service providers.
- can be accessed anywhere where internet is available.

Disadvantages
 Security risks, shared resources can expose sensitive data to breaches.
 Limited control over infrastructures and may face limitations in customization .
 Downtime,cloud services providers can experience outages preventing accessibility.

TOPOLOGIES
1. Bus
 Single central cable connecting all devices with terminators at each end
 Terminators are needed at each end to prevent signal reflection
 Travels in only one direction(if data is sent between devices than the other
device cannot transmit.
 They are typically peer to peer
Benefits:
 Even if one node fails the the network still functions.
 Easy to increase size of the network by adding additional nodes.
Disadvantages:
 If the main cable breaks the entire network goes down.
 Performance deteriorates after heavy loading.
 Difficult to troubleshoot therefore not used in large networks.
 Not secure since each data packet passes through every node.

2. Star
 Uses a central switch/ hub where nodes are connected .
 Each node has a dedicated connection.
  Each end-system has a point-to-point connection to the central device
 Transmission is duplex
 The central device can be used to connect the network to other networks
Benefits:
 More secure data goes to the correct data packets.
 Easy to install and wire.
 No disruptions to the network if one node fails.
 Easy to detect faults and to remove parts.
Disadvantages:
 Requires more cable length than a linear bus topology.
 If switch/hub goes down than the entire network goes down goes down.
 More expensive than linear bus topology because of the cost of the connecting
devices (network switches).

3. Mesh
There are two types routing where nodes acts as routers and send the data to the
correct node by using the shortest route and flooding where router send to sends to all
the nodes
 Every network device is connected to another network device
 Used for site-to-site WAN connectivity, to increase redundancy
Benefits:
 Easy to expand.
 Easy to recognize faults.
 Privacy as data packets are sent in dedicated routes.
 If one link is down, we have another path to reach the destination.
Disadvantages:
 Is costly because of the extra cables needed.
 It is very complex and difficult to manage.

4. hybrid
 Is a type of network topology, which is made of two or more different topologies.
made using a combination of bus topology, star topology, mesh topology (full-
mesh topology or partial-mesh topology), ring topology or wireless topology as
per the requirement of the organisation.
Advantages
 Can handle large traffic .
 Easy to recognize faults.
 Well suited for the creation of large networks.

Disadvantage
 Is difficult and complex to manage.
 Expensive to set up.
.

WIRED NETWORK VS WIRELESS NETWORK

 WIRED NETWORK WIRELESS NETWORK

uses cables to connect devices Uses radio waves and infrared signals to
transmit data between devices without the
need of a cable

 Faster data transfer rates  Accessibility, can offer internet

 More reliable (are less vulnerable to interference access from anywhere where wires
such a weather and physical obstacles providing a are impractical
more stable connection)  Scalability ; straightforward and easy
 More secure (as they require physical access to the no need for additional infrastructures
network making unauthorised access difficult for expansion
 Mobility as not tied to cable
 Cheap as it eliminates wiring
expenses
 Easier installation,Easy to set up as
there are no cables.

 Limited mobility ,can restrict mobility for devices  Extra cost to set up
which is inconvenient for flexible workplaces  Setting up is difficult for people that
 cost,The initial investment for cables ,switches , are not experienced with computers.
switches more expensive than wireless  Security risks,Less secure due to
 Damage vulnerability,cables can be vulnerable to bandwidth and information can be
physical damage from environmental factors, wears accessed
and tears, and accidental disconnections  File sharing transfer speed is slower
 Interference, as connection can be
blocked by physical obstacles such
as walls
 Slower speed compared to wired
networks.

Copper Cables, Fibre Optic Cables Radio Waves, Microwave, Satelites

WIRED NETWORK

COPPER CABLES FIBRE OPTIC CABLES

= Carries data as electrical signals and can consist = Transmit data as light
of a twisted pair

 Best conductor  Thinner and lightweight

 Flexible,more flexible can be bent or twisted  Can transmit over longer distancesLess
without breaking. signal degradation
 Safe - high melting point  Immunity to interference,Lower interference
 Less expensive to purchase and install than in signal
fibre optic  Faster transmission as high bandwidth
 Easier installation  More secure as it is hard to hack

 Doesn’t perform well with small charges  Needs expensive optical transmitter and
 Affected by electromagnetism receivers
  Limited bandwidth which may limit data  Only transmit data in one direction
transfer speed  fragile
 More easily intercepted
Fibre optic
Single mode uses single light source thus less reflection thus can be used in longer distances
Multi mode uses multiple light sources more reflections thus used in shorter distances

SUBNETTING
Is dividing LAN small into smaller manageable subnetworks.
The IP is broken down into three parts without changing the NetID The host ID is divided to two
parts host ID and subnet ID(which identifies the subnet in the network)
Subnet mask hides the net ID allowing data only to be routed in the subnet
Advantage
 Increases security by limiting access and control traffic flow between sub networks
 Reduces network traffic
 Hides the complexity of the network
 Allows better allocation of IP addresses reducing waste and ensuring efficient use of IP
addresses

WIRELESS NETWORK

RADIO WAVES MICROWAVES SATELLITES

= Carries data in the = electromagnetic radiation with wavelength = A communication device in

form of electromagnetic 1 millimetre and 30 centimetre/ uses a beam earth’s orbit that receive and
waves of radio waves in the microwave frequency transmit data
range to transmit information Used for satellite phones and
satellite broadcasts

 Wireless  Wireless  Wireless

 Can travel over  Larger bandwidth,can transfer more  Cheap with long distance
large distances data.  GPS,provide accurate
 Not expensive  Efficient heating such as of food location
 Used in radar system  Communication
 communication  Weather monitoring

 Low frequency  Emitting towered are expensive to  Vulnerable to

so transmit less build interference hacking and
data at one time  Physical obstacles can interfere damage from space
 Affected by debris
radio stations  Expensive to set up
with similar  Limited life span so they
frequency require replacing
 Some regions in the polar
region may have limited
satellite coverage.
BIT STREAMING
= the transfer of a sequence of bits at a high speed one at a time, representing a stream of data
over the internet, hence it requires some form of buffering and high broadband connection.
Bit rate number of bits transmitted per second
Benefits of bit streaming
 No need to wait for the whole file to download before the user can watch.
 No need to store large file on device.
 Allows video file to be played on demand.
 More difficult to copy streamed file than stored on hard drives.
 No need for specialist hardware.
Disadvantages of bit streaming
 Cannot stream video or music file if broadband connection is lost.
 Streaming uses a lot of bandwidth.
 Security risks associated with downloading files over the internet.
 Video files will pause if insufficient buffer capacity or slow broadband connection.

VIDEO
 data is compressed before transmission .
 Video is hosted on a media server.
 Video then transmitted continuously as a series of bits.
 The recipient receives bit stream from a buffer.

REAL TIME ON DEMAND

= used when watching live streams of events that = watching an event that has taken place in the
are currently taking place. past.

 Event is captured live with a video camera  Existing media are encoded to bit streaming
that is connected to a computer, cannot be format and uploaded to a server, can be
paused or rewound. paused and rewound.
 Video signal is encoded to streaming media  Encoded feed is uploaded to a dedicated
files streaming server
 Encoded feed is uploaded to a file server  Server send live images to user.
 Streamer it servers duplicate the feed and  When client request to watch a specific
send it to all clients requesting in real time video, a bit stream is set up which transmit
saved video.

WEBSITE STREAMING
 No need to download the full file
 No need special software for playback in browser
 Video stops if internet connection is bad
 Viruses can be downloaded from websites

*Importance of bit rates/broadband speed on bit streaming

 User has to download and display and display bits at the same time
 Realtime requires higher broadband speed as compared to on demand since there a
greater number of users simultaneously requesting the same data
 Broadband speed required depends on type of stream user requires
  Better quality needed, then user need higher speed as each framer larger in size

INTERNET PROTOCOL (IP) ADDRESS

 gives each device on a network an identifier which allows devices to send data to the
correct specific i device

PRIVATE PUBLIC

 Only unique within a LAN hence can be accessed  IP Address is unique and can be
within LAN across the internet
 Issued by router in a LAN  Assigned by the ISP
 NAT(network address translation required by private IP  Address can be reached over
addresses to access the internet) the internet
 More secure than public IP addresses since they are
hidden by net NAT
 Reduce the number of public IP addresses needed
 Need Network Address Translation (NAT) to access the
internet directly
 Can be duplicated in different networks

STATIC DYNAMIC

 address is signed by the server/ISP  assigned by the network OS

 Address never changes  IP addresses will change at regular time
 Faster upload/ download speed  Periods
 Are useful when websites need to remember  Is more secure hence used when data
devices for a long time privacy is more secure
 When a comp disconnects and rejoin, the  Maintaining costs of dynamic addressing
address remains’ is lesser
 When comp disconnect and rejoin, the
address changes.

IPv4 IPv6

none why?
 the number of IP address needed will exceed the number
available by using only IPv6

 32 bits grouped into four  128 bits grouped into 16 blocks

blocks  Range 0000 to FFFF
 Range 0-255  Each block can have 4 hexadecimal value with range 0000 to
 Each block can have a FFFF
value between 0 to 255  Separated by colons
 Separated by a full stop  Only 1 double colon is allowed
 The first two number is  Ex: 1234:1234:1234:0000:1234:1234:1234:1234
the network
  Last two numbers are
host
 EX:
 192.0. 2.146
ZERO COMPRESSION:
IPv6 can be shortened by replacing zeros with double columns but this is applied only once.
BENEFITS OF IPV6 OVER IPV4
 Has no need for NAT
 Removes the risk of private ip address collision
 Allows for more efficient routing
 Has built in authentication
IP ADDRESSES ARE DIVIDED INTO TWO PARTS:
 NetID
This identifies the specific network to which the devices belong to , it allows routers to
route data to the correct network
 HostID
It identifies a host/device on a network it ensures data sent over the network reaches the
right device
EXAMPLE
192.168.1.10 the host id is 10 and the net id is 192.168.1

WORLD WIDE WEB (WWW)

Collections of webpages stored in websites.
= consist of content organised as web pages made available across the internet from web
servers
 Www uses internet to access information from servers
 Web resources are accessed on a web browser
 Http protocols are written in HyperText Markup Language (HTML)
 Publishing format for all web content
 Uniform Resource locator (URL)
 Unique address for a resource on the WWW specify location of web pages

 HyperText Transfer Protocol (HTTP)

 Protocol to allow for the retrieval of linked resources

UNIFORM RESOURCE LOCATOR (URL)

Addresses used for accessing resources on the web
= a character string referring to the location of an internet resource
 URL allows us to specify the domain name and exact location for a resource on the
internet
CONSISTS OF :
Domain host(WWW).
Domain name(name of website).
Domain type(.com,.org).
Country code( .uk,.de).
https://cie.org.uk/computer science.html
http =. Enables browser to know what protocol is being used to access information in the
domain
cie.org.uk = domain name
computerscience.html = web page
“?” = separate url from all variables
“%20” = coding for space

DOMAIN NAME SERVICE (DNS)

= Naming system used for computers or resources having internet connection
Gives domain name for internet hosts and finds IP addresses for domain name
Domain name eliminate the need of users remembering IP addresses
How URL is Converted into Its Matching IP Address
 URL is passed to obtain the domain name
 Domain name is sent to nearest DNS
 DNS hold domain name and matching IP address
 DNS will search for the domain name and the IP address is returned
 Know the computer can communicate with web servers

CH3 - HARDWARE

INPUT DEVICES
1. Keyboard
 Uses switches and circuits to translate keystroke into signals the computer can
understand
 The key matrix is a grid of circuits
 Each circuit is broken beneath the key
 When key is pressed, a circuit is completed and a signal is sent
 Processor compares the location of signal from key matrix to a character map stored in
ROM
 A character code for each key is saved in a keyboard buffer

2. Trackball Mouse
 The ball touches horizontal and vertical rollers
 When the ball moves, the roller moves as well
 Each roller connects to a shift which spins a disk with holes
 Infrared beams shine through the holes in the disks
 As the ball moves the roller the beam is broken by the space between the holes,
creating pulses of light
 The distance and speed of the mouse is determined form the rate of the pulses by an
on-board processor chip in the comp

3. Optical Mouse
 laser shines through the surface though a ring at the base
 Light is reflected from the surface through the ring
 Sensor detects reflected light
 Captured details on surface at about 1500 times per second
 When mouse moves, the sensor detects changes in the surface details
 Which are translated into movement (x and y coordinates)
 The processor updates the position of the cursor on the screen
4. scanners
 main component is a CCD array
 CCD is a collection of light sensitive diodes
 Laser is shone onto the barcode
 Scanned image reaches the CCD through mirrors and lenses
 Sensors detect level of reflected lightScanner

 Brighter light results in greater electrical charge
 Light intensity is converted to a digital value

5. Touchscreen
RESISTIVE CAPACITIVE

 has an upper layer of polyester and a  made up of many layers of glass that
bottom layer of glass acts like a capacitor creating electric
 When top polyester layer is touched, fields between the glass plates in
the top layer and bottom layer layers
complete a circuit  When top glass is touched, the
 Signals are then sent out, which are electric current changes and the
interpreted by a microprocessor and coordinate where the screen is
the calculations determine the touched are determined by an on
coordinates of where the screen was board microprocessor
touched  Coordinates sent to touch screen
driver

 cheap  expensive
 Can use bare fingers, gloved or stylus  Screen visibility is good under strong
for input. sunlight
 Permits multi-touch capability
 Screen is very durable
  screen visibility is poor in strong  only bare fingers and cannot use
sunlight. gloves to styluses for input
 Does not permit multi-touch capacity.
 Screen durability is weak.
 Vulnerable to scratches and
wears out though time

6. Microphone
 When sound is created, air vibrates
 cone pick up the air vibrations, hence the diaphragm also vibrates
 Copper coils is wrapped around the permanent magnet and coil is connected to the
diaphragm using a cone
 As diaphragm vibrates, the cones moves in and out, causing the copper coil to move
backwards and forwards
 This movement causes the magnetic field around the permanent magnet to be
distributed, inducing an electric current
 Electric current is then either amplified or sent to a recording device.
 The electric current is analogue in nature.

7. Virtual Headset
 video is sent from a Computer to the headset either using HDMI cable or smartphone is
fitted into the headset
 Two feeds are sent to an LCD/OLED displays
 Lenses placed between the eyes and the eye for focusing and reshaping of the
image/video for each eye, thus giving a 3D effect and adding to the realism
 As the user moves series for sensor and LED measure this movement, which allows the
image/video on the screen to react to the user’s head movement
 Headset also use binaural sound so speaker output appears to come from behind, side,
from a distance giving a realistic 3D
 Infrared sensors to monitor eye movement which allows the depth of field on the screen
to be more realistic

OUTPUT DEVICE
1. Laser Printer
 The revolving drum is initially given an electrical charge
 A laser beam bounces off moving mirrors and scans back and forth across the drum
 Discharge certain points
 The drum is coated with oppositely charged toner
 Pattern on the drum is transferred to paper & Paper is passed through the fuses to seal
the image
 Electrical charge is removed from the drum.
Print head
 contains a large number of small nozzles
 Ink is fed to each nozzle from a reservoir
 The print head fires droplets of ink onto the Oates
 The print head moves horizontally across the paper
Stepper motor
 Connected to the print head by a belt
 Moves the print head across the paper
 Parks the print head assembly when not in use
 Turns the rollers that provides the paper feed.

2. 3D Printer
 the object is designed by a Computer Aided Design (CAD)
 Software splits the object into slices
 Data about the slices is sent to printer
 Solid plastic is melted and transferred to the nozzle
 A stepper motor moves the nozzle into position and then nozzle extrude the molten
plastic
 Repeat step 5 until layer is completed
 Fan cool layer
 Repeat step 4-7

3. Inkjet Printer
 data from the document is sent to a printer driver
 Printer driver ensures that the data is in a format that the printer can understand
 Cheerleader is made by the printer drive to ensure that the chosen printer is available to
print
 data is sent to the printer and stored temporary in a printer buffer.
Ink is created by
Thermal bubble :tiny resistors produce localised heat which makes the ink vaporise.
Piezoelectric: crystals is located at the back of ink reservoirs for each nozzles.
4. Speaker
 an electric current is sent to the speaker
 The electric current passes through the coil the current in the coil creates an
electromagnetic field
 Changes in the audio signal cause the direction of the electrical current to change
 This determine the polarity of the electromagnet
 The electromagnet is repelled by or attracted to a permanent magnet
 The movement of the coil causes the diaphragm to vibrate
 The vibration creates sound waves

5. Virtual headset
Two feeds are sent to LCD display
Two Lenses between the screen and eye allow reshaping and focusing which allows for
3D effects
LED measures and sensors which track head movements
Binaural sound which appears to come from the back adding more 3d realism

STORAGE DEVICES

PRIMARY STORAGE
Why?
  to store files needed to boot the system.
 Store parts of the OS.

READ ONLY MEMORY (ROM) RANDOM ACCESS MEMORY (RAM)

PROM, EPROM, EEPROM SRAM, DRAM

 non volatile  volatile

 Read only  Read/write
 Stores the operating system  Stores currently running programs
 Stores the boot-up instructions  Stores data on the current progress and about the device
 Can’t be changed  Can be change

PROGRAMMABLE ROM ELECTRONIC ERASABLE ERASABLE PROM

(PROM) PROM(EEPROM) (EPROM)

 made of matrix fuses -made up of nor chips.  use floating gate

 Requires the use of a -allows data to be read or transistors and
PROM writer which uses erased a single byte at a capacitors
an electric current to time useful for when data  Ultraviolet light is
alter specific cells by is needed to be erased in used to program
‘burning’ fuses in the bytes or chunks’ an EPROM
matrix -erased by electrical signals  Chip has to be
 Can only be written once -chip doesn't need to be removed for
removed reprogramming

Mobile phones applications under

development

STATIC RAM (SRAM) DYNAMIC RAM (DRAM)

 use flip flops to hold each bit of memory  consist of a number of transistors and
 Does not need to be constantly capacitors.
refreshed  Needs to be constantly refreshed
 Faster data access time than DRAM  Less expensive than SRAM
 Used as Processor memory cache  Higher memory capacity

SECONDARY STORAGE
Why?
 to store files/software long term
1. INTERNAL SECONDARY STORAGE
 MAGNETIC MEDIA SOLID STATE DRIVE OPTICAL DISC

HDD, Tape Drive SD Card, SSD Hard Drives, USB Pen DVD, CD, Blu ray
Drive
Solid state is made up of transistor gate
floating gate:stores electrons and
control gate which stores flow of
electrons

 large capacity to  Large capacity to store large  Can hold a lot more data
store large files files than a standard DVD,
 Reasonably fast  Lower power meaning it can store
access speed consumption(laptop use) movies with better
 Uses will not  Runs much cooler than HDD picture and sound quality
have to wait making it suitable for laptops  Portable
for videos to  ** SSD less longevity hence  More expensive than
load cant be used in servers with DVDs.
 Storage costs less huge amounts of write  Requires a Blu-ray
per unit storage operations. player
 If a large  Fast access speed  Can lose data when
number is  Users won’t have to wait scratched.
needed, cost for videos to load
would be  Reliable
quite low  Can be damaged and
 Slower degradation would still work
of data  No moving parts
 Last longer  Not possible to overwrite the
and more existing data
reliable under  Need to erase the old
heavy use data to write
 To read/write uses
movement of electrons

INTERNAL OPERATIONS OF MAGNETIC HARD DISK

 hard disk drive has one or mole platters made of aluminium or glass.
 Each surface of the plater is capable of being magnetised.
 The platters are mounted on a central spindle and rotated at a high speed.
 Each surface of the platter had a read/write head mounted on arm positioned just above
the surface.
 Electrical circuits control the movement of the arm and heads.
 The surface of the platter is divided into concentric tracks and sectors.
 One track in one sector is the basic unit called a block.
 The data is encoded as a magnetic pattern for each block.
 When writing to disk, a variation in the current in the head produces a variation in
magnetic field on the disk
 When reading the disk, a variation in magnetic field produces a variation in current
through the head
INTERNAL OPERATIONS OF SOLID STATE MEMORY

 Made of transistors floating gates (holds electrons) and control gates (controls the flow
of electrons)
 Uses semiconductor chips to store data
 Have individual memory cells which trap different level of electrons on a charge trap
 Memory cell is copied horizontally and vertically to make storage capacity
 Making a 3D spreadsheet
 There’s a stack in layers of many spreadsheet
 To isolate and determine which row and layer to read/write from, use control agent
selectors (layers) and bitline selectors (rows)

INTERNAL OPERATIONS OF OPTICAL DISC

 drive motors is used to spin the disc.
 Tracking mechanism moves the laser assembly.
 A lens focuses the laser onto the disc.
 Laser beam is shone onto disc to read/write.
 Surface of disc has a reflective metal layer.
 Tracks on the disc have sequence of pits and bums.
 Reflected light in the encoded as a bit pattern.

EMBEDDED SYSTEM
= installing microprocessors into devices to enable operations to be controlled in a more
efficient way
 At the core is an integrated circuit designed to carry out computation for real-time
operations
 Embedded systems are managed by microcontrollers or digital signal processors (DSP),
application-specific integrated circuits (ASIC), field-programmable gate arrays (FPGA),
GPU technology, and gate arrays
 These processing systems are integrated with components dedicated to handling
electric and/or mechanical interfacing
 CHARACTERISTICS OF EMBEDDED SYSTEM
Installed into the device.
Have a specific task.
Not easily changed .
Are ,managed by microprocessors.

PROS CONS

 Small in size easy to fit into devices.  difficult to upgrade devices .

 Low cost.  Troubleshoot faults in the device need a specialist.
 Consume little power.  Can be access over the internet (hackers, viruses).

BUFFERS
= hold data temporarily as it is transferred from one component to another e.g. keyboard
buffers,printer buffers,video buffers.
Advantages of buffers
Prevents data loss
Smooth operations/playback/communications(avoid interruptions)
Purpose of buffers
-Data transfer management
Data is transferred at different speeds buffers hold data temporarily to avoid interruption
of processes at the receiving end and prevent data loss
-enhancing device communication
Multiple devices or processed communicate buffer facilitates interaction and allows
synchronisation

MONITORING SYSTEM

SENSORS
Are input devices which measure and read physical properties
= The sensor measures and converts the physical quantity to an electrical signal, which can
then be read by an embedded systems engineer or any electronic instrument. A sensor stores
the measured quantity to the memory
A-D Converter
= An analog-to-digital converter converts the analog signal sent by the sensor into a digital
signal so processor can understand
Processor & ASICs
=Processors assess the data to measure the output and store it to the memory
D-A Converter
= A digital-to-analog converter changes the digital data fed by the processor to analog data
Actuator
Take control signals into physical action such as adjusting
= An actuator compares the output given by the D-A Converter to the actual output stored and
stores the approved output
LOGIC GATES
Truth Tables
AND NOT OR

A B X A X A B X

0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0

1 0 0 0 1 1 0 1

0 1 0 0 1 1

1 1 1 1 1 1

NAND NOR XOR

A B X A B X A B X

0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0

1 0 1 1 0 0 1 0 1

0 1 1 0 1 0 0 1 1

1 1 0 1 1 0 1 1 0

CH4 - PROCESSOR FUNDAMENTALS

VON NEUMANN MODEL

In this mode both instructions and data are stored in the same memory and as such the
CPU can fetch instructions and decode and execute them this means the need for registers.
FEATURES
 Central Processing Unit (CPU/Processor)
 Memory where both data and instructions can be stored
 Input devices such as keyboards
 Output devices such as monitors
 Storage ,such as HDD and SSD
 Processor able to access the memory directly

 Computer memories that could store programs as well as data
 Stored programs made up of instructions that could be executed in sequential order

COMPONENTS OF CPU;
1. Arithmetic & Logic Unit (ALU)
 Performs mathematical and logical operations required while running a program
 Has an “Accumulator”
 A temporary register used when carrying out ALU calculations.

2. Control Unit (CU)

 Reads an instruction from memory and interprets it
 During this process, signals are generated and are sent on the control bus to tell the
other components of the computer on what to do
 Ensures synchronisation of data flow and program instructions throughout the computer

3. System Clock
 produces timing signals which are sent on the control bus to ensure the synchronisation
take place
 Without it, computer would crash

4. Immediate Access Store (IAS)

 holds all the data and programs that the CPU needs to access
  CPU takes data and programs held in backing store and puts them in IAS temporarily
 This is done because read/write operations using IAS is faster compared to the backing
store
 Referred to as random access memory
5. Registers
 temporary storage in the CPU which can either be general or specific in its use to hold
data and instructions in the fetch and execute cycle

General Purpose Registers

 holds data that is frequently used by the CPU
 Ex: Accumulator

Register Abbreviation Function

Accumulator AC Holds processed data temporarily from ALU

Special Purpose Registers

 specific function within the CPU and holds the program state
 Ex: CIR, IX, MAR, MDR, PC, SR

Register Abbreviation Function

Current Instruction Register CIR Stores the current instruction being decoded and
executed

Index Register IX / IR used when carrying out index addressing operations

(assembly code)

Memory Address Register MAR stores the address of the memory location currently being
read from or written to

Memory Data Register / MDR / MBR stores data which has just been read from memory or
Memory Buffer Register data which is about to be written to memory

Program Counter PC stores the address where the next instruction to be read
can be found

Status Register SR contains bits (flags) which can be set or cleared

depending on the operations

Status Register
= used when an instruction requires some form of arithmetic or logic processing
 Carry Flag (C)
 Set to 1 if there is CARRY in the following an addition operation
 Negative Flag (N)
 Set to 1 if the result of a calculation has a negative value
 Overflow Flag (V)
 Set to 1 if an arithmetic operation results in an overflow
 Zero Flag (Z)
  Set to 1 if the result of an arithmetic operation is ZERO
SYSTEM BUSES
 used in computer as a parallel transmission component
 Each wire in the bus transmit one bit of data

1. Address Bus
 caries data throughout the computer system (CPU and memory)
 Unidirectional (travel in one direction only)
 Prevents addresses being carried back to the CPU

2. Data Bus
 Bidirectional (allows data to be sent in both directions along the bus)
 Data can be carried from CPU to memory and to/from input/output devices
 Data can be an address, an instruction, or a numerical value
 Carries word lengths the greater the width of the bus the larger the word length which
improves the performance of the computer system
 *word is a group of bits regarded as a single unit e.g. 16-bit.*

3. Control Bus
 bidirectional
 Carries signals from CPU to all other components
 8 bit wide and only carry control signals .i.e timing signals and interrupt signals

FACTORS THAT AFFECTS THE PERFORMANCE OF CONTROL SYSTEM

1. Width of a bus
 wider it is, the more memory locations which can be directly addressed at any given time
Larger word length.
 can improve computer’s overall performance.
 2. Clock speed
 The number of pulses the clock gives out per unit time
 The increase in clock speed reduces execution time and the increase in number of fetch
execute cycle per unit time
 increasing speed by accessing the Basic Input/Output System (BIOS), processing speed
also increase


 Can lead to unsynchronized operations (unable to complete on time)

 Overheating the CPU = unreliable performance

3. Number of cores
 Each core can independently carry out a process at the same time so more instructions
are executed improving performance of computer system
 dual core (CPU made up of 2 cores)
 Has one channel and needs the CPU to communicate with both the cores, not
really affect performance
 Quad core (CPU made up of 4 cores)
 Has 6 channels and need the CPU to communicate with all 4 cores, reducing a
lot of performance

4. Cache Memory
 using cache can improve performance
 Cache have faster access time
 Stores frequent instructions that is used by CPU
 Contents lost when power is turned off similar to R.A.M

COMPUTER PORTS
UNIVERSAL SERIAL BUS (USB)

= an asynchronous serial data transmission method

How does a USB port transfer data
*It transfers data one bit at a time
* in an asynchronous way

 4-wire shielded cable

 2 wires for power and the earth
 2 wires for data transmission
 Computers automatically detects that devices is present (due to small change in voltage level on
the data signal wires in the cable)
 Appropriate device driver is loaded up so that comp and device can communicate effectively
 If new device is detected, the comp will look for the device driver which matches thee device
 If not available, user is promoted to download the appropriate software
  automatically detected and device driver are automatically loaded up
 Connectors can only fit one way, prevents incorrect connections
 USB is a standard adopted by many manufacturers = all comps will be equipped with USB ports
 Fast data transfer = useful when transferring large files such a s video files
 Allows power to be drawn to charge devices

 transmission rate is limited to less than 500 megabits per second

 Cable length is max 5 metres

HIGH-DEFINITION MULTIMEDIA INTERFACE (HDMI)

= allow output from a computer to an HDMI-enabled device

HDMI increases bandwidth making it possible to supply high quality sound and visual effects

 the current standard for modern tv and monitors

 Allows for a very fast data transfer rate
 Improved security (help prevents piracy) since it uses high bandwidth digital copy protection
(HDCP)
 Support modern digital systems

 not a very robust connection (easy to break connection by moving device)

 Limited cable length to retain good signal
 Only 5 cable standards

VIDEO GRAPHIC ARRAY (VGA)

= older version of HDMI

 simpler technology
 Only 1 standard available
 Easy to split the signal and connect a number of devices from one source
 Connection is very secure

 old out-dated analogue tech

 Easy to bend the pins when making connections
 Cables must be a very high grade to ensure good undistorted signals
FETCH EXECUTE CYCLE
*Double Brackets = data stored at the address shown in MAR is copied to MDR

INTERRUPTS

= a signal sent from a device or software to the processor

 this will cause the processor to temporarily stop what it is doing and service the interrupt.
 Allow a computer to carry out many tasks
 allow it to open many windows at the same time

Caused By:
 timing signal
 Input/output processes e.g. disk drive ready to receive data
 User interaction e.g. user presses a key such as <ALT> or <BREAK>
 Hardware fault e.g. paper jams
 Software error e.g. dividing by zero and an exe.file not being found to run a program

 Check for interrupt

 Interrupt flag is set
 Once interrupt signal is received, The processor either carries on with what is was doing or stops
to service the device that generated the interrupt
 Computer need to identify the interrupt type and establish the level of interrupt priority.
 Once serviced, stops current tasks and saves the contents of registers in a stack.
 Interrupt Service Routine (ISR) is loaded to program counter.
 Once fully serviced, the register is reset and contents of registers are restored.
ASSEMBLY LANGUAGE

ASSEMBLY LANGUAGE
= a low level machine specific programming language that uses mnemonics

MACHINE CODE
= the programming language that the CPU uses
 binary
 Sometimes displayed on a screen as hexadecimal so user can understand machine
code instruction more easily
 Very time consuming and error problem

Each instruction of assembly language and machine code have:

 Opcode = identifies the operation to be carried out by the CPU
 Operand = identifies the data to be used by opcode

LANGUAGE TRANSLATORS
Why?
 shorten development time for writing computer programs
 Instructions to be easier to learn and understand
Before a program written in assembly language (source code) can be executed, it needs to be
translated to machine code. This is performed by an Assembler
 Translates each assembly language instructions into machine code instruction
 Checks syntax of the assembly language program to ensure that only the appropriate
machine code instruction set are used
 This speeds up the development time as some errors are identified during translation
before the program is executed

TYPES OF ASSEMBLER
1. One Pass
 Removes white lines.
 read the assembly language program one line at a time
 Ignore anything not required: comments
 Allocate a memory address for the line of code
 Check the opcode is in the instruction set
 Add any new labels to the symbol table with the address, if known
 Place address of labeled instruction in the symbol table
2. Two Pass
 read the assembly language program one line at a time
 Generate object code, including opcode and operand, from the symbol table generated
in one pass
 Save or execute the program

ASSEMBLY LANGUAGE INSTRUCTIONS

1. Data Movement Instructions

2. Input and Output of Data Instructions

3. Arithmetic Operation Instructions

4. Unconditional and Conditional Instructions

5. Compare Instructions
ADDRESSING MODES

ABSOLUTE the contents of the memory location in the operand are used
ADDRESSING

DIRECT the contents of the memory location in the operand are used
ADDRESSING

INDIRECT the contents of the contents of the memory location in the operand are
ADDRESSING used

INDEXED the contents of the memory location found by adding the contents of
ADDRESSING the IR to the address of the memory location in the operand are used

IMMEDIATE the value of the operand only is used

ADDRESSING

RELATIVE the memory address used is the current memory address added to
ADDRESSING the operand

SYMBOLIC used in assembly language programming, where a label is used

ADDRESSING instead of a value
BIT MANIPULATION
BINARY SHIFT
= moving the bits stored in a register a given number of places with the registers

TYPE OF SHIFTS:
LOGICAL SHIFTS bits shifted out of the registers replaced with 0 10101111
Shifted left 3
places
01111000

ARITHMETIC the sign of the number is preserved 10101111

SHIFTS Shifted right 3
places
11110101

CYCLIC SHIFTS no bits are lost, bits shifted out of one end of the register are 10101111
introduced at the other end of the register Shifted left 3
places
01111101

LEFT SHIFTS bits are shifted to the left 10101111

Shifted left 3
places
01111000

RIGHT SHIFTS bits are shifted to the right 10101111

Shifted right 3
places
11110101

In monitoring and control, each bit in a memory location can be used as a flag and would need
to be tested, set, or cleared separately
CH5 - SYSTEM SOFTWARE

OPERATING SYSTEM
= software that provides an environment in which applications can run and provides an interface
between hardware and human operators

TASKS

1. Memory Management
 Memory optimization = determine how comp memory is allocated and de allocated when
a number of applications are running simultaneously
 To maintain optimization, swap data to and from the HDD or SSD
  Memory organization = determines how much memory is allocated to an application, and
how the memory can be split up in the most appropriate and efficient way
 Partitioned allocation =. Memory is split up into contiguous blocks and memory
management then allocates a block into an applications
 Memory protection = ensures that two competing applications cannot use the same
memory locations at the same time
 If not done, data could be lost, security issues, computer can crash

2. Security Management
 to ensure integrity, confidentiality, and availability of data
 Carry out OS updates when they’re available
 Ensure that anti-virus software is up to date
 Maintaining access rights for all users
 Offering recovery of data (in case of lost or corrupted)

3. Process Management
 allocating resources and permit the sharing and exchange of data, thus allowing all
processes to be synchronized

4. Hardware Management
 Controlled by queues and buffers
 Communicating with all input and output devices using device drivers
 Translating data from a file into a format that the input/output device can
understand using device drivers
 Ensuring each hardware resource has a priority so that it can be used and
released as required

5. File Management
 Defining the file naming convention which can be used (.exe, .xls, etc.)
 Performing specific tasks (copy, open, create)
 Maintaining the directory structures

UTILITY SOFTWARE
1. Hard Disk Formatter
 OS need to know how to store files and where the files will be stored on the hard disk
 Will organise storage space by assigning it to data blocks
 Disk surface may have a number of partitions
 Note that partitions are contagious blocks of data
 Once partition created, they must be formatted
 Done by writing files which hold directory data and tables of contents at the beginning of
each partition
 Allows OS to recognise a file and know where to find it on the disk surface
 Also have a checking tool for each sector
 If bad = sector will be flagged as ‘bad’ and the file tracking records will be
reorganised
  Replacing bad sectors with new unused sectors

2. Virus Checker
 check software or files before they are run or loaded on a computer
 Compare possible viruses against a database of known viruses
 Carry out heuristic checking
 Checking software for types of behaviour that could indicate a possible virus
 Put files or programs which may be infected into quarantine
 Automatically delete the virus
 Allow user to decide whether to delete the file

3. Defragmentation Software
 When HDD become full, blocks used for files will become scattered all over the disk
surface
 Happens when files are, extended, etc
 Cause slower data access time
 HDD read-write head requires several movements just to find and retrieve the
data making up the required file
 Better if files could be stored in contiguous sectors, hence reducing HDD head
movement

4. Disk Content Analysis/Repair Software

 used to check disk drivers for empty space and disk usage by reviewing files and file
folders
 Can led to optimal use of disk space by removal of unwanted files and downloads

5. Disk Compression and File Compression

 File Compression = to save storage space and make it quicker to download/upload files
and quicker to send files via email
 Disk Compression = compresses data before writing it to hard disk and decompressed
again when reading
 High priority and will override all other OS routines
 Do not uninstall — will make any previously saved data to be unreadable

6. Back-Up Software
  allow a schedule for backup files to be made
 Only carry out a back-up procedure if there have been any changes made to a file

PROGRAM LIBRARIES
 when software is under development and programmer can utilize pre-written subroutines
in their own programs (save development time)
 Help software developer who wishes to use Dynamic Link Library (DLL) subroutines in
their own program

When software routines are written, they are saved in a program library (Library Program) for
future use by other programmers
*Library Routines = described routines which could be used in another piece of software under
development

Benefits of Developing Software this way:

 Removes the need to rewrite the many routines every single time (save time and money)
 Leads to modular programming = several programmers can be working on the same
piece of software at the same time
 Allows continuity with other games that may form part of a whole range
 Allows to maintain eye of a ‘corporate image’ in all the software being developed by a
company
 Saves development time Ching to test each routine since the routines are all fully tested
in other software and should be error free

TYPES:
1. Static Library
 software being developed is linked to executable code in the library at the time of
compilation
 Library routines would be embedded directly into the new program code
2. Dynamic Link Library Files (DLL)
= software being developed is not linked to the library routines until actual run time
 Executable code of the main program is smaller since DLL files are only loaded into
memory at run time
 Possible to make changes to DLL files independently and won’t be necessary to
recompile the main program
 Save memory and execution time
 executable code is not self-contained, therefore all DLL files need to be available at run
time otherwise error or crash
  Any DLL linking software in the main program needs to be available at run time to allow
links with DLL files to be made
 Risk of DLL having a malware which can be a risk to the main program when linking
What is DLL?

LANGUAGE TRANSLATORS
Instructions in a program can only be executed in machine code, hence need to be translated

ASSEMBLER COMPILER INTERPRETER

Source program assembly language - high level language high level language to machine code
translated to... machine code to machine code

Machine yes yes no

dependent

Object Program is disk or in main disk or in main every line of program are interpreted
stored on... memory memory then executed each time the program
runs and its under the control of
interpreter

Each line of the one machine code many machine code many machine code instructions,
source program instruction (one to instructions, instruction explosion
generates... one translation) instruction explosion

COMPILER INTERPRETER

 user only need the executable code,  easier to develop and debug as error can be
hence the end user benefits as no need to corrected on each line and the program
purchase compiler restarted from that place
 Developer have the source code, so  It translate line by line
 cannot be altered or extended by user  Untested programs should not be able to
 Source programs has no syntax or cause the computer to crash
semantic errors  When purchased, end user have all source
code and run-time libraries, enabling the
program to be modified as required without
further purchases

 finds all errors in program, once detected  end user will need to purchase a compiler or
the rest of the code can be an error too an interpreter to translate source code before
even though if its not use
 Untested programs with errors can cause  Developer have no control of source code,
computer to crash more difficult to change for upgrades
 End user has no access to source code  Contain syntax or semantic errors if any part
and run time libraries, unable to make of the program has not be fully tested, hence
modifications and rely on developer on need to debug
updates

PARTIAL COMPILING AND INTERPRETING

To achieve shorter execution times, many high-level languages programs use a system that is
partially compilation and partially interpretation
 source code is checked and translated by compiler into object code
 Compiled object code is a low level machine independent code
 To execute the program, the object code can be interpreted by an interpreter or
compiled using a compiler
Ex: Java — can be translated by a compiler to a set of instruction (byte code) — interpreted by
an interpreter

INTEGRATED DEVELOPMENT ENVIRONMENT (IDE)

= used by programmers to aid the writing and development of programs.
Ex: Pycharm, Visual Studios, etc

IDE have:
1. Source Code Editor
 allows program to be written and edited without the need to use a separate text editor
 Speed up the development process as editing can be done without changing to a
different piece of software each time the program needs correcting or adding to
 Most source code editors color code their words and layout of the program
(Prettyprinting)
 Dynamic Syntax checks for possible syntax errors as program code is being type in the
SCE and alerts the programmer at the time before the source code is interpreted
 Logic errors can be found
2. Compiler, interpreter, or both
 interpreter is used for developing the program
 Compiler to produce the final version of the object code
3. Run-time environment with a debugger
 Debugger = program under development and aids the process of debugging
 Allows programmer to go single step through the program a line at a time or set a
breakpoint to stop the execution of the program at a certain point in the source code
 Report window then shows the contents of the variables and expressions evaluated
  Allow programmers to see if there are any logical errors in the program and check if
works as intended
4. Auto-documenter
 explain the function and purpose of programming code

CH6 - SECURITY, PRIVACY, AND DATA INTEGRITY

DATA SECURITY

DATA PRIVACY
Data Privacy= the privacy of personal information, or other information stored on a computer,
that should not be accessed by unauthorised parties

Data Protection Law

To achieve this — Data Protection Laws (laws which govern how data should be kept private
and secure)
Guide:
1. Data must be fairly and lawfully processed
2. Data can only be processed for the stated purpose
3. Data must be adequate, relevant, and not excessive
4. Data must be accurate
5. Data must not be kept longer than necessary
6. Data must be processed ina accordance with the data subject’s right
7. Data must be kept secure
8. Data must not be transferred to another country unless that country also has adequate
protection

DATA SECURITY
= methods taken to prevent unauthorized access to data and to recover data if lost or corrupted

1. User Accounts
 It is to authenticate a user (prove the user is who they claim to be)
 Used on both standalone and networked computer
 Consist of: Username and password
 User account control access rights
 Involves level of access

2. Passwords
 restrict access to data or systems
 Hard to crack and changed frequently to retain security
  Run anti-spyware to make sure password is not being relayed to whoever spying
 Regularly change passwords and make it hard to crack
 At least one capital
 At least one numerical
 At least one symbol
3. Digital Signatures
 a way of identifying the sender of
4. Firewalls
 software/hardware that sits between a computer and external network that monitors and
filters all incoming and outgoing activities
 Examine traffic between user’s computer and public network
 Checking whether incoming/outgoing data meets a given set of criteria
 Prevent access to undesirable sites
 However cannot protect individuals using their own modems to by-pass the firewall
 Prevent stand-alone computers from disabling the firewall
5. Antivirus Software
 Constantly check for virus attack
 Check software /files before they are run or loaded on computer
 Compare possible viruses against a database of known viruses
6. AntiSpyware Software
 detects and removes spyware programs installed illegally on a user’s computer system
7. Encryption
 the use of encryption keys to make data meaningless without the correct decryption key
 Cannot stop backer from deleting files, but stop from using the data
8. Biometrics
 use of unique human characteristics to identify a user
 Fingerprint scans, retina scans

RISKS
1. Hacking
 Malicious Hacking
 Illegal access to a computer system without the user’s permission or knowledge
 Personal details
 Ethical Hacking
 Authorized by companies to check their security measures and how robust their
computer systems are to resist hacking attacks
2. Malware
 Viruses = program or code that can replicate and/or copy themselves with the intention
of deleting/corrupting files or causing the computer to malfunction
 Spyware = gather information by monitoring
 Key press = sent back to person who sent the software
3. Phishing
 legitimate looking emails designed to trick a recipient into giving their personal data to
the sender of the email
 To prevent:
 User need to be aware of new phishing scams
 Do not click on links unless its safe (fake mails)
 Look out for https green padlock
 Be wary of pop ups
4. Pharming
  redirecting a user to a fake website in order to illegally obtain personal data about the
user
 redirecting can be done using DNS Cache Poisoning
 Everytime a user types in a URL, their web browser contacts the DNS server
 IP Address of website is sent back to web browser
 DNS cache poisoning changes the real IP address values to those of the web
websites consequently, the user’s computer connects to fake website
 Protection:
 Using antivirus software
 Check https and green padlock
 Check spelling of websites

DATA RECOVERY

DATA INTEGRITY
= The accuracy, completeness and consistency of data
Can be compromised:
 during the data entry and data transmission stages
 Malicious attack on data: malware and hacking
 Accidental data loss due to hardware issues
VALIDATION
= method used to ensure entered data is reasonable and meets certain input criteria

VERIFICATION
= method used to ensure data is correct by using double entry or visual checks

1. Verification during Data Entry

 need to undergo verification to ensure there are no errors
 Double Entry
  Data is entered twice, using 2 different people, and then compared either after
data entry or during the data entry process
 Visual Check
 Entered data is compared with the original document
 Check Digits
 An additional digit added to a number
 Often used in barcodes, ISBNs, and VINs
 Catch errors including:
 Incorrect digit being entered
 Phonetic errors
 Transposition error where 2 numbers had been swapped
 Modulo-11
 Method to calculate a check digit based on modulus division by 11

2. Verification During Data Transfer

 possibility of data corruption or data loss
 Checksum = method to check if data has been changed or corrupted following data
transmission
 Before block of data is transmitted, checksum for the bytes is first calculated
 Value is transmitted with the block of data
 At the receiving end, the checksum is re-calculated from the block of data
received
 Calculated value is compared to the checksum transmitted
  If same = data transmitted without any errors
 If different = request is sent for the data to be re-transmitted
 Parity Check = check whether data has been changed or corrupted following
transmission from one device or medium to another
 A byte of data is allocated a parity bit
 This is allocated before transmission
 Systems that use even parity bit have an even number of 1-bits
 Systems that use odd parity bit have an odd number of 1-bits
 Before data is transferred, an agreement is made between sender and receiver
regarding which of the 2 types of parity are used
 If parity bit is different, there’s an error
 Impossible to know which bit is error
 To solve = parity blocks
 Block of data is sent and the number of 1-bits are totaled horizontally and
vertically
 3. Automatic Repeat Request (ARQ)
= uses acknowledgement (a message sent to the receiver indicating that data has been
received
correctly) and timeout (the time interval allowed to elapse before an acknowledgement is
received)
 when the receiving device detect an error in a data transmission, it ask for the
data packet to be re-sent
 If no error is detected, a positive acknowledgement is sent to the sender
 The sending device will resend the data package if:
 It receives a request to resend the data or timeout occurred
 Whole process is continuous until data packet received is correct or until the
ARW timeout is reached

CH7 - ETHICS AND OWNERSHIP

= moral principles governing an individual or organisation’s behaviour, such as a code of
conduct
Computer ethics set of rules that regulate the use of computers

BRITISH COMPUTER SOCIETY (BSC)

= professional body set up in the UK to represent the rights and ethical practices of all
professionals working in the IT and computing industries
Code
 Public Interest
 Professional Competence and Integrity
 Duty of Relevant Authority
 Duty of the Profession

THE INSTITUTE OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING (IEEE)

= set up in the USA

Aim:
 to raise awareness of ethical issues
 Promote ethical behaviours among professionals working in the electronic industries
 Ensuring engineers and scientist respect the need for ethical behaviour

PRINCIPLES
1. Public
 Software engineer shall act consistently with the public interest
2. Client and Employer
 Software engineer shall act in a manner that is in the best interests of their clients and
employer consistent with the public interest
 3. Product
 Software engineers shall ensure that their product and related modifications meet the
highest professional standards possible
4. Judgment
 software engineers shall maintain integrity and independence in their professional
judgement
5. Management
 Software engineers managers and leaders shall subscribe to and promote an ethical
approach to the management of software development and maintenance
6. Profession
 Software engineers shall advance the integrity and reputation of their profession
consistent with the public interest
7. Colleagues
 Software engineers shall be fair to and supportive of their colleagues
8. Self
Software engineers shall participate in lifelong learning regarding the practice of their
profession and shall promote an ethical approach to the practice of the their profession

COPYRIGHT ISSUES
A copyright is legal protection that gives creators total control of how their work is used and
distributed and prevents others from using their work without their permission
Why need copyright?
 software piracy = making illegal copies of software
 Which can be sell out or give away to other people

Steps to stop illegal copying of outward and to stop illegal copies being sold:
 User will be asked to agree the license agreement before software continue to install
 user will be asked to key in a product key (string of letters and numbers) which was
supplied with the original copy of the software

SOFTWARE LICENSING
1. Commercial Software
 Available to customers for a fee
 Providing a licence for one genuine copy to be used on a single device or a multi-use
licence for multiple users
 Software is offered free of charge if an earlier version was bought by user
 Fully copyright protected and none of the code can be used without prior consent of the
copyright owner
2. Free Software and the Open Source Initiative
 non profit organization that promote the benefits of giving users the freedom to run,
copy, change, and adapt software
 Freedoms:
 Run the software for any legal purpose they wish
 Study the program source code and modify it where necessary to meet their
needs
 Redistribute copies of the software to friends and family
 Distribute code modified by the user to family and friends
 User don’t need to seek permission as it’s not protected with copyright restrictions but
user not allow to:
  Add source code from another piece of software unless this is also described as
free software or open source software
 Use the source code to produce software which copies existing software which is
subject to copyright laws
 Use the source code to produce software which is deemed offensive by third
parties

 Free Software Foundation

 Focuses on what the recipient of the software is permitted to do with the software
 Not subjected to copyright laws and users are often requested to tick a box say
they “understand the agree to the terms and conditions”
 Open Source Initiative
 Focuses on the practical consequences offered by the 4 freedoms
 Aim to provide effective collaboration on software development by the users

3. Freeware
 software a user can download from the internet free of charge
 Ex; adobe reader, skype
 Free software
 subjected to copyright laws and users are often requested to tick a box say they
“understand the agree to the terms and conditions”
 User is not allowed to study or modify the source code in any way
4. Shareware
 allows users to try out some software free of charge for a trial period
 End of trial, author of software will request that you pay fee if you wish to continue using
it
 Once paid, user is registered with the originator of the software and free updates and
help are then provided
 Trial period often miss some features of the full version, not available until fee is paid
 Protected under copyright law = any source code cannot be used without permission

ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE (AI)

= a machine or application which carries out a task that requires some degree of intelligence
when carried out by a human being

Tasks can be:

 Carrying out mathematical calculations or functions
 Recognizing person’s face
 Ability to operate machinery
 Analyzing data to predict the outcome of a future event

IMPACT
1. Social
 leave people with more time to pursue their interests
 Transport = automation in payment, GPS (waze)
  Criminal Justice System = facial recognition system in forensic science
2. Economic
 automation will cause production to be more efficient
 Increase unemployment (low skill jobs)
 Instability for the future labour
3. Environmental
 Find patterns and interconnection within thousands of data set
 Help scientists to make predictions about the environment and climate change

CH8 - DATABASE
= a structured collection of items of data that can be accessed by different application programs

FILE BASED APPROACH

Limitations:
 Storage space is wasted when data items are duplicated by the separate applications
and some data is redundant
 Data can be altered by one application and not by another - inconsistent
 Enquirers available can depend on the structure of data and software used so data is not
independent

RELATIONAL DATABASE
= database in which the data items are linked by internal pointers
  storage space is not wasted as data items are only stored once - no little or no data
redundant
 Data entered is one application is available in another application - data is consistent
 Enquirers available are not dependent on the structure of data and software used - data
is independent

*Table = a group of similar data in a database, with rows for instance of an entry and columns
for each attribute
*Record = a row in a table in a database
*Field = column in a table in a database

KEYS
 Candidate Key = an attribute or smallest set of attributes in a table where no tuple has
the same value
 Primary Key = a unique identifier for a table/ a unique attribute used to identify a record
 Secondary Key = a candidate key that is an alternative to the primary key
 Foreign Key = a set of attributes in one table that refers to the primary key in another
table
 tuple= one instance of an entity which is intepreted as a row in the table
 Attribute =a column in the table/ an individual data item stored for an entity
 entity=anything that can have data stored about it
 Referential integrity =makes sure that when data is changed the change is reflected in
all related records/the database must not contain any values of foreign key that are not
matched with the corresponding primary key.
RELATIONSHIP
= formed when one table in a database has a foreign key that refers to a primary key in another
table in the database
ENTITY RELATIONSHIP

1. One-to-One
2. One-to-Many
3. Many-to-One
4. Many-toMany

NORMALISATION
= used to construct a relational database that has integrity and in which data redundancy is
reduced
 table that has not been normalised appear larger

1. First Normal Form (1NF)

= entities do not contain repeated groups of attributes
2. Second Normal Form (2NF)
= entities are in 1NF and non-key attributes depend upon the primary key
3. Third Normal Form (3NF)
= entities are in 2NF and all non-key attributes are independent
 table contains no non-key dependencies
DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS (DBMS)
= system software for the definition, creation, and manipulation of a database
HOW A DBMS ADDRESS THE LIMITATION OF A FILE BASED APPROACH
1. Data Redundancy Issue
 solved by storing data in separate linked tables, which reduces the duplication of data as
most items of data are only stored once
 Items of data used to link tables by the use of foreign keys are stored more than once
 DBMS will flag any possible errors when any attempt is made to accidentally delete this
type of item
2. Data Inconsistency Issue
 solved by storing most items of data only once, allowing updated items to be seen by all
applications
 As data is not inconsistent, the integrity of the data stored is improved
 Consistent data is easier to maintain as an item of data will only be changed once, not
multiple times, by different applications
3. Data Dependency Issue
 data is independent of the applications using the database, so changes made to the
structure of the data will be managed by DBMS and have little or no effect on the
application using the database
4. The DBMS Approach
 uses a more structured approach to the management, organisation, and maintenance of
data in a database
 An already defined data structured can be used to set up and create the database
 Uses a data dictionary to store the metadata, including the definition of tables, attributes,
relationships between tables and any indexing
 Can also define the physical storage of the data.
 Improve the integrity of data stored, helping to ensure that it is accurate,
complete and consistent.
 Data Modeling
 To show the data structure of a database
 Ex: E-R diagram gives a visual representantion of the relationships of tables in
database
 Logical Scheme
 A data model for a specific database that is independent of the DBMS used to
build the database
 Provides data security to prevent unwanted alteration, corruption, deletion, sharing data
with others that has no access
 Using usernames, passwords to prevent unauthorised access
 Encryption of the data stored
 Using access rights — different level of access

USAGE OF DBMS SOFTWARE TOOLS

1. Developer Interface
 allows a developer to write queries in Structured Query Language (SQL)
 These queries are then processed and executed by the Query Processor
 Allow the construction of more complex queries to interrogate the database
2. Query Processor
 Takes a query written in SQL and processes it
 Includes a DDL interpreter, DML compiler, and a Query Evaluation Engine
 DDL Statements = interpreted and recorded in the database’s data dictionary
 DML Statements = compiled into low level instructions that are executed by the
query evaluation engine
 DML compiler will optimise the query
DATA DEFINITION LANGUAGE (DDL) & DATA MANIPULATION LANGUAGE (DML)

DATA DEFINITION LANGUAGE (DDL)

= a language to create, modify, and remove the data structures that form a database
 Written as scripts that uses syntax similar to a computer program
 To work on relational databases structure

DATA MANIPULATION LANGUAGE (DML)

= a language used to add, modify, delete, and retrieve the data stored in a relational database
 written in a script that is similar to a computer program
 To work with the data stored in the relational database

STRUCTURED QUERY LANGUAGE (SQL)

= a list of SQL commands that perform a given task, often stored in a File for reuse