Some Properties of the Set of

1
Real Numbers
CHAPTER

This chapter provides a quick overview of some key mathematical concepts that are essential to
the study of Mathematical Analysis. While many of these concepts may already be familiar to
the reader (with more details), others will be new .

1.1 Usual sets of numbers

In this section, we’ll take a quick look at the primary number sets. This overview is intentionally
brief, as the reader should already be familiar with their main characteristics.

1.1.1 The set of natural numbers

The set of natural numbers, denoted by N = {0, 1, 2, · · · }.

The addition and multiplication operations are defined for the set N and exhibit the familiar
properties of commutativity, associativity, and distributivity.

1.1.2 The set of integer numbers

The set of integer numbers, denoted by Z = {· · · , −2, −1, 0, 1, 2, · · · }

The set N can be seen as a subset of Z, containing {0, +1, +2, · · · }. The numbers +1, +2, · · · are
called positive integers, while −1, −2, · · · are called negative integers. In Z, addition, multiplica-
tion, and subtraction (the inverse of addition) are all defined.

5
6 CHAPTER 1. SOME PROPERTIES OF THE SET OF REAL NUMBERS

1.1.3 The set of rational numbers

The set of rational numbers, denoted by Q.
A rational number is the result of dividing one integer p by another q, where the second integer
p (the denominator) is different from zero. We can assume that the denominator p is positive,
so every rational number can be represented as a ratio of two integers. which is given by

p
½ ¾
Q= , p ∈ Z, q ∈ N+ .
q

Sum, product and difference, the operation of division between two rationals is defined on Q.

1.1.4 The set of real numbers

The set of rational numbers, denoted by R.
We merely recall that real numbers that are not rational are known as irrational numbers. These
numbers have infinite, non-repeating decimal expansions, such as:
p
2 = 1.4142135623731 · · · , π = 3.1415926535897 · · · .

For sake of simplicity, the set of real numbers R includes both rational and irrational numbers.

Remark 1.1.1 What captures one’s attention are the characteristics of real numbers. We recall
some of them:

• The properties of arithmetic operations on rational numbers are analogous when applied
to real numbers.

• The order relation x < y, which is defined for rational numbers, also applies to real numbers
and exhibits similar characteristics. We will explore this further in the next sections.

• Rational numbers are dense in the set of real numbers. In other words, there are an infinite
number of rational numbers between any two real numbers. This means that we can find
a rational number that is very close to any real number.

•
N ⊂ Z ⊂ Q ⊂ R.

1.2 Axioms for the Real Numbers

1.2.1 Arithmetic Axiom (R is a field)

These axioms define the ways we can use the two binary operations addition (x + y) and multi-
plication (x · y) with real numbers. There are also two unique numbers, 0̄ and 1̄, that must follow
six particular rules:

1. (Commutative laws) For all x and y we have

x + y = y + x and x · y = y · x.
1.2. AXIOMS FOR THE REAL NUMBERS 7

2. (Associative laws) For all x, y and z we have

(x + y) + z = x + (y + z) and (x · y) · z = x · (y · z).

3. (Neutral elements) For all x we have

x + 0̄ = x and x · 1̄ = x.

4. (Additive inverses) For all x there exists y, such that

x + y = 0̄.

5. (Multiplicative inverses) For all x not equal to 0̄ there exists y, such that

x · y = 1̄.

6. (Distributive law) For all x, y and z we have

x · (y + z) = (x · y) + (x · z).

From axioms (1–5) we can figure out some familiar algebraic rules:

i. (Cancellation in sums) If x + y = x + z then y = z.

ii. (Cancellation in products) If x · y = x · z and x = 0̄ then y = z.

According to the cancellation rules, if x + y = 0̄, then y is uniquely determined by x and we can
call it −x. In the same way, if x · y = 1̄ and x is not equal to 0̄, then y is uniquely determined by x
and we can call it x − 1.

1.2.2 Ordering Axioms (R is an ordered field)

There is an order relation, written as (x < y), that can be used to compare pairs of elements in
the set of real numbers R. This relation must follow specific axioms:

1. (Trichotomy) For each x and y exactly one of the following three possibilities must hold:

x = y, x < y, y < x.

2. (Reflexivity) for all x we have x ≤ x.

3. (Anti-symmetry) for all x, y we have x ≤ y and y ≤ x, then x = y.

4. (Transitivity) for all x, y, z, if x < y and y < z then x < z.

5. For all x, y, z, if x < y then x + z < y + z.

6. For all x, y, z, if 0̄ < z and x < y then x · z < y · z.

We define further relations:

• x > y means y < x,

8 CHAPTER 1. SOME PROPERTIES OF THE SET OF REAL NUMBERS

• x ≤ y means (x < y or x = y),

• x ≥ y means (x > y or x = y).

We use the terms positive and negative to describe numbers. If x > 0̄, we say it’s positive. If x 0̄,
we say it’s negative.
The axioms imply the following familiar rules:

1. x is positive if and only if −x is negative.

2. x > y if and only if x − y is positive.

3. 1̄ is positive.

4. If x is positive then x −1 is positive.

5. For all x not equal to 0̄ the number x 2 is positive.

6. If x < y and z < 0̄ then x · z > y · z.

Before stating the notion of boundedness of a set, we need the following definitions.

Definition 1.2.1 (Upper and Lower Bounds)

A subset E of R is called bounded from above if there exists a real number M such that

x ≤ M, ∀x ∈ E .

The set E is bounded from below if there is a real number m with the following property

m ≤ x, ∀x ∈ E .

In this case, m and M are called, respectively, a lower bound and an upper bound of E . We say
that E is bounded if both bounds (upper and lower) exist. i.e. If there exist two real numbers m
and M such that, for all x ∈ E , m ≤ x ≤ M .

Example 1.2.1

1. E =]0, 3].
−2 and 0 are two lower bounds of E , because for all x ∈ E , −2 ≤ x and 0 ≤ x.
3 and 4 are two upper bounds of E , because for all x ∈ E , x ≤ 3 and x ≤ 4.

2. E = {−5, −3, 0, 4, 5, 10}.

−6 is a lower bound of E , because for all x ∈ E , −6 ≤ x.
10 is an upper bound of E , because for all x ∈ E , x ≤ 10.

3. E = {1, 3, 5} ∪ [−5, 2[.

−5 is a lower bound of E and 5 is an upper bound of E .

4. E = {−10, 0, 2, 4}∩] − 2, 2[.

−1 is a lower bound of E and 1 is an upper bound of E .

5. E = N is bounded from below (each number x < 0 is a lower bound), but not from above.
1.2. AXIOMS FOR THE REAL NUMBERS 9

Remark 1.2.1

1. The upper bound and lower bound of a set E are not unique. Indeed, in R the set E =]0, 3]
has an infinite number of lower bounds and upper bounds.

2. The upper bound and lower bound of a set E can belong to E or not. Indeed, for the set
E = −5, −3, 0, 4, 5, 10, −6 and −5 are two lower bounds of E , −5 belonging to E and −6 not
belonging to E .

Definition 1.2.2 Let E be a non-empty subset of R.

• The lower bound of E that belongs to E (necessarily unique) is called the minimum of the
set E . It is denoted by mi n(E ). In other words,

 m is a lower bound of E .



m = min(E ) ⇐⇒ and



m belonging to E .


• The upper bound of E that belongs to E (necessarily unique) is called the maximum of the
set E . It is denoted by max(E ). In other words,



 M is an upper bound of E .

M = max(E ) ⇐⇒ and



M belonging to E .


Example 1.2.2

1. E = [2, 4]. min(E ) = 2 and max(E ) = 4.

2. I =]0, 1[. min(I ) and max(I ) do not exist.

If a set has a maximum, then it must be bounded from above. The maximum is an upper bound
for the set and is actually the smallest of all possible upper bounds. The opposite is not true: a
set can be bounded from above but not admit a maximum. We know that 1 is the smallest of
upper bounds of the interval I =]0, 1[, but it does not belong to I . Thus, 1 is the supremum, or
least upper bound, of I , sup(I ) = 1 .

Definition 1.2.3 Let E ⊂ R be bounded from above. The supremum or least upper bound of E is
the smallest of all upper bounds of E , denoted by sup(E ). In other words,




 M is an upper bound of E .

M = sup(E ) ⇐⇒ and



M is the smallest of all upper bounds of E .


If E ⊂ R is bounded from below, one calls infimum or greatest lower bound of E the largest of all
lower bounds of E . This is denoted by inf(E ). In other words,



 m is a lower bound of E .

m = inf(E ) ⇐⇒ and



m is the largest of all lower bounds of E .

10 CHAPTER 1. SOME PROPERTIES OF THE SET OF REAL NUMBERS

Theorem 1.1 (Characterisation of supremum and infimum): Let E be a non-empty subset

of R, we have: 
 ∀x ∈ E , x ≤ M
1. M = sup(E ) ⇐⇒
 ∀ε > 0, ∃x ∈ E , M − ε < x.

 ∀x ∈ E , m ≤ x
2. m = inf(E ) ⇐⇒
 ∀ε > 0, ∃x ∈ E , x < m + ε.

Remark 1.2.2 1. The supremum of a set is a more general concept than the maximum of a set. It
is easy to show that if a set has a maximum, then this maximum is also the supremum of the set.
For sake of simplicity:

• If E has a maximum then sup(E ) = max(E ).

• If E has a minimum then inf(E ) = min(E ).

• If inf(E ) ∈ E then inf(E ) = min(E ).

• If sup(E ) ∈ E then sup(E ) = max(E ).

2. If a set E has no upper bound, then we say that its supremum is +∞, which means that we
define
sup(E ) = +∞.

Likewise, if a set E has no lower bound, then we say that its infimum is −∞, which means that we
define
inf(E ) = −∞.

1.3 Some fundamental properties of R

1.3.1 Completeness of R
The property of completeness of R involves the notion of supremum of a set: every bounded set
from above admits a supremum in R, that is for all E ⊂ R and E ̸= φ; E is bounded from above
implies sup(E ) exists in R.i.e.,there is a real number smaller or equal than all upper bounds of
the set.

1.3.2 Inequalities
Let x, y, z, t ∈ R we have:

1. If x ≤ y then x − z ≤ y − z.

 x ·z ≤ y ·z if z ≥ 0
2. If x ≤ y then
 x ·z ≥ y ·z if z ≤ 0.

 x2 ≤ y 2 if 0 ≤ x ≤ y
3. If x ≤ y then
 y 2 ≤ x2 if x ≤ y ≤ 0.
1.3. SOME FUNDAMENTAL PROPERTIES OF R 11

1
4. If 0 < x ≤ y then 0 < y ≤ x1 .

1 1
5. If x ≤ y < 0 then y ≤ x < 0.

1
6. If x ≤ y with x < 0 and y > 0 then x < 1y .

7. If 0 ≤ x ≤ 1 then ∀n ∈ N∗ , 0 ≤ x n ≤ x n−1 ≤ · · · ≤ x 2 ≤ x ≤ 1.

8. If 1 ≤ x then ∀n ∈ N∗ , 1 ≤ x ≤ x 2 ≤ · · · ≤ x n−1 ≤ x n .

9. If x ≤ y and z ≤ t then x + z ≤ y + t

10. If x ≤ y and z ≤ t with x ≥ 0 and z ≥ 0 then x · z ≤ y · t .

1.3.3 Absolute value

We will now define a basic but essential concept.

Definition 1.3.1 If x is a real number, then the real number that is called the absolute value of x
is 
 x if x ≥0
|x| =
 −x i f x < 0.

Properties of absolute value

Let x, y ∈ R, we have

1. |x| ≥ 0 for any x in R.

2. | − x| = |x|.

3. x ≤ |x| and −x ≤ |x|.

4. x = max(−x, x).

5. |x| = 0 ⇐⇒ x = 0.

6. Let a ≥ 0 then |x| ≤ a ⇐⇒ −a ≤ x ≤ a.

7. |x · y| = |x| · |y|.
¯ ¯
|x|
8. If y ̸= 0 then ¯ xy ¯ = |y| .
¯ ¯

¯ ¯
9. ¯|x| − |y|¯ ≤ |x + y| ≤ |x| + |y|. (Called triangle inequality)
¯ ¯
10. ¯|x| − |y|¯ ≤ |x − y| ≤ |x| + |y|.

1.3.4 Integer part of a real number

Definition 1.3.2 Let x be a real number. The largest integer less than or equal to x is called the
integer part of x. We will denote it by E (x) or ⌊x⌋.

p
Example 1.3.1 a) E (3.4) = 3, b) E ( 2) = 1, c) E (−2.5) = −3, d) E (1) = 1.
12 CHAPTER 1. SOME PROPERTIES OF THE SET OF REAL NUMBERS

Properties of the integer part of a real number

1. ∀x ∈ R we have E (x) ≤ x < E (x + 1).

2. ∀x ∈ R, n ∈ N. We have E (x + n) = E (x) + n.

3. ∀x, y ∈ R we have E (x) + E (y) ≤ E (x + y) ≤ E (x) + E (y) + 1.

Figure 1.1: The integer part function

Remark 1.3.1 For all x, y ∈ R, we have




 E (x) + E (y)

E (x + y) = or



E (x) + E (y) + 1.


1.3.5 The Archimedes property

For any x ∈ R∗+ and any y ∈ R, there is an n ∈ N such that n · x > y.

1.3.6 Density of Q in R
Between any two real numbers, there is always a rational number.i.e.,

∀a, b ∈ R ( with a < b), ∃q ∈ Q such that a < q < b.

This means that the rational numbers are dense in the real numbers.

1.4 Interval
As we have seen, Mathematical Analysis often studies subsets of R that have elements between
two fixed numbers. These subsets are called intervals.
1.4. INTERVAL 13

Definition 1.4.1 let I be a part of R (subset)

I is an interval of R if and only if

∀x, y ∈ I , ∀c ∈ R; x < c < y =⇒ c ∈ I .

Remark 1.4.1

• The intersection of two intervals of R is an interval of R.

• The union of two non-disjoint intervals of R is an interval of R.

• The union of two disjoint intervals of R is not an interval of R.

There are nine kinds of intervals in R that are shown in the following table. Let a, b be two real
numbers satisfying a < b

Description Definition Notation

Bounded and closed (segment) {x ∈ R/a ≤ x ≤ b} [a, b]
bounded and semi-open on the right {x ∈ R/a ≤ x < b} [a, b[
bounded and semi-open on the left {x ∈ R/a < x ≤ b} ]a, b]
bounded and open {x ∈ R/a < x < b} ]a, b[
closed and not bounded above {x ∈ R/a ≤ x} [a, +∞[
open and not bounded above {x ∈ R/a < x} ]a, +∞[
closed and not bounded below {x ∈ R/x ≤ b} ] − ∞, b]
open and not bounded below {x ∈ R/x < b} ] − ∞, b[
real line R ] − ∞, +∞[

1.4.1 Characterization of bounded parts in R

Lemma 1.4.1 Let E be a non-empty part of R, the following propositions are equivalent

1. E is bounded in R.

2. There exists a bounded interval I of R such that: E ⊂ I .

3. ∃M ≥ 0 such that, ∀x ∈ E , |x| ≤ M .

1.4.2 Neighborhood
Let us introduce the notion of neighbourhood of a point.

Definition 1.4.2 Let x 0 ∈ R be a point on the real line, and ε > 0 a real number. We call V ⊂ R the
neighborhood of x 0 the open and bounded interval

]x 0 − ε, x 0 + ε[= {x ∈ R : |x − x 0 | < ε} ⊂ V.

In other words, A neighborhood of a point is a set that contains an open interval around that
point.

Example 1.4.1
14 CHAPTER 1. SOME PROPERTIES OF THE SET OF REAL NUMBERS

• V = [2, 4] is a neighborhood of 3, but [2, 4] is not a neighborhood of 2 and 4.

• E = {−3, −2, −1, 0, 2, 4}, E is not a neighborhood of each of its points.

Remark 1.4.2

• Let V ∈ R be a neighborhood of +∞ if and only if there exists a ∈ R such that

]a, +∞[⊂ V.

• Let V ∈ R be a neighborhood of −∞ if and only if there exists a ∈ R such that

] − ∞, a[⊂ V.

Result

Every non-empty interval I of R contains an infinity of rational numbers.

1.4.3 Accumulation point, adherent point

Definition 1.4.3 Let A be a non-empty subset of R and x 0 ∈ R.

1. We say that x 0 is an adherent point to A if every open interval centered at x 0 contains at

least one element of A, that is

∀ε > 0, ]x 0 − ε, x 0 + ε[∩A ̸= φ.

2. We say that x 0 is an accumulation point of A, if every open interval centered at x 0 contains

at least one element of A other than x 0 , that is

∀ε > 0, ]x 0 − ε, x 0 + ε[\{x 0 } ∩ A ̸= φ.

Result

• An adherent point of a part of R is a point that is either in the part or in its boundary.

• An accumulation point of a part of R is a point that is not in the part but can be
arbitrarily close to it.

The set of points adhering to A is denoted Ā and is called adhesion of A.

Example 1.4.2 Let A =]1, 2] ∪ {3}, we have:

• 1 is an adherent point to A and an accumulation point of A, but 1 ∉ A.

• 2 is an adherent point to A and an accumulation point of A, but 2 ∈ A.

1.4. INTERVAL 15

• 3 is an adherent point to A but it is not an accumulation point of A, because if we choose

ε = 12 , then ]3 − ε, 3 + ε[\{3} ∩ A = φ.

Remark 1.4.3

• An accumulation point of A is an adherent point of A but the converse is false.

• An adherent point to the set A that is not an accumulation point is called an isolated point.

• If A is a bounded set in R then: M = sup(A) and m = i n f (A) are two adherent points of A.

• The adhesion of an interval of ends a and b is the closed interval [a, b].