i

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COMPUTERFORM 4NOTES
2. Si
gnal modulationanddemodul
ati
on.
3. Mul t
ipl
exi
ng.
4. Bandwi dth.
5. Baseband.
INTRODUCTI ONTONETWORKI NGANDDATACOMMUNI CATION 6. Broadbandt ransmissi
on.
INTRODUCTI ON 7. Attenuati
on.
Acomput ernetworkformswhenev er2ormor ecomputersareint
erconnect
ed
togetherwithotherrel
atedaccessoriestowor ktoget
her.
Noncomput ernetworksinclude:
o00hgtr56hi
g 1.DATASI GNAL
a) Roadnet worksthatfacil
it
atet
ransferofgoodsandser vi
ces.
b) Tel ephonenetworks( voi
cenetworks)withmanyl i
nesthatcri
sscrossa
 Comput erscommuni cat
ebyt ransferr
ingdatasignal
sbetween
themselves.
country.
c) Bl oodcircul
ator
ysy stem i
nthehumanbody .  Ref erstoav olt
agel evel
intheci r
cuitwhichrepr
esent st
hefl
owofdata.
d) Theneur onsystem inthehumanbr ain.  Ther earet wotypesofdat asignals:
a) Anal ogsignal
: datamadeupofcont i
nuousv ar
yingwav
ef or
m si
mil
ar
DEFINITIONOFTERMSUSEDI NNETWORKI NG t
ov oiceorsoundwav e.
1.COMPUTERNETWORK b) Digitalsi
gnal:datamadeupnon- conti
nuousdiscret
esi
gnal.
 Acol lecti
onofindependententit
iesthatarearrangedinsuchamanner
ast oexchangedata,informati
onorr esources. 2.SI
GNALMODULATI ONANDDEMODULATI ON
 Acol l
ectionofcomput ersli
nkedtogetherusingtransmi
ssionmedi
afor  Pr ocessofconv erti
ngdatasignalstoaformthati
ssuitablef
or
thepur poseofcommuni cat
ionandresourceshar i
ng. tr
ansmi ssionov eratransmissi
onmedi um.
a) Modul at
ion: conver
ti
ngdigit
al dat
asignal
sint
oanalogdatasignal
s.
2.TRANSMISSIONMEDI A b) Demodul ati
on: conver
ti
ngdi gi
taldat
abysuperimposingi
tonanalog
 Tr ansmi
ssionmedi areferstoanyphysi
calornon-
phy
sical
li
nkbet
ween car
riersignal whi
chcanbet ransmitt
edoveranalogtel
ephoneli
nes.
twoormor ecomput er
sandi nwhi
chasignalcanbemadetofl
owfrom
sourcet
odestinati
on. 3.MULTI PLEXING
 Someoft hesharedresour cesi
ncl
ude:  Pr ocessofsendi ngmul tipl
edatasignalsoverthesamemedi um i
.e.a
a) Applicati
onpr ograms. wireconduct orcanbemadet ocar
rysev er
aldatasignalseither
b) Printer
s. simultaneouslyoratdifferentti
mes.
c) Faxmachi nes.  Demul ti
plexi
ngi stheprocessofsepar at
ingthemul t
ipl
exedsi gnalsatthe
d) Modems. recei
v i
ngend.
e) Storagedev ices.  Thedi ff
erentdatasignalsar emadetohav edif
ferentfrequenciesonthe
cablehencet heydonoti nt er
fer
ewithoneanot her.
3.DATACOMMUNI CATION  Thedi ff
erentfrequenci
escausewhati scall
eddiffer
entlogicalchannels
 Itistheprocessoftr
ansmit
ti
ngdat
asi
gnalf
rom onepoi
ntt
oanot
her i
nt hemedi um.
thr
oughthenetwork.
 Itisthemov ementofdat
abytel
ecommuni
cati
onsyst
ems.

exer
exer

pl
Sender Recei
ve Mul
ti
plexedl
i
ne
pl

i
To To

t
i

Demul
t

Comput
er
Mul

Comput
er
s s
TERMSUSEDINDATACOMMUNI
CATI
ON
1. Dat
asi
gnal
. Amul
ti
plexedl
i
nk

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4.BANDWI DTH
 Themaxi mum amountofdatathatatransmi
ssi
onmedi
um cancar
ryat
anyoneti
me.Forexample,acert
aincablemayhav
eabandwidt
hof100 2.HALFDUPLEX
Mbps(Megabitspersecond)
.  Communi cati
ontakespl
aceinbothdi
rect
ionsbutonedirecti
onatati
me.
 Twoi nt
erconnect
eddevi
cesexchangedataalt
ernat
elywherethedev
ices
5.BASEBANDSI GNAL swi
tchbetweensendandrecei
vemodesaf t
ereachtransmissi
on.
 Asi gnalthatisgener
at edandappli
edtothetr
ansmissi
onmedium
dir
ectl
ywi t
houtmodul ati
on.
 Thesi gnaltakestheform ofvol
tagesofdif
fer
entmagnit
udesappl
iedt
o
themedium. Example
1. Walki
etal
kies
6.BROADBANDTRANSMI SSION 2. Faxmachines.
 Thisiswher eananalogsignali
ssendoverthet
ransmissi
onmedi
um 3. Modems.
usi
ngapar t
icularf
requency.
 Severaldatasignalscanbesendsimult
aneousl
ythrought
hesame 3.FULLDUPLEX
medium butatdiff
erentfr
equenci
es.  Occursinbot
hdi
rect
ionssi
mul
taneousl
y.

7.ATTENUATI ON Sender Ful

ldupl
ex Recei
ve
a) Thisi sthel ossofsi gnal str
ength(decr
easeinmagni tudeandener gy)as
asi gnal pr
ogr essiv
elymov esalongat r
ansmi ssionmedi um. Exampl
e:
b) Ifthesi gnal i
snotboost ed,itwi
llt
otall
ybelostal ongthewayandmay a) Tel
ephonesy
stem,aper
soncantalkwit
houtwai
ti
ngfort
heot
hert
ofi
nish.
nev erreacht hedest inati
on. b) Computer
scansendandrecei
vedataonanetwor
k.
c) Thiscondi tioni susuallycor r
ect
edbypl aci
ngsi gnalampl i
fiersal
socall
ed
repeat erstationsalongt hemedi um atappropriatedistancesinorderto TYPESOFCOMPUTERNETWORKS
receivet heweaksi gnal,cleanit
,amplif
yitthenr etr
ansmi ti
t . 1. LocalAreaNetworks(LAN)
Classi
fi
ed
2. Metropoli
tanAreaNetwork(
MAN) accordi
ngto
MODESOFDATACOMMUNI
CATI
ON 3. WideAreaNet work(WAN) si
ze.
1. Simplex.
2. Halfduplex. 1.LOCALAREANETWORK
3. Fulldupl
ex.  Acommuni cationnet workthatspansar
elat
ivel
ysmal
lgeogr
aphi
cal
area
li
keinonebuildingoraschool .
1.SI
MPLEX  LANsar echar acteri
zedby :
 Communicati
oni
sonlyi
nonedir
ecti
on. a) Limi
tedgeographi calarea.
 Theyreonl
ymeantt
osendorrecei
vemessages. b) Highdatatr
ansmi ssionr at
es.
c) Lowcosttransmi ssion
Example d) Lowintr
a-off
icet r
affic.
a) Radiobr oadcast–t heli
stenercannotcommunicat
ebackt
hrought
he
radior
ecei ver.  LANsal
l
owi
nfor
mat
ionandcomput
err
esour
cest
obeshar
edbymany
b) Televi
sionbr oadcast. userse.g.
c) Transmi ssi
onf rom acomput ert
oal i
nepri
nter
. a) Massst or
agedev
ices.
b) Processors.
Si
mpl
ex c) Pri
nters.
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ve Nove
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d) Pl
ott
ers. net
wor
ks.
e) Sof
tware. PURPOSEOFNETWORKI NG
 LANsar
eal
sochar
act
eri
zedbyt
hef
oll
owi
ngcomponent
s: 1. Resourceshar i
ng
a) Ser
ver
. 2. Remot ecommuni cation.
b) Workst
ations. 3. Distr
ibutedpr ocessi ngf acili
ti
es.
c) Net
workinterfacecards(NIC) 4. Costef f
ectiveness.
d) Net
worktransmi ssioncabl
es. 5. Reli
abili
ty.
e) Net
workoper ati
ngsy st
ems. 1.Resourceshar i
ng
f) Net
workaccessor ies.  Resour cer eferst odat a/information, f
il
es, pr
inters,
modems,
communi cationlinks, storagedev ices,faxmachi nes,appli
cation
A.SERVER programset c.
 Acomput erdedicatedtoserv
ici
ngrequest
sforr
esour
cesf
rom ot
her  Asl ongascomput ersar econnect ed,theycanshar etheirfil
es,exchange
comput
ers(workstati
ons)onanetwork. mail,sendf axesf rom anypoi ntont henet wor k.
 Theserverprovi
desser vi
cestoLANusers.  User sdonotneedt ot ransferfil
esv iaremov ablestoragebutwoul dsend
thewor ktoanet wor kpr inter.
B.WORKSTATI ONS  Thecent rali
zedaccesst odat aandi nf
ormat ionleadstolesswast eof
 Anyot hercomput erconnectedtoanetwor
kandcanshareresourceswith ti
meandhencegr eaterpr oductiv
ity.
anyotherdev icesont henet work.  I nmostnet workar rangement s,theshar edr esourcesmaybeat tachedto
2.METROPOLI TANAREANETWORK( MAN) anetwor kser ver.
 Typeofanet wor kwhichcov ersageogr
aphi
calext
endedfashi
onar eal
i
ke  Thecl i
ents/wor kst ationst hensendt heirrequeststotheser ver.
atownorci ty( approximatelyaradi
usof5–50km) .  Thenet wor kserv err unsaspeci al program (serversoft
war e)which
 TheMANi nfrastructuremaybeownedbyasi nglecompanythathas control
scomput er sont henet workandl i
stent ocli
entrequeststoser v
ice
off
icesacrossamet ropol
itanarea. them overt henet wor k.–I ll
ustrati
onPage6
 AMANt herefor eismadeupofmanyLANsi namet ropol
i
tanarea.
2.Remot ecommuni cati
on
3.WIDEAREANETWORK( WAN)  Ref erst othet r
ansmi ssi
onofdat asi gnalsbet weenthecommuni cat
ing
 Al soknownasLongHaul Network(LHN). dev icesl ocatedatdi ffer
entgeogr aphicallocations.
 I ti
sat ypeofanet workthatcover
sal ar
gegeogr
aphi
calar
easuchasa  Ar emot eclient( acomput erthataccessesr esources)f
rom aremot ehost
country
, acont
inentorthewholewor l
d. (thecomput erbei ngaccessed)pr ovidesr emot ecommuni cat
ionmost ly
 I tconsi
stsofmanyLANsandMansconnect edtofor
m onelar
genet
wor
k byuseofwi relesstransmissionmedi asuchasr adi
owav es,microwaves
suchast heInt
ernet. andsat elli
tes.
 I tist hroughr emot ecommuni cati
ont hatpeopl ecanbeabletoshar e
CHARACTERI STICSOFWANs
ideasandpassmessagesov ertheI nternet.
a) Unli
mitedgeogr aphi
calarea.
b) Lowdat atransmissi
onr ates.  Remot ecommuni cati
onthusel i
mi natestheneedofpeopl etotravel
/roam
c) Hightr
ansmi ssionli
nkcost s. forlongdi stancesbygi vi
ngthem al otoff reedom tothenetwor kwhich
d) Longdistancetransmission. transl atestomor eproducti
vi
ty.
e) Highdegreeofv enderindependence. 3.Di
stri
butedprocessi
ngfacili
ties
f) Costl
ytoi nstal
landmai ntai
n.  Ref er
st otheactofr
unningt hesamepr ogramsordatabasesondiff
erent
PURPOSEANDLIMITATIONSOFNETWORKI NG computerswhichareont hesamenet work.
 Thesearet
hereasonsforset
ti
ngupcomput
ernetwor
ks,t
oget
herwi
th  Comput er
scandopr ocessingatthei
rowndi sper
sedlocationsor
t
hechal
l
engesassoci
atedwit
hthei
mplement
ati
onofthecomput
er depart
ment sandcanshar eprogr
ams, dataandotherresourceswi
theach

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ot
her.
 I
tsimpl
if
iesf
lowofi
nfor
mat
ionandsav
est
imeandr
esour
ces.
Advantagesofdi str
ibuteddataprocessi
ng:
a) Thef ai
lureofthecent r
alcomputerdoesnotaf
fectt
heoperat
ionsoft
he
otherterminals.
b) Processingloadi ssharedequal
lyhencenoti
mewast age.
4.Costeffecti
veness
 Al t
hought heiniti
al costandlayi
ngdownofnet workcomponent smaybe
expensive,thesavingsexper i
encedandt hev al
ueaddedt oservice
deli
verymaket hem ar eadychoiceforenter
pr i
singmanager s.
 Thenet workgreatlyincreasestheeffi
cientuseofscar ceresour ces.
 Net wor kshavealsoenhanceddai l
ycommuni cationbyprovidinga
paperl
esscommuni cationenvi
ronment .
 User scansendel ectronicmessagesandmai ltoeachot herinsteadof
havi
ngt obearthecostofst ampdut yordeliverycharges.
 Companyexecut i
v esmaynotneedt otravelacrosscontinentst ohold
meetings.Theycanhol dv i
deoconferencesandsav eont r
aveling
expenses.
5.Reli
abi
li
ty
 Dat acanbetransferr
edwithmi
nimum er
rorf
rom sour
cetodesti
nati
on.
 User scanst
il
l accessdat
aandinf
ormati
onfr
om theothercomputer
son
thenet
workincaseonebreaksdown.

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LI
MITATI ONSOFNETWORKI NG  I
fbyanychancet
henet
wor
kfai
l
s,manysy
stemsi
nor
gani
zat
ionscanbe
1. Securityissues. br
oughtt
oahal
t.
2. Highiniti
al cost.
3. Mor alandcul tur
aleff
ects. ELEMENTSOFNETWORKI NG
4. Spreadoft er
rori
sm anddr ugt
raf
fi
cki
ng. Acomput ernet
wor kismadeupofsev eralst
andar
del
ement
s(component
s)
5. Over-r
elianceonnet works. whichcanbeclassifi
edinto3majorcategori
es:
1.Datacommuni cati
onmedi a.
1. Secur i
tyi
ssues 2.Communi cat
iondev i
ces.
 Dat aandinfor
mationispronet omoreil
legalaccessthreatsbecause 3.Networki
ngsof t
ware.
therecanbedat aaccessandshar i
ngfrom vari
ouspoi nts. 4.Datasi
gnal.
 Dat acanalsobetappedorl ist
enedtobyunaut hori
zedparti
es,duri
ng
1.DATACOMMUNI CATI ONMEDI A
transmissi
onofdat afr
om sour cet
odest i
nat
ion.
 Apat hwayusedf orcar r
y i
ngdat aandi nformati
onfrom onepointto
 Oneoft hecommonmet hodsofdataprotect
ioni nanetworked
another.
env i
ronmentisencrypt
ioning.
 Thecommuni cationmedi um di ctatesthet ypeofsi
gnalsthatwil
lbeused
2.Hi
ghiniti
alcost totransmitamessage.
 Net workingisanexpensiv
eventur
ef oranorganizat
ion.  Tr ansmissionmedi aisthephy sical path(bounded)andnonphy si
calpat
h
(unbounded)bet weent hetransmi t
terandt herecei
ver.
 Itisexpensivetoacquir
enetworki
ngequi pments.
 Thecommuni cationmedi a/channel s/pathway scanbedividedi
ntotwo:
 Itisexpensivetotrai
nnetworkadminist
rator
s,usersandgener
al
a) Communi cat
ionusi ngcables( boundedmedi a)
.
maintenanceofnetworks.
b) Wirelesscommuni cati
ons( unboundedmedi a).
 Thei nit
ialcostofbuyi
ngnetworkhardwareandsof t
wareisver
yhi
gh.
A.COMMUNI CATI ONUSI NGCABLES( BOUNDEDMEDI A)
3.Moralandculturaleffects  Communi cationsi gnalsar etransmitt
edf r
om thesour
cet ot
he
 Thei nter
nethaschatr oomsandmessagi ngserv
icesthatmayenabl
e dest
inat
iont hroughar estr i
ctedpathwaysuchasacabl e.
underagechildrentomeetpeer sandadul tsonthenet,someofwhom  Anyr adi
ationf rom thegui dedmedi um i
sregardedassignal
loss.
mayhav ebadi ntent
ions.  Themostcommont ypesofboundedt ransmissi
onmedi aar
e:
 Accesst opor nographyandot hernegati
vemat er
ialshasal
soledtomor
al i
) Twowi reopenl inecabl es.
decay,l
eadingtot hefightagai
nstsocialprobl
emsl i
keHIV/AI
DS,bad i
i) Twi stedpai rcabl es.
sexualbehavi
our ,dr
ugsandsubst anceabusemor ecompli
cat
ed. i
ii
) Coaxi al cables.
i
v) Fibreopt i
ccabl es.
4.Spreadoft err
ori
sm anddr ugtraffi
cking
 Thei nt
ernetprovi
desarichr ecrui
tmentgr oundf orallty
pesofil
l
egal I
)TWOWI REOPENLI NESCABLES:
activi
ti
essuchast err
ori
sm anddr ugtraff
icking.  Madeupoft wopar allelcopperwi r
essepar at
edbyapl asti
cinsulator.
 Theeasyf l
owofinformationfrom onepl acet oanotherkeepsevent
hose  Usedi ntelecommuni cationnetworktot r
ansmi tvoicesi gnal.
whoar eont hewrongsideoft helawcommuni cat
ingeasil
y.  Althought hepl astici
nsul atorismeantt oreducei nter-l
ineint
erference
 Ter rori
stsanddrugt r
aff
ickersusei nformationnetwor ksfort
hei
r calledcrosst alk,t
heirlinearnatureall
owsanel ectromagnet icfi
eldt obui
l
d
businesscommuni cati
ons. aroundt hem dur i
ngheav ydatatransmissi
onwhi chmaycause
int
er f
erencet ot hesignal .
5.Over-
rel
ianceonnetworks  Thewi resal socapt ureenv ironmentalfr
equenci ese. g.radi
owav eshence
 Thedangerofnet workfai
lur
ecanparal
yzet
heoper
ati
onsofan causingnoi sei nthet ransmi ssi
onchannel.
organi
zati
onbesi
desdamagi ngf
il
es.  Noi sereferst orandom unwant edsignalspickedupbyt hechannel .

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I
nsul
ator Cat
egor
y Suitabl
efor Speed(
max.l
imi
t)
Wire tr
ansmi t
ti
ng
conduct
or 1 Voice Lesst
han1Mbps
2 Data 1Mbps
Twowireopenl
i
nes 3 Data 16Mbps
cabl
es 4 Data 20Mbps
5 Data 100Mbps
 Themostsi
gni
fi
canti
mpai
rment
sdur
ingdat
atr
ansmi
ssi
onsar
e:
a) Attenuation:thel ossofsi gnalstrength(ampli
tude)asistravel
salongthe KEY:
cable.  Mbps–Megabi tspersecond.
b) Crosst alk:causedbysi gnal coupl i
ngbet weenthediff
erentcabl
epairs  Today’ snetwor ksareapproachingspeedsofGi gabit
spersecond.
containedwi thinamul tipaircablebundlei .
e.i
nterl
inei
nterf
erence.  Mostor gani
zat i
onst odayusecat egory5t wistedpaircabl
est osetup
c) Noise: Random unwant edsi gnalspickedupbyt hechannel,causedby theirl
ocalareanet work.
eit
hercr osst alkorexternallyincl
udedi mpulsese.g.fr
om sourcesli
ke Advantagesoftwi stedpaircables:
mot ors,switchingequipment s,hi
ghcur rentequipmentsetc. a) Theycansuppor thi
ghdatarates( bandwidth)ofupt o100Mbps.
d) Impendence: thisisther esi
stanceof fer
edbyt hecabletothesignal
. b) Telephonesy stemsuseUTPwhi chi spr
esenti nmostbui l
dingshenceitis
I
I)TWISTEDPAI RCABLES easiertosetupanet workmedi abecauseconnect ionisal
readyavail
able.
c) Instal
lat
ionequi pmentischeapandr eadi
lyav ail
able.
 Madeupoft wosoli
dcopperwi r
estrandswoundar oundeachot
heri
na
d) Itischeapbecauseofmasspr oduct i
onfort el
ephoneuse.
doubleheli
xmannert or educet hedevelopmentofanel ect
romagnet
ic
fi
eldaroundthetwowi r
esast heyt r
ansmi tdat
a.
Di
sadvantagesoftwi stedpaircabl
ing
 Most lyusedt otr
ansmi tbothv oiceanddat asi
gnals. a) Suff
ershighattenuation–ar epeaterisneededtoamplifythesi
gnal.
 Thet wocommont ypesoft wistedpaircablesare: b) I
tissensiti
vetoel ect
romagneticinter
ferenceandeavesdroppi
ng(tappi
ng
a) Theunshi eldedtwistedpair(UTP) i
ntocommuni cationchannelstogeti nformati
on)
.
b) Shiel
dedt wistedpai r(
STP) c) I
thaslowdat atransmi ssi
onratesascompar edt
oothercables.

a)Unshiel
dedTwi stedPair(UTP) I
II
)COAXI ALCABLES
a) Theydonothaveashi eldthatpreventselect
romagneticint
erfer
ence(EMI
)  Speci allywr appedandi nsul atedcablest hatar eabl etot r
ansmi tdataat
alsocal
led(electr
icnoise”from theenvi
ronmentli
kelighteni
ngsparks, veryhighr ate.
radi
osignal
sandr adi
ationsf r
om sparkplugsinmotorv ehi
cles.  Theyconsi stofcent r
al copperwi recov eredwi thadi electri
cmat eri
al
b) Theyarethereforenotsuitableforenvi
ronmentsthatareelectri
cal
l
y (i
nsulator )
.
“noi
sy”.  Thedi electricmat er i
alist hensur roundedbyahol l
owmeshconduct or
whichi scov eredbyashi eldmaki ngt hecabl emor eresistantto
b)Shi
eldedTwi stedPai r(STP)
electr
omagnet icint erf
er encet hant hetwi stedpai rcable.
 Si mil
art ounshi eldedtwist
edpai rexceptt hatabrai
dedshieldiswr apped
 Thesi gnal istransmi ttedbyi nnercopperwi reandi sel ectri
cal
lyshielded
aroundt hewi rest opr
otect(shield)them from noi
se.
byt heot hercoppersl eev e.
 Theshi eldi
ngmaybeamet all
icf oi
lorcopperbr ai
d.
 Thebr aid( meshconduct or)ismadeupofcopperoral umi num and
 Shi el
dingmi nimizeselectr
omagnet i
cinterfer
ence(EMI)orradio servesast hegr oundf ort hecar r
ierwi r
e.
fr
equencyi nt erf
erence.
 Toget herwi ththei nsulat i
onandanyf oilshield,thebr aidshiel
dpr otects
 Twi stedpai rcablesar ecategorizedinto5gr oupsaccordi
ngt othet y
peof thecar r
ierwi refrom r adi ofrequencyi nterference( RFI)and
datatransmi ttedandmaxi mum r at
eoft ransmissi
onasshownbel ow: electr
omagnet icint erf
er ence( EMI ).

Nove
ls,
KAS
NEB,
Hig
hSc
hool
not
es 0714497530. -6-
 i
saboke
mic
ah@g
mai
l.
com
 Al
thought
hecabl
ehasbet
terpr
otect
ionagai
nstel
ect
ri
cal
int
erf
erence cables.
thantheTCP, theyhav emoder ateprotect
ionagai nstmagneti
c 5. Extensivelyusedforl
ongerdi
stancetel
ephoneli
nesandascablesf
or
i
nterference. cl
osedci rcuitTV.
 Thedi amet eroft hecent r
ecor eorconduct ordeterminestheatt
enuat
ion 6. Manyar epackagedi nbundl
esthatcanhandle15000tel
ephonecal
l
s
ratei.
e.t hethinnerthecor e,t
hehi ghertheattenuationrat
e. si
mul taneously.
7. Hav eahi gherimmunit
ytonoisedist
ort
ionanddatal
oss.
 Dataiscar riedont hiscableusi ngdir
ectcur r
ent(DC) .
 Coaxial cableshav ebandwi dthsofupt o1Gbps,hencet heyarei
nstal
l
ed Di
sadvantagesofcoaxi alcables
i
nanet wor ktof ormt henetwor kbackbone( ali
nkt hatconnect
stwoor 1. Thi
ckcoaxial cabl esarehardtowor kwith.
mor esepar atelocalar eanetwor ks)
. 2. Theyarerel
ativ elyexpensivetobuyandt oi
nst
all
ascompar
edt
otwi
sted
pai
rsespeciallyforlongerdistancetransmissi
on.
Typesofcoaxi
alcables: 3. Theyarevulner abletotapping.
a)Thi
ncoaxial
cable(Thinnet
) 4. Att
enuati
onf orl ongdistancetransmission.
 Hasonedi elect
ri
cinsulat
or.
I
V)FI
BREOPTI CCABLES
b)Thickcoaxi
alcabl
e(Thi
cknet
)  Util
izelight(opti
c)totransmi tdatafrom onepinttoanot heronthe
 Hast wodiel
ectr
ici
nsul
ator
sar
oundt
hecor
eandi
sthi
ckert
hant
he networ k.
thinnet
.  Electr
ical si
gnalsfr
om t hesour ceareconv er
tedtolightsignal
s,andthen
propagat edalongthefibreopt iccable.
 Toconver tanelect
ricsignaltol i
ght,
y ouneedalightemi tti
ngdiode(LED)
atthet ransmitt
er.
Coppercor
e  Atther eceivi
ngend, aphot osensiti
vedev i
cecanbeusedt oconver
tthe
li
ghtsignal sbacktoelectri
csi gnalsthatcanbepr ocessedbyt he
comput er.

Cor
einsul
ati
on
Sendi
ng
Al
umi
num f
oil 1010011

Br
aidedshi
eldi
ng Photodetect
or
Fi
breopt
iccabl
e
tr
ansformslight
LEDchanges si
gnaltoelectri
c
el
ectr
ical si
gnals
si
gnalstoli
ght
Out
ercover
ing si
gnals
1010011
Recei
vi
ngcomput
er
a)Thi
nnet a)Thi
cknet
Fi
brenet
wor
k.
Advant
agesofcoaxi alcables
1. Theyarev eryst
ableevenunderhighload.
Typesoff i
breopti
ccables
2. Havealargebandwi dth–upt o1Gbpscompar edtotwist
edpai
r.
a) Singlemodef i
bre.
3. Cancarryv oi
ce,dataandvideosignal
simult
aneousl
y.
b) Mul t
imodefibr
e.
4. Moreresistantt
or adi
oandel ect
romagnet
icint
erf
erencethant
wist
edpai
r
Nove
ls,
KAS
NEB,
Hig
hSc
hool
not
es 0714497530. -7-
 i
saboke
mic
ah@g
mai
l.
com
 Whenl
i
ghtsi
gnal
isi
nser
tedi
ntot
hecabl
e,i
tri
sest
ocr
ossf
rom t
hecor
e
a)Si
nglemodef ibre t
othecl
addi
ng.
 Hasaver ynarrowcentercore.  Thel
i
ghti
sbentbacki
ntot
hecor
ehencepr
opagat
esal
ongt
hel
engt
hof
 Lightinthecabl ecanonlytakeonepaththr
oughit. t
hecabl
easshownbel
ow:
 Hasal owattenuati
onrate.
 Pr ef
erredforlongdist
ancet r
ansmissi
on.
 Hasabandwi dthof50Gbpswhi chishi
gherthanthatoft
het
wist
edpai
r’
s
100Mbps.
 Itisveryexpensive. Li
ghtr
ays
 Requi r
esv er
ycar ef
ulhandl
ingduri
nginstal
l
ation.
Mul
ti
modef
ibr
e Cl
addi
ng

b)Multi
modef ibrecable Thefi
br eopti
ccabl
eismadeupof
:
 Hasat hickercor e. a) TheCor e.
 Al l
owssev eralli
ghtraystobef edinthecabl
eatanangl
e. b) Cladding.
 Di st
ort
ionofsi gnal
sispossi blebecauseofmul
ti
plel
i
ghtsi
gnal
s c) Buffer
navi
gatingt hecableatt hesamet ime. d) Strengthmember.
 Haveahi ghat tenuati
onr ate. e) Jacket.
 Usual l
yusedf orshorterdistancesthansi
ngl
emode.
a)Thecor
e:
 Thecentr
alpar
toft
hecabl
emadeofahol
l
owt
ranspar
entpl
ast
icgl
ass.

Thin
b)Cladding:
c
Cor
l
ae
ddi
ng  asi ngleprotecti
vel
ayersurr
oundi
ngt
hecor
e.I
thasl
ightbendi
ng
characteri
sti
cs.
Jacket
 Whenl ighttr
iestot
ravelf
rom t
hecor
etot
hecl
addi
ng,iti
sredi
rect
ed
Si
ngl
emodef
ibr
e
backt othecore.
c)Buf
fer:
 Surroundst
hecl
addi
ngandi
tsmai
nfunct
ioni
stost
rengt
hent
hecabl
e.
d)Jacket:
Thi
ck
co
Cr
e
laddi
ng
 I tistheout ercoveringoft hecable.
Advantagesandf eaturesoff ibreopticcables
Jacket
1. Offerhi ghqual it
ytransmi ssionofsignals.
Mul
ti
modef
ibr
e
2. Lightwei ght–anor mal glassfibr
eist hesizeofahumanhai r
.
3. Cant ransmi tvoi
ce, dataandv i
deosignalssimultaneously.
 Li
ghtsi
gnal
trav
elst
hrought
hecor
ethr
oughapr
ocessr
efer
redt
oast
otal 4. Hav eal argebandwi dth(upt o1Gbps) .
i
nter
nal
ref
lect
ion. 5. Lowcr osst alk.
 Theprocesst
hatcausest
otali
nter
nalr
eflecti
oniscal
ledref
racti
on. 6. Immunet oi nt
erfer
enceandeav esdr
oppi ng.
 Ref
racti
onist
hebendingofli
ghtwhenitcrossestheboundaryoftwo 7. Mor eresi stanttoradi oandel ectr
omagnet ici
nterfer
ence.
medi
umst
hathav
edi
ff
erentdensi
ty. 8. Longdi stancecanbecov eredbecauset heyhav elowat t
enuati
on.
9. Canbeusedi nhazar douspl aces–hi ghf l
ammabl e,becauset
hedonot
Nove
ls,
KAS
NEB,
Hig
hSc
hool
not
es 0714497530. -8-
 i
saboke
mic
ah@g
mai
l.
com
gener
ateelect
ri
cal
signal
s.
10.Canwithst
andextr
emet emper
atur o10000C.
es–upt
Di
sadv antagesoffi
br eopt ic
1. Connect i
vit
ydevicesandt hemedi aareexpensiv
e.
2. I
nst al
lati
onisdi
fficultbecauset hecableneedscaref
ulhandl
i
ng.
3. Relati
v el
ycomplext oconf i
gure.
4. Abr okencableisdifficultandexpensivetorepai
r.
5. Expensi v
eforshor t
erdi stances.
6. Pronet owaterseepageandf reezi
ng.

B.WIRELESSCOMMUNI CATION(UNBOUNDEDMEDI A)
 Typeofmedi ausedt otransmitdataf
rom onepointt
oanotherwit
hout
usi
ngphysicalconnecti
ons.
 At ransmi
tt
ingant ennaandreceiv
eraeri
alareusedtofaci
l
itat
ethe
communication.

Exampl esofwi r
elesstransmissi
onmedia:
i
) Mi crowav es.
i
i) Sat el
lite.
i
ii
)Radi owav es.
i
v)I nfraredt r
ansmi ssi
on.
v) Bluet oothtechnology. I
)MI
CROWAVETRANSMI SSI ON
 Thet ransmissionmedi aaboveusedi
ff
erentf
requenci
esoft
he  Ami crowav eisextr
emel yhighfrequency(communi cati
onbeam)t hatis
electromagnet icspectrum asshownbel
ow. transmi t
tedov erdir
ectl ineofsightpath.
 Themet hodusesv eryhi ghfrequencyradiosignalstot r
ansmitdata
throughspace.
 Theel ectromagnet i
cwav ecannotpassobst aclesandgeogr aphi
cal
barrierssuchasmount ains.
 Duet otheirsmallwav elength,theyeasil
yreleaset hei
renergyinwateras
heathencet heyareal sousedi nmaki ngmi crowav eovensusedi n
domest i
cki t
chenappl iances.
 I
nnet working,microwav esaresuitabl
eforpoi nttopointtr
ansmissions.
 Asi gnal i
sdi r
ectedthor oughaf ocusedbeam f r
om transmitt
ertothe
receiverstation.

1022Hz Gammar
ays
I
I)SATELLI
TECOMMUNI CATI
ON
 Asat el
l
iteisamicrowaverel
ayst
ati
on.
1020Hz X-Ray
s  Themi crowavestati
onshavepar
abol
icdi
sheswi
thanant
ennaf
ixedon

Nove
ls,
KAS
NEB,
Hig
hSc
hool
not
es 0714497530. -9-
1016Hz Ul
tr
a-v
iol
et(
UV)

1015Hz Vi
sibl
eli
ght Wavel
engt
h
i
ncr
eases
 i
saboke
mic
ah@g
mai
l.
com
t
hem i
nor
dert
ofocusanar
rowbeam t
owar
dst
hesat
ell
i
tei
nspace.  Acommuni
cat
ionsat
ell
i
tei
susual
l
ylaunchedi
ntospaceabout36,
000km
abov et heear t
hi nsuchamannert hati tsspeedwi llber elat
ivel
yequal to
MainComponent
sofasat el
li
tetr
ansmissionsy
stem ther otat ionspeedoft heear th.
1.Tr
ansmi
tt
ereart
hst
ation:  Theset ypesofsat ell
itesar ecal ledgeost at
ionar ysat el
li
tes.
 Setsupanupli
nkt
ot hesatell
i
teinordert
otransmi
tdat
a.  Theyar econv enientbecauset heyel imi natet heneedt okeeponmov ing
 Theupli
nkhasauniquefrequency. thepar abol icdishi nabi dt ot rackt hel ineofsi ght.
 Ageost ationar ysatelli
teof fersal argeconst antl i
neofsi ghttoearth
2.Asat el
li
te: stat i
ons.
 Launchedsomewher ei nanorbi
tthatr
ecei
ves,
amplif
iesandr et
ransmit
s  Thear eawher et heli
neofsi ghtcaneasi lybel ocatedi scal l
edthe
thesignaltoar
ecei
vingeart
hstati
onviaadownli
nkfrequencythatis sat el
litesf oot pri
nt.
diff
erentfr
om t
hatoftheupl
inksoastoavoidi
nter
fer
encewi ththeupli
nk
 Thesat elli
tet r
ansmi tst hesi gnal tomanyr eci pientearthst at
ionstofor m
signal.
apoi ntt omul ti
pointtransmi ssion.
3.Recei
vi
ngeart
hstat
ion:  Thenewt r
endsi nmi crowav et ransmi ssionhav eseent heuseofv er
y
smal l aper turet erminal (VSAT)t echnol ogy.
 Receivest
hesentsignal
ont
heot
hersi
deoft
hegl
obe.
 Itrefer st oav erysmal lsat ell
itedi shusedbot hi ndat a,radioandTV
communi cation.
 Itenabl esdi rectcommuni cat i
oni nst eadofhav ingtogot hroughthest ate
Sat
ell
i
tei
nspace ownedsat ell
itegat eway s.
 Thesat elli
tepr oducesst rongsi gnal st hatcanber eceivedbyasat el
li
te
dishant ennaofonl yabout2met ersi ndi amet er.
 Thesi gnal sar edecodedusi ngadecoderwhi chi spluggeddi rectl
ytoa
Downl
i
nk televisionsetoracomput er.
Upl
i
nk
I
II
)RADI OCOMMUNI CATI ON
 Radi owav estr
av eljustlikesur f
acewat erwav es.
 Theyar eomni directi
onal i
.e.t heyst artfrom acent ralpointandspread
outwardsinalldirections.
 Thei renergyspreadsout war dsov erthecov eredar ea.
 Thewavesar er adiatedintot heat mospher ebyar adiofrequencyant enna
atconstantvel
oci ty.
Transmit
ter receiv
ing
 Radi owav esarenotv isi
blet ot hehumaney e.
eart
hstati
on earthstat
ion
 Theyar eusedi nr adioandt elevisionbr oadcasts.
 Dat acanal sobet ransmi tt
edov erradiowav escommuni cationchannels.
 Radi owavescanbeofhi ghf requency ,veryhighfrequencyorul tr
a-high
fr
equency.
Sat
ell
i
tet
ransmi
ssi
onsy
stem

Nove
ls,
KAS
NEB,
Hig
hSc
hool
not
es 0714497530. -10-
 i
saboke
mic
ah@g
mai
l.
com

Pat
h
b)Veryhighf requency( VHF)r adiowav es
 Tr ansmi ttedalongt heear th’
ssur face.
 Duet ot hecur vatur
eoft heearth, thesignalwi llmostlikelyattenuateat
thehor i
zon.
 Repeat erst ati
onshav et otheref orebepl acedst rategi
callytomai ntaina
l
ineofsi ghti nordertor eceive,ampl if
yandpr opagat et hesignal f
rom one
areatoanot her.
 Commont echnologywi ththehandhel dradiodev i
ceslike‘walkie-
talki
e’
radi
os.
 Ther angeofVHFi sli
mi tedbutpr eferredtohi ghf r
equencywher eno
majorobst ructi
onsar eencount eredont hel andscape, becausei tis
Tr
ansmi
tt
in Receivi
ng possiblet omaket hewav etof ollowanar r
owerandmor edirectpatht o
g Antenna
therecei v
er .
 Toover comet heobst ructionsont heear thsur f
acel i
kemount ainsand
Transmi
ssi
on buil
dings, repeaterstationsar ebui ltonraisedar eas.
l
ines
c)Ul
trahighf r
equency( UHF)r adi
owav es.
 Theyar eli
keVHFwheni tcomest othel i
neofsightpri
ncipl
ei.
e.ther
e
Power shouldbenobar ri
erbetweent hesendi ngandt herecei
vingaeri
al.
Suppl
y
Tr
ansmi
tt
er Recei
ver  Theyr equiresmal l
eraerials.
 TheTVaer i
alforVHFi sbi ggerthant heoneforUHFr adiowavesbecause
a)Hi
ghfrequency( HF)radi
owav es UHFr adiowavescanbemadet of oll
owanev ennar r
oweranddirectpath
 ASignalispropagatedbydirect
ingitt
otheionosphereoft
heearth. tothereceiverthanVHFr adiowav es.
 Theironspherewi ll
ref
lecti
tbacktotheeart
h’ssurf
aceandtherecei
ver  Ther eforeUHFi spopularf orhorizonl i
mitedbr
oadcasts.
wil
lpickthesignal. I
V)BLUETOOTHTECHNOLOGY
 ThebiggestchallengeofHFcommuni cati
onisthedangerofsi
gnal  Anewt ransmissiontechnologyi
.e.ashortranget echnologythatenables
i
ntercept
ionbyunaut hori
zedparti
es. peopl etousehandhel dcommuni cati
ondevicesli
kecel lphonesand
Ear
th’
s PDAst oaccesst heinter
net.
i
onospher
e  Itenhancescommuni cat
ionofpersonalcommuni cationdev i
cesthrough
wi r
elesstechnology.
 Themai ncomponenti nBluet
oothisasmal ll
owpowert wo-
wayr adio
transceiver
,smal lenought obei
nsertedinsmal l
dev i
ces.
 Anet wor kofBluetoothenableddevicesi
scal l
edawi r
elesspersonalarea

Nove
ls,
KAS
NEB,
Hig
hSc
hool
not
es 0714497530. -11-
 i
saboke
mic
ah@g
mai
l.
com
net
wor
k(WPAN)orpi
conet
. v
) Repeaters.
v
i)Routers.
V)I
NFRAREDTRANSMI SSI ON v
ii
)Gateway s.
 Fal ljustbel owt hev isiblelightont heelectr
omagnet icspectr
um. v
ii
i)Swi
tches.
 Theyar enotv i
siblet ot hehumaney e. i
x)Accesspoi nt
s.
 Communi cat i
oni sachi evedbyhav inginfr
aredt ransmi t
ter
sandr eceiv
ers
(tr
anscei vers) . I
)NETWORKI NTERFACECARDS( NIC)
 Tr anscei versofi nf
rar edsi gnalsmustbewi thinal ineofsightinthesame  Creat
esaphy si
call
inkbetweenthecomput erandt
hetransmissi
onmedi
a.
room.  Iti
spluggedint
oanempt yexpansionslotonthemotherboar
d.
 Unl iker adiosi gnals, infraredsignalscannotpenet rateobstacl
eslikewall
s.  However,mostcomputermot herboar
dstodaycomer eadywithan
Howev er,thesi gnal canber efl
ectedof fsurf
acesl i
kewal l
sandcei l
i
ng onboardnetworki
nter
facecontroll
er.
untiltheyr eacht hei rdest i
nat i
on.
 Anexampl ei sthei nf raredt r
ansceiv eronmostmobi l
ephones. I
I)MODEMSANDCODECS
 Onceact ivated, twopeopl ei nthesamer oom cansendmessagest oeach  Amodem conver tsasi gnal f
r om digitaltoanal ogf or mf ort hepur poseof
otheront heirmobi lephoneswi thoutgoingt hrought hemobi l
eservice transmi ssionov ertheanal ogmedi a.
prov i
der .  Acodecconver tsananal ogsi gnal todigi t
al f
or mf ort ransmi ssi
onv i
aa
 Incomput ernet wor king, t
het echnol ogycanbeusedt oconnectdevicesin digi t
almedi um.
thesamer oom t oeachot herwi thoutneedf orcabl ese.g.acomput ertoa  Amodem canbeext ernal ,anadd- oncar dorbui l
tont hemot herboard.
pri
nt er. I
II
)HUBSI l
lust rationpg24
 Thecomput ersinfrar edt r
ansceiv ermustmai ntainalineofsightwiththe  Al socal ledaconcent rator.
onef ort hepr inter.  I tisacomponentt hatconnect scomput er sonanet wor kandi sabl eto
relaysi gnal sf r
om onecomput ertoanot heront hesamenet wor k.
Advantagesofwi relesscommuni cat
ions
1. Wi r
elessmedi um isfl
exiblei
noper at
ionascompar edtoboundedmedia  Ahubusual lyconnect snet wor ksthathav eacommonar chitect
urei .
e.
i.
e.dev icescanbemov edar oundwi t
houtlosingaccesstothenet
work. onet hathast hesamesetofcommuni cationsof twar eusual l
ycalled
2. Wi r
elessnet wor kscanspanl argegeographicalar
easeasil
y. prot ocols.
3. Itcant akeplacev i
asatell
it
eev eninver
yr emoteareasthatdonothav
e  Pr otocol sar easetofr ulesthatgov ernt hecommuni cationbet ween
highcostphy sicali
nfr
ast r
uctureli
ketel
ephonel i
nes. dev icesonanet wor k.
 Ahubt ransmi tssignal sbybr oadcast i
ngt hem t oal l thecomponent son
Di
sadvantagesofwirel
esscommunicat
ions thenet wor k.
1. Rel
ativ
elydif
fi
cultt
oestabl
i
shorconfi
gur
e.
 Af terthesi gnal i
sbr oadcast ed, thecomput erwhoseaddr essisont he
2. Theini
tial
costisveryhi
gh.
messagepi ckst hemessagef rom t henet wor kt hati spar toft he
COMMUNI CATIONDEVI CES broadcastdomai n.
 Thesear edevicesusedasinter
facesorjuncti
onsbetweent
het er
minal  Somehubscal l
edi ntelligenthubsar eabl etomoni tort hewaycomput ers
devi
ces. arecommuni catingont henet wor kandkeept hei nfor mat ioninasmal l
dat abaseoft heirowncal l
edamanagementi nfor mat ionbase( MIB) .
 Ter minalequipmentar edev
icesatbothendsoft hecommunicati
onli
nk
suchasacomput er
.  TheNTser v ercant henuset hisinformat iont of ine-tunet heNT.
 Exampl esofdatacommuni cati
ondevicesincl
ude:  I ntelli
genthubscanbeabl etomanageaNTbyi sol atingcomput ersthat
i
) NI Cs. arenotf unct i
oningpr oper ly.
i
i) Modemsandcodecs.  Sever al hubscanbeconnect edt ogetheroneaf teranot hert oexpandaNT.
i
ii
)Hubs. Howev er ,t
hi sincr easest hebr oadcastr angewhi chmayl eadt obr oadcast
i
v)Br idges. stor msont henet wor k.

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es 0714497530. -12-
 i
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com
 Br
oadcastst
ormr
efer
stoacondi
ti
onwher
eaNTi
sov
erwhel
medwi
th r
out
er,
cal
l
edabr
out
er.
messagebroadcast
sduet
omal
funct
ioni
ngofNI
Csorhubr
elat
ed
pr
oblems. VI)GATEWAYSI l
lustr
ati
onpg27
Agatewayi sanydev i
cethatcanbeconfigur
edt oprovi
deaccesst owi dearea
I
V)BRI
DGESi l
lust
rati
onpg25. networksorInter
net.
 NTdevicethatsel
ect
ivel
ydeterminestheappropri
ateNTsegmentfor Onesuchdev i
ceistherouterinwhi
chthegatewaysof twar
eisinstall
ed.
whichmessageismeantf ordel
iv
erythroughaddressfi
lter
ing. Agatewayi sthemostpower f
ulnet
workandinternetworkconnecti
vit
ydev i
ce
becauseofitsabil
it
ytoconv ertdat
aacrossdif
ferentnetworkarchi
tectures
 Abr i
dgecandivi
deabusynet workint
osegment storeducenetwor
k
andprotocols.
tr
affi
c.
VI
I)SWI TCHESI ll
ust r
at i
onpg28
Pur
poseofusi ngabr idge:
1. Toextendt helengthandnumberofst
ati
onsthatasegmentcansuppor
t.  Unl ikeahub, aswi t
chforwardsapacketdi r
ectl
ytot headdressnode
2. Reduceov eral
ltraff
icf
lowbyal
lowi
ngbroadcast
sonlyi
nthedata withoutbroadcast ing.
dest
inati
onsegmentoft heNT.  Anoder efer
st odat ater
minal equi
pmentsuchasawor kst
ati
onora
comput eront henet work.
 Abr
idgemakessur
ethatpacket
sthatar
enotmeantf
orapar
ti
cul
ar
segmentar
enotbr
oadcast
edi
nthatsegment
.  Theswi tchdoest hisbyconnectingtwonodespoi nttopointasi
fthey
wer eli
nkedbyadi r
ectcablebetweent hem.
I
V)REPEATERS  Somehubsal soi ncorporat
et heswitchingmechanisms.Suchahubi s
 Adevi cethatreceivesasi gnalfr
om onesegmentofaNT, cleansitt
o referr
edt oasaswi tchi
nghub.
remov eanydi stort
ion,boostsitandt hensendsi ttoanothersegment .  Swi t
chesar emor eexpensiv ethanhubs.Thismeanst hatoneswitchmay
 ItenablesNTt oeli
mi nat
eat t
enuationpr oblems. beusedasabr idget oconnectseveralhubsinordertoreducecoll
isi
on
problemscausedbybr oadcasts.
 Theyar ethesi mplestwayt oexpandaNTbecauset heybroadcastthe
samemessaget ootherNTsegment s.
 However ,theyshoul dbeusedwi t
hr eservation,becausetheyexpandt he
broadcastdomai n,whichmayl eadt obr oadcaststormsont heNT.
 Abr oadcastst ormisacondi ti
onwher ebytheNTi sov er
saturatedwit
h
messagesmaki ngcommuni cati
onimpossi ble.

V)ROUTERS
 I nt
erconnect sdiffer entNTsanddi rect
st hetransferofdatapacket sf r
om
sourcet odestinat ion.
 Rout ingdependsonNTaddr esses.
 EachNThasauni quei dent i
fieroraddresscal l
edt henetworkaddr ess.
 Al lt
hecomput er sont hesamenet workhav et hesamenet wor kaddr ess
nutdifferenthostnumber s.
 Ther outerreceivesapacketf rom anotherrout erontheinternet
wor kand
checkst hedest inat i
on’snet workaddress.
 I ft
headdr essist hesameast heoneonwhi cht herouteri
s,itpassest he
datapackett ot hedest inationhostbyr eadingt hehostaddr essother wise
thepacketwi llber outedt ot henextnet workaddr ess.
 Somemoder nrout i
ngdev icescombi net hefunct i
onali
tyofabr i
dgeanda
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WI
RELESSCOMMUNI CATI ONDEVI CES v
) Suppor
ti
ngNTser
vicesl
ikeNTcar ddr
iver
sandpr
otocol
s.
 Ast hecostofwi r
elesst echnologygoesdownandt hequalityofserv
ice v
i)I
mplementi
ngNTsecuri
tyfeat
ures.
increases,i
tisbecomi ngcostef fect
iveforcompani esandi ndiv
idual
sto
extendt hecapabi
lityofwi r
ednet worksbyintegrat
ingwi r
elesssegment s  I
nmostcases,
NTO.
S.i
sdesi
gnedasmul
ti
-useroper
ati
ngsy
stemst
hat
intotheircommuni cati
ons. r
unt
henet
wor
kser
verpr
ogr
am.
 Someoft hemostcommondev i
cesusedinwi rel
esscommuni cati
on  Oncei
nst
all
edont
her
ighthar
dwar
epl
atf
orm andconf
igur
edasaser
ver
,
includeaccesspoint s,
theant ennaandthePCMCI Acar d. theoper atingsy stem wil
lprovi
denet wor kmanagementt oolstonet
work
admi nistr
at orsforthetodot hefoll
owi ng:
I
)ACCESSPOINTS(AP) i
) Secur ethenet workagainstunauthori
zedaccess.
 Anentr
ypointi
ntoaboundednetwor
kforpeopl
ewhohavewir
eless i
i
) Tracknet wor kusageandkeepal og/recordofallt
hepeopl ewhousethe
devi
cessuchasPDAs,l
aptopsandcomputer
swithwi
rel
essl
i
nks. networ k.
i
i
i)Ensur einter-operatabi
li
tybetweenv ari
oussy st
emsont henetwork.
i
v)Performancemoni t
ori
ngtoensur emaxi mum throughputont henet
work.
I
I)WIRELESSANTENNAE
 Theaccesspoi ntneedst ohaveantennasinordertodet
ectsignal
sinthe ExamplesofNToperat
ingsy
stems:
surroundi
ng. a) WindowsNT/2000/
2003
b) UNIX
 Thewavesmayber adiowaves,microwavesorinfr
aredwavesinnatur
e.
c) Li
nux
 I nmostcases,accesspointswil
lhav etwoantennassothatt
heonet hat d) NovelNet
ware.
receivest
hebestsignalatanypar
t i
culart
imecanbeused.
NB:
I
II
)PERSONALCOMPUTERMEMORYCARDI NTERNATIONALASSOCI ATION
(
PCMCI A)card.
 Int
ernetworki
ngdev i
cesli
kerout
ersal
sohav
eoperat
ingsystemsoft
hei
r
ownandhencet heycanbemanagedandconfi
gur
edf oropt
imum
 Anadd- oncardi
nser
tedi
ntoadev
icesuchasPDAsoral apt
opinordert
o perf
ormance.
enablewi
rel
esscommuni
cati
onbetweenthedev
icesandawirednetwor
k
serv
er.
 Routersarespecialpur
posecomputer
s.

2.PROTOCOLS
NETWORKSOFTWARE
 Canbeclassi
fiedint
otwomaingr
oupsnamel
y:
 Thesear esetsofrulesandpr oceduresthatgoverncommunicati
on
betweentwodiffer
entdev i
cesorpeopl e.
1. Net
wor
koper ati
ngsyst
ems.
2. Net
wor
kpr ot
ocols.  I ncomputernetworking,pr
otocolsrefert
ot her
ulesandtechni
cal
procedur
esthatgover ncommuni cati
onbetweendi f
fer
entcomputer
s.
1.NETWORKI NGOPERATI NGSYSTEMS
WORKINGMECHANI SM OFPROTOCOLS
 Designedt oopt
imizethenetworkedcomput
ersabi
l
ityt
orespondt
o
ser
vicer
equests.  Thedat atransmissionpr ocessov ert
heNThast obebr okendowni nt
o
discretesystemati
cst eps.
 Serversrunonanet workoperat
ingsyst
em.
 Ateachst ep, acer
tainact i
ont akesplace.
Mainnetworkrelatedfuncti
onsofNTO. S.  Eachst ephasi t
sownr ulesandpr oceduresasdef i
nedbyt heNT
i
) Pr ovi
desaccesst onetworkresourcese.g.print
ers. protocols.
i
i) Enabl
esnodesont heNTt ocommuni catewitheachothermoreeffici
ent
ly.  Thewor kofthesepr otocol
smustbecoor dinatedsot hatthereareno
i
ii
)Suppor t
sinterprocesscommuni cati
oni .
e.enablesthevar
iousprocesses conflict
sorincompl eteoper at
ions.
ontheNTt ocommuni cat
ewithoneanot her
.  Thisco- or
dinati
onisachi evedt hr
oughpr otocol l
ayeri
ng.
i
v)Respondt orequest sfr
om appli
cationprogramsr unni
ngont henetwork.  NTpr ot
ocolsaredesi gnedaf t
ertheopensy stemsi nt
erconnection(OSI)
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model.
 TheOSImodelisnotaprotocolassuchbutismeanttohel
pdesi
gnerst
o
comeupwi t
hhighquali
tyl
ayeredprot
ocols.
 Ithassev
enlay
ers,eachperf
ormingdist
inctf
unct
ionsasshownbel
ow:

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Exampl esofnet wor klayerprotocols
Lay er Functi
on a) Internetpr otocol (
IP)–i tdoespacketf orwardingandr out
ing.
7 Appl i
cati
onl ayer Userappl i
cationsr unher eandgener at
er equestsf ordata b) Internetwor kpacket sexchange: Net war esprotocolf
orpacketf orwar
ding
tr
ansmi ssionoropenr eceivedinformation. andr outing.
6 Presentation Addsf ormat t
ing,displayandencr ypti
oni nformationt othe c) Net BEUI:pr ovidesdat atransportservices,Net bi
ussessionsand
l
ay er databeingsent . appl i
cati
ons.
5 Sessionlay er Setsupdat atransmi ssionsessi onsbetweent wo 4.DATASI GNAL
communi cati
ngdev i
ces.
 Al lmessagest hatar esentandr eceivedt hroughthenet workmustbe
4 Transportl ay er Managesdat at r
ansf erov erthenetwor kt oensurer eli
abil
i
ty.
3 Net worklay er Addressi nfor
mat ioni saddedt othepacketandr out i
ngto
represent edusi ngadat asi gnal
.
desti
nation.  Met all
icmedi awoul drequireanel ectr
ical si
gnal,wir
elessmedi aneed
2 Dat ali
nklay er Addser rorcheckingi nf or
mat ionandpr epar esdataf or electromagnet icsignalswhi l
efi
breopt i
ccabl esneedlightsignal
s.
goingont othephy sical connect i
on.  Asi gnalcanei therbeanal ogordigital.
1 Phy si
callay er Thedat apacket sar efinallytransmitt
edv i
at henetwor k
cardthrought het r
ansmi ssionmedi ainf orm ofbits. NETWORKTOPOLOGI ES
Topology :
Appl
icat
ionlayerpr
otocols:
 Applicati
onprotocolsworkatthehighestl
ayeroft
heOSImodel
.
 I tisthephy sicalar
rangementofcomputersonanet work.
 Theypr ovi
deservicestoappl
icati
onprograms.
 Ref er
st ot hewayi nwhichcomput er
sandot herdevi
ceshavebeen
arrangedorhowdat ai
spassedf r
om onecomput ert
oanotherint
he
Examplesofappl icat
ionprotocol
s: networ k.
a) Ane-mail program t
hatenablescomposingorreadingofe-mailmessages.  I tisthewayi nwhichthepoint
sorstati
onsofanet workint
erl
i
nk(i
nter
act
b) Simplemai ltr
ansferprot
ocol (
SMTP)–AnI nt
ernetpr
otocolfor together )
.
tr
ansferr
inge- mail
s.
 I tdetermi nest hedatapathsthatmaybefollowedorusedbetweenpoint
s
c) Fi
leTransf erProt
ocol(FTP)–f orfi
l
etransf
er.
i
nt henet wor k.
d) Appletal
kandappl eshare–Appl ecomputersnetworki
ngprotocol
suit
.
 Net wor ktopol ogycanbev i
ewedintwoway s:
Tr
anspor
tlayerprotocol
s: a) l
ogi caltopol ogy.
 Ensurethatdataispassedbet
weencomput
ersmor
erel
i
abl
y. b) Phy sicaltopol ogy.

Examplesoft ransportpr otocols A.LOGI

CALTOPOLOGY
a) Transmi ssi
oncont rol pr
otocol (
TCP)-Responsi blefordeli
v eryof  Alsocal
l
edsignal
topol
ogy.
sequenceddat aov ert henetwor k.
 Dealswi
tht
hewaydat apassesf
rom onedev
icet
othenextont
heNT.
b) Sequent i
alPacketExchange( SPX)-PartoftheNov ell
’sinternetwork
packetexchange/ sequent ialpacketexchange(IPX/SPX)f orsequenced
Examplesoflogi
cal t
opol
ogy
data.
i
)Et her
nett
opology.
c) NetBEUI :alocalareanet workpr ot
ocol f
orMicrosoftandI BM net works
i
i)tokenri
ngtopology.
thatestabli
shescommuni cationsessionsbetweencomput ers.
d) Appletransactionpr otocol:(
ATP) :Applecomput er’
scommuni cat
ion
I
)ETHERNETTOPOLOGY
sessionanddat at
r ansportprotocol.
 Al l
computer
sli
stent
othenet
wor
kmedi
aandcanonl
ysenddat
awhen
Net
worklayerprotocols noneoft
heother
sissendi
ng.
 Provideli
nkservices.
 Theyhandl eaddressingandrout
ingi
nfor
mat
ion,
err
orchecki
ngand I
I)TOKENRINGTOPOLOGY
r
etr
ansmissionofr equest
s.  Aspecialpackagefordat
acal
l
edatokengoesar
oundthenet
workand
onl
ythecomputerwhoseaddr
essi
sonthedatahel
dinthet
okenwil
ltake
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upthetokentoreadt
hedataandthenr
eleaset
het
oken.
 Thetokencanthenbecapt
uredbyanot
hercomput
erwhichneedst
o
tr
ansmitdata. St
art
opol
ogy
ADVANTAGESOFSTARTOPOLOGY
B.PHYSICALTOPOLOGY 1. Starnet worksar eeasyt oconf i
gur e.
 Referstothephy
sical
lay
outorar
rangementofcomponent
sont
he 2. networ kfai
luresduet ocabl esbr eakdownar el owsi ncecablesarenot
net
work. shar ed.
3. fail
ur eofanycomput erdoesnotaf f
ectcommuni cationintheNT, unl
ess
i
thasmaj oref fectsont hehostcomput er.
4. wiringhubsi ncr easesf l
exibil
i
tyf orgr owt hi.e.additionalanddeleti
onof
Examplesofphy sicaltopology nodesdoesnoti nvolvei nter
feringwi ththeot hers.
i
)Startopol
ogy . 5. all
owscent rali
zat i
onofkeynet wor kingr esour ceslikeconcentratorsand
i
i)Bustopology. serv ers.
i
ii
)Ringtopology. 6. givest heNTadmi nistratoraf ocal pointf orNTmanagement .I
tiseasier
i
v)Mesht opology. fortheadmi nistrat
ort otroubleshootanddi agnoseNTr el
atedproblems.
v)Tree/
hier
archicaltopology. Di
sadv ant agesofst art opology
I
.STARTOPOLOGY 1. Ifthecent r
al hubf ails,theent i
renet wor kwi l
lbegr ounded.
2. Installati
oni st i
meconsumi ng; eachnodef ormsasegmentofi tsown.
 Asetupwher ealldevi
cesareconnectedtoacent r
alhub/server
/switch.
3. Itiscost ly,
requi resonecompl etecabl epercomput er .
 Ahostcomput erisatt
achedtolocal
sthroughmul t
ipl
ecommuni cat
ion
l
ines. I
I.BUSTOPOLOGY
 Thel ocalcomput ersarenotli
nkeddir
ectl
ytoeachot her.  Al soknownasDai sy-chaintopologyormul tipoi
ntnet wor k.
 Bet weenanyt wost ati
ons,communicati
onisv i
athecentralcomputer.  Al ldevi
cesar econnect edtoacent ralcablecall
edt hebusorbackbone.
 Whent hehub/ centr
almachinerecei
vesdatafrom atransmitt
ing  Al lstat
ionsar eattacheddi rectl
yt hroughappr opri
ateint erfacinghardware
comput er
,itbroadcastst
hemessaget oalltheothernodesont heNT. tot het
ransmi ssionmedi um.
 Eachwor kstationont henet wor kmustbecapabl eofknowi ngwheni tcan
andcannott ransmi tdat ausingt heshar edmedi um, si
ncet hecablecan
Wor
kst
ati
o carryonlyonemessageatat i
me.
n  At ermi
natori sattachedt oeachendoft hecabl etoav oidsi gnalsfr
om
Hub/
Swi
tc bouncingbackandf ort
hont hecabl ecausingsi gnaldist orti
on.
h  Ast hedatapassesal ongt hecabl e,eachst ati
oncheckswhet hert
hedat a
i
saddr essedt oit.
 I ftheaddressmat chest hemachi ne’saddress,itreceivest hedat a
otherwiseitrejectsit
.
Pr
int
er  Thenet workaddr essesofcomput ersonanet wor kiscal ledthemedi um
accesscont r
ol (MAC)addr ess.

Bus Ter
minat
or

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Advantagesofr i
ngt opol
ogy
1. Theyuseshor tlengthcables–l esscostl
y.
2. Simpletoinstal
l.
3. Veryeffecti
vewher ether
ei sdistr
ibut
eddat aprocessi
ng.
4. Mor erel
iabl
ebecauseofal t
ernaterouti
ngifonecomput erbr
eaksdown.
5. Thepacketdel i
veryti
mei sfixedandguar anteed.

Bust
opol
ogy Di
sadv antagesofringtopology
1. I
nst al
lati
onrequir
essophi sti
catedsoftwar e.
Advantagesofbust opology 2. Delaysincommuni cat
ionaredi rect
lyproportionaltothenumberofnodes
1. Iti
seasytoinstall
. themessagehast opasst hrough.
2. Requiresl
essphy sicalli
neshencel
esscostl
y. 3. Requi r
esalotofreconf i
gurati
onwhennewnodesar eadded.
3. Iti
sindependenti.e.anysingl
ecomputercan’
taf
fectcommuni
cat
ion 4. Troubleshooti
ngcanbedi ff
icult
.
betweenothercomput ers. 5. Tokenmanagementmustber obustbecausel ossorcorrupti
onofthe
4. Easytoexpand,justneedt oaddthenewcomputeront hel
i
ne. tokencancausechaos.
6. Onedev i
ceormedi abreakdownmayaf fecttheent i
renetwork.Howev er
,
thisisnotthecasewi thIBM tokenr i
ngwher eadev i
cecal l
edMul t
iStati
on
AccessUni t(MSAU)i susedf orstati
onby passi ntheeventast ati
onfail
s.
7. Modi fi
cati
onmaybedi ff
icultbecauseaddi ngorr emov i
ngadev icecan
Di
sadv antagesofbust opology disrupttheenti
renetwork.
1. Onlyonenodecant r
ansmi tsignalsatatime.
2. Failureorf aul
tint
hetransmi ssionli
neaffectst
hewholecommunicati
on
networ k.
3. Troubl eshooti
ngacablef aul
ti sdif
fi
cult
.
4. Limi t
st henumberofcomput ersthatcanbeconnectedtothecabl
e.
Increasei nthenumberofcomput ersresult
sinani
ncreasedcol
li
sionas
machi nescompet efortransmi ssi
on.

I
II
.RINGTOPOLOGY
 Al ldevicesar econnect edtooneanot herint heshapeofaclosedl oop.
 Ther ei
snohostcomput er.
 Eachst ationi sr esponsi bl
ef orr egenerati
ngandr etransmit
ti
ngsi gnal
s
aroundt henet wor ktoi tsnei gbour .
 I tusesr epeat ers( devi
cest hatr eceivedataatoneendandt ransmititbi
t
bybi tt
ot heot herend) .
 Aspeci albi tpat terncalledat okeni sci
rculatedaroundthering
sequent i
allyf r
om onenodet othenextandanodei sonlypermittedto
transmitdat awheni treceiv esthet oken.
 At okencanbev iewedasanenv el
opeorabagwher edataisplacedf or
transmissi onandcar riedar oundt henetwor k.
 Al lcomput ersi nr i
ngtopol ogyhav eequal capabil
iti
esofsendingand
receivi
ng.
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Ri
ngt
opol
ogy

I
V)MESHTOPOLOGY
 Mostcommont ypeusedi
nWAN, wheretherearemanypat hsbetween
dif
ferentlocati
ons.
 Devicesar econnect
edwithmanyr edundantint
erconnect
ionsbetween
thenodes.
 Everynodehasaconnect i
ont oeveryothernodeintheNT, maki
ng
possiblefordir
ectcommunicati
onwi t
hev er
ycomput erhenceevery
comput erdict
atesit
spri
ori
ti
es.

Advantagesofmesht opology
1. Thenet wor
kisrel
iableandeff
ectiv
eduetodirectr
elati
onshi
pbet
ween
thecomputers.
2. Pointtopoi
ntconnectionsopt
imizethr
oughputofdata.
3. TheNTcanst i
l
loperateevenwhenanodebr eaksdownoraconnecti
on
breaks.

Di
sadvantagesofmesht opology
1. Iti
sexpensiveoncableduetoredundantli
nks.
2. Administ
rat
ionofthenetworkisdi
ffi
cultbecauseoft
hepeert
opeer
connecti
ons.

V)TREE/THERARCHI CALTOPOLOGY
 Ahybr idtopol
ogy
.
 Gr oupsofstar–confi
gurednetworksar
econnectedt
oali
nearbus
backbone.
 Itcanal sobeder
ivedoutofbreedi
ngacombinati
onofot
hernetwor
ks.

Nove
ls,
KAS
NEB,
Hig
hSc
hool
not
es 0714497530. -19-
 i
saboke
mic
ah@g
mai
l.
com
Advant
agesoftr
eetopology 1. Cri
mpi ngtool.
1. Fai
lur
eofoneormorenodesdoesnotaff
ectt
hewhol
enet
work. 2. Cabletester.
2. Fai
lur
eofasingl
ebranchdoesnotbr
ingt
hewhol
enet
workdown. 3. Screwdr i
vers.
NETWORKSECURI TY
Di
sadvantagesoftreet
opol
ogy
 I nnetworking,t
herearesever
alwaysofenf
orci
ngsecur
it
y,oneoft
hem i
s
1. Communi cat
ionpat
hcansometi
mesbecomequi
tel
ong.
sharelevelandtheotheri
suserlev
elsecur
it
y.
2. I
nstal
l
at i
oncanbecomecost
lyandcompl
ex.
Wor
kst
ati
ons a)Shar
elev
elsecur
ity
 Asi mpl
enetworksecuri
tyusedinpeert
opeernetworks.
 Theusercandecidewhichresourcest
ogiveforshar
ing.
 MostdesktopO.S.suchasWi ndows9xprovi
desuchkindofsecur
it
y.

b)User-
levelut
il
ity
 Usedonser verbasednetworks.
 Anet workadminist
rat
orassignsaccount
stouser
s.
Hub  Eachuseri sprovidedwit
hauni quenameandpasswor
dwhi
chhe/
she
canuset oaccessnetworkresources.

Pr
int
er

Bus/
Backbon
e

Tr
eet
opol
ogy

SETTINGUPPEER–TO–PEERLAN
Hardwarerequi
rement s
1. Acomput errunningonanyv ersi
onofMsWi ndowsespecial
lyWindows
9x/2000/Me/Wi ndowsXp.
2. Networkint
erfacecard( NIC).Somecomput er
smayhav eitalr
eady
inst
all
edonboar dsot hatyoudonothav etopurchaseone.
3. Ahuboraswi tch.
4. Transmissi
onmedi aprefer
ablyunshi
eldedtwi
stedpaircat
egory5.
5. RJ45connect ors.
Tool
s

Nove
ls,
KAS
NEB,
Hig
hSc
hool
not
es 0714497530. -20-
 i
saboke
mic
ah@g
mai
l.
com

APPLI
CATI
ONAREASOFI
CTNOTES

Nove
ls,
KAS
NEB,
Hig
hSc
hool
not
es 0714497530. -21-
 i
saboke
mic
ah@g
mai
l.
com

I
NTRODUCTI ON
 Thereisrampantuseofcomput ersinthesociet
yt oday;off
ices, i
nsti
tut
ions,organi
zati
onsand
homes.
 Tasksthatwer epr
ev i
ouslymannedmanual l
yarenowt ackl
edel ectr
onicall
y.
 Iti
simper ati
vetot
her ef
oreunderstandway sbywhi chcomput ershavebeenappl i
edinthe
contempor ar
ysocietytoaddgreatv al
uet ot
heinformat i
onsy stemsofv ari
ousor gani
zati
ons.
 Aninformat i
onsystem isacoll
ectionofspecifi
chumanandmachi neeffort
srequiredtosuppor
tthe
decisi
onmaki ngprocess,dat
apr ocessing,i
nfor
mat ionoutputandpr esentati
on.
APPLI
CATI ONAREAS
1.Financial systems. 9. Entertai
nmentsy stems
2.Retailsy stems. 10 Transportati
onsy stem
3.Reserv ationsy st
ems 11 Homeuse
4.Educat ional syst
ems 12 Offi
ceexper tsy
st ems
5.Communi cationsyst
ems 13 Mar keti
ng
6.Industrialsystems 14 Virt
ual r
eali
tysystems
7.Scienti
f i
candr esear
chsy
stems 15 Lawenf orcementsy st
ems
8.Librar
ysy stems

1.FI
NANCI ALSYSTEMS
 Enabl eorgani zati
onst
omanaget
hei
rfi
nancesandt
heyi
ncl
ude:
a) Payroll
sy stems.
b) Accountingsy stems.
c) Bankingsy stems.

A.PAYROLLSYSTEMS
 Scr eensar eset upt ocapt urethet r
ansact iondata, wit
happr opri
atevalidat
ions,dataisinser
tedinto
thetransact ionf il
e,pay rol
lprogramst henpr ocesst hepayrollusi
ngdat afrom thetransacti
onfil
e,
l
ookupt ablesandt hemast erfi
l
e.
 Themast erfil
ei sthenupdat ed,pay r
ollsystem ispr oduced,payslipsarepr i
ntedforeveryemployee
andot herr epor t
sr equiredbymanagementort het axdepar t
ment.
 Comput ersar et hereforeusedt ost oreandpr ocesspay rol
ls.
 Backi ngst oragei sal soessent i
alforpay roll
sy st
ems, si
ncet heamountofdat agr owswi thti
me.
 Thepr i
mar ypur poseoft hepay rollsystem istot herefor
epr ocesstheaccur at
einformationof
employ eesi ncludinggr osspay ,deduct i
onsandt henetpay .
 Thepayr ollsystem i sdesignedt opr oducesev er
al analy
sisreportse.g.abreakdownofpay rol
l
expensesagai nstpr oduction/i
ncomeoft hecompany .

B.ACCOUNTI NGSYSTEMS
 Account i
ngisthepr epar ationandanalysi
soff i
nancial
recor dsforacommer ci
alcompany ,
governmentorot heror gani zat
ions.
 Knownast he“businessl anguage”,i
tenabl
esdecisionmaker stointerpretf
inanci
al i
nfor
mationand
usether esul
tsinplanni ngf orthefutur
ee.g.for
etel
li
ngwhatpr oduct sordepartmentsaredoingwell
andwhi chonesar edoi ngpoor l
y.
 I tdeal
smai nlywithnumber sandt hi
sisataskwel l
suitedforcomput ers.
 Thepr ocessi
ngofsucht asksissi mpleandeasytounder standtoi mpl ementont hecomputer,and
managementcanest ablishappr opri
atecontr
olsander ror
-checkingpr ocedurestoensurethesecuri
ty
andaccur acyofthedat a.

Ther
ear
efi
vemajor
/keybusi
nessaccount
ingact
ivi
ti
es/
subsy
stemsasout
li
nedbel
ow:
i
) Cust
omerorderandent
ry.

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i
i
)Inventor
ymanagement .
i
i
i)General
ledgeraccount
ing.
i
v)Accountsrecei
vabl
e.
v
) Accountspayabl
e.
v
i)Cashbook.

I
)CUSTOMERORDERSENTRYANDBI LLI
NG
 Usedtorecordincomingcust
omerorder
s,aut
hor
izesdel
iver
yofi
temsorservi
cesor
der
edand
producesi
nvoicesforcust
omerswhodonotpayinadvanceoroncashbasi
s.

I
I)I
NVENTORYMANAGEMENT
 Usedt okeept
rackoft
hei
temsi
nstockandhel
pthemanagementdeter
minewhichi
temstore-
order
,
hel
pingt
hemanagementt
ohaveenoughst
ocksatal
lti
mestomeettheneedsbycustomer
s.

I
II
)GENERALLEDGERACCOUNTI NG
 Al soknownasnomi nalledger.
 Cont ainsasummar yofal lbusi
nessaccountsi .
e.usedtokeept r
ackofhowmuchabusinessmakes
anditswort
hinessbysummar i
zingthefi
nancialtr
ansacti
onsinformsofbal
ancesheet
s,prof
itand
l
ossaccount,tr
ialbalance,daybook/ j
our
nal,l
istofaccountsetc.
 I tpr
oducesreport
soni ncome, sour
cesofincome, expensesandthenetpr
ofi
torl
ossearned.
 Thesummar yreport(balancesheet)isusuall
ygener at
edattheendofanaccount
ingperi
od.

I
V)ACCOUNTSRECEIVABLE
 Keepstr
ackofmoneyowedt oacompanybyitscust
omers.
 Thishel
psthemanagementtomakeafol
lowupbybi l
li
ngthecustomer
sforover
duepayments.
 Anexampleiswhengoodsaresol
dtoaretai
l
er;moneyowedont hesal
esisanaccount
srecei
vabl
e
it
em unt
ilt
hepaymenti
srecei
ved.

V)ACCOUNTSPAYABLE
 Asyst em thatkeepst
rackoft
heamountthebusi
nessowesot
her
se.g.suppl
ier
s,t
axor
gani
zat
ions,
t
ransportetc.
 Ittheref
orehelpsthemanagementt
oproducechequesf
orpay
mentofthisamount.

VI
)CASHBOOK
 Usedtorecorddail
ycashtransact
ions.
 Itr
ecordstherecei
ptsandcashpay ments.
 Thecashbookhast woaccount si
.e.Acashaccountandthebankaccount
.
 Withthehelpofacashbook, t
hecashandbankbal ancescanbecheckedeasi
l
y.

2.BANKI NGSYSTEMS
 Si ncet heintroducti
onoft hemagnet icencodedchequesint
he1960’
s,bankshav
ebecome
dependentoncomput ersf ormanyser vi
ces.
 Thebanki ngindustrywasoneoft heearli
estconsumersofi
nfor
mati
onandcommunicat
ion
technol ogy.
 Thecomput eri
zedbankingser vicesinclude:
i
) Pr ocessi ngcustomert ransactions.
i
i) Chequecl ear
ingandpr ocessing.
i
ii)El ectronicfundstransfer.
i
v )Int ernetbanking.
v) Mobi lebanking.

I
)PROCESSI
NGCUSTOMERTRANSACTI
ONS

23
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 Theyar
eusedi
nbankst
ocar
ryoutf
inanci
alt
ransact
ionssuchasr
ecor
dingdeposi
ts,
wit
hdr
awal
s
andcal cul
ati
ngint
erestsonsavingsandl oans.
 Reportsarealsogeneratedonthecurrentstatusofaccount
s.
 Thet r
ansacti
onsareent er
edvi
at er
minals, whichar
econnectedt
oacentr
alcomputerf
orcent
ral
i
zed
processing.
 ATMsar eusedtooffer24hourservi
cet ocustomersandmor efl
exi
bil
i
tyi
ncashdeposi
tsand
withdrawals.

I
I)CHEQUECLEARI NGANDPROCESSI NG
 Comput er
izedchequescleari
ngandprocessingi
smadepossi
bleduet
othechar
act
ersoncheques
pr
int
edusinginkcontaini
ngmagneti
cparti
cles.
 MI CRenablestheprocessi
ngofthechequeshencet
imesavi
ng.

I
II
)ELECTRONI CFUNDSTRANSFER( EFT)
 Thisisthemov ementofmoneybet
weentwodiff
erentaccountsusingICT,usi
ngacashdispenser
.
 Theamountwi thdrawnbyacust
omerisdeduct
edfrom his/heraccount.
 Creditcardsar
ealsousedwhenpayi
ngforgoodsandserv i
ceswher epaymentist
ransf
err
ed
el
ect
ronical
lyf
rom thecust
omer
saccountt
otherecipi
entsaccount.

I
V)I
NTERNETBANKI NG(e-
banking)
 Enabl
esuserst
oaccessthei
rbankaccount
sthrought
heint
ernet.
 Theusercanquer
yaccountstat
ements,
paybil
l
sandtransf
erfundsel
ect
roni
cal
l
y.

V)MOBI LEBANKI NG( m-banking)

 Anaccounthol deri
nabankcanper for
m bankingtransacti
onsusinghis/hermobil
ephone.
 Thet ransact
ionsmayi ncludecashtransfer
s,sett
li
ngbi l
l
selectr
onical
l
yandper for
mingaccount
queries.
 Mobi l
ephonecompani eslikeSafar
icom supportel
ectroniccashtr
ansferservi
ceswit
hthei
rM-Pesa
serv
ice.

3.RETAILSYSTEMS
 Usedi nsuper mar kets,distribut oroutletsandot hersf or:
i) Stockcont rol.
ii
) Transact ionshandl i
ngatt heEPOST.
I
)STOCKCONTROL
 St ockcont r
ol orinv entorycont rolenabl esausert omanagehi s/herstockmor eeffi
cientl
ybykeepi
ng
trackofthest ocks.
 Accur ateandup- to-datei nformat i
ononav ail
abil
it
yofst ocksanddemandar ecr i
ti
calforbusi
ness
success.
 I tenablesonet or educet her iskofunderst ockingorov erstocki
ngi .
e.overstocki
ngt i
esupv al
uabl
e
spaceandcapi tal t
hatcoul dhav ebeenusedf orot herv al
uableitemswhi leunderst ocki
ngcauses
customerdi ssat i
sfaction.
 St ockcont r
ol systemsar et her eforeusedf orthef ollowingr easons:
a) Stor i
ngf ulldetail
soft hei temshel dinst ocki.e.immedi atel
yavail
able.
b) Pr ovi
nguser swi thup- to-dat einformat ionregar dingst ockit
emsandpr ices.
c) Moni tori
ngst ocklev elssot hatitemscanbeor der edingoodt ime.
d) Stor i
ngdet ail
sofsuppl iersofst ocki tems.
e) Stor i
ngdet ail
sofpendi ngor ders.

I
I)POI
NT-OF-SALETERMINAL(P-
OST, E-POST)
 Usedtoinputandout
putdat
aatt hepointwher
esalesar
etransacted.
 Ithasdi
rectdat
acapt
uri
ngdevicesli
kebarcodereader
s,cardreaders,
amoni
torandar
ecei
ptpr
int
er,

24
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wher
egoodsar
eident
if
iedbymeansofbarcodes.
 Tr
ansact
ionsatt
heP-
OSTmayi
nvol
vet
hef
oll
owi
ngst
eps:
a) TheBCR( wand)ispassedov ertheit
em’sbarcode.
b) Thebarcodeisautomatical
lyconvert
edtotheit
em numbere.2.2160,
whichisreadtothe
computer.
c) Usi
ngthenumber ,thecomput ersear
chesfort
heitem fr
om amasterfi
lewit
hacor r
esponding
numberintheproductsdatabase.
d) Oncetherecordisfound,it
sdescript
ionandpri
celookupfi
l
eisusedforprocessi
ngthesale.

Adv
antages:
a) Corr
ectpri
cesareusedatthecheckoutcount
er.
b) I
tisfast
ersincet
heattendantdoesnothavet
oenterdet
ail
smanual
l
y.

4.RESERVATI ONSYSTEMS:
 Thesear edistri
butednetwor kedsyst
emsthatareusedmai nl
yt omakebookingsinareassuchas
air
li
nes,hotels,car-
rental
,theater
setc.
 Booki ngsaremadef r
om ar emotetermi
nalconnectedtoacentral
izedcomputerdatabase.
 Toaccesst hedat abase,acust omermakesenquiri
esviatheremotetermi
nalconnectedt othe
centr
alcomput er
.
 I ti
nvolvesonlineenquirywher eanindi
vi
dualdir
ectl
yrequestsfori
nformat
ionthroughat erminal
from
acentralcomput erandr eceivesanimmediat
eresponse.

5.EDUCATI
ONALSYSTEMS
 Computersareplayi
ngani ncreasinglyi
mportantr
olei
neducat
ional
inst
it
uti
onsi
nthef
oll
owi
ngway
s:
i) Comput erAidedInstruct
ion( C.
A.I
.)
ii
) Comput erAidedLear ni
ng.
ii
i
) Elect
ronicLearni
ng( e-l
earning)
.
iv
) Comput erbasedSimul ati
on.

I
)COMPUTERAI DEDINSTRUCTION( C.A.
I.
)
 Referstotheuseofacomput ert
olearn,dr
il
landpract
iceparti
culareducat
ionalpri
ncipl
es.
 Itentai
lsl
earni
ngnewlanguages,educat
ionalgames,t
y pi
ngtutor’
sprogramset c.
 Inageographymap, t
hestudentmustprovidethenamesofci t
ies,mountai
nr anges,
namesofr i
ver
s,
lakesetc.
 Abi ol
ogystudentmaybeaskedtonameorposi t
ioni
nternal
organs,musclesorbonesi napict
ureof
thehumanbody .

I
I)COMPUTERAI DEDLEARNI NG( C.A.L.)
 Itpresent
seducati
onalmaterial
st hewayat eacherdoesinacl
assr
oom.
 MostCALpr ogramshavecl eargraphicalpr
esentat
ionssuchasvi
deocl
i
psandv
oicef
or
demonstr
ati
ngorexplai
ningdiff
icultconcepts.

I
II
)ELECTRONI CLEARNI NG( e-l
ear ning)
 Thi siswher electuresar epr esent edfr
om acent r
alsit
eandt hepresentat
ioni
stransmi
tt
edt oremot
e
conferencet ermi nalsordi splay edonTVscr eens.
 Thel ear
nercanal soaccessl ear ningmaterial
sont heInt
ernet,
sitforonli
neexamsandreceive
resultsthesameway ,al
soknownasComput erBasedTraini
ng( CBT)andWebBasedTr ai
ning(WBT)
systems.
 Someoft hekeybenef it
sar e:
a) Lear ningtimei sreduced, thor oughandconsistent
.
b) Instantav ailabili
tyofcour sesatanyt i
me.
c) El i
mi natestheneedf orcl assr oom i
nstr
uctors.

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d) Mini
mizestr
avelt
ime,
cost
sandti
meawayfr
om thewor
kpl
ace.
e) Lear
nersdonotneedt
ogophysi
cal
lyt
oacol
lege.

I
V)COMPUTERBASEDSI MULATI ON
 Referst othesci enceofr epresenti
ngthebehaviourofar eal
–l i
fesituati
onbyusi ngcomputeri
zed
model s.
 Simulationpr ogr amsar emost l
yusedi neducat
ionalareaswherepr acti
cal ski
ll
shavetobelear
ntli
ke
tr
aini
ngdr iv
ers, pil
ots,engi
neerset chavetobeinstr
uctedusingav irt
ual envir
onment.
 Satel
li
t etechnol ogyandt heInternetareusedtoprovidequali
tyeducational cont
entfr
om al
lovert
he
worldatanaf fordablecost .
 Coursesandsemi narsarebeamedbysat el
li
teonlargescreenprojectors,TVmoni t
orsorcomputers.
 Student sinteractwi t
ht hei
nstructorsi
nreal-
ti
meusi ngphone,faxande- mail.

6.COMMUNI CATI ONSYSTEMS

 Communi cationreferstothedistr
ibuti
onofi nfor
mationordat
afr
om oneper sonorl ocat
ionto
another.
 Ef f
ectiveandef f
ici
entdat acommuni cati
onisachi ev
edbyuseofhigh-
speedel ect
ronicdevicessuch
ascomput ers,cell
-phones,radi
osandt el
evision.
 Thei ntegrat
ionofcomput er
izedcomput erdev i
cesandtel
ecommunicat
ioninfrastr
uctureforthe
purposeofcommuni cat
ionisref
erredtoasi nfor
mat i
onandcommunicati
ont echnology.

Examplesofcommuni cati
onsystemsar
e:
i
) Facsimile(
Fax)
i
i) Radio.
i
ii
) Televi
sionset.
i
v) Videoconferenci
ng.
v) Telecommut i
ng.
vi
) Int
ernet.

I
)FACSI MI LE( FAX)
 Acomput erizedsy stem t hati scapabl eoft ransmi tt
ingcompl et
ei magesf r
om onel ocati
ont oanot
her
viatelephonel ines.
 Di git
al imagescanbet ransmi ttedinaer ospacepr ogr amsi ntodigitalcodet hatcanbeunder st
oodby
comput ers.
 Thei magesi ncludepi ctur es, graphs,dr awi ngs, phot ographs, si
gnaturesort ext.
 Copi esofdocument sar et ransmi t
tedel ect ronicallyandt hedupl icaterecei
v edatthereci
pient’
s
machi nei .e.canber eferredt oasdi stantphot ocopy ing.
 Tosendf axov erthei nternet ,aspeci al modem cal ledaf axmodem i sattachedt othesendingand
receivingcomput er s.
Adv
ant agesoff acsimilecommuni cati
ons:
a) Theabi lit
yt otransmi tani mageov erl ongdi st ancesisl essthan10seconds.
b) Theabi lit
yt oconf irmt her eceiptofat ransmi ssionquickl y.
c) Lowcostf orhi gh-vol umeoper ati
ons.
d) Ther ei sguar ant eedsecur i
ty–t het ransmi t tedi magei ssentasadi git
izedcode( whi
chcanbe
scr ambl ed)r athert hanausabl epi cture.
e) Conv eni ence–t heabi litytostor ether esultanti mageonacomput erfil
ei nst
eadofapieceof
paper .

I
I)RADI
OCOMMUNI CATION
 Comput er
scanbeusedinr adiobroadcasti
ngstat
ionstodothefoll
owi
ng:
a) Recor
dandmanager adioprogrammesmeantf orbr
oadcast
ing.
b) Managether
adiotr
ansmi ssi
onandt rackperf
ormance.

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c) Automat etherunni
ngoftheselectedprogrammes.
d) Createsli
des,simul
atedobj
ectsandsoundef f
ect
swhenprepar
ingelect
roni
candpr
int
edmedi
a
adverti
sements.
e) Downloadi nf
ormati
onfrom I
nternetthatcanbeusedi
nprepari
ngprogrammessuchas
i
nternati
onalnews.

I
II
)TELEVISIONSETS
 Dat aorinformationist
ransmi
tt
edv
iaaTVchannel
andt
hemostcommont
ypesofdat
atr
ansmi
tt
ed
vi
aTVi nclude:
a) Teletext(ceefax
)
b) Videotext(viewdat
a)
c)

a)Teletext
 Ref er
stoacomput er
izedser
vicewher ebynewsandot heri
nfor
mationar
eprovi
dedont
het
elev
isi
on
screenstosubscri
bers.
 TheTVi sconfigur
edusingaspeci aladd-oncardoradapt
er.
 Thesubscr ibercanbrowseforinformationusingaremotecont
rol
l
eddevice.
 I tishoweveronewaycommuni cation(si
mplex).

b)Videotext(vi
ewdat a)
 At wowaycommuni cationser vice(half
-duplex)ov erat elephonel ineorcabl eTVchannel.
 Asubscr i
bercani nter
actwi ththeservicepr ovi
derdat abaseandt heinformat i
oni
sdispl
ay edona
homeTVscr een.
 Vi deotexisusedi nreserv ati
onbooki ngs,orderingf orgoodsandser vicesaswel l
assendinge-mai
ls.
 User sofv i
deot excanint eractwi t
hthedat abaset opaybi ll
s,ordergoodset c.
 Theser vi
cessuppl i
edt hroughv i
deotextandTel etextsy stemsi nclude:
 I nformat i
ononweat her,TVpr ogrammes, sporti
ngev ents, cur
rentnews,hol
iday
opportuni
ties, ai
rli
neschedul esandst ockmar ketdata.
 E- mail–transmi ssi
onofel ectronicmessagest oot heruser s.
 Payi ngbil
ls,or deri
nggoodsandpur chasi ngt i
ckets.

I
V)VIDEOCONFERENCI NG
 Ref erstot heuseofcomput ers,adigi
talcamera,anaudi ocapturi
ngequi
pmentandcommuni cat
ion
net workst oenabl epeopleindi ff
erentlocat
ionstoseeandt alktooneanot her.
 Eachpar ticipant’
scomput erisattachedwi t
hav i
deocamer a(camcorder
),speakersanda
mi crophone.
 Aper soncant heref
orepar t
icipat
ei nav i
rt
ualconferenceroom.
 All parti
cipant sseeeachot heront hecomput erscreenasiftheyweresit
tingi narealconf
erence
room.
 Videoconf erenci
ngispopul arinTVbr oadcasti
ngst at
ionswher eafi
eldr
epor teri
nter
actswith
newscast er sandinorganizat i
onswher etopmanager sindiff
erentgeogr
aphi call
ocati
onshold
meet i
ngsv iatheInt
ernetort heorganizati
onsintr
anet.

V)TELECOMMUTI NG
 Asi tuati
onwher eanemployeeworksusuall
yathomeusi ngacomputerconnectedtothewor kpl
ace
networ k.
 Iti sanar rangementinwhichempl oy
eesusemi cr
ocomputer
sandmodemst ocommuni catewith
theirbusinessof fi
ceswhil
etheyworkelsewhere.
 Tel ecommut ingtakesadvantageoft
hegr owingcommunicati
onnetwor
kstor educeunnecessary
traveltothepl aceofwork,r
educingtr
avelexpensesandlessstr
essduetocommut ing

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i
nconv
eni
encessuchast
raf
fi
cjams.
 Tel
ecommut
ingmaybepr
act
ical
for
:
a) Writers.
b) Engineers.
c) Architects.
d) Mother swithsmallchil
dren.
e) Handi cappedworkers.
f) I
ndiv i
dualswhosefieldsworktaket
hem f
arf
rom t
heof
fi
ce.

 Thi
sar
rangementcanal
sobepr
act
ical
sinceempl
oyeeswhot
elecommut
e:
a) Mayusel essof f
icesuppliesl i
kephot ocopying.
b) Donotoccupyv aluabl
eof fi
cespace.
c) Donotwast et i
mecommut ingi ncars,tr
ainsorbuses.
d) Donotwast et i
meconv er
singi dlyorsuf f
eri
ngthepettydi
str
acti
onsofoffi
cel
i
fe.
VI
)THEI NTERNET
 Awor l
d–wi decomput ernetwor klinki
ngcount l
essthousandsofcomputernet
worksf
ori
nfor
mat
ion
tr
ansferandeffi
cientcommuni cation.
 Someoft heservi
cesav ai
l
ableont heinternetare:
a) wor l
dwideweb( www)
b) elect
roni
cmai l(e-mail
)

a)Worldwideweb( www)
 Acol l
ecti
onofwebpageshel donwebser v
ers.
 Onecanaccessi nformati
onusingacomput eroranyot hercommunicat
iondev
icesuchasamobile
phoneforWAP( wirelessAppl
icati
onPr otocol
) .
 Acomput erconnectedtotheInternetall
owst heusertoaccessawiderangeofinf
ormati
onsuchas
news,ent
ertai
nment ,banki
ng,reservat
ion,businessnews,e-mai
l
setc.

b)El
ect
ronicmai l(e-mai l
)
 Fastandef fi
cientmeansofsendi ngandr eceiv
ingmessages,data,
fil
esorgraphi
cs.
 Onceyousubscr i
bef orInter
netServicesthroughaservi
ceprovider
,youcansendorreceivee-mail
s
t
oorfrom any oneconnect edtotheInternetusingacomputeroraWAP–enabl edcell
ularphone.
 Document scanbecr eated,dist
ri
buted,fi
led,stor
edanddestr
oy edelect
roni
cal
lyusi
ngacomput er
.
 Auserwi thami cro-comput erandamodem t ypesamessageandt henidenti
fi
esthemessage
r
eci
pients,usinge- mailaddresses.

Adv
antagesofe- mai l:
 Youdonotcr eat ewr i
ttendocument s.
 Youav oi
datleastsomet el
ephoning,eliminat
ingbusysignals,deali
ngwithintermedi atesecretar
ies,
l
eavingmessagesorpl ayi
ng“ t
elephonet ag”i
.e.r
epeatedlymissingeachot hers’calls.
 Messagesar edel iver
edmuchf asterthanpostaldel
iverysincetheyaresentel ectronical
lyand
t
hereforereceivednear lyi
nstantaneously.
 Inmanyci r
cumst ances,e-maili
sbot hcheaperandmor econvenientthanphoni ng.
 Youcant i
me- shiftmessages, i
.e.youcansendmessagest opeopl ei
ndifferentti
mezonesev en
t
hought heymi ghtnotbeawake.
 Youcanmass- distri
butemessagesusi ngcomput er
izedli
stsofr eci
pient
se.g.sal esr epr
esentati
ves.

7.I
NDUSTRI ALSYSTEMS
 Industr
ialpl
antssuchasmot orv
ehi
clemanufactur
es,
chemi
cal
plant
s,r
efi
ner
iesandmi
ningpl
ant
s
usecomputersystemsinthefol
l
owingways:
i
) Comput erAi
dedDesignandManufactur
ing
i
i) Simulat
ion.
i
ii
) Processcontr
ol.

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I
)CADandCAM
1. CAD/ CAM i sani nt
egratedsy stem thatal l
owspr oductsthathav ebeendesi gnedt obet r
ansmit
ted
i
ntoanaut omat edmanuf acturingsy stem fortheproducttobemanuf acturedaspert hecomputer
model .
2. Thecomput ermodel isdesi gnedusi ngspeci alsoft
war e,
usuallycapableofdi splayi
ng3D
representati
onsofsol idobj ects,whi challowst hedesignertoviewt heobj ectfr
om differ
entangles
andmodi fythedesignunt i
litissati
sf actory.
3. TheCADsof twarewil
l oftengener atea3Dv iewfrom aplan,sideelev at
ionandf rontelevat
ionofthe
object.
4. Thef inal
desi gncanther eforebeuseddi rectl
ytocreatemanuf acturinginformationandt oprovi
de
i
nfor mati
ononquant i
tiesofmat er
ialsr equir
edt oproducethei t
em.

CADhardware:
a) agraphicsworkstat
ionthatall
owst hedesi
gnertoi
nter
act
ivel
ycreat
eadrawing.
b) Ahighr esol
uti
onscreen(displ
ay)toshowdrawingsincol
ourandinfi
nedet
ail.
c) Fastprocessorswit
hagr eatdealofmemor y.

USESOFCADANDCAM SYSTEMS:
a) Engineeri
ngdesignsforroads,chemical
plants,machi
neparts,ai
rcr
aft
s,car
setc.
b) Patt
erndesignforclothi
ng,archi
tect
uraldesignandki
tchendesign.
c) Roboticsforcar
ryi
ngoutassembl yli
neoper ati
ons,
welding,
li
ft
ingheavyobj
ect
s,spr
aypai
nti
ng
ofvehicl
ebodiesetc.

I
I)I
NDUSTRI ALSI MULATI ON
 Comput ersi mul ati
oni sthedesi gningofmodel sofanact ualortheoret i
cal physicalsystem, and
analyzingt heexecut ionout putusingdi gi
tal comput ers.
 Thi sal l
owssomeact ivi
ti
est hatwoul dother wisebeex pensiveanddanger ousi nreall
ifesituati
onto
beputundert est.
 I tenabl esmanuf acturer
si dentif
ysomeoft heweaknessesoft her ealsituat i
onorobj ect,henceput
thecor rectr einforcementt otheirdesigns.
 Anexampl ei showmot orv ehicl
esseatbel tsar etestedf ortheireffectivenessi ncaseofacarcr ash.
 Thegener al nameofusi ngcomput ermodel sinsuchci rcumst ancesi sknownasnon- dest r
uctive
testi
ng( NDT) .
 Comput ersi mul ati
oni swi delyusedinv ariousar easofhumanendeav ourandsomeoft he
applicationsi nclude:
a) inav i
ationwher ecomput ersareusedf ortrai
ningpi l
ot s,
wher eapi lotfeelsasi fhewer e
cont rollinganact ual ai
rcraft.
b) I nengi neer ing,model sar esimulatedt ot estperformanceunderv ariouscondi ti
onse. g.the
strengt hofmat erialtobeusedf orbuildingabr idgecanbet estedusi ngsi mulators.
c) I nmedi cine, si
mul ati
oncanbeusedt ot rai
ndoct orsonoper ati
ont echni ques.
I
II
)PROCESSCONTROL
 Referstotheuseofacomputersyst
em tocontrolanongoi ngphy si
calprocessespeci
all
yin
manufact
uri
ng.
 Suchcont r
olsmayincl
uder
egulat
ingtemperature,pressur
e, f
lui
df l
owetc.
 Comput er
izedpr
ocesscont
roli
smost lyusedinpet r
oleum refi
neri
es,chemicalpl
antsandother
manufact
uri
ngcompaniest
omanagemachi neintensiveprocesses.

8.SCI
ENTI
FICANDRESEARCHSYSTEMS
 Computershav
eawidevar
iet
yofappl
i
cat
ionsi
nsci
ence,
resear
chandt
echnol
ogy
,someofwhi
ch

29
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ar
e:
i
) Weatherfor
ecasti
ng
i
i) Medicalr
esearch
i
ii
) Mi
li
taryandspaceexpl
orat
ionsci
ence.

I
)WEATHERFORECASTI NG
 Comput ershelpanal yzecurrentweat her
, theyhelppr edi cttheimpendi ngweat her,andt heyhelp
createthevisual i
magesusedf orbroadcastTV.
 Duet othelargev olumeofdat acol l
ectedf rom rai
nf all
,ai rpressure,
humi dity,
temper ature,
wind
speedandcl oudcov er,
comput ershelpi
nanal yzing, processi ngandpr edicti
ngweat herpat t
erns
usingsuchdat a.
 Anotherapplicationofcomput ersinweat herforecast i
ngi stheuseofgeogr aphicali
nformat i
on
system (GI
S)andt hegeographi calposit
ioningsy stem ( GPS)whi chrepresentgeogr aphicaldatai
n
graphicalf
orm byposi ti
oningandsuper i
mposi ngi tont hewor l
dmap. /
 GISisusedt or epresentdataonweat herpat t
ernsinacl earerandacoher ent/
logicalmannerona
wor l
dmap.

I
I)MEDI CALRESEARCH
 Medi calautomat ionoffersgreatassistancei ntheareasofaut omati
cdiagnosis,el
ectr
ocardi
ogram
screeningandmoni t
ori
ng.
 Heal thpr ofessionalsusecomput erstechnologyf ordi
agnosis,keepi
ngpatient
s’data/r
ecords,
i
nv entorycont r
ol et
c.
 Comput ersareal sobeingusedt ocont roldevicesthathel
pt ocareforthehandicappedsuchast he
deaf,bli
nd, bedriddenet c.
 Adoct orneedi ngspecial i
zedopinionscannoweasi l
yretr
iev
esuchi nformati
onf r
om comput er
storage.
 Comput ersalsoal l
owaccesst oexpensi veforei
gnexperti
sef orhospi
talsi
nonecount ryt
ouse
consultantsorev ensurgeonsinanot her .

I
II
)POLI CEMI LITARYANDSPACEEXPLORATI ONSCI ENCE
 Comput ersar eusedinfi
ghti
ngcr i
me.
 Pol icear enowabl etokeepdat abasesoff i
ngerprintswhi char eautomat ical
lyanalyzedby
comput ers.
 Comput erbasedf acerecognit
ionandscenemoni tori
ngandanal ysi
shelpt hepol i
ceforceinleadi
ng
toar r
estofof f
endersandcriminals.
 I ndef ense,comput ersareusedinelectroni
c,effi
cientcommuni cati
on,detecti
onandt r
ackingof
targets,radarsy st
ems,warningsy st
emsandmi li
tarylaserandgui dedmi ssil
esy stems.
 Comput ertechnologyisthebackboneofspaceexpl orati
ons.
 Fr om st udyingthemov ementofst ar
s,surfaceofmar s,wer elyheav i
lyoncomput ers.
 Spaceexpl orati
onsandmi l
it
aryresearchbodiessuchasAmer ica’snati
onal aeronauti
csandspace
admi nistr
ation(NASA)makeext ensi
veuseofcomput ersy st
emsf orresearch,design,development
andcont r
ol ofunmannedspaceshi ps,aeroplanesandmi ssiles.

9.LI
BRARYSYSTEMS
 Librar
iesusecomputer
izedsystemsf
oranumberoft
askse.
g.
i
) Lendi
ngsyst
em.
i
i) Inv
entor
ycontr
ol sy
stem.
i
ii
) Catal
ogui
ngsystem.

I
)LENDI
NGSYSTEM:
 Usedtomanaget
hei
ssuanceandr
etur
nofbor
rowedr
eadi
ngmat
eri
als.

30
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 Books,magazi
nes,
journal
s,r
epor
tsetcaregi
venuni
quei
dent
ifi
cat
ionnumber
sorcodes.
 Onceamemberbor rowsabook,hi
s/herdet
ail
sar
erecor
dedandwhenthebooki
sretur
ned,
the
bor
rower
’sr
ecor
disupdat
edt
oref
lectt
henewst
atus.

I
I)I
NVENTORYCONTROL:
 I nv
olvesuseofcomputer
stomanagest ock,
whichi
ncludeschecki
ngf
orbookscur
rent
lyi
nthe
shelv
esandthoseonhighdemandforthepurposeofaddingmore.
 Bookst hathavebecomeobsol
etecanber et
ir
edtothearchi
ves.

I
II
)CATALOGUI NG
 Acat alogueisacoll
ect
ionofcardswit
hinformat
ionabouteachbookorr ef
erencemater
ial
sfoundin
theli
brary.
 Toenhanceser vi
cedeliver
yandeffi
ci
ency,computer
izedcatalogui
nghasrepl
acedthemanualcards
catal
ogue.
 Anel ectroni
ccat
alogueisupdat
edconstantl
ywhennewr eferencemater
ial
sareacqui
red.

10.ENTERTAINMENTSYSTEMS
 Theadvancementi nmul t
imedi
atechnol
ogyhasproducedcomputer
sthatcanbeusedi
nrecr
eat
ional
andentert
ainment.
 Someappl i
cati
onareasofcomputersi
nrecr
eat
ionandentert
ainmenti
ncl
ude:
i) Games.
ii
) Musicandvideo.

I
)GAMES
 Digi
tal
videodi
sks(DVDs)and3Dmul ti
mediagamesar enowusedtoaddstereosoundanddi
git
al
vi
deoclipstomakegamesmor eandmor ereali
sti
c.
 Therearecomputergamesthatsimul
atesport
ssuchasdr i
vi
ng,warcombatetc.
 Suchgamesgivetheplayermaximum pl
easureinavir
tual
envir
onmentonthescreen.

I
I)MUSI CANDVI DEO
 Vi deocompactdi scs(VCD)anddigit
alvi
deodisks(DVDs)hav ebecomeacommonf eat
ureinthe
entertai
nmentindustry
.
 I nmusi cindust
ry,computer
sareusedinrecordi
ng,synthesi
zi
ng,edi
tingandaddingspecial
effect
sto
musi c.
 I nvideo,computersareusedtoproducehighl
ysimulatedandanimatedmov i
es,generat
escenesand
actors.
 Manyspeci aleff
ectsarebei
ngcreatedbyusingcomput ergr
aphicstechni
questoproduceanimated,
3Di mages.

11.TRANSPORTATI ONSYSTEMS
 Comput er
spl ayani ncreasingl
yimpor
tantr
olei
ntr
anspor
tat
ioni
ndust
ryi
nthef
oll
owi
ngar
eas:
i) Automobi l
et raffi
ccontrol
.
ii
) Airtr
af f
iccont rol
.
ii
i
) Shippingcont rol.

I
)AUTOMOBILETRAFFI CCONTROL
 Opti
mum ut i
l
izati
onorroadcapacit
yisachi
evedbygoodcoor di
nati
onoft
raf
fi
csi
gnal
s.
 Traf
fi
ccontrolli
ghtsarecontr
oll
edusi
ngacomput ersystem.
 Computeri
zedt r
affi
cli
ghtsystemshavesensorpadslai
dunderneat
hther
oadwhi
chdetectt
he
patt
ernofthetraff
icfl
ow.

31
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 Comput
erscanthenbeusedt
oautomati
cal
l
ygener
ateandimpl
ementtraf
fi
csignalplans.
 Dat
aiscol
lect
ed,sentt
oacomput
ersyst
em whi
chdetect
sandanal
ysesthetr
affi
cflowandbui
l
ds
upasi
mul
atedi
mageoft
heact
ual
scene.
 Cont
rol
signal
scant
henbeout
putt
othet
raf
fi
cli
ght
sormot
ori
stst
hrought
hei
rrecei
verdev
icest
o
v
aryt
hel
i
ghtt
imi
ngsorr
edi
rectt
raf
fi
ctol
essbusyr
oads.

I
I)AIRTRAFFI CCONTROL
 Geogr aphi calpositi
oningsystem (GPS)i sacomput ertechnol
ogyt hatisusedt odir
ectai rcr
aftst o
foll
owt heshor testpathbetweent wol ocations.
 Ai rtr
af ficcont rol
ler
sar eusedt ocoor dinatethemov ementoft housandsofai r
craft
, keepingthem at
safedi stancesf r
om eachot her,di
rectingt hem dur i
ngt ake-of
fandl andingfrom ai
rpor ts,
dir
ecting
them ar oundbadweat herandensur ingt hattraffi
cf lowssmoot hl
ywi thmi ni
mal delays.
 Det ail
sofev eryfli
ghtplan(air
linename, fl
ightnumber ,typeofai r
craftandequi pment ,int
ended
air
speed, cruisi
ngat ti
tudeandf li
ghtrout es)arest oredinacomput er.
 Thecomput ergener atesanf l
ightprogr essst r
ipthati spassedf rom cont r
oll
erthroughoutt heflight.
 Al lsystemswi thi
nthecont r
ol toweralsomakeext ensi veuseofmi croprocessorstot rackair
craf t
s
andconv eyinformationbetweendi fferentcont roltower sindi
fferentai rspaces.

I
II
)SHI PPINGCONTROL
 Comput ersarewi delyusedt ocontrolandguidethepathstakenbyspaceshipsandwat
ervesselsas
theytrav eltodistantlands.
 Theusei fIthasper meat edintotheshippi
ngindustr
yforeffi
cientmanagementofthef
leet
s,cargo
handling, communi cat i
onandmuchmor e.
 Shi psalsomakeext ensiveuseofcomput erandcommuni cati
onst echnol
ogi
esandmodernships
hav esophi sti
catedmi croprocessorbasedcontrolsy
stemsf orsteeri
ngtheshi
p.

12.HOMEUSE
 Mostpeopl earenowusi
ngcomput ersathomeforprepari
ngdomesticbudgets,
entert
ainment,
resear
chandteachi
ngchil
drenoneducati
onconcepts,t
ypi
ngandprinti
ng,e-mai
l,i
nter
netetc.
 Al sousedforst
ori
ngpersonali
nfor
mationanddatabasesofi
nvent
oryrecords.

13.OFFI CEEXPERTSYSTEMS
 Ani nformat
ionsyst
em usuall
ydevel
opedandinst
all
edintheoff
iceofahumanexpertorknowledge
wor ker.
 Suchasyst em i
scapableofsimulat
ingt
hedecisi
onmakingprocessandint
ell
i
gentpr
oblem sol
ution
justlikeahumanexpert.
 I talsohasasetofrulesthathel
pitt
omakeconclusionwhensomepar ameter
sareenter
ed.

14.MARKETI NG
 Comput ersarebei ngusedi nanumberofway stoenhancemarket
ing,
thr
ough:
i
) E-
commer ceore-business.
i
i) El
ectroni
cpr esent
ations.
i
ii
) Adverti
sing.
 Mar keti
ngisthepl anning,
prici
ng,promot
ionanddist
ri
buti
onofgoodsandserv
icesf
rom pr
oducer
s
toconsumer s

I
)E-
COMMERCE/E- BUSI NESS
 Transacti
onsarecarri
edoutel
ectr
oni
call
ywithoutphysi
calint
eract
ionbetweenthesellerandt he
buy er
.
 Acust omercanvi
sitasuppli
er’
swebsi
te;sel
ectanitem andplaci
ngitinavir
tualshoppingtray.
 Thewebsi t
ethentracksthewhol
esessi
onast hecustomerchoosesv ari
ousit
emsandcal culatest
he
totalbi
ll
.

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 Paymenti
sthenmadet
hroughacheque,
credi
tcar
dort
hroughel
ect
roni
cfundst
ransf
erandt
hei
tem
i
ssubsequent
lyshi
ppedt
othecust
omer
.

I
I)ELECTRONI CPRESENTATI ON
 Mar keti
ngagentscanusecomput erstocreat
eexci
tingpresentat
ionsconcer
ningtheproduct
sofa
businessandpr esentthem t
otheaudi
enceusingpresentati
onsoftware.
 El ectroni
cpresentat
ionsbyuseofsli
detransi
ti
onsaddv aluetotr
adit
ionalmarket
ingt
echniques
becauset heyareattr
activ
e.

I
II
)ADVERTI SI NG
 Usi ngsi mul ation,pr
esentati
onandani mati
onsof t
ware,i
tispossibletodesi
gncat chyadvert
mat eri
alsandv i
deocl i
ps.
 Suchmat er ial
scant henbedisplayedonbill
boards,br
oadcastedov eratel
evi
sionorplacedont he
i
nternet.
 Comput erscam al sobeusedi nmar ketanal
ysi
swhi chfocusesonsuchmat t
ersast heproductli
fe
cycle,salesst r
ategi
es, mar
ketshareofcompet i
torsandsalescallstr
ategi
es.
 Sal esanal y sisisusedt opr
ovideinfor
mationonwhi chproductsaresell
ingwellandwhichareselli
ng
poor l
y,whi chsal espeoplehavethebestandwor stsalesandwhi chsalespeoplearesell
i
ngt he
mostandt hel eastetc.

15.VIRTUALORARTI FICIALREALI TY
 VRorARr efer
st oacondi ti
oni nwhi chaper sonbecomespsy chol
ogicallyimmersedinanart
if
ici
al
envir
onmentgener atedbyacomput ersy stem.
 I ti
sawayf orhumanst ov i
sualize,mani pulateandinter
actwit
hcomput ersandextr
emelycomplex
data.
 Ot herter
msusedi nsteadofVRar ecy berspace,vi
rtualworl
dsandv i
rtualenvir
onment.
 Toachi evet hi
sef f
ect ,t
hef oll
owingi nteracti
vesensoryequipmentareused:
i) Headmount eddisplay/headgear .
ii
) Gloves.
ii
i) Bodysui t
.
iv) Vi
r t
ualrealit
ysof t
war e.

I
)HMD/ headgear
 Iti
smadeupoft wot i
nydisplayscreensandsoundsy st
emst hatchanneli
magesandsoundf rom t
he
sourcet otheeyesandear sthuspr esent
ingast ereo3Dsoundef f
ectinthevi
rtualworl
d.
 Itusessomesor tofhelmetv i
sororgogglestopl acesmallvi
deodisplaysi
nfrontofeacheye,wi
th
specialopticst
of ocusandst ret
cht hepercei
vedf i
eldofvi
ew.
 Aboom i sanal t
ernati
vetotheof ten–uncomf ort
ableheadgear.
 Screen,optical
andsoundsy stemsar ehousedi naboxandt heuserlooksint
ot heboxthr
oughthe
twoscr eenstoseet hevir
tualwor l
d.

I
I)GLOVES
 Thesear ewornonhandst oallowtheusert onavigat
ethrought
hevi
rt
ualworl
dandint
eractwi
th
vi
rt
ualobject
s.
 Theglov eshavesensorsthatcol
lectdataaboutthemov ementoft
hehandsandrel
aysthedat
aint
o
t
hesystem.
 Theygivet hewearerasenseoftouchi nthevi
rtualworl
d.

I
II
)BODYSUI T
 Abodysui t
,wor
nduringvi
rt
ualr
eal
it
ysessionismadeupofconductorwir
eswoundinarubbersui
t.
 Thewi r
essensethebodymovementandrelaysthedat
aint
othev
irt
ualreal
it
ysy
stem whi
chinturn
adj
ust
stheposi
ti
onoftheuseri
nthevir
tualreal
i
tyworl
d.

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 Ful
lbodysui
tswi
thposi
ti
onandbendsensor
shav
ebeenusedf
orcapt
uri
ngmot
ionf
orchar
act
er
ani
mat
ions,
cont
rol
ofmusi
csy
nthesi
zer
set
c.

I
V)VI
RTUALREALI TYSOFTWARE
 VRsoftwaresuchasbodyelectr
icgi
vesthewearerofthesensorydevi
cesanint
eract
ivev
irt
ual
sensor
yexperi
encethatmakeshim/herfeel
asifhe/sheisinarealworl
d.
 Thesoftwarei
sresponsi
bleforsi
mulat
ionofal
laspectsofthevirt
ual
reali
tywor
ld.

APPLICATI ONOFVI RTUALREALI TY

 Usedt opresentany3Dobj ectori deasthatar eei
therrealorabst r
act .
 Realobj ectsincludebui ldings, l
andscape, underwatershipwr ecks,spacecr af
ts,humananat omy ,
sculptures,crimescener econst ructi
on,solarsystem etc.
 Ahousecanbesi mul atedbef oretheactual buil
dingisphysicall
yset up–scl ientcanbeallowedt o
vir
tuallymov et hrought hehouse, pul
ldrawer sandt ouchobjectsallinacomput ergener
ated
environment .
 I nent ert
ainment ,tr
ainingi nar eassuchasmedi ci
ne, mil
it
ary,equipmentoper ations,
education,
designev aluation,prototy ping,simulati
onandassembl yofsequences, assi
stancetothephy si
cal
ly
chall
engedet c.

16.LAW ENFORCEMENTSYSTEMS
 Bi ometr
icanalysi
susingcomput er
sisbecomi ngapr eferredtooli
.e.deal
swi tht
hestudy
,
measurementandanal ysi
sofhumanbi ologicalcharact er
isti
cs.
 Bi ometr
icdevicesatt
achedtoacomput erar eusedt oi denti
fypeoplebyr ecogni
zi
ngoneormor
e
speci
fi
cat t
ri
butessuchasf i
ngerpr
int
s,voice,li
ps,facial f
eaturesl
ikeiri
scolouretc.
 Someoft hedev i
cesi
ncludevideocamerasandbi omet ricscanners.

PERSONALNOTES

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I
MPACTOFI
NFORMATI
ONTECHNOLOGYONSOCI
ETY
ISSUESRESULTI NGFROM THEUSEOFI CT
Animpacti saposi t
iveoranegati
veeffect
.ICTsect
or,
li
keanyot
hersect
orhasi
tsposi
ti
veandnegat
iveef
fect
satdi
ff
erentl
evel
sinsoci
ety
.
1. Effectsonempl oyment.
2. Effectsonautomat edproduct
ion.
3. Issuesofwor kers’heal
th.
4. Env i
ronmental i
ssues
5. Culturalef
fects.
6. BreakthroughinICT.

1. EFFECTSONEMPLOYMENT:
Theintr
oductionofcomputersi
ntheworkplacehasr
esul
tedi
nthef
oll
owi
ng:
a) Creationofnewjobs.
b) Replacementofcomput eri
l
li
ter
ateworkers.
c) Displacementofjobst
hatwereformer
lymanual.

A. JOBCREATION:
 Ithasint
roducednewemploymentopportunit
iesthatneverexi
stedbefor
e.
 Theuseofcomput er
sinfi
nanci
alinst
it
utions,reservat
ionsyst
ems,educati
onali
nsti
tut
ions,communicat
ionsetc.hascreat
ednewjobti
tl
essuchascomput
er
oper
ator
s,progr
ammers,
networkadministrat
ors,ItorISmanagers,
databaseadmini
strat
ors,sof
twar
edev el
opers,syst
em anal
yst
setc.

B. JOBREPLACEMENT:
 Thisi
sasituationwherebycer
tai
njobsdisappearinanorgani
zat
ionbutr
eappearinanot
herfor
mr equi
ri
nghi
ghski
l
ledmanpower
.
 Somecleri
cal andrepeti
ti
vet
asksthatr
equiredalargenumberofemployeeshav
ebeenmader edundant.
 Computeril
li
teratepeopl
ehavebeenrepl
acedwi ththosewhohavethedesir
edcomputerski
l
ls.

C. JOBDI SPLACEMENT:
 Anempl oyeeismov edt
oanotherplaceordepar
tmentwher
ecomputerskil
l
sar enotr
equir
ed,especi
all
ythosenotwil
l
ingt
oacquirenewskil
l
sofusingt
he
comput er
izedsyst
em.
 Toav oi
dlosingcompetentemploy
ees,mostemployer
sorgani
zei
n-ser
vicetr
aini
ngforthei
remployeesonregul
arbasi
sinordert
ohelpthem keepupwi
tht
her
api
d
changesinI CT.

2. EFFECTSONAUTOMATEDPRODUCTI ON:
 Ref erstosubst
it
uti
ngmechanical
andel ect
roni
cdevicesf
ormanualonesformoreproducti
vi
tyi
.e.t
heuseofmechanical
,el
ect
ri
cal
andel
ect
roni
cdev
icest
o
i
mpr ovethequal
it
yandspeedofofficework.
 Anumberofmanuf act
uri
ngindustr
iessuchasv ehi
cl
eassembl
yplants,oi
lref
iner
iesandfoodpr
ocessi
ngcompaniesareusi
ngcomput
erst
oautomat
ethei
r
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pr
ocesseswithanaim ofi
ncr
easi
ngproducti
on.
 Computercontr
oll
edrobot
sandassemblyli
nesareacommonf
eat
urei
nmanuf
act
uri
ngi
ndust
ri
es.

ADVANTAGESOFUSI NGAUTOMATEDPRODUCTI ON:

a) Incr
easedef ficiencyduet othebalanci
ngofworkloadandpr oductioncapaci
ty.
b) Improv edcust omerser v
icebecauseofadequat
eandhi ghquali
tygoods
c) Fasterwhichar epr oducedi nti
me.
d) Effi
cientutil
i
zat ionofr esourcessuchasrawmat eri
als,per
sonnel andequipmenthence
e) Lessoper ati
ngex pensesincurr
ed.
f) Helpedi nreduct ionofacci dent
sinsector
sli
kemi ningandchemi calproduct
ionwheremuchwor
kispot
ent
ial
l
yhazar
dous.

DI
SADVANTAGES:
a) Highiniti
alcostofsett
ingupanautomatedsystem.
b) Mayl eadt ounemploymentinsomeareasthatarelabouri
ntensi
ve.
c) Possiblelackofcompat i
bil
i
tywit
hsoft
wareandhar dware.
d) Overreli
anceonaut omatedsyst
emsleadstolaziness.
e) Resistancetochange.

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REASONSWHYEMPLOYEESMAYRESI STAUTOMATEDSYSTEMS
a) Fearofchange:peopl
ear ecreat
uresofhabit
sandhencear eaf r
aidofchange.
b) Fearofl
oosingtheirj
obs:peopleusuall
yassociatethecomputerwit
hlossofjobsandhencetheywi l
lbeaf r
aidthatt
heymi ghtenduploosingthei
rjobs.
c) Fearoffai
lur
e:sincet
hecomput erisverynewinagi venworki
ngenv i
ronment,t
hepeoplewi
llbeaf r
aidthattheymightnev eradapttoi
t.
d) Lossofcontrol
:themanagementwi llbeafr
aidthatonceacomput erisimpl
ementedtheymightlosecontroloftheorganization.
e) Lackofunderst
anding:theusermaynotunder standthebenef
itsofthecomputersyst
em i
ntheirjobs;hencethiswil
lcreateresist
ancesincethecomputerwi
l
lbe
l
ookeduponasani nt
ruder.

3. I
SUESOFWORKERSHEALTH
 Someoft henegativeeffectsofICTonourheal
thi
ncl
ude:
a) Repeti
tiveStr
ainInjuri
es( RSI)
b) EyeStrainandHeadaches.
c) El
ectromagnet i
cemi ssions.
d) Str
ess.
e) I
solati
on.
f) Radiati
onandv isualdisplayunit
.
g) Comput erchiptoxin.

A. RSI–REPETITI
VESTRAI
NI NJURI
ES
 Injur
iesr
esul
ti
ngfr
om wr
ist
,hand,
arm andmuscl
est
rai
n,neckst
rai
nsduet
ofor
cedr
epet
it
ivemov
emente.
g.whenent
eri
ngdat
ausi
ngkey
boar
d.

RemedyforRSI:
i
) Resting.
i
i) Si
tt
inginarel
axedposi
ti
on.
i
ii
)Changi ngt
ypi
ngtechni
ques.

B. EYESTRAI NANDHEADACHES:
 Sincecomput eruser
shavethei
reyesatcl
oser
angewi
tht
hemoni
tor
,ther
eisdangerofdev
elopi
ngcomput
erv
isi
onsy
ndr
ome(
CVS)
.
 Thesy ndromeischaract
eri
zedby:
i
) Eyestrai
n.
i
i) Headaches.
i
ii
) Doublevisi
on.
i
v) Fati
gue.

Remedi
es:
i
) Usemoni torswi t
hgoodr esol
ution.
i
i) Fitmonitorswi t
hant i
glar
escreensthatfil
ter
sexcessli
ght.
i
ii
) Adjustthebrightnessofthescreentot heint
ensi
tythati
scomf
ort
abl
etot
heey
es.
i
v) Usef l
atpanel screensthatdonotemi tsomanyr adi
ati
ons.
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v
) Usegoodov erheadfl
uorescencetubes.
v
i) Avoi
df l
i
ckeringmonitorsandlight
ingsyst
ems.
v
ii
) Haveinter
ludesofrests.
v
ii
i) Ti
ltt
hemoni torstoaconv eni
entposit
ion.

C. ELECTROMAGNETICEMMISI
ONS:
 Thesear ewav
esofel
ect
ri
cal
andmagnet
icener
gythatar
eemitt
edbycur
rentcar
ryi
ngconductor
s.
 User sar
eadvi
sedt
ouselowemi
ssi
ondevi
cesinor
dertoavoi
dexposi
ngthemsel
vestoexcessemissi
ons.

D. STRESS:
 Ment alstr
essi
sanot
hercompl
iant.
 Manypeopl ewhoworkatcomputerfeel
thattheyar
eexpect
edtoproducemor
eanddoi
tfast
erbecausecomput
erst
hemsel
vesar
efast
.
 Alsot hosebei
ngmoni
tor
edbycomput ersfr
equentl
yfeel
addi
ti
onal
pressur
e.

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E. ISOLATION:
 Peopl ecanconductbusinessandcommuni cati
onwi
thoutev
ercomingfacet
oface.
 Comput eroper
ator
scanwor kanent i
reshif
t,taki
ngt
heiri
nst
ruct
ionsf
rom acomput
erscr
een,
sendi
ngandr
ecei
vi
ngmemost
oeachot
herel
ect
roni
cal
l
ywi
thout
engaginginper
sonalconversat
ion.
 Thesepeopl efeeli
sol
atedf r
om otherworkers.

F. RADI
ATIONANDVI SUALDISPLAYUNI
T:
 Therehavebeenr
eport
sthatVDUemit
sradi
ati
onst
hatcausebi
rt
hdef
ect
s,bl
i
ndness,
cancer
,mi
scar
ri
ages,
ster
il
it
yet
c.

G. COMPUTERCHI PTOXIN:
 Wor ker
sincomput
erchipmanuf
act
uri
ngi
ndust
ri
esar
eexposedt
otoxi
cchemi
cal
sthatmayposeheal
thf
act
orssi
mil
art
othosef
ear
edf
rom VDU.

ERGONOMICS:
 Thescienceofdesigni
ngt heworkplacef
orthecomf or
tandsaf
etyoft
heworker
.
 Iti
sthestudyofhowl i
vingandwor ki
ngcondit
ionscanbeadapt
edtothei
nfor
mationtechnol
ogy.
 Theneedf orbet
terworkingenvi
ronmenthasresult
edtodesi
gni
ngofspeci
alf
urni
turetoprev
entbackaches,
andspeci
almoni
tor
stopr
eventey
est
rai
net
c.

4. ENVI RONMENTALI SSUES:

i
) Energyconsumpt i
onandradiat
ion:
I
nit
ial
ly,comput ersconsumedal otofenergytherebygenerati
ngal otofheatandemitti
ngelect
romagneti
cr adi
ati
onswhichar eharmfultotheuser.
Remedy :
 El ectronicdeviceshav etobeenergystarcompl i
antlaunchedbyt heEnvir
onmentalProt
ecti
onAgency(EPA)t oencouragemi ni
mal useofpowerbyelect
ronic
devices.
i
i) Env i
ronment ali
ssues:
 Hugegar bagedumpsofdeadcomput erparts,pri
nters,
inktonercart
ri
dges,monitor
sandot hercomputeraccessor
iesaredisposedinlandfi
ll
shencecausing
environment alpoll
ution.
 Ther ehasbeenconcer nonthedisposalofNi ckel
-cadmium laptopbatt
eri
esthatcontai
ntoxiccadmi
um whi chwhenbur i
edinalandfil
lcanleakint
ounderground
wat ertablesandcat chmentareas.

5. CULTURALEFFECTS
i
)Moraleffect
s:
 Ther apidgrowt
hofICTalsopresent
schallengestoourmor alandcultur
alvalues.
 ICThaschangedt hewaywet alk,
aff
ectedourpr i
vacy,
humanr ight
sandi ntegri
ty.
 Humansar eexposedt
oflamingi.
e.wri
tingon-li
nemessagest hatusederogatory,obsceneordi
rt
ylanguage.
 Onecanaccessandv i
ewpornographi
cmat er
ial
sthatcanleadtomor aldecadence.
 Thef reefl
owofimmor al
inf
ormationhasnegat i
vel
yinfl
uencedthebehav i
orofbot hyoungandoldinthesoci
ety
.

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 Tosomeextend,peopl
ewitherodedint
egr
it
yhaveusedcomputersasatoolt
oaccompli
sht
heirvicese.
g.f
orgi
ngcer
ti
fi
cat
es,
passpor
tsandot
herdocument
s.
Thi
smeanst hatt
hepersonischeat
ingandther
efor
ehis/
hermorali
ntegr
it
yhasbeencompr
omi sed.
 Onthecont
rary,I
CThasbeenusedasacampai gnplat
for
m agai
nstdi
seasesl
ikeAI
DSanddrugabuse.

i
i)Computercr
imes:
 Thisistheuseofcomput
ersof
twar
ef oril
l
egalpur
pose.
 Comput err
elat
edcri
messuchashacking,eav
esdr
opping,
pir
acyar
eont
hei
ncr
ease.

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TYPESOFCOMPUTERCRI MES
a) Dat amani pulat i
on:Ref erstoalteri
ngdat athatent erorexi tacomput ere. g.changi ngdat aonacer t
ifi
cate.
b) Timebomb:Thi sist hecodingofacomput erpr ogram t odest r
oyitselfafterithasbeenr unacertai
nnumberoft i
mes.
c) Comput ervir
us:Apr ogram enteredintoacomput erwi ththeaim ofdest r
oy i
ngoral teri
ngdataandspr eadingthedestructi
ontoothercomputer
sonanet wor
k.
d) Trapdoor :Cr eatingofaspeci alpasswor dthatgi vesi t
scr eatorasol eaccesst othesy stem.
e) Dat asteali
ng:Usi ngacomput ertost eali
nformat iont hathasbeengat heredf orsomeoneel seforil
legi
timatepurpose.
f) Eav esdropping:Tappi ngwi t
houtaut hori
zationintocommuni cationlinesov erwhi chcomput erdataandmessagesar esent .
g) Industri
alespi onage:Usi ngcomput ertost ealdesi gns,mar keti
ngpl ansorot hertradesecr etsfr
om onecompanyandsel l
ingthem t
oanothercompany.
h) Piracy:Thisismaki ngunauthorizedcopiesofcopy ri
ght edcomput ersof tware.
i
) Fr aud:Thi sist heuseofcomput erstocheatot herpeopl ewit
ht heintentionofgai ni ngmoneyori nformation.
j
) Sabot age:Thi sist heill
egaldestructionofdat aandi nformationwitht heai m ofcausi nggreatl
osstoanor gani
zati
on.
k) Logi cbomb:I ti sapr ogram thatisexecut edwhenacer tai
nsetofcondi ti
oni smadee. g.afi
redempl oyeecanloadal ogicbombt oacomputertodest
roywhen
recordsar eupdat edinadat abase.

BREAKTHROUGHSI NICT:
Ther
ehav ebeenal otofbreakt
hroughsinthefi
eldsof
:
 Heal thcare.
 Educat i
on.
 Communi cati
on–f ax,e-mai
l,i
nter
net.
 Resear ch.
 Commer ce–shi ppi
ngi mport
sandexpor t
s.
 Ar tanddesi gn.
 Ent ert
ainment–musi c,vi
deo,games.
 Tr ansport.

EVOLUTIONOFCOMPUTERSYSTEMS:
Fut
uretrendsinICTwillbechar
acteri
zedby:
1. Rapidevoluti
onincomputerhardwareandsof
twar
e.
2. Art
ifi
cial
intel
li
gence.
3. Expandedinformati
onsuperhi
ghway .

1. RAPIDEVOLUTI ONINCOMPUTERHARDWAREANDSOFTWARE
 Al otoft echnologi
cali
mpr ovementshav ebeenmadebot hinhardwareandsof twar
esincethei ntr
oductionofcomputers.
 Comput erswillbemor eintel
l
igent,
comput er
swill
beabletolearnintheirenvir
onment,understandhumanv oi
ce,r
espondetc.
 Sof twarewi l
lbemor ev er
sati
leandeasiertouse.
 Thesi li
conr evolut
ionhasseenr api
dincreaseinmicr
oprocessorspeedsandcapabi l
it
iesduet oadv ancedresear
chinthesemi-conductori
ndust
ry.
 Fut uretrendswi l
lseereducti
oninsizeandcostofcomponent sbutincreaseincapabi
lit
y.
 Impr ovement sininput
, pr
ocessing,st
orage,out
putandcommuni cati
ondev iceshavel
edt ofaster,cheaperandmor er
eliabl
edataprocessi
ngdevices.
 Indust r
ieswillbecomemor eautomated.

42
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 Mi
cropr
ocessor
sofat
humb’
ssi
zecannowexecut
einst
ruct
ionsi
nat
ri
ll
i
ont
hofasecondhencel
eadi
ngt
oemer
genceofsmal
l
erbutsmar
tdev
ices.

2. ARTIFICIALINTELLIGENCE( A. I.
):
 Abr anchofcomput ersci
encet hati sconcernedwit
ht hedevelopmentofmachi nest hatemulat
e/copy/
mimichumanli
kequal
it
iessuchaslearni
ng,
reasoni
ng,
communi cati
ng,seeingandhear ing.
 Thei deaofAIdev elopedfrom aneedt odev el
opcomput erpr
ogr amst hatwoul
dev enchallengehumanbeingsi
nplay
inggamessuchaschessandscr abbl
e.
 Comput ersci
enti
stsandengi neer saresti
llworki
nghar dandcar ry
ingoutint
ensiveresearchwiththeai
m ofcomi
ngupwithsmattercomputer
swhichcanalmost
si
mulatehumant hi
nkingandl earning,i
nsteadofrel
yingonst ati
cpr ogrammedinstructi
ons.
 Therear e4mai nappl i
cat
ionar easofAInamel y:

a) Expertsy st ems.
b) Naturallanguagepr ocessing.
c) Voicerecogni t
ion.
d) Voicesy nt hesi s.
e) Comput erv ision
f) Art
ifi
cialneur al networ
ks.
g) Robotics/ per ceptionsystems

A. EXPERTSYSTEMS:
 Thisissoft
warethatisdesi
gnedtomakeacomput eroperat
eatthel
evel
ofahumanexper
tinaspeci
fi
cnar
rowareaofspecial
izat
ion.
 Suchsoftwaresi
mul at
es/i
mitat
esthereasoni
ngprocessofexper
tsi
ncer
tai
nwel
ldef
inedar
eassuchasmedical
diagnosi
s,f
inanci
al f
orecast
ing,
mai
ntai
ningl
ocomoti
v es,l
ocati
ngmineral
deposit
setc.

COMPONENTSOFANEXPERTSYSTEM:
i
)Knowl
edgebase:
Thi
sist
hedat
abase/st
oreofknowl
edgeaboutapar
ti
cul
arsubj
ect
.Itcont
ainsr
elev
antf
act
s,bel
i
eves,
assumpt
ionsandpr
ocedur
esf
orsol
vi
ngapar
ti
cul
arpr
obl
em.

i
i)Inf
erenceengi
ne:
ThisisSoft
waret
hatcont
rol
sthesear
chforknowl
edgei
ntheknowl
edgebaseandpr
oducesconcl
usi
ons.I
ttakest
hepr
obl
em posed/
giv
enbyt
heuserandseekst
o
analy
zeitinor
dertoar
ri
veataconcl
usi
on.

i
ii
) Useri nter
face;
Thi
sisthedispl
ayscreent hatenablest
heusertointer
actwiththesy st
em.
EXAMPLESOFEXPERTSYSTEMS:
i
)MYCI N:usedf
ordiagnosi sofbloodandtr
eatmentofbacteriali
nfecti
ons.
i
i)DELTA:formaint
aininglocomot i
ves.
i
ii
)MUDMAN: pr
edict
ingmi neraldeposi
tsi
ngeologicalexpl
orati
onbyanal y
zingcomposi
ti
onofsoi
lsampl
es.
43
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i
v)STEAMER:tr
aini
ngboi
lerr
oom t
echnici
ansint
henav
y.
v
)R-1:desi
gni
ngcomputersy
stemsforcustomer
s.

ADVANTAGESOFEXPERTSYSTEMS:
1.Theycanperform somet asksmuchf asterthanahumanbei ng.
2.Theycaneasilyident
if
yfaultsi
nequipment .
3.Thecomputercanst oremuchmor ei
nformat ionthanahuman.
4.Thesystem givesimpart
ialandconsi
stentr ecommendations.
5.Thecomputerdoesnot‘ forget
’ormakemi stakes.
6.Datacanbekeptupt odat e.
7.Alwaysavai
lable24hoursadayandwi ll
nev erreti
re.
8.Thesystem canbeusedatadi st
anceov eranet work.

DISADVANTAGESOFEXPERTSYSTEMS:
1.Theycanmakemi stakesandfai
ltol
earnf
rom them.
2.Theyworkbestwhent heprobl
em i
sspeci
fi
candwel ldefinedhencecompl
exandcost
lyt
odesi
gn.
3.Theylackhumantouchi.e.t
heycan’
tbequest
ionedfurther.
4.Heavyuseofthem canmakehumanexper t
slosethei
rjobs.

B.NATURALLANGUAGEPROCESSI NG:
 Ai medatcomi ngupwi thpr ogr ammi ngl anguagest hatwoul dmakecomput ersrecognizeandunderstandnatural
languages, whet
herspokenorwr
it
ten.
 Cur rentl
y,therearev oicer ecogni t
ioni nputdev i
cesandv oicesynthesizer
sar eavail
ablebutlimit
edtojustafewv ocabul
aries.
 Bef oreusingt hem, thecomput erprogr am mustbet r
ainedt orecognizethev oiceandthepr onunci
ati
onofwor dsbytheuser .
C.VOICERECOGNI TI
ON:
 Thi sisasy stem thatwi llall
owv oiceinput .
 Theuseri nputsdat abyspeaki ngi ntoami cr
ophone.
 Af ewsy st
emscantsat i
sf actoryperfor mt hi
st askbecauseof :
-
i
)Wor dswi thsimilarsounds.
i
i)Differ
entpeoplepr onouncesamewor dsdifferently.
i
ii
)Onewor dhasmul ti
plemeani ngs.
i
v)Backgr oundnoi seet c.
 Comput ersthatcanr ecogni zeandpr operlyreadhumanv oicewil
l makeinformat i
onsystemsandot hercomput er
izedapplicati
onsaccessi
blet
opeopl
ewho
can’tenterdataint henor mal wayi .
e.bl i
nd,handi cappedet c.

D. VOI
CESYNTHESIS:
 Thesear
emachinesthatar
eabl
etocr
eat
ehumanv
oiceort
alke.
g.acomput
eri
zedbankt
ell
ergi
vi
ngy
ouy
ouraccountbal
ancei
nhumanl
i
kev
oice.

E. COMPUTERVI SI
ON:
 Scient
istshopet
odevel
opcomputer
sthatwil
lpr
ocessandinterpr
etl
ightwavesjustast
hehumanbraindoes.
 Suchsy stemswoul
dusescanni
ngdevi
cestosenseandint
erpretobj
ects,
graphi
csandtextchar
act
ershapes.

44
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 I
twi
l
lal
l
owacomput
ert
oseeashumansdo,
readandi
nter
prett
exti
nal
mostanyf
ormat
.

F. ARTFIFICIALNEURALNETWORKS:
 Theuseofel ectronicdevicesandsof t
war etoemul atetheneurol
ogicalstr
uctureofthehumanbrai
n.
 Thehumanbr ainwor ksbyr eceivi
ngsi gnalsfrom specialsensorycellscal
ledneurons.
 Whent heneur onsreceiv
ei nformat i
on, t
heyeitherexcit
ethecelltosendasi gnaltothebr
ainornot
.
 Ar t
if
ici
al neurodesinarti
ficialnetwor kswor kinsi mi
larmannerbyper ceivi
ngenv i
ronment
alsti
muli
andhencedeci
dingwhet
hert
opassi
tont
othesy
stem or
not
.
 Theessent i
alattr
ibutesofanar t
ifi
cial neuralnetworksare:
i
)Theneur odescanbet rainedt odistinguishbet weenwhatconst i
tutesasignalandwhatdoesnot.

i
i)Theyarecapabl
eofrecogni
zi
ngpat
ter
nsi
nlar
geamount
sofdat
athatar
etoocompl
exf
ort
hehumanbr
ain.Fr
om t
hesepat
ter
ns,
theycanmakepr
edi
cti
ons
andpointoutanomal
i
es.

EXAMPLE:
Inbanki
ng,t
hepatt
ernofcredi
tcar
dusagecanbet
rackedovert
imetot
ryandgener
ali
zespendingpatt
ernsofindiv
idualcar
downer
s.Incaseoflossortheft
,the
bankcannoti
cethechangeofspendi
ngpat
ter
nandconcludet
hatt
hecardi
sinthewronghands,hencetakeappropri
atesecur
it
ymeasuresevenbeforelossofthe
cardisr
eport
ed.

G. ROBOTI CS/ PERCEPTI ONSYSTEMS:

 Ar oboti sacomput ercontroll
eddev i
cethatemul atesahumanbei ngi
ncar
ryi
ngoutt
askst
hatwouldot
herwisebedanger
ousanddi
ff
icul
t.
 Per ceptionsy st
emsar esensingdev i
cesthatemul atethe5commonsenseofahumanbeingi
.e.si
ght
,hear
ing,t
ouch,smel
landt
ast
e.
 Suchdev i
ceswoul doper at
eundert hecont rolofami cr
oprocessor
.
 Thi sdev elopmentwoul dgiver obotsart
ifi
cialsensesincludi
ng:
i
)Feelingt heshapeofanobj ect.
i
i)List
eni ngtoultr
asound.
i
ii
)Det ectingsmellofleakinggas/ chemicals.
i
v)Test i
ngqual i
tyoff ood.
v)Seeingusi ngtwomi ni
aturev i
deocamer as.

ADVANTAGESOFROBOTS
1. Theycanwor k24/7al lyearroundwit
houtget t
ingboredort
akingabreak.
2. Theycanwor kfasterthanhuman.
3. Product
ivi
tyisveryhigh.
4. Theoutputisofaconsi stentl
yhighqual
ity.
5. Theycanwor ktogr eatdegreesofaccuracythanhumanwor kers.
6. Theycanwor ki
ncondi t
ionsthatwouldappearhostil
eordangeroust
ohumans.

DI
SADVANTAGESOFROBOTS:
1. Theyareexpensi
vetobuil
d,i
nst
all
andmai ntai
n.
2. Notfl
exibl
eastheyaredesi
gnedtodoonej ob.
3. Therobotmaymal f
unct
ionandcausealotofchaosorabat
choff
aul
tygoods.
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4. Theytakeupthej
obofmanypeopl
e,l
eadi
ngtobei
ngsacked.
5. Evi
lpeoplemayuser
obot
sinwartomanipul
atebi
ologi
cal
mater
ial
.

THELAWSOFROBOTI CS:
1. Arobotmustnoti
njureahumanbeingor,thr
oughinacti
on,al
lowahumanbei ngtocomet oharm.
2. Arobotmustal
way sobeyor
der
sgiventoitbyahumanbei ng, exceptwher
eitwouldconf l
i
ctwit
hthe1stl
aw.
st nd
3. Arobotmustprot
ectit
sownexist
ence,exceptwhereitwouldconf l
i
ctwit
hthe1 and2 l aw.

EXPANDEDI NFORMATI ONSUPERHIGHWAY

 Invol
vesthei ntegrati
onofcabl
edandwi rel
esst
echnologi
esf orthepurposeofdataandinformati
ontransmission.
 Thereisv astincreaseint
hroughputofvari
oustr
ansmissi
onmedi ali
kefiberopt
icandwir
elesstechnologi
es.
 Scienti
stshav edemonst r
atedafiberopt
iccabl
ewhosedi amet eri
sthesizeofasingl
estrandofhairwhichiscapableofcarr
yingatri
l
li
onbitpersecond.
 Inter
netisgrowi ngtremendousl
ycausingwhatisgeneral
l
yr eferr
edtoasagr owthoftheinfor
mationsuperhighwaytodi
gital
explosi
onorhurri
cane.

46
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CAREEROPPORTUNI
TIESI
NINFORMATI
ONCOMMUNI
CATI
ON
TECHNOLOGY(I
CT)
I
CThascr
eat
ednewj
obt
it
les.Someoft
hecomput
ercar
eeroppor
tuni
ti
esi
ncl
ude:

1.SYSTEM ANALYST:
Responsi
blef
oranal
yzi
ngacompany
’sneedsorpr
obl
emst
hendesi
gnanddev
elopacomput
erbasedi
nfor
mat
ionsy
stem.

QUALITI
ESOFAGOODSYSTEM ANALYST:
a) Shoul
dhavegoodpr oblem sol
vi
ngskill
sandcr eati
vi
tyi.
e.musthav ewi deexper i
encei nsolv
ingproblems.
b) Shoul
dhavegoodcommuni cati
onskil
lsi.e.beabl etocommuni cateclearlyandpr ecisel
ytodif
ferentgroups.
c) MUSThavebusinessknowl edgei.
e.under standt heenvir
onmentf orwhi cht hesystem isbei
ngdev el
oped.
d) Musthav
etechnicalknowledgei.
e.welltrainedi nrelev
antareasofcomput ersci
ence.
e) Musthav
egeneral knowledgeofthefir
mi ncl udingit
sgoalsandobj ectives.
f) Shoul
dhaveknowledgeofdat aprocessingmet hodsandcurr enthardwar eandf ami l
i
ar i
tywi
thavail
ableprogr
ammi
ngl
anguage.

DUTIESOFASYSTEM ANALYST:
a) Gather,recordandanal yzef actsofthesystem.
b) Designnewsy st
em andr ecommendchangest oexisti
ngsyst
ems.
c) Prepareinstructionmanual s.
d) Co-ordinatestraini
ngforuser sofnewsy stems.
e) Wor kwi t
hpr ogrammer stoconst ructandtestt
hesy st
em.
f) Preparessy stem speci
fications.
g) Co-ordinatesthei mpl
ement ati
onofnewormodi fi
edsy st
em.

2.CHI
EFPROGRAMMER/ PROGRAMMI NGMANAGER:
Repor
tst
odat
aprocessi
ngmanagerwhathasbeenr
epor
tedbypr
ogr
ammi
nggr
oup,
juni
orandseni
orpr
ogr
ammer
s.

DUTI
ESOFCHIEFPROGRAMMERS;
a) Managi
ngt
hepr
ogr
ammers.

47
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b) Li
aisingwiththesy st
em analyst.
c) Reviewandcont rolprogram documentati
on.
d) Reviewsprogram’ sperformance.
e) Ensuresthatallprogramsar ewellt
estedbeforeputi
ntouse.
f) Reviewingall
thesy stem speci
ficat
ionsbefor
ehandovertopr
ogr
ammer
s.

3.COMPUTERPROGRAMMERS:
Thesearepeopl
ewhosewor kentail
scodingi .
e.formulat
ingi
nstr
ucti
onsf
ort
hecomput
ert
osol
vegi
venprobl
ems.
QUALITIESOFPROGRAMMERS:
a) Goodcommandofpr ogr
ammi nglanguagei nuse.
b) Knowledgeofgeneralpr
ogrammingmet hodologyandrel
ati
onshi
pbet
weenpr
ogr
amsandhar
dware.
c) Creati
vi
tyf
ordevelopi
ngnewpr oblem solvi
ngmet hods.
d) Pati
enceandpersi
stence.

DUTIESOFPROGRAMMERS:
a) Codingcomput erprogr
am usingappropr
iatepr
ogr
ammi nglanguage.
b) Testi
ngofpr ogramsforlogi
calerror
s,sy
ntaxandsemanti
cer r
ors.
c) Debuggingofpr ogr
ams.
d) Document i
ngpr ogr
amsi .
e.writ
ingmanuals.
e) Designi
ngandi mplementingprograms.
f) Maintai
ningandr ev
iewingexi
stingcomputerpr
ograms.

4.DATABASEADMI NI
STRATOR:
Apersonresponsi
blef
orthedesignandimplementat
ionofthedatabase.
Themajorpurposeofcomputer
izinganorgani
zat
ionorinst
itut
ioni
stostoredat
ainanor
gani
zedwayf
oreasyaccess,
ret
ri
eval
andupdat
e.

DUTIES:
a) Responsibl
eforthedesi
gnandcont roloforgani
zati
ondat abase.
b) Control
sandmoni tor
sdatabaseusaget hr
oughassi gnmentofuserpasswor ds.
c) Keepingthedatabaseup-
to-dat
ebyaddi ngnewr ecords,
ordel et
ingunnecessar
yrecor
ds.
d) Establi
shi
ngtheappropri
atecontentandformatofdat arecords.

5.SOFTWAREENGINEER:
Personski
l
ledi
nsof
twar
edev
elopmentandt
echni
cal
oper
ati
onofcomput
erhar
dwar
e.

DUTIES:
a)Devel
opingsyst
em andappli
cati
onsoftware.
b)Devel
opinguserandtechni
caldocumentat
ionfort
henewsoft
ware.
c)Maint
aini
ngandupdat i
ngthesoft
waretomeetday -
to-
dayr
equi
rement
s.

6.COMPUTERENGI
NEER:

48
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Speci
ali
zedper
sonnel
whosedut
iesar
etoassembl
ethecomput
ersy
stems.

DUTIES:
a) Designanddevelopcomputercomponentse.g.motherboards,stor
agedev i
ceset
c.
b) Designanddevelopengi
neeri
ngandmanuf actur
ingcomput ercontrol
l
eddev i
cessuchasrobot
s.
c) Re-engi
neercomputercomponentstoenhanceitsfuncti
onali
tyandeffici
ency.
7.WEBDESI GNERS:
Theydesignwebsit
eusingvar
ioussoft
waretools.Thesewebscont ai
npageswher ei
ndiv
idual
sandor
gani
zat
ionscanadv
ert
iset
hemsel
veswhenpr
omot
ingt
he
product
s.

8.WEBADMI NISTRATORS:
Theyadmi
nist
ratetheor
gani
zat
ion’
swebsi
tesbymaki
ngsur
ethewebsi
tei
supdat
edper
iodi
cal
l
ytogi
vet
her
ighti
nfor
mat
ion.

DUTIES:
a)Devel
opingandt esti
ngwebsit
es.
b)Monit
oringtheaccessanduseofi nt
ernetconnecti
onbyenforcingsecur
itymeasur
ers.
c)Downloadinginfor
mat i
onneededbyanor gani
zati
onfrom i
nternetwebsi
te.
d)Maint
aining,updati
ngandmodi f
yinginformati
onont hewebsite.
9.COMPUTEROPERATOR:
Thi
sisaper sonwhoi nter
facest
heuserdemandst othecomput erhardwar
ebyuseofasetofspeci
ali
nst
ruct
ionsknownascommands.

DUTIES:
a)Enteri
ngdataintothecomput erforprocessing.
b)Keepingup-t
o-daterecordsofallinfor
mat i
onprocessingact
ivi
ti
es.
c)Responsibl
eforthegener alequi
pmentl ayoutwithi
nthecomputerroom.
d)Activ
atingt
hecomput ertoobeypr ogr
amst hroughuseofcommands.
e)Mount i
ngthestoragemedi ae.g.disktotheirdr
ives.

10.COMPUTERTECHNI CIAN:
Thesearemembersofthetechni
calst
affwhosej obist
oserv
iceandrepai
rcomputers.
Giv
enthatcomput
ersrequirer
egul
armaintenance,upgr
adi
ngaswellasemergencyrepai
rs,
demandf
orcomput
ert
echni
cianscont
inuest
ogr
owasmor
epeopl
e
computeri
zet
hei
rworkplacesandhomes.

DUTIES:
a) Troubl
eshoot i
ngcomput erhardwareandsoftwarerel
atedprobl
ems.
b) Ensuri
ngt hatal
lcomputerrelatedaccessor
iessuchasprint
ers,stor
agemediaetcar
eingoodcondi
ti
on.
c) Assemblingandupgr adi
ngcomput ersandt
heircomponents.
d) Helphardwar eengi
neersindesi gni
ngandcreati
ngsomecomput ercomponent
ssuchasstor
agedevi
ces,
mot
her
boar
dset
c.

11.DATAPROCESSINGMANAGER:
Thi
sistheper
soni
nthedat
apr
ocessi
ngdepar
tmentwi
thi
ntheor
gani
zat
ionwhosemaj
ordut
yist
oensur
ethatt
heor
gani
zat
ion’
sneedsar
emet
.

49
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DUTIESANDRESPONSI BILI
TI ES:
a) I
nchar geofdataandinformationflowwi thi
nthedepar
tment
.
b) Responsibl
eindatacoll
ect i
onandpr eparati
on.
c) Purchaseofhardwareandot herfacil
it
iesandthei
rmanagement
.
d) Softwaredevel
opmentandmai ntenance.
e) Assessmentandev al
uationofstaffper f
ormance.

12.INFORMATI ONSYSTEM MANAGER:

Thispersoncontr
ols,
plans,
staf
fs,schedul
esandmonitor
sal l
theacti
vit
iesoft
heICTdepart
menti
ntheorgani
zat
ion.Usi
ngcomput
eri
zedmanagementi
nfor
mat
ion
system (
MIS),t
hemanagercant esttheimpactt
hatanalt
ernati
vecourseofact
ionmighthav
eonbusi
ness.

RESPONSI BILITI
ES:
a) Makingsur ethatal
ltasksintheITdepar t
mentar edonecor
rect
lyandont
ime.
b) Prepari
ngbudget sforthedepart
ment s.
c) Keepingt hedepart
mentinventor
yr ecordsup-
to-date.
d) Managi ngthehumanr esourcewithinthedepart
ment .

13.COMPUTERTRAI NER:
Speci
ali
zedper
sonneli
nthef
iel
dofcomput
ingandwel
lconv
ersantwi
thv
ari
ousdi
sci
pli
nesandcomput
err
elat
edi
ssueswhi
cht
heycanexecut
ewi
thease.

RESPONSI BILITIES:
a) Trai
ningpeopl eonhowt ousecomput ersandv ar
iousappl
icat
ionpr
ograms.
b) Developi
ngt rainingref
erencemateri
als.
c) Guidelearner sonhowt oacquireknowledgethroughcarr
yingoutr
esearch.
d) Advisi
ngt hel ear
nersont hebestcar
eeropportunit
iesi
nthebroadfi
eldofICT.
e) Prepari
ngl earnersforICTexaminati
ons.

14.NETWORKADMI NISTRATOR:
a) Speci
ali
stwhoov
erseesthesmoot
hrunni
ngofnet
wor
ksy
stem i
nanor
gani
zat
ion.

RESPONSIBILI
TIES:
a)Set
upcomput ernetwork.
b)Maint
ainandenforcesecuri
tymeasur
esonnetwork.
c)Monit
ortheuseofnet workr
esour
ces.
d)Maint
ainandtroubl
eshootnetwor
krel
atedpr
oblems.

15.COMPUTERTYPESETTERS:
Graphi
cdesi
gner
sandt
ypeset
ter
sar
erequi
redi
nor
dert
odesi
gngr
aphi
cal
obj
ect
sandpr
ofessi
onal
publ
i
cat
ionse.
g.books,
newspaper
sandmagazi
nes.

16.LI
BRARI AN:
Responsi
bleforkeepi
ngt
hef
il
esi
nvar
iousst
oragedev
icesandf
ort
hephy
sical
secur
it
yoft
hest
oragemedi
a.

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DUTIES:
a) Ensur
esthatt
hereareenoughphy si
calf
il
esav ai
l
ableforuse.
b) Maint
ainst
heexter
nal fi
l
eslabels.
c) Ensur
esdupli
cat
esfilesarekept.
d) Ensur
esaccessoffi
lesisrestr
ictedtoauthor
izedpersons.

17.SELFEMPLOYMENT:
Thi
scanbeachiev
edbyusi
ngacomputerorot
herICTdev
icessuchasmobi
l
ephonest
ost
artbur
eauser
vices,
int
ernetser
vices,
consul
tancyser
vicesand
computerhar
dwar
eandsof
twar
evendorbusi
ness.

18.COMPUTERSALESREPRESENTATIVES:
Shoul
dhavegoodknowl
edgei
ninfor
mati
onandscommunicati
ontechnol
ogy .Thi
swouldhel
pthem toanal
yzecust
omerneedsandadv
icet
hem accor
dingl
y.A
goodcomput
ersal
esmanneedstobesel
fconf
ident
,per
suasi
veandprofi
cientinbusi
nesscommunicati
on.

FURTHEREDUCATI ONALOPPORTUNI TIESINI CT

Thereareothert er
tiaryinst i
tutionsincomput ingwher eonewouldf urt
herhisorhereducat
ional
ambi
ti
ons.Theyi
ncl
ude:
1.Univ
ersiti
es.
2.Poly
technics.
3.Middlelevelcol l
eges.
1.UNIVERSI TIES:
 Consi deredast hehi ghesti nsti
tut
ioni nfor maleducati
on.
 Theyar ecat egor izedint ot womaj orgroupsi .
e.publi
candprivateuniver
sit
ies.
a)Publi
cUni ver sit
ies:
 Est abli
shedbyt hest ate.
 Runbyast ateappoi nt edmanagement .
 Admi ssi
ont osuchuni v ersiti
esiscont rol
ledbyei thert
hestateorar ecogni
zedbody.
Examples:
i. JomoKeny attauni v ersit
yofAgr i
cul t
ureandt echnology
.
ii
. Keny att aUni versit
y .
ii
i.Nai r
obi University.
iv.MasenoUni versity.
v. Moi Uni ver
si t
y.
vi.Eger tonUni versity
.
vii
.Masi ndeMul ir
oUni versityofScienceandTechnol ogy.

b)Pr
ivat
eUniv er
sit
ies:
 Self-
sponsoredinsti
tuti
onssetupbyindiv
idual
s,churchesoranyotherorganizat
ion.
 Theyarepr iv
atelyr
un.
 Students’enrol
mentdependsonwhet herthestudentiscapabl
eofsponsor i
nghimself/
hersel
f.
 Forthem tooper at
e,theymustberegi
steredoraccredit
edbythecommi ssionofhighereducat
ionoranyot
herqual
i
tyassur
ancebodyt
hati
srecogni
zed
worl
dwide.
51
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 Accr edi
tationleadst opublicacceptanceandconf
ir
mat
ionev
idencedbyt
hegr
antofchar
ter
sbyt
hest
ateoraccr
edi
ti
ngbodi
es.
Examples:
i
. Day starUni versit
y.
i
i. Cathol i
cUniversityofNazareth.
i
ii
.MountKeny aUni versi
ty.
i
v.Kabar akuniversit
y .
v. BaratonUni versit
y.
vi
. Cat holicUniversi
tyofEastAf ri
ca.
vi
i
.Keny aMet hodistUni v
ersi
ty

Uni
ver
sit
iesar
eaut
hor
izedt
oof
ferappr
ovedDi
ploma,
Under
graduat
eandPostgr
aduat
epr
ogr
ammes.

I
CTRELATEDDEGREEPROGRAMMES
i
. Bachelorofcomput ersci
ence.
i
i. Bachel
orofInf
ormat i
ontechnology.
i
ii
.BachelorofScienceinComput erEngineeri
ng.
i
v.BachelorofScience(ComputerNet working)
.
v. Bachel
orofScience(Soft
wareEngineer i
ng).
vi
.BachelorofBusinessandInformati
onTechnol ogy
.
vi
i.Bachel
orofScience(computerprogrammi ng).

I
CTRELATEDMASTERSPROGRAMS:
i. Master
sincomputersci
ence.
i
i. Master
sini
nformati
ontechnol
ogy.
ii
i. Master
sinhardwar
eengineeri
ng.
iv. Master
sinsci
ence(computerengi
neer
ing)
.

2.RESEARCHI NSTI
TUTIONS:
 Thesear etheot
herspeci
ali
zedresearchi
nst
it
uti
onsthatconcent
rat
eonnar
rowf
iel
dsofst
udysuchascomput
erorI
CTt
echnol
ogy
,agr
icul
tur
e,spacesci
ence
etc.
 I ti
spossibl
etoenr
olli
nsuchinsti
tut
ionsasaresear
chtrai
nee.

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3.POLYTECHNIQUES:
 Thesear ei
nsti
tut
ionsofhi
gherl
earni
ngt
hatmost
lyof
ferDipl
omaandcerti
fi
catecoursesi
ntechni
cal
fiel
dssuchasI
CT,
mechani
cs,
foodpr
oduct
ionet
c.
 Apol yt
echni
cmayal sobeaccr
edit
edbyauni
ver
sit
yorthestat
etoof
ferdegreeprogr
ammes.

EXAMPLESOFPOLYTECHNI CSTHATOFFERI
CTI
NKENYA:
i
. Mombasapol ytechni
c.
i
i
. Keny apoly
technic.
ii
i
. El dor
etpol
ytechnic.
iv
. Ki sumupolyt
echnic.

I
CTCOURSESOFFEREDI NPOLYTECHNI CS:
i
. Computerrepairandassembl y.
ii
. Computeroper ator.
iii
. Managementi nfor mat i
onsy st
em.
iv. Computerprogr ammi ng.
v. Computernetwor king.
v i
. Computersoftwar eengineer.
vii
. Computerstudies.
viii
. I
nfor
mat i
ontechnol ogy.
ix. Computerscience.
x. Computerhardwar eengi neer.
xi. Webadmi ni
strat or

4.COLLEGES:
 Thesearemiddl
elev
eli
nst
it
uti
onst
hatof
ferdi
ploma,
cer
ti
fi
cat
esandcr
aftcour
sesi
nmanydi
sci
pli
nessuchast
echni
cal
,I
CT,
teachert
rai
ning,
busi
ness
managementet
c.

EXAMPLESOFCOLLEGES:
a) Ri
ftv alleyInst i
tuteofSci enceandTechnol ogy
.
b) Kai
boi Techni cal TrainingI nstit
ute.
c) Thi
kaI nstit
ut eofSci enceandTechnol ogy.
d) Ki
ambuI nstituteofSci enceandTechnol ogy.
e) CoastI nstituteofSci enceandTechnol ogy.
f) Ki
rinyagaTechni cal Tr ai
ningI nsti
tute.
g) Nairobi Techni cal TrainingI nsti
tute.
h) Nyeri Techni cal TrainingInst i
tute.
i
) Keny aTechni cal TrainingInst i
tute.
j
) Keny aSci enceTeacher sCol l
ege.
k) MachakosTechni cal Trai
ningI nsti
tute.

Themosti
mport
antconsi
derat
ionstomakebefor
eyoujoi
nacoll
egetopursueanI
CTcour
se:
a)Whet
heri
tof
fersI
CTcoursesrecogni
zedbot
hlocal
l
yandint
ernat
ional
l
y.
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b)Thecostoft
rai
ningwi
thsuchani
nst
it
uti
on.

EXAMINATIONSBODI ESFORHI GHERDIPLOMA, DIPLOMAANDCERTI

FICATES:
a)I
nformati
onTechnologyStandar
dsAssociat
ion(I
TSA)
b)I
nsti
tut
eofManagementI nformati
onSyst
ems( IMIS)
c)KenyaNati
onalExaminat
ionsCouncil
(KNEC).
d)PITMAN.

QUALI
FICATI
ONSGAI NEDONSTUDYONSI TTINGFORANEXAM:
i
. Di pl
omaincomput erstudies.
i
i
. Di pl
omaincomput erscience.
ii
i
. Hi gherdi
plomai ncomput erst udies.
iv
. Hi gherdi
plomai ni
nformat iont echnol
ogy.
v
. Cer ti
fi
cat
ei ncomput erstudies.
vi
. Cer ti
fi
cat
ei ni
nformat i
ont echnology.

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