System Analysis and Design develop, operate, and maintain the

information system.
What is a System?
 Sometimes called the ‘client’, These are
 A system is a group of interrelated the guys who PAY for the system…
components that function together to
achieve a desired result. For instance, you
may own a home theatre system made up System users
of a DVD player, receiver. speakers, and
 are the people who use or are affected by
display monitor.
the information system on a regular basis—
information system (IS) capturing, validating, entering, responding
to, storing, and exchanging data and
 is an arrangement of people, data,
information.
processes, communications, and
 Growth of web is driving increases in both
information technology that interact to
remote and external users.
support and improve day-to-day operations
in a business, as well as support the System designers
problem-solving and decision-making needs
 translate system users’ business
of management and users.
requirements and constraints into technical
Information technology solutions. They design the computer files,
databases, inputs, outputs, screens,
 is a contemporary term that describes the
networks, and programs that will meet the
combination of computer technology
system users’ requirements.
(hardware and software) with
 Generally a ‘systems analyst’, designer, etc.
telecommunications technology (data,
image, and voice networks).
System builders construct
Information versus Knowledge Workers  the information system components based
on the design specifications from the
Information workers
system designers. In many cases, the
 are those workers whose jobs involve the system designer and builder for a
creation, collection, processing, distribution, component are one and the same.
and use of information.  Generally, a ‘programmer’
 (sometimes called ‘white collar workers –
who incidentally outnumber blue collar
workers since 1957) systems analyst
Knowledge workers  studies the problems and needs of an
organization to determine how people, data,
 are a subset of information workers whose
processes, communications, and
responsibilities are based on a specialized
information technology can best accomplish
body of knowledge.
improvements for the business. (MAY
 (oftentimes degreed or credentialed in some
HAVE NOTHING TO DO WITH
special subject area – called (subject
COMPUTERS…)
matter experts) smes e.g. Engineers,
scientists, accountants, etc.) When information technology is used, the analyst is
usually responsible for:
System owners
o The efficient capture of data from its
 are the information system’s sponsors and
business source,
chief advocates. They are usually
responsible for funding the project to o The flow of that data to the
computer,
 o The processing and storage of that
data by the computer,
The flow of useful and timely information back to
• Total quality management (TQM)
the business and its people.
 is a comprehensive approach to
facilitating quality improvements and
business analyst (BA is often used…)is a management within a business.
systems analyst that specializes in business
problem analysis and technology-
independent requirements analysis. Information systems quality standards:
• Other synonyms for systems analyst o ISO 9001, Quality systems – Model
include: for quality assurance in
design/development, production,
o Systems consultant
installation, and servicing.
o Systems architect
o Capability Maturity Model (CMM)
o Systems engineer is a framework to assess the
maturity level of an organization’s
o Information engineer information systems development
o Systems integrator and management processes and
products. It consists of five levels of
maturity as measured by a set of
guidelines called the key process
General Problem-Solving Approach areas (KPAs).
Much of what we do involves problem solving:
1. Identify the problem Business Process Redesign (BPR) is the study,
2. Analyze and understand the problem. analysis, and redesign of fundamental business
3. Identify solution requirements or processes to reduce costs and/or improve value
expectations. added to the business.
4. Identify alternative solutions and decide a
course of action. o Usually complemented by
5. Design and implement the “best” solution. continuous process improvement
6. Evaluate the results. If the problem is not
solved, return to step 1 or 2 as appropriate. o A lot of this is going on….

o BPR is an important concept.

Business Trends and Drivers – Overview…. Continuous Process Improvement (CPI) is the
continuous monitoring of business processes to
 Total quality management (TQM) effect small but measurable improvements to cost
reduction and value added.
 Continuous process improvement (CPI)
o Essentially the opposite of business
 Globalization of the economy
process redesign; however,
 Information technology problems and
opportunities o CPI can and frequently does
complement BPR.
o Enterprise resource planning (ERP)

o Electronic commerce (EC or E-

Legacy systems are older information system
commerce)
applications that have become crucial to the day-to-
 Let’s look at each of these… day operation of a business and that may use
technologies considered old or outdated by current o Three basic types of electronic
standards. commerce applications include:
Lots of stand-alone systems; no plans for o Marketing
integration / sharing of costly resources, etc.
o Business-to-consumer (B2C)  Know
this
• An Enterprise resource planning (ERP) o Business-to-business (B2B)  Know
software product is a fully integrated this
information system that spans most basic
business functions required by a major o See these abbreviations a lot in the
corporation. An ERP product is built around literature.
a common database shared these
business functions.
• System Analysts:
• An important concept.
o Hosts of skills
• Examples of ERP software vendors include.
• Work with varieties of people with
o Baan
varying perspectives on the application
o J. D. Edwards
• Must communicate effectively with all of
o Oracle these

o Peoplesoft • Must be a people person

o SAP • Must be a good communicator – written

and orally
• More involved in representing the
corporation
ERP is dramatically changing the role of the
modern systems analyst.
o Programmer
• Instead of spending effort on requirements
planning and systems design, ERP • Usually can work with a well-defined
redirects effort to activities such as peer group
customization, business process redesign • Does not require the diversity of people
and alignment, and system skills and communication skills
implementation. required by an SA
• Does require more technical skills
Systems analysts who work on ERP projects are • Often scope of responsibilities is
almost always called systems integrators. clearly defined
Electronic commerce (e-commerce or EC)
involves conducting both internal and external
business over the Internet, intranets, & extranets. Computer Ethics

o Electronic commerce includes the buying The Ten Commandments of Computer Ethics
and selling of goods and services, the
1. Thou shalt not use a computer to harm other
transfer of funds, and the simplification of
people.
day-to-day business processes – all
through digital communications. 2. Thou shalt not interfere with other people's
computer work.
3. Thou shalt not snoop around in other people's Transaction processing systems are information
computer files. system applications that capture and process data
about business transactions.
4. Thou shalt not use a computer to steal.
o Includes data maintenance, which
5. Thou shalt not use a computer to bear false
provides for custodial updates to
witness.
stored data.
6. Thou shalt not copy or use proprietary software
o ATMs
for which you have not paid.
o Point-of-sale systems
7. Thou shalt not use other people's computer
resources without authorization or proper o Online shopping
compensation.
o Stock exchanges
8. Thou shalt not appropriate other people's
intellectual output. o Hotel reservation systems

9. Thou shalt think about the social consequences o Payroll systems

of the program you are writing or the system you
are designing.
10. Thou shalt always use a computer in ways that management information system (MIS) is an
insure consideration and respect for your fellow information system application that provides for
human management-oriented reporting. These reports are
usually generated on a predetermined schedule
and appear in a prearranged format.
Data are raw facts about the organization and its Examples of MIS
business transactions. Most data items have little
meaning and use by themselves. • Customer Relationship Management (CRM)
systems
Information is data that has been refined and
organized by processing and purposeful • Enterprise Resource Planning (ERP)
intelligence. The latter, purposeful intelligence, is software
crucial to the definition—People provide the • Supply Chain Management (SCM) systems
purpose and the intelligence that produces true
information. • Human Resource Information System
(HRIS) managing employee information and
payroll.
Types of System
• Transaction Processing System A decision support system (DSS) - an
• Management Information System information system application that provides its
users with decision-oriented information whenever
• Decision Support System a decision-making situation arises. Applied to
executive managers, systems are sometimes called
• Executive Information System
executive information systems (EIS).
• Expert System
A data warehouse: read-only, informational
• Communication and Collaboration System database populated with detailed, summary, and
exception data and information generated by other
• Office Automation System transaction and management information systems.
The design of a data warehouse differs
significantly from traditional, operational databases.
Examples of DSS
 • Healthcare designed to boost the group’s
productivity.
• Agriculture
Examples of an OAS
• Weather Forecasting
• Email management systems, document
• Real Estate
management tools, scheduling applications,
• Navigation Microsoft Office Suite (Word, Excel,
PowerPoint, Outlook), Google Workspace
expert system is a programmed decision-making (Docs, Sheets, Slides, Gmail), and systems
information system that captures and reproduces for automated data entry and report
the knowledge and expertise of an expert problem generation, all designed to streamline
solver or decision maker and then simulates the repetitive tasks and improve communication
“thinking” or “actions” of that expert. within an office environment.
o Expert systems are implemented Executive Information System
with artificial intelligence
technology that captures, stores, • are tailored to the unique information needs
and provides access to the of executive who plan for the business and
reasoning of the experts. assess performance against those plans

Examples of an ES Communication and Collaboration System

• Medical diagnosis systems like MYCIN • enhance communication and collaboration

(diagnosing bacterial infections) between people, both internal and external
to the organization.
• DENDRAL (predicting molecular structures
in chemistry) Examples of a CCS

• PXDES (predicting lung cancer severity) • Google Meet

• A financial analysis system like FINEVA, • Zoom

• Intelligent tutoring systems used in • Google Workspace (including Docs, Sheets,

education Slides)

- essentially, any system that mimics the decision- • Dropbox

making ability of a human expert in a specific field • Microsoft Teams
by using a knowledge base and inference rules to
solve complex problems.
Perspectives or Stakeholders – Roles NOT Job
Titles…
Office automation (OA) systems support the wide
range of business office activities that provide for • System owners pay for the system to be
improved work flow and communications between built and maintained.
workers, regardless of whether or not those
• System users use the system to perform or
workers are located in the same office.
support the work to be completed.
o Personal information systems are
• System designers design the system to
those designed to meet the needs of
meet the users’ requirements.
a single user. They are designed to
boost an individual’s productivity. • System builders construct, test, and deliver
the system into operation.
o Work group information systems
are those designed to meet the • Systems analysts facilitate the development
needs of a work group. They are of information systems and computer
applications by bridging the communications
 gap that exists between nontechnical o Business functions are ongoing
system owners and users and technical activities that support the business.
system designers and builders. Functions can be decomposed into
other subfunctions and eventually
• IT vendors and consultants sell hardware,
into processes that do specific tasks.
software, and services to businesses for
incorporation into their information systems. o A cross-functional information
system supports relevant business
• Role can be accommodated by more than
processes from several business
one person
functions without regard to traditional
organizational boundaries such as
divisions, departments, centers,
Focuses for Information Systems and offices.
• Data—the raw material used to create • System users’ perspectives
useful information.
o Business processes are activities
• Processes—the activities (including
that respond to business events.
management) that carry out the mission of
Business processes are the “work”
the business.
performed by the system.
• Interfaces—how the system interfaces with
o Process requirements are a
its users and other information systems.
representation of the users’ business
processes in terms of activities, data
flows, or work flow.
The DATA Focus
o A policy is a set of rules that govern
• System owners’ perspective
a business process.
o Business knowledge is the insight
o A procedure is a step-by-step set of
that is gained from timely, accurate,
instructions and logic for
and relevant information. (Recall that
accomplishing a business process.
information is a product of raw data.)
• System designers’ perspectives
• System users’ perspective
o An application schema is a model
o Data requirements are a
that communicates how selected
representation of users’ data in
business processes are, or will be,
terms of entities, attributes,
implemented using the software and
relationships, and rules. Data
hardware.
requirements should be expressed
in a format that is independent of the o Software specifications represent
technology that can or will be used the technical design of business
to store the data. processes to be automated or
supported by computer programs to
• System designers’ perspective
be written by system builders.
• System builders’ perspective
• System builders’ perspectives
o Database schema
o Application programs are
o Database management system language-based, machine-readable
representations of what a software
process is supposed to do, or how a
The PROCESS Focus software process is supposed to
accomplish its task.
• System owners’ perspective
 o Prototyping is a technique for
quickly building a functioning, but
THE SYSTEMS DEVELOPMENT LIFE CYCLE
incomplete model of the information
(SDLC)
system using rapid application
development tools. Process of System Development
The INTERFACE Focus – places with A system development process is a set of
stakeholders… activities, methods, best practices, deliverables,
and automated tools that stakeholders use to
• System owners’ perspective
develop and maintain information systems and
• System users’ perspectives software.

o Interface requirements are a (Some books use the term ‘systems development
representation of the users’ inputs life cycle. Don’t confuse this with the waterfall
and outputs. development approach, which we will consider
later).
• System designers’ perspective
o User dialogues describe how the
user moves from window-to-window, Capability Maturity Model (CMM) is a framework
interacting with the application to assess the maturity level of an organization’s
programs to perform useful work. information system development and management
processes and products. It consists of five levels of
• System builders’ perspective maturity as measured by a set of guidelines called
o Middleware is a layer of utility the key process areas.
software that sits in between o Level 1—Initial: System development
application software and systems projects follow no prescribed process.
software to transparently integrate
differing technologies so that they o Level 2—Repeatable: Project
can interoperate. management processes and practices are
established to track project costs,
schedules, and functionality.
The Role of the Network in IS o Level 3—Defined: A standard system
DATA PROCESS INTERFACE
development process (sometimes called a
Building
Blocks
Building
Blocks
Building
Blocks “methodology”) is purchased or developed,
and integrated throughout the information
systems/services unit of the organization.
The Network

o Level 4—Managed: Measurable goals for

quality and productivity are established.
Figure 2.8 Edit Date: 8/3/00 11:38:23 AM

Caption: Role of the Network in Information Systems o Level 5—Optimizing: The standardized
Type of Art: Line (portrait) Software: Visio Authors: Whitten, Bentley, and Dittman
Filename: Drawing1
system development process is
continuously monitored and improved
 Is the class model of separating and
based on measures and data analysis
partitioning the layers of an
established in Level 4.
information system application
across a network.
 This is called distributing computing
architecture and it can be Life Cycle versus Methodology
implemented using either • A system life cycle divides the life of an
client/server or internet/intranet information system into two stages, systems
technology or combination of both. development and systems operation and
support.
 • A system development methodology is a 3. Establish a support plan
very formal and precise system
Putting the SDLC Together
development process that defines (as in
CMM Level 3) a set of activities, methods, • Each phase consists of steps that lead to
best practices, deliverables, and automated specific deliverables
tools that system developers and project
managers are to use to develop and • The system evolves through gradual
maintain information systems and software. refinement

Systems Development Life Cycle • Once the system is implemented, it may go

back into a planning phase for its next
Planning revision, a follow-on system, or
maintenance releases

Implementation Analysis Project Identification and Initiation

• Projects are driven by business needs
Design
o Identified by business people

SDLC: Planning o Identified by IT people

1. Project Initiation o (better yet) identified jointly by
business and IT
o Develop a system request
• The project sponsor believes in the system
o Conduct a feasibility analysis
and wants to see it succeed
2. Project Management
o Normally this is a business person
o Develop work plan
o Should have the authority to move it
o Staff the project forward

o Control and direct the project • Problems are undesirable situations that
prevent the organization from fully achieving
SDLC: Analysis its purpose, goals, and/or objectives.
1. Develop analysis strategy • Opportunities are chances to improve the
organization even in the absence of specific
2. Gather requirements
problems.
3. Develop a system proposal
• Directives are new requirements that are
SDLC: Design imposed by management, government, or
some external influence.
1. Develop a design strategy
• Note that problems, opportunities, and/or
2. Design architecture and interfaces directives can either be planned or
3. Develop databases and file specifications unplanned.

4. Develop the program design

SDLC: Implementation The PIECES Problem-Solving Framework

1. Construct system P the need to improve performance

2. Install system I the need to improve information (and

data)
o Implement a training plan for the
users E the need to improve economics,
control costs, or increase profits
C the need to improve control or o Anything else that should be
security considered
E the need to improve efficiency of Feasibility Analysis
people and processes
• Guides the organization in determining
S the need to improve service to whether to proceed with a project
customers, suppliers, partners,
employees, etc. • Identifies the project’s risks that must be
addressed if the project is approved
PIECES is a useful way to characterize all
problems. • Mayor components:

Can use PIECES to analyze requirements and o Technical feasibility

solutions as well. o Economic feasibility

o Organizational feasibility

Business Value
Technical Feasibility
• Tangible Value
• Familiarity with application
o Can be quantified and measured
o Less familiarity generates more risk
easily
• Familiarity with technology
o Example: 2 percent reduction in
operating costs o Less familiarity generates more risk
• Intangible Value • Project size
o Results from an intuitive belief that o Large projects have more risk
the system provides important, but
hard-to-measure, benefits to the • Compatibility
organization o Difficult integration increases the risk
o Example: improved customer service

Elements of a System Request Economic Feasibility

• Project sponsor • Development costs
o Primary point of contact for the • Annual operating costs
project
• Annual benefits (cost savings and
• Business need revenues)
o Reason prompting the project • Intangible costs and benefits
• Business requirements Organizational Feasibility
o Business capabilities the system will • Stakeholders
need to have
o Project champion(s)
• Business value
o Senior management
o Benefits the organization can expect
from the project o Users

• Special issues o Others

 • Is the project strategically aligned with the Object-Oriented Analysis & Design
business?
• Attempt to balance emphasis on data and
process
Project Selection • Uses Unified Modeling Language (UML)
• Project portfolio management • Characteristics of OOAD:
o A process that optimizes project o Use-case Driven
selection and sequencing in order to
o Architecture Centric
best support business goals
o Business goals are expressed in o Iterative and Incremental
terms of The Unified Process
• Quantitative economic • A specific methodology that maps out when
measures and how to use the various Unified Model
• Business strategy goals Language techniques for object-oriented
analysis and design
• IT strategy goals
• A two-dimensional process consisting of
• Once selected, projects enter the project phases and flows
management process
o Phases describe how the system
Systems Development Methodologies evolves over time
• A methodology is a formalized approach to o Workflows are collections of tasks
implementing the SDLC that occur throughout the lifecycle,
• Well-known methodologies include: but vary in intensity

o Waterfall development Unified Process Phases

• Inception
o Parallel development
• Elaboration
o V-model
• Construction
o Rapid application development
• Transition
o Agile development
Engineering Workflows
Categories of Methodologies
• Business modeling
• Structured Design
• Requirements
o Waterfall Development
• Analysis
o Parallel Development
• Design
• Rapid Application Development
• Implementation
o Phased
• Testing
o Prototyping
• Deployment
o Throwaway Prototyping
Supporting Workflows
• Agile Development
• Project management
o eXtreme Programming
• Configuration and change management
 • Environment  Each phase has a set of deliverables that
must be produced to fulfil the goals of that
• Operations and support*
phase
• Infrastructure management*
* Part of the enhanced unified process
A use case is a technique used in software and
systems engineering to capture the functional
requirements of a system. Use cases describe the
UML Structure Diagrams interaction between a primary actor—the initiator of
• Represent the data and static relationships the interaction—and the system itself, represented
in an information system as a sequence of simple steps.

o Class UP Phase 1 – Inception

UP Phase 2 – Planning
o Object
UP Phase 3 – Construction
o Package
UP Phase 4 – Transition
o Deployment

o Component
Managing the e-Project -
o Composite structure Part 2
USE CASE  The e-Team
• A use case depicts a set of activities  Managing the team
performed to produce some output result.
Each use case describes how an external  Managing the client-consultant relationship
user triggers an event to which the system  Communicating with the team and the client
must respond.
Managing a Project
Project Management
Basic Concepts:
Basic PM Concepts:
 Process: A methodological series of steps
 Many methodologies emphasize software taken to achieve a goal.
and system modelling
 Roles: The responsibilities of each member
 Often methodologies relate to software of a project team, and the interfaces
modelling tools and methods. e.g. Rational between these team members
Corporation’s RUP
 Critical roles must be filled at all times to
 We will employ a methodology called ensure project progresses successfully
“Unified Process” (UP)
 Role of Project Manager is probably the
most crucial one, but all roles are important
UP Methodology: in terms of achieving delivery

 The UP methodology, it’s iterative and Team and skills:

divides a project into four phases:  A number of people work together on a
1. Inception (a.k.a. Proposal) typical project

2. Planning  A broad set of skills required relative to

traditional software projects, eg:
3. Construction
4. Transition
  Graphic Design (Images, interactive
elements)
 Web Development (HTML, jscript
etc)
 Software Development (eg Java,
Perl)
 Business Analysis (Requirements)
 Training
 Client/Account Management
Project Specification Document
Often the PSD includes:
1. Introduction and Project Objectives
2. Project Description
3. Total Cost of Ownership for Infrastructure
4. Actors and Use Case
5. Site Map. Content Plan
6. Testing Plan, site updates and maintenance
7. Budget
8. Appendices
Project Risks
• Privacy
• Copyright Infringement
• Licensing changes
• Legal liabilities (project dependent)
• Lack of human resources - skills
• Lack of funding
• Changes in the marketplace
• Entry barriers for competitors
• Changes in prices...