Superconductivity

Unit 6 Superconductivity (8 hrs)

Critical Temperature-Critical magnetic field - Meissner effect- Type I and type II Superconductors-
London’s Equation and Penetration Depth- Isotope effect-.BCS theory- Tunnelling and Josephson
effect (Qualitative study)

Super Conductivity.
The electrical resistance of metals and alloys decreases when the temperature is lowered.
At very low temperatures the resistance becomes immeasurable. This phenomenon in which
the electrical resistivity suddenly drops to zero when the material is cooled to a sufficiently low
temperature is called super-conductivity. The material is known as a super-conductor.

The temperature at which the resistance of a material suddenly falls to zero is known as
critical temperature Tc. At this temperature the material undergoes a phase transition from a state
of normal resistance to a state of super-conductivity. This temperature is, therefore, also known as
super-conducting transition temperature.

Super-conductivity has been observed in many metals, alloys and compounds. The variation
of resistance of mercury with temperature is shown in figure. Superconductivity can be seen in
metals in which the number of valence electrons lies between 2 and 8. The superconducting
elements lie inside inner columns of periodic table.

Characteristic properties.
(i) Effect of temperature.
If a ring of a super-conducting material is cooled in a magnetic field from a temperature
above the transition temperature Tc to a value below Tc and then the magnetic field is switched off,
an induced current is set up in the ring. The induced current is observed by the magnetic field it
produces and it is found that the current continues undiminished for a very long time. The current
decays according to the relation I = I0e(R/L)t. This current flows almost indefinitely till the
temperature and magnetic field remain unchanged. Such currents are called persistent currents.

(ii) Effect of magnetic field.

If a magnetic field is applied parallel to the length of a super-conducting wire, the resistance
of the wire is suddenly restored at a finite field strength depending upon the temperature and
nature of super-conducting material. This magnetic field is called critical field.
It is possible to destroy the super-conductivity by the application of intense magnetic field

(iii) Current strength

There is a critical strength of current flowing in the super-conductor. If the strength of the
current is exceeded, there is a disturbance of super-conductivity.
 (iv) Stress.
With the application of stress there is a change in transition temperature. There is also a
slight effect of stress on critical magnetic field.
(v) Frequency.
At very high frequencies the zero resistance of super-conductors is affected. It is seen that
the zero resistance remains the same up to a frequency of 107 Hz. But when the frequency is raised
up to 10 9 Hz some resistance is shown by the super-conductor.

(vi) Isotope effect.

The critical temperature for a super-conductor varies with isotopic mass. The heavier
isotopes have a lower critical temperature. A heavier isotopic mass lowers the lattice vibrations.
This indicates that superconductivity is due to an interaction between electrons and lattice
vibrations. The super-conducting transition depends upon the mass of the lattice ions or phonons.
The experimental results are in agreement with the relation
M1/2TC = constant

Critical Temperature
The electrical resistance of metals and alloys decreases when the temperature is lowered.
The temperature at which the resistance of a material suddenly falls to zero is known as critical
temperature TC. Thus when a metal is cooled below TC there is a phase transition in the specimen
from the state of normal resistivity to a superconducting phase. So this temperature is also known
as super conducting transition temperature.
The critical temperature is different for different substances. The superconducting
transition is very sharp for a chemically pure specimen with perfect crystal structure.

Explanation of Superconductivity using free electron model

The resistivity of a metal is given by  = m / ne2 where m is the mass of electron, e is the
charge of electron; n is the number of electrons per unit volume and  is the relaxation time. When
the temperature decreases, the vibration of the ions also decreases. This decreases the probability
of collision of ion and electron, and increases the collision time. Thus as temperature approaches
zero, the relaxation time tends towards infinity. When relaxation time becomes infinite at very low
temperatures, the resistivity of the material becomes zero and the material becomes
superconducting.

Critical magnetic field

Even when the temperature T of the material is less than its critical temperature TC, under
the effect of external magnetic field, the superconductor becomes a normal conductor. The value of
the magnetic field at which the superconductivity vanishes is called critical magnetic field.

The critical magnetic field varies with temperature. The variation of the field with
temperature is given by BC (T) = BC (o) [ 1 - (T/TC)2] where BC (T) is the critical field at temperature T
and BC ( o) is that at 0 K.
At critical temperature, BC (Tc) = 0; i.e., the critical field becomes zero. The variation of critical
magnetic field with temperature is as shown in fig. Below the graph the material is in the
superconducting state and above the graph it is in the normal conducting state.

The value of the critical field limits the current that can be passed through a superconducting
sample. If the field created by the current exceeds the critical field, the sample becomes normal. So
if HC is the critical field then the maximum current that can be passed through the wire is Imax = 2r
HC
Persistent Currents
A current can be induced in a conductor in the form of a ring. In a normal conductor the
current is seen to decrease with time due to the resistance of the conductor. But if the ring is a
superconductor and has zero resistance, the current once set up, will flow indefinitely and it will not
decrease. The current persists without any applied voltage. These currents are called persistent
currents or super currents.
The resistance of a metal decreased to 1/14 of its initial value when it was converted into a
superconductor. Even though the ohmic resistance was zero the current never exceeded a critical
value, about 100 A in an one millimeter wire. This super current was expected to persist forever
without a source of emf.
Meissner effect
Meissner effect states that if a superconductor is cooled in a magnetic field below the critical
temperature, then at the transition the lines of magnetic flux are pushed out of the specimen. This
repulsion of magnetic flux from the interior of a superconductor when the conductor makes a
transition from normal conductor to superconductor is called the Meissner effect.
When B = 0, the susceptibility  = M / H is negative. So superconductors exhibit
diamagnetism below critical temperature. The flux inside a superconductor is zero irrespective of
cooling in the presence or absence of a magnetic field. If the applied field is very large, (B >Bc) the
superconductivity state is destroyed and the field lines penetrates the material. This effect is
reversible.

NOTE
Superconductors having a hole in them are called multiply connected superconductors eg. a
ring, a hollow sphere or cylinder. Materials with no holes like a solid sphere, a solid cylinder are called
simply connected superconductors. Meissner effect is observed differently for both types. When a
hollow metallic cylinder is cooled below the transition temperature the magnetic field will be ejected
from the metal but not from the space within the hollow space inside the cylinder.
Critical temperature Tc
A conductor behaves as a superconductor below a temperature called critical temperature
Tc. Suppose a superconductor is placed in a magnetic field at a temperature T < Tc. Let the applied
magnetic field Ba be increased to Bc, called the critical magnetic field. When the field becomes equal
to Bc, the specimen reverses back to its normal state. The variation of the magnetic field with
temperature is as shown in figure.
 From the figure it can be seen that the value of critical field required to destroy
superconductivity depends upon the temperature. If the specimen is at T = 0 K this value is
maximum. The critical magnetic field and temperature are related as,
BC(T) = BC(0) [1 – (T/TC)2]

Depending on the behavior of the superconductors in an external magnetic field they can be
classified as type 1 and type 2 superconductors. This classification is based on the way in which the
transition from superconducting to the normal state
Type 1 and Type 2 Superconductors
Depending on the behavior of the superconductors in an external magnetic field, they can be
classified as type I and type 2 superconductors. The superconductors which strictly follow Meissner
effect are called type I superconductors. They are also called soft superconductors. Type 1
superconductors have only two states (1) normal state and (2) superconducting state. Type I
superconductor is a perfect diamagnetic. Depending on the nature of the material and its
temperature, if the magnetic field exceeds a certain value BC, its conductivity disappears all together.
The critical field Bc is maximum at 0K. The value BC is very low and hence they have very limited
technical applications.
Examples are Al, Hg, In, Pb, etc.
Type 2 superconductors do not follow Meissner effect strictly. That is, the magnetic field
does not penetrate abruptly at the critical field. Type 2 superconductors exists in three states;
normal, mixed and superconducting. Type 2 are also called hard superconductors
Examples are Nb3Sn, Nb3Al, V3Ge etc
They have two critical magnetic fields BCl and BC2. 'When the external applied field is less
than BC1, ie, B < Bcl type 2 behaves like type 1. But when B > Bc2, then also type 2 behaves like type
l. When the applied field is between Bcl and BC2 type 2 superconductor is in a mixed state in which it
contains magnetic flux but it is superconducting. Bcl and Bc2 are called the lower and upper critical
fields. The variation of critical magnetic field with temperature is as shown in fig. In the region
between Bcl and Bc2 the flux density inside the region remains non-zero. In this region the specimen
has a mixed nature of normal state and superconducting state If the external field is stronger, then
more flux penetrates the material up to the higher critical field Bc2. Type 2 superconductors are
used to make magnets for fusion reactors, magnetic resonance , particle accelerators, magnetic
levitation trains etc.
Properties of Superconductors
(1) Superconductors have zero resistance at very low temperatures.
(2) Superconductors are perfectly diamagnetic, ie, no magnetic lines of force can exist inside them.
(3) When impurities are added to superconductors, their property is not lost but the critical
temperature is lowered.
(4) The critical temperatures of superconductors varies with their isotopic mass
(5) The crystal lattice remains unchanged during the transition from normal to superconductivity
state.
(6) Current persisting for a long time without the aid of an external voltage in them.
(7) Under the influence of an applied stress, the critical temperature and the critical magnetic field
of a superconductor change slightly. Due to the applied stress, if the dimension is increased,
the transistor temperature is increased and this produces a corresponding change in the critical
magnetic field.
(8) The thermal conductivity and specific heat capacity change abruptly during the transition from
normal to the superconducting state. The change in the values is small for pure metals but
larger for alloys.
(9) A very high frequency (above 1OMHz )of the alternating current, the zero resistance of the
superconductors changes slightly.
(10) Superconductors do not show any thermoelectric effect.
(11) There is no change in the photoelectric properties of the superconductors.
London Equations
Meissner effect was explained by the London brothers, using the conventional equations of
electrodynamics and the two-fluid model of Goster and Casimir. According to the two fluid model a
superconductor consists of two distinct types of electrons, normal electrons and superelectrons.
The normal electrons behave as usual but the super electrons behave differently. At temperature
above the critical temperature TC, all the electrons are normal. At any temperature the sum of
superconducting electrons and normal conducting electrons is equal to the conduction electron
density (n) of the material..
The normal current and the supercurrent flow parallel. Below TC, the number of normal
electrons decreases and the number of superconducting electrons increases. The superconducting
electrons do not suffer any lattice scattering. They get accelerated under an applied electric field.
First London Equation
At a temperature below TC, the supercurrent density is given by,
JS = ens vs ………………(1)
where vs is the drift velocity of the superconducting electrons. Under an applied electric field these
electrons are accelerated.
dvs / dt =  eE /m ………………(2)
where e is the charge and m is the mass of super-electrons.
Differentiating equation (1) and substituting equation (2) we get,
d JS / dt =  ens dvs / dt
= ns e2E /m
This is known as the first London equation.

Second London Equation

Maxwell's equation is

xE =  (dB/dt)

The first London equation is

d JS / dt = ns e2E /m
Taking curl of this equation,
 x (d JS / dt ) = (ns e2 /m)( x E)
=  (ns e2 /m) (dB/dt)
integrating with respect to time and assuming the constant of integration as zero,
 x JS =  (ns e2 B /m)
This is known as the second London equation.
Penetration Depth
Maxweel’s equation for steady current is
xB = 0 JS
Taking curl,
 x  x B =  x (0 JS)
But  x  x B = (.B) – 2B
But .B = 0
– 2B =  x 0 JS
= 0  x JS
But from second London equation,
 x JS =  (ns e2 B /m)
 2B = 0 (ns e2 B /m)
= B / 2, where  = [0 (ns e2 /m)] 1/2, called the
London penetration depth.
BCS theory
BCS theory was developed by the American physicists Bardeen, Cooper and Schrieffer to
explain the behaviour of superconducting materials. Cooper had discovered that electrons in
a superconductor are grouped in pairs. They are called Cooper pairs. The motions of all of the
Cooper pairs within a single superconductor are correlated. Application of an electrical voltage to
the superconductor causes all Cooper pairs to move, constituting a current. When the voltage is
removed, current continues to flow indefinitely because the pairs encounter no opposition. For the
current to stop, all of the Cooper pairs would have to be halted at the same time. It is a very unlikely
occurrence. As a superconductor is warmed, its Cooper pairs separate into individual electrons. So
the material becomes normal, or nonsuperconducting.
Many other behaviour of superconductors can be explained by the BCS theory. The energy
required to separate the Cooper pairs into their individual electrons can be measured
experimentally. The BCS theory also explains the isotope effect, in which the temperature at which
superconductivity appears is reduced if heavier atoms of the elements making up the material are
introduced.
Specific Heat
The specific heat of a superconductor is discontinuously higher just below the critical
temperature. For tin the specific heat is 1.9x10 – 4 Jg -1K -1 just above the critical temperature and is
equal to 2.79x10 – 4 Jg -1K -1 just below the critical temperature. In the intermediate state the specific
heat may be several times higher than these values.
Thermal Conductivity
The thermal conductivity of superconductors undergo a continuous change between the two
phases and is usually lower in the superconducting phase
Josephson Effect
The wave nature of a moving particle allows it to tunnel through a barrier that in classical
physics, it could not penetrate. Thus a small but detectable current of electron can tunnel through a
thin insulating layer between two metals. Josephson predicted that Cooper pairs could tunnel
through what is now called a Josephson Junction, a thin insulating layer between two
superconductors. The wave functions of Cooper pairs on each side of the junction penetrate the
insulating laver with exponentially decreasing amplitude, just the wave functions of individual
electrons would. If the layer is thin enough, less than 2 nm in practice, the wave functions overlap
sufficiently to become coupled together, and the Cooper pairs they describe can then pass through
the junctions Josephson shared the Nobel prize in physics for his work.
1) dc Josephson effect
Even when no p-d is applied across the junction, a dc current If = Imax Sin can be drawn
through the junction
Where  is the phase difference between the wave functions of the Cooper pairs on either side of
the junction, Imax is the maximum junction current which depends on the thickness of the insulating
layer. Imax is very small and is between 1A and 1 mA in a Nb-Nbo-Nb junction.
2) ac Josephson effect
If a dc voltage is applied across the junction, RF current oscillations of frequency 2Ve/h are
set up across it.