Sentences, Paragraphs, and

Radio Codes/Phonetics
Chapter 3
 Learning Objectives:
At the end of this chapter, the students will
be able to:

1. Define Sentence;
2. Identify the Four Types of Sentences;
3. Identify the Types of Sentence Structures;
4. Differentiate Active and Passive Voice;
5. Define Paragraph;
6. Identify the elements of a Paragraph;
7. Explain the approaches in organizing
information in a Paragraph;
8. Determine the importance of short-hand
expressions and codes in Radio
Communication;
9. Identify some of the 10-codes used in two-
way radio communication; and
10. Enumerate the Phonetic Alphabet.
 What is a Sentence?

Writing abilities involve understanding how to structure

sentences and paragraphs. Clear, error-free and context
specific sentences create well developed paragraphs and
improve the likelihood of being clear with an audience.
Understanding different types of sentences and paragraph
structures will make a person an effective communicator
(Smith, 2018).

A sentence is a word, clause, or phrase or a group of

clauses or phrases forming a syntactic unit which
expresses an assertion, a question, a command, a wish, an
exclamation, or the performance of an action, that in
writing usually begins with a capital letter and concludes
with appropriate end punctuation, and that in speaking is
distinguished by characteristic patterns of stress, pitch,
and pauses (merriam-webster.com, n.d.).
 Four Types of a Sentence
Sentence variety helps make writing more
interesting and improves readability. There are
four different kinds of sentences.

Declarative sentence

It is a sentence that makes a statement, provides a

fact, offers an explanation, or conveys information.
These types of sentences are also known as declarative
statements. A declarative sentence is the most
common type of sentence. Sentences written in the
declarative form are written in the present tense and
usually end with a period. Normally, the subject comes
before the verb (masterclass.com, 2022).
 Exclamatory sentence

It is also known as an exclamation

sentence or an exclamative clause, is a
statement that expresses strong emotion.
Typically, exclamatory sentences end with
an exclamation mark—also called an
exclamation point. While exclamatory
sentences are appropriate in casual
settings, avoid using exclamatory
sentences in all types of formal writing,
including academic writing
(masterclass.com, 2022).
 Imperative Sentence

It is a sentence that expresses a

direct command, request, invitation,
warning, or instruction. Imperative
sentences do not have a subject;
instead, a directive is given to an
implied second person. For example,
the sentence, “Wash the dinner
plates,” commands the implied
subject to wash the dishes
(masterclass.com, 2022).
 Interrogative Sentence

It is a sentence that asks a question. A sentence

written in the interrogative form can be direct or
indirect, begin with or without pronouns, and feature
yes/no interrogatives, alternative questions, or tag
questions. Interrogative sentences often start with
interrogative pronouns and end with a question mark.
Question words, typically “wh” words, include “who,”
“what,” “when,” “where,” “why,” “which,” “whose,” and
“whom.” You can also use auxiliary verbs in
interrogative sentences, such as “Did she mean to
sound so angry?” Here, “did” is an auxiliary verb (or
helping verb), transforming the sentence “she meant
to sound so angry” into a question (masterclass.com,
2022).
 Types of Sentence Structures

Determining how to arrange words to communicate a clear and coherent idea is a skill, and
the key to developing this skill is to understand how to construct the four types of sentences, that
includes (Smith, 2018):

1. Simple Sentence
It contains a subject and a verb, and it may also have an object and modifiers. However, it
contains only one independent clause (Walden University, 2021).

A subject is a person, animal, place, thing, or concept that does an action. Determine the subject in
a sentence by asking the question “Who or what?”

An object is a person, animal, place, thing, or concept that receives the action. Determine the object
in a sentence by asking the question “The subject did what?” or “To whom?/For whom?”

A modifier is a word, phrase, or clause that modifies—that is, gives information about—another word
in the same sentence.

An independent clause can stand alone as a sentence. It contains a subject and a verb and is a
complete idea.
 Types of Sentence Structures

An object is a person, animal, place, thing, or concept that receives the action. Determine the object
in a sentence by asking the question “The subject did what?” or “To whom?/For whom?”

A modifier is a word, phrase, or clause that modifies—that is, gives information about—another word
in the same sentence.

An independent clause can stand alone as a sentence. It contains a subject and a verb and is a
complete idea.

Examples:

The suspect ran.

He completed the autopsy report on time.

The victim was rushed to the nearest hospital.

 2. Compound Sentence

It contains at least two independent clauses. These independent

clauses can be combined with a comma and a coordinating
conjunction or with a semicolon (Walden University, 2021).

Examples:
• The suspect ran, and he left the knife at the crime scene.
• He completed the autopsy report on time; then, he started
interviewing the witness.
• The victim was rushed to the nearest hospital, but she was
dead on arrival.
 3. Complex Sentence

It contains at least one independent clause and at least one

dependent clause. Dependent clauses can refer to the
subject (who, which), the sequence/time (since, while), or
the causal elements (because, if) of the independent clause
(Walden University, 2021).

If a sentence begins with a dependent clause, note the

comma after this clause. If, on the other hand, the sentence
begins with an independent clause, there is no comma
separating the two clauses (Walden University, 2021).

Example:

Although the suspect ran after committing the crime, she

was caught by the responding police officers.
Because he completed the autopsy report on time, it was the first
time that he did it.

The victim was rushed to the nearest hospital but not soon enough.

Compound-complex Sentence

It contains at least two independent clauses and at least one

dependent clause (Walden University, 2021).

Example:
She completed her literature review, but she still needs to work on her
methods section even though she finished her methods course last
semester.

Although he completed the autopsy report on time, he decided to

interview the witness, and grab some coffee.

With a heavy heart, they announced the victim died on arrival to her
family, and they promised to bring the suspect to justice.
Active and Passive Voice Active and Passive Voice

Voice describes the relationship between a verb and the subject and object
associated with it (apastyle.apa.org, 2019). Certain kinds of writing are best
suited for the active voice, while the passive voice is more appropriate for other
kinds of writing. Understanding how, when, and why to use each is key to being
an effective writer and speaker (Kramer, 2021).

Active voice: The subject of a sentence is followed by the verb and then the
object of the verb (apastyle.apa.org, 2019).

Example:

The suspect stabbed him three times.

The victim calls for help.
The witness hides in the other room.

Use the active voice as much as possible to create direct, clear, and
concise sentences, especially when you are writing about the actions of people
(apastyle.apa.org, 2019).
 Use the active voice as much as possible to create direct, clean, and concise sentences,
especially when you are writing about the actions of people (apastyle.apa.org, 2019).

Passive voice: The object of the verb is followed by the verb (usually a form of "to be" + past
participle + the word "by") and then the subject (e.g., "the cookies were eaten by the children"). If
the subject is omitted (e.g., "the cookies were eaten"), it may result in confusion about who
performed the action (did the children eat the cookies, or was it the dog?) (apastyle.apa.org, 2019).

Example:

He was stabbed three times by the suspect.

Help was called by the victim.

It is important to note that sentences written in the passive voice don’t necessarily need a
preposition (Kramer, 2023).

Example: Hiding in the other room is the witness.

Use the passive voice when it is more important to focus on the recipient of an action than on who
performed the action, such as when describing an experimental setup (apastyle.apa.org, 2019).
 Paragraph

Paragraphs are the building block of all documents (Smith, 2018). It is

a series of sentences that are organized and coherent, and are all related
to a single topic. (Indiana University, 2022). Good paragraphing also
greatly assists your readers in following a piece of writing.

The basic rule of thumb with paragraphing is to keep one idea to one
paragraph. If the writer begins to transition into a new idea, it belongs in a
new paragraph. There can be one idea and several bits of supporting
evidence within a single paragraph. It can also have several points in a
single paragraph as long as they relate to the overall topic of the
paragraph. If the single points start to get long, then perhaps elaborating
on each of them and placing them in their own paragraphs is the route to
(owl.purdue.edu, 2021).
 Elements of a Paragraph
To be as effective as possible, a paragraph should contain each of the following (owl.purdue.edu,
2021):

1. Unity The entire paragraph should concern itself with a single focus. If it begins with one focus
or major point of discussion, it should not end with another or wander within different ideas
(owl.purdue.edu, 2021).

2. Coherence It is the trait that makes the paragraph easily understandable to a reader. Creating
coherence in a paragraph is achieved by creating logical bridges and verbal bridges
(owl.purdue.edu, 2021). A paragraph is coherent if each sentence flows smoothly into the next
without obvious shifts or jumps. It also highlights the ties between old information and new
information to make the structure of ideas or arguments clear to the reader (Indiana University,
2022).
A logical bridge is formed when an idea is carried over from sentence to
sentence (owl.purdue.edu, 2021).

A verbal bridge can be created by (owl.purdue.edu, 2021):

• Key words can be repeated in several sentences.

• Synonymous words can be repeated in several sentences.
• Pronouns can refer to nouns in previous sentences, and
• Transition words can be used to link ideas from different sentences.
Transitional words can be used to construct a verbal bridge. It forms a link
to the previous sentence. Some useful transitional words/phrases are
(Indiana University, 2022):

• To show addition: again, and, also, besides, equally important, first

(second, etc.), further, furthermore, in addition, in the first place,
moreover, next, too.

• To give examples: for example, for instance, in fact, specifically, that is,
to illustrate.
• To compare: also, in the same manner, likewise, similarly.

• To contrast: although, and yet, at the same time, but, despite, even though,
however, in contrast, in spite of, nevertheless, on the contrary, on the other hand,
still, though, yet.

• To summarize or conclude: all in all, in conclusion, in other words, in short, in

summary, on the whole, that is, therefore, to sum up.

• To show time: after, afterward, as, as long as, as soon as, at last, before, during,
earlier, finally, formerly, immediately, later, meanwhile, next, since, shortly,
subsequently, then, thereafter, until, when, while.

• To show place or direction: above, below, beyond, close, elsewhere, farther on,
here, nearby, opposite, to the left (north, etc.).

• To indicate logical relationship: accordingly, as a result, because, consequently,

for this reason, hence, if, otherwise, since, so, then, therefore, thus.
3. A Topic Sentence It is a sentence that indicates in a general way what idea or thesis the
paragraph is going to deal with. It has several important functions: it substantiates or
supports an essay’s thesis statement (Indiana University, 2022):

• It unifies the content of a paragraph,

• Directs the order of the sentences; and
• It advises the reader of the subject to be discussed and how the paragraph will discuss it.

Although not all paragraphs have clear-cut topic sentences, and despite the fact that
topic sentences can occur anywhere in the paragraph (as the first sentence, the last
sentence, or somewhere in the middle), an easy way to make sure readers understand the
topic of the paragraph is to put the topic sentence near the beginning of the paragraph
(owl.purdue.edu, 2021).
4. Adequate Development The topic (which is introduced by the topic sentence)
should be discussed fully and adequately. This varies from paragraph to paragraph,
depending on the author’s purpose, but writers should be wary of paragraphs that
only have two or three sentences. It’s a pretty good bet that the paragraph is not fully
developed if it is that short. Some methods to make sure your paragraph is well-
developed (owl.purdue.edu, 2021):

• Use examples and illustrations

• Cite data (facts, statistics, evidence, details, and others)
• Examine testimony (what other people say such as quotes and paraphrases)
• Use an anecdote or story
• Define terms in the paragraph
• Compare and contrast
• Evaluate causes and reasons
• Examine effects and consequences
• Analyze the topic
• Describe the topic
• Offer a chronological of an event (time segment)
Approaches in Organizing Information in a Paragraph

What information comes first, the topic sentence or the supporting

sentence will depend on the type of paragraph; It is either a direct or
indirect approach (Smith, 2018).

Direct Paragraphs It starts with the main idea (topic sentence) followed by
the supporting sentences (explanation). Routine information, good news, or
non-sensitive messages use the direct approach as readers want to
immediately understand the main reason for the communication (Smith,
2018).
 Figure 3
Sample of Direct Paragraph

A social audit is a report on the social

Topic Sentence performance of a company.
Such an audit may be completed by the
company itself or outsiders who evaluate the
company's efforts to produce safe products,
Supporting Sentence engage in socially responsible activities, and
protect the environment. Many companies
publish the results of their social audits in
their annual reports.
 Indirect Paragraphs It starts the paragraph with supporting sentences, which
gradually lead to the main idea (topic sentence). This type of paragraph is commonly used
for delivering bad news, persuasive messages, or sensitive information, as it allows the
writer to provide explanations or justifications before stating the main point. Readers are
more likely to accept and understand the message when they first receive the necessary
context and reasoning (Smith, 2018).

Figure 4
Sample of Indirect Paragraph

According to a recent poll, more than half of

all white-collar workers now dress casual at
work. Many high-tech engineers and
Supporting Sentence
professional specialists have given up suits
and ties., favoring khakis and sweaters
instead.
Therefore, I recommend that we establish an
Topic Sentence optional business casual policy for
employees.
When to Start a New Paragraph

A writer should start a new paragraph when (owl.purdue.edu, 2021):

1. When he/she begins a new idea or point. New ideas should always
start in new paragraphs. If there is an extended idea that spans
multiple paragraphs, each supporting point within that idea should
have its own paragraph.

2. To contrast information or ideas. Separate paragraphs serve to

contrast ideas or details, different points in an argument, or any other
differences.
3. When the readers need a pause. Breaks between paragraphs
function as a short "break" for the readers—adding these in will
help writing be more readable. The writer would create a break if
the paragraph becomes too long or the material is complex.

4. When he/she is ending the introduction or starting the

conclusion. The introductory and concluding material should
always be in a new paragraph. Many introductions and
conclusions have multiple paragraphs depending on their
content, length, and the writer’s purpose.
 Radio Codes/Phonetics According to the PNP memorandum circular no. 2021-015, to
ensure that the police operation will not be compromised, an emphasis on the usage of
passwords or call signs, radio net diagram, authentication system, Association of Public-Safety
Communications Officials (APCO) ten codes and code words shall be emphasized. Like the police
phonetic alphabet, military phonetic alphabet, and radio-specific terms, the codes were
developed to help radio users communicate quickly and concisely under tough conditions
(MacGillivray, 2017). ---

Two Way Radio Communication Language

Short-hand expressions and codes are useful for radio communication, especially in
transferring information quickly. It’s important to make sure everyone’s on the same page with
which terminology you’re using and what it all means, so make sure all radio users know and
understand all the terms in advance (2CL Communications Ltd., 2022). Here are some of the
short-hand expressions and codes used in two-way radio communication:

• Roger that – "Message received and understood"

• Roger so far – Confirming partway through a long message that you’ve understood the
message so far
• Affirmative – Yes
• Negative – No
• Come in – Asking another party to acknowledge they can hear you
• Go ahead – I am ready for your message
• Say again – Repeat all of your last message
• Say all before/after – Repeat all before/after a certain phrase or word if you didn’t catch part of the
message
• Over – Message finished, inviting others to respond if needed
• Out – Conversation is finished, no answer is required or expected
• Radio check – What’s my signal strength? Can you hear me?
• Read you loud and clear – Your transmission signal is good, I can hear you fine
• Wilco – Abbreviation of "I will comply," means the speaker will complete the task that’s been asked of
them
• Break, break – Interruption to a transmission to communicate urgently
• Emergency, emergency – Distress call, only to be used when there is an imminent danger to life and
immediate assistance is required
• Stand by – Wait for a short period and I will get back to you
• Wait out – Waiting period is longer than I expected, I will get back to you as soon as possible
• I spell – The next word will be spelled out using the phonetic alphabet
10-Code Communication Guide

Ten-codes, also called ten signals, are abbreviations used in radio

communications. They allow for brevity and standardization of
messages. These codes have been used by law enforcement, radio
operators, and citizen's band (CB) radio users. The Association of
Public-Safety Communications Officials International (APCO) expanded
the code system in 1974. Below are some common 10-codes:
10-1 Receiving Poorly
10-2 Receiving Well
10-3 Stop Transmitting
10-4 OK, Message Received
10-5 Relay Message
10-6 Busy, Stand By
10-7 Out of Service, Leaving Air
10-8 In service, subject to call
10-9 Repeat Message
10-10 Transmission Completed, Standing BY
10-11 Talking too Rapidly
10-12 Visitors Present
10-13 Advise weather and road conditions
10-16 Make Pickup at……
10-17 Urgent Business
10-18 Anything for us?
10-19 Nothing for you, return to base
10-20 My location is … or What’s your Location?
10-21 Call by Telephone
10-22 Report in Person to ……
10-23 Stand by
10-24 Completed last Assignment
10-25 Can you Contact …….
10-26 Disregard Last Information/Cancel Last Message
10-27 I am moving to Channel…….
10-28 Identify your station
10-29 Time is up for contact
10-30 Does not conform to FCC Rules
10-32 I will give you a radio check
10-33 Emergency Traffic at this station
10-34 Trouble at this station, help is needed
10-35 Confidential Information
10-36 Need correct time
10-37 Wrecker needed at …….
10-38 Ambulance needed at …….
10-39 Your message delivered
10-41 Please tune to the channel …….
10-42 Traffic Accident at …….
10-43 Traffic tied up at …….
10-44 I have a message for you
10-45 All units within range please report
10-50 Break Channel
10-60 What is the next message number?
10-62 Unable to copy, use phone
10-65 Awaiting your next message or assignment
10-67 All units comply
10-70 Fire at …….
10-71 Proceed with transmission in sequence
10-73 Speed Trap at ……..
10-75 You are causing interference
10-77 Negative Contact
10-84 My telephone number is ……..
10-85 My address is ……..
10-91 Talk closer to the Mike
10-92 Your transmitter is out of adjustment
10-93 Check my frequency on this channel
10-94 Please give me a long count
10-95 Transmit dead carrier for 5 seconds
10-99 Mission completed; all units secure
10-100 Need to go to Bathroom
10-200 Police needed at ………

International Radio Phonetic Alphabet: NATO Alphabet

The radio phonetic alphabet, more correctly be termed the radiotelephony

spelling alphabet, is used for unambiguously spelling out words by letter, often
over radio or telephone connections (electronics-notes.com, n.d.). It is a set
words that are used to stand for the letters of an alphabet. The words in the
phonetic alphabet are used to represent the name of the of the letter with which
it starts. The following are the Phonetic Alphabet:
A Alpha N November
B Bravo O Oscar
C Charlie P Papa
D Delta Q Quebec
E Echo R Romeo
F Foxtrot S Sierra
G Golf T Tango
H Hotel U Uniform
I India V Victor
J Juliet W Whiskey
K Kilo X X-ray
L Lima Y Yankee
M Mike Z Zulu
QUIZ Time !
Rearrange the given sentences to form a logical and well-
structured paragraph.
1.a) This practice has been around for centuries.
b) Meditation is a technique used to relax the mind and body.
c) Today, many people use meditation to reduce stress and
improve focus.
d) It involves deep breathing and mindfulness exercises.
2. a) Finally, the cake is baked at the right temperature until golden
brown.
b) The first step in baking a cake is gathering all the ingredients.
c) After mixing the ingredients properly, the batter is poured into a
pan.
d) Then, these ingredients are combined in a specific order.
3. a) The Internet connects millions of people worldwide.
b) This has led to new ways of working, learning, and
socializing.
c) One of the greatest inventions of the modern era is the
Internet.
d) It allows for instant communication, information
sharing, and online collaboration.
4. a) The first step is identifying the problem.
b) After that, possible solutions are brainstormed.
c) Problem-solving is an essential skill in everyday life.
d) Finally, the best solution is chosen and implemented.
5. a) This movement led to the independence of many nations.
b) During the 20th century, colonized countries began to fight
for their freedom.
c) As a result, the world map changed significantly.
d) They sought self-governance and the right to determine their
own future.
1.a) It was a thrilling experience for everyone.
b) Last weekend, we went to an amusement park.
c) We tried different rides, including a roller coaster and a
Ferris wheel.
d) We also enjoyed delicious food and played games.
2. a) He trained hard every day, improving his strength
and skills.
b) After years of dedication, he became a champion.
c) John dreamed of becoming a professional athlete.
d) His perseverance helped him reach his goal.
3. a) He traveled to various countries, learning about
different cultures.
b) Marco Polo was one of the greatest explorers in history.
c) His journey to China was one of his most famous
adventures.
d) He documented his experiences in a book that inspired
many travelers.
4. a) It has an impact on mood, memory, and cognitive
function.
b) Sleep is essential for maintaining overall health.
c) Without enough sleep, people may feel tired and
unfocused.
d) Experts recommend 7-9 hours of sleep per night.
5. a) One effective way to manage stress is through exercise.
b) Deep breathing exercises and meditation can also help.
c) Stress is a common problem in today's fast-paced world.
d) These techniques can improve both mental and physical
well-being.
THANK YOU