UNIT – 1

INTRODUCTION, SENSORS & TRANSDUCERS

Introduction – Systems – Measurement Systems – Control Systems –

Microprocessor Based Controllers Examples – Mechatronics approach. Measurement

System terminology – placement, Position & Proximity Sensors – Velocity and Motion

Sensors – Force Sensors – Fluid Pressure Sensors – Flow Sensors – Liquid Level Sensors

– Temperature Sensors – Light Sensors – Selection of Sensors.

1|Page
2|Page
 UNIT-1

MECHTRONICS - DEFINITION:

The term Mechatronic was invented by a Japanese engineer in 1969, as a combination of

“mecha” from mechanisms and “tronics” from electronics. It is defined as a co-ordinated and concurrently
developed integration of mechanical engineering with electronics and intelligent computer control in the
design and manufacture of products and processors.

As a result, mechatronics products have

many mechanical functions replaced with electronic ones.
This results in much greater flexibility, easy redesign and
reprogramming, and the ability to carry out automated
data collection and reporting. A mechatronics system is
not just a marriage of electrical and mechanical systems
and is more than just a control system; it is a complete
integration of all of them in which there is a concurrent
approach to the design. Fig 1.1.1 shows the Graphical
Representation of mechatronics.

Mechatronics brings together areas of

technology involving sensors and measurement systems,
drive and actuation systems, and microprocessor systems
(Fig 1.1.2), together with the analysis of the behavior of
the system and control systems.

Fig 1.1.1 Graphical Representation of mechatronics

Fig 1.1.2 Basic Elements of a Mechatronic System.

3|Page
SYSTEM:

It refers to a group of physical component connected or related in such a manner as to form

as entire unit for performing a specific task. A system can be thought of as a box or block diagram which
has an input and an output and where we are concerned
not with what goes on inside the box but with only the
relationship between the output and the input.

A system can be treated as a black box

having an input and output as shown in figure 1.2(a).
For example, an electric heater may be thought as a
system which has, as its input electric power and as
output heat as shown in figure 1.2(b)

Fig 1.2 SYSTEM

Measurement system:

It involves the precise measurement and display /recording of physical, chemical,

mechanical, electrical or optical parameters. It provides a mean of describing natural phenomena in
quantitative terms. Measurement system provides input to the control systems of mechatronics.

Measurement system comprises of a sensor/transducer, signal processor and

display/recording device as shown in figure 1.3.1

Fig 1.3.1 MEASUREMENT SYSTEM

A Sensor/Transducer is a device which converts a physical quantity, property or condition

into output, usually electrical parameters such as voltage, resistance or capacitance. For ex., a
thermocouple is a sensor which converts changes in temperature into a voltage.

A Signal processor or Conditioner receives output signal from sensor or transducer and
manipulates or processor into a suitable input signal to control system. Signal processor performs filtering
and amplification functions. For example, the output from the thermocouple is very small voltage,
therefore, amplifier increases the magnitude of the voltage and the A/D (analog to digital) converter
changes the analog voltage signal to a coded digital signal.

4|Page
 A Display System recorder records the output from signal conditioner and digital device
gives the measured variable in visual or quantitative form. For example, LEDs, CRT, LCD are the example
of display devices which gives measured variable in terms of numbers. Example for measurement system
shown in below fig1.3.2.

Fig 1.3.2 TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENT SYSTEM

CONTROL SYSTEM:

It refers to a group of physical component connected or related in such a manner as to

command, direct or regulate itself or another system. The physical components may be of electrical,
mechanical, hydraulic, pneumatic, thermal or chemical in nature.

5|Page
FUNCTIONS OF CONTROL SYSTEM:

1. VARIABLE: Control some variable to some particular value

Ex: a central heating system where the temperature is controlled to a particular value

2. SEQUENCE: Control the sequence of events

Ex: a washing machine where when the dials are set to, say “white” and the machine is then
controlled to a particular washing cycle

3. PRESENCE: Control whether an event occurs or not

Ex: a safety lock on a machine where it cannot be operated until guard is in position

OPEN LOOP CONTROL SYSTEM:

Open loop systems are systems in which the output of a system is not used as a variable
to control the system. In other words, open loop systems in which input to the system is not controlled by
the present output.

In an open loop system, the output of this system is not feedback as input to the system for
control or operation. An open system is essential a feed forward system. There are many reasons to use
open loop control such as simplifying the control system, quicker response of the system, reducing the
possibility of oscillation and sometimes lowering the cost.

Fig 1.4 open loop system

An example of an everyday open loop system is the domestic toaster. Control is exercised by
setting a timer which determines the length of time for which the bread is toasted. The brownness of
resulting toast is determined solely by this preset time. There is no feedback to control the degree of
browning to a required brownness.

CLOSED LOOP CONTROL SYSTEM:

In closed loop or feedback control the controller notices what actually takes place at the output end
and drives the plant in such a way as to obtain the desired output.
6|Page
1. Comparison Element

This element compares the required or reference value of the variable condition being controlled with the
measured value and produces an error signal. Error Signal = Reference value - measured value

2. Control Element

This element decides the corrective action to be taken when an error signal is received by it.

Example: A signal to operate switch ON/OFF or valve open / close.

3. Correction Element

Correction element is an actuator that produces a change in a process to correct or change the controller
condition. It also provides the power to carry out the control action; hence it is known as actuator.

4. Process Element

An element that controls the process is known as process element.

Example: Room temperature of a house is being controlled.

5. Measurement Element

The measurement element produces a signal related to the variable condition of the process that is being
controlled.

Example: Thermocouple gives EMF related to temperature.

Fig1.5 closed loop system

7|Page
 Fig 1.6Automatic control of water level

Controlled variable - Water level in tank

Reference value - Initial setting of the float and lever position

Comparison element - The lever

Error signal - The difference between the actual and initial settings of the lever
positions

Control unit - The pivoted lever

Correction unit - The flap opening or closing the water supply

Process - The water level in the tank

Measuring device - Floating ball and lever

Fig 1.6 shows an example of a simple control system used to maintain a constant water
level in a tank . The reference value is the initial setting of lever arm arrangement so that it just cuts off
the water supply at the required level .

When water is drawn from the tank the float moves downwards with the water level. This
causes the lever arrangement to rotate and so allows water to enter the tank . this flow continues until the
ball has risen to such a height that it has moved the blever arrangement to cut off the water supply . It is
a closed loop control system with the elements .

8|Page
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN OPEN AND CLOSED LOOP CONTROL SYSTEM:

S.NO OPEN-LOOP SYSTEMS CLOSED-LOOP SYSTEMS

1 No feed back system It uses feedback system

The effects of known disturbances alone can be

The effects of disturbances are countered by
2 countered. Other disturbances cannot be taken
virtue of negative feedback
into account.
As long as the controlled plant is stable, the Closed loop operation can be unstable even
3
control system will not become unstable if the plant is stable.

4 Accuracy is less It is more accurate

5 Simpe in construction Complicated in construction

The presence of non-linearities causes Usually,it performs accurately even in the

6
malfunctioning presence of non-linearities

7 The response is slow because of manual control It can perform tasks faster than open-loop

8 Optimisation in control is not possible Optimization in control is possible

It ensures easy maintenance because of no

9 It is diffciiult tto mmaintain and repairr
compleexx electrronic circuits

10 The ost of the system is less The cosst of the system is more

ANALOGUE CONTROL SYSTEM:

Analogue control systems are ones where all the signals are continuous functions
of time and it is the size of the signal which is a measure of the variable.

DIGITAL CONTROL SYSTEM:

Digital signals can be considered to be a sequence of on/off signals, the value of the
variable being represented by the sequence of on/off pulses.

Fig 1.7 Basic Elements of Digital Closed Loop Control System.

AUTOMATIC CONTROL SYSTEM:

An automatic control system is a preset closed-loop control system that requires no operator
action. Most of the closed loop control systems are automatic in nature. It assumes that the process
remains in the normal range for the control system.

9|Page
SEQUENTIAL CONTROLLER:

In many situations, various operations of a plant or process take place in a

particular order. It involves sequential execution of well defined operation that is performed in a
prescribed order. Each operation or activity is called step.

Each step may be open or closed loop continuous process or even a sequential sub-
process. Each step of the prescribed sequence usually requires a switching the equipment configuration
and it may be triggered by time or event. The sequential controller may be classified into two types. 1)
Event – based 2) Time based. In event based controllers, the next event or step cannot be performed until
the previous event or step is completed. In time based controllers, the series of operations are sequenced
with respect to time.

Such control could be obtained by an electric circuit with sets of relays or cam-
operated switches which are wired-up in such a way as to give the required sequence. Such hard-wired
circuits are now more likely to have been replaced by a microprocessor-controlled system, with the
sequencing being controlled by means of a software programs.

Cam-Operated Switch:

Figure 1.8 shows the basic principle of one such switch. When the machine is
switched on, a small electric motor slowly rotates its shaft, gives an amount of rotation proportional to
time. Its rotation turns the controller cams so that each in turn operates electrical switches and so
switches on circuit in correct sequence. The contour of cam determines the time at which it operates a
switch. Thus the contours of cams are the means by which the program is specified and stored in the
machine. The sequence of instructions and the instructions used in a particular washing machine are
determined by set of cams chosen.

With modern washing machines the controller is a microprocessor and the program
is not supplied by the mechanical arrangements of cams but by the software program.

Fig 1.8 Cam operated switch

10 | P a g e
EXAMPLE OF SEQUENTIAL CONTROL SYSTEMS:

AUTOMATIC DOMESTIC WASHING MACHINE:

Fig 1.9 Automatic washing machine

 A pre-wash cycle in which the clothes in the drum are given a wash in cold water,
 A main wash cycle where in the clothes are washed in hot water,
 A rinse cycle where the clothes are rinsed with cold water a number of preset time, and
 A spin cycle in which the spinning of drum takes place to drain the water from clothes and the
drum.

Step1: Pre-wash cycle

In this cycle an electrically operated valve opens to allow cold water into the drum for a period of time
determined by the output from the microprocessor. A level sensor is used to check whether the drum is
filled to preset level. When the water reaches a presser level the sensor gives output to the microprocessor
which in turn stops the water supply to the drum by switching off the current to the valve. Now the
clothes in the drum are given a starting wash with cold water. After completing cold wash for preset time
microprocessor operates the drain pump to drain the water from the drum.

Step 2: Main wash cycle

When the pre-wash is completed, the microprocessor activates an electrically operated valve to opens
and allows cold water into the drum for a period of time. The level is sensed by level sensor and the water
shut off when the required level is reached in the drum. Now the microprocessor activates the switch to
supply current to electric heater to heat the water for main wash. The temperature sensor gives input to
the microprocessor, after reaching particular preset temperature, to switch off the current to the heater.
Then the drum motor is activated by the microprocessor to the predetermined time with slow speed and
switched off after completion. Finally the microprocessor operates the drain pump to drain the water from
the drum.

11 | P a g e
 Fig 1.10 Block diagram of Automatic Washing machine

Step 3: Rinse cycle

When the main wash is completed, the microprocessor gives an output for the rinse cycle; it opens the
valve to allow cold water to the drum and closes when it reaches a preset level. Drum motor is operated to
rotate the drum and the drain pump is operated to drain the water after preset time. The sequence is
repeated for a number of times.

Step 4: Spin cycle

The microprocessor switches on the drum motor and is signaled to rotate at a higher speed than the
rinsing cycle. Due to the centrifugal action the water drains out from the clothes.

MICROPROCESSOR BASED CONTROLLERS:

Microprocessors are essential for many of the products we use every day such as TVs, cars,
radios, home appliances and computers. Microprocessor based controllers are also called as micro
controllers. Micro controller is a digital integrated circuit which serves as a heart of many modern control
applications.

A micro controller generally has the

main CPU core, ROM/EPROM/RAM and some
accessory functions such as timers, pulse width
modulator, A/D converters and I/O controllers all
integrated into one chip. Micro controller is a
computer on a chip that is programmed to perform
almost any control, sequencing, monitoring and
display functions.

Fig 1.11 Micro controllers

12 | P a g e
SENSOR:

Sensors are devices which produce a proportional output signal (mechanical, electrical,
magnetic, etc.) when exposed to a physical phenomenon (pressure, temperature, displacement, force, etc.).
Many devices require sensors for the accurate measurement of pressure, position, speed, acceleration or
volume.

According to the Instrument Society of America, sensor can be defined as “A device which
provides a usable output in response to a specified measurand.” Here, the output is usually an ‘electrical
quantity’ and measurand is a ‘physical quantity, property or condition which is to be measured’.

TRANSDUCER:

Transducers are devices which converts an input of one form of energy into an output of
another form of energy. The term transducer is often used synonymously with sensors.

However, ideally, the word ‘transducer’ is used for sensing the element itself whereas the
term ‘sensor’ is used for the sensing element plus any associated signal conditioning circuitry. Some of the
parameters transducer by electromechanical devices is as follows: force, pressure, temperature,
displacement, proximity, viscosity, flow, frequency, time, and vibration.

For example, a transducer may include a diaphragm which moves or vibrates the response
to some form of energy such as sound. Some common examples of such type of transducers with
diaphragms are microphones, loudspeakers and pressure sensors.

MEASUREMENT THERMINOLOGY:

The following terms are used to define the performance of transducers and often
measurement systems as a whole.

1. RANGE & SPAN:

It defines the limits between which the input can vary. The span is the difference
between the maximum value and the minimum value of the input.
Ex: - A load cell for the measurement of forces might have a range of 0-50 kN. Span of the load cell
is 50 kN.
2. ERROR:
It is defined as the difference between measured values to the actual value
Error = Measured Value – True value
Ex: - A measurement system gives a temperature reading of 250C when the actual value is 240C,
then the error is +10C, if the actual temperature is 26o C then the error would have been -10C.
3. ACCURACY:
Accuracy is the extent to which the value indicated by the measurement system
might be wrong. In another way the accuracy defines the closeness of the agreement between the
actual measurement result and a true value of the measurand.
For example, be specified as an accuracy of ± 2oC, that means the reading can be expected to lie
within plus or minus of 2oC of the true value. It is often expressed as a percentage of the full range
output or full–scale deflection.

13 | P a g e
4. SENSITIVITY:
It is the relationship indicating how much output there is per unit input.
Sensitivity = Output / Input
For example, a resistance thermometer may have a sensitivity of 0.5 Ὠ /oC

5. HYSTERESIS ERROR:
Transducers can give different outputs from
same value of quantity being measured according to whether
that value has been reached by a continuously increasing
change or continuously decreasing change. This effect is
called hysteresis. Fig 1.12.1 shows such an output with the
hysteresis error as the maximum difference in output for
increasing and decreasing values.

Fig 1.12.1 Hysteresis Errors

6. NON-LINEARITY ERROR:
Non linearity is error is the error gives by assuming a linear relationship. The error
is defined as the maximum difference from the straight line.
Various methods are used for the numerical expression of this error. One method is
to draw the straight line joining the end of the output values at the end points of the range;
another is to find the straight line by using the method of least squares to determine the best fit
line when all data values are considered equally likely to be in error; another is to find the straight
line by using the method of least squares to determine the best fit line which passes through the
zero point.
Fig 1.12.2 shows these three methods and how they can affect the non-linearity
error quoted. The error is generally quoted as percentage of the full range output.

Fig 1.12.2 Non linearity error

14 | P a g e
7. REPEATABILITY / REPRODUCIBILITY:
It is defined as the ability of the sensor to give same output for the repeated
application of the same input value. The error resulting from the same output not being given with
repeated applications is usually expressed as a percentage of the full range output. A transducer for
the measurement of angular velocity typically might be quoted as having a repeatability of ±0.01% of
the full range at a particular velocity.

.– .
Repeatability error = x 100

8. STABILITY:
Stability is its ability to give same output with constant input over a period of time.
Drift is used to describe the change in output than occur over time. It is expressed as a % of the full
range output. Zero drift is used for the change that occurs in output when there is zero input.
9. DEAD BAND / TIME:
It is defined as the range of input value for which there is no output. For example,
bearing friction in a flow meter using a rotor, there is no output until the input reaches a particular
velocity threshold. The dead time is the length of time from the application of an input until the
output begins to respond and change.
10. RESOLUTION:
The resolution is defined as smallest change in input that will produce an
observable change in output. For example, if a LVDT sensor measures a displacement up to 20 mm
and it provides an output as a number between 1 and 100 then the resolution of the sensor device is
0.2 mm.
11. OUTPUT IMPEDANCE:
When a sensor giving an electrical output is interfaced with an electronic circuit it is
necessary to know the output impedance since this impedance being connected in either series or
parallel with the circuit. The inclusion of the sensor can thus significantly modify the behavior of the
system to which it is connected.
Output impedance is the measure of sensor’s ability to provide current for the next
stage of the system.

15 | P a g e
STATIC AND DYNAMIC CHARACTERISTICS;

The static characteristics are the values given when steady-state conditions occur, i.e. the
values given when the transducer has settled down after having received some input. The terminology
defined above refers to such a state. The dynamic characteristic refers to the behavior between the
behavior between time that the input value changes and the time that the value given by the transducer
settles down to the steady-state value. Dynamic characteristics are stated in terms of the transducer to
inputs in particular forms. For example, this might be a step input when the input in particular forms. For
example, this might be a step input when the input is suddenly changed from zero to a constant value, or
a ramp input when the input is suddenly changed at a steady rate, a sinusoidal input of a specified
frequency. Thus we might find the following terms:

1. RESPONSE TIME:

This is the time which elapses after a

constant input, a step input, is applied to the
transducer up to the point at which the
transducer gives an output corresponding to
some specified percentage, e.g. 95% of the value
of the input. For example , if a mercury-in-glass
thermometer is put into a hot liquid there can
be quite an appreciable time lapse, perhaps as
much as 100s or more, before the thermometer
indicates 95% of the actual temperature of the
liquid.

Fig 1.13 (a) Response to a step input

2. TIME CONSTANT

This is the 63.2% response time. A thermocouple in air might have a time constant of perhaps 40
to 100s. The time constant is a measure of the inertia of the sensor and so how fast it will react to changes
in its input: the bigger the time constant, the slower the reaction to a changing input signal. For a
mathematical discussion of the time constant in terms of the behavior of a system when subject to step
input.

3. RISE TIME

This is the time taken for the output to rise to some specified percentage of the steady – state
output. Often the rise time refers to the taken for the output to rise from 10% of the steady –state value to
90 or 95% of the steady – state value.

4. SETTLING TIME

This is the time taken for the output to settle to within some percentage, e.g. 2%, of the steady –
state value.

16 | P a g e
 To illustrate the above , consider
the graph in fig 1.13(b) which indicates how an
instrument reading changed with time, being obtained
from a thermometer plunged into a liquid at time t =
0.The steady – state value is 55˚C and so, since 95%
of 55 is 52.25˚C , the 95% response time is about 228s.

Fig 1.13 (b) Thermometer in liquid

DISPLACEMENT, POSITION AND PROXIMITY SENSORS:

“DISPLACEMENT” sensors are concerned with the measurement of the amount by which
some object has been moved. “POSITION” sensors are concerned with the determination of the position of
some object in relation to some reference point. “PROXIMITY” sensors are a form of position sensor and
are used to determine when an object has moved to within some particular critical distance of the sensor.

Potentiometer Sensor:

 A potentiometer consists of a resistance element with a sliding contact which can be moved over the
length of the element.
 Such elements can use for linear or rotary
displacements, the displacement being
converted into a potential difference.
 The rotary potentiometer consists of a circular
wire-wound track or a film of conductive plastic
over which a rotatable sliding contact can be
rotated (Fig 1.14.2 a). The track may be a single
turn or helical.
 With a constant input voltage Vs between
terminals 1and 3, the output voltage Vo between
terminals 2 and 3 is a fraction is a fraction of
the input voltage, the fraction depending on the
ratio of the resistance R23 Fig 1.14.1 Schematic of a potentiometer sensor
between terminals 2 and 3 compared with the total resistance R13 between the terminals 1 and 3.

 If the track has a constant resistance per unit length (i.e. per unit angle), then the output is
proportional to the angle through which the slider has rotated. Hence the angular displacement can be
converted into a potential difference.

17 | P a g e
  With a wire-wound track the slider in moving from one turn to other will change the voltage output
in steps, each step being a movement of one turn. If the potentiometer has N turns then the
resolution, as a percentage, is 100/N. Errors due to non-linearity of the track tend to range from less
than 0.1% to about 1%
 The track resistance tends to range from about 20Ὠ to 200kὨ.
 The conductive plastic has a higher temperature co-efficient of resistance than the wire and so
temperature changes have a greater effect on accuracy.
 Non-linearity error of the conductive plastic is the order of 0.05% resistance ranges from 500to 80k Ὠ

(a) (b) (c)

Fig 1.14.2 (a) Rotary Potentiometer (b) The circuit when connected to a load (c) Potential Divider
circuit

Potentiometers are used as a sensor with the electronic systems in cars, used for such things as the
accelerator metal position and throttle position.

Strain-gauged element:

 The electrical resistance strain gauge (Fig 1.15.1) is a metal wire, metal foil strip, or a strip of
semiconductor material which is wafer-like and can be struck onto surfaces likes a postage stamp.
 When subject to strain, its resistance R changes, the fractional change in resistance ∆R / R being
proportional to the strain ɛ, i.e.

∆R / R = Gɛ

Where G, the constant of proportionality, is termed the gauge factor.

Fig 1.15.1 Strain gauges: (a) metal wire, (b) metal foil (c) semiconductor

18 | P a g e
 Fig 1.15.2 Strain gauged elements

 Since strain is the ratio then the resistance change of strain is a measurement of the change in length
of the element to which the strain gauge is attached.
 A problem with all strain gauges is that their resistance changes not only with strain but also with
temperature. Semi-conductor strain gauges have a much greater sensitivity to temperature than
metal strain gauges.
 One form of displacement sensor has strain gauges attached to flexible elements in the form of
cantilevers (Fig 1.15.2 a), rings (Fig 1.15.2 b), or U-shaped (Fig 1.15.2 c).When the flexible element is
bent or deformed as a force applied by a contact point being displaced, then the electrical resistance
strain gauges mounted on the element are strained and so resistance changes can be monitored. The
change in resistance is the measure of displacement of flexible element. Such arrangements are
typically used for a linear displacement of the order of 1 to 30mm and have a Non-linearity error of
about ± 1% of full range.

Capacitive element:

The capacitance C of a parallel plate capacitor is given by

C = ɛrɛ0A / d
Where, ɛr is the relative permittivity of the dielectric between the plates, ɛ0 a constant called the
permittivity of free space, A the area of overlap between the two plates and d the plate separation.
In
a) one of the plate is moved by the displacement so that the plate separation changes (Fig 1.16 a)
b) The displacement causes the area of overlap to change. (Fig 1.16 b)
c) The displacement causes the dielectric between the plates to change. (Fig 1.16 c)

Fig 1.16 Forms of capacitive sensing element

19 | P a g e
There is thus a non-linear relationship between the changes in capacitance ∆C and the displacement x.
This non-linearity can be overcome by using what is termed a Push-Pull Displacement Sensor
(Fig1.17).This has three plates with the upper pair forming one capacitor and the lower pair another
capacitor. The displacement moves the central plate between the two other plates. The result of, for
example, the central plate moving downwards is to increase the plate separation of the upper capacitor
and decrease the separation of the lower capacitor. We thus have

C1 = ɛrɛ0A / d + x
C 2= ɛrɛ0A / d - x
When C1 is in one arm of an a.c. bridge and C2 in the other, then the resulting out-of-balance
voltage is proportional to x. such a sensor is typically used for monitoring displacements from a few
millimeters to hundreds of millimeters. Non-linearity and hysteresis are about ± 0.01 % of full range.

Fig 1.17 Push-Pull displacement sensor Fig 1.18 capacitive proximity sensor

One form of capacitive proximity sensor consists of a single capacitor plate probe with the other
plate being formed by the object , which has to be metallic and earthed (Fig 1.18) . As the object
approaches so the plate seperation of the capacitor changes becoming significant and detectable when
the object is closed to the probe .

DIFFERENTIAL TRANSFORMER:

The linear variable differential

transformer, generally referred to by the
abbreviation LVDT, consists of three coils
symmetrically spaced along an insulated tube
(Fig 1.19). The central coil is the primary coil and
the other two are identical secondary coils which
are connected in series in such a way that their
outputs oppose each other. A magnetic core is
moved through the central tube as a result of the
displacements being monitored.

Fig 1.19 LVDT

20 | P a g e
 When there is an alternating voltage input to the primary coil, alternating
e.m.f.s are induced in the secondary coils. With the magnetic core
central, the amount of magnetic material in each of the secondary
coils is the same. Thus the e.m.f.s induced in each coil is same.
Since they are so connected that their outputs oppose each other,
the net result is zero output. However, when the core is displaced
from the central position there is a greater amount of magnetic
core in one coil than the other. E.g. more in secondary coil 2 than
the coil 1. The result is that a greater e.m.f.s is induced in one coil
than the other.

Fig 1.20 LVDT output

There is then net output from the two coils. Since a greater displacement means even more core in
one coil than the other, the output, the difference between the two e.m.f.s increases the greater the
displacement being monitored. (Fig 1.20)

Fig 1.21 LVDT DC Output

With this form of output, the same amplitude output voltage is produced for two different
displacements. To give an output voltage which is unique to each value of displacement we need to
distinguish between where the amplitudes are the same but there is a phase difference of 1800. A phase
sensitive demodulator, with a low-pass filter, is used to convert the output into a D.C.voltage which gives
a unique value for each displacement.

Typically, LVDTs have operating ranges from about ±2 to ±400 mm

with non-linearity errors of about ±0.25%. LVDTs are very widely
used as primary transducers for monitoring displacements. The free
end of the core may be spring loaded for contact with the surface
being monitored, or threaded for mechanical connection. They are
also used as secondary transducers in the measurement of force,
weight and pressure; these variables are transformed into
displacements which can then be monitored by LVDTs.

Fig 1.22 RVDT

21 | P a g e
 A rotary variable differential transformer (RVDT) can be used for the measurement of
rotation; it operates on the same principle as the LVDT. The core is a cardioids-shaped piece of magnetic
material and rotation causes more of it to pass into one secondary coil than the other. The range of
operation is typically ± 40o with a linearity error of about ±0.5% of the range.

EDDY CURRENT PROXIMITY SENSORS

If a coil is supplied with an

alternating current, an alternating magnetic field is
produced. If there is a metal object in close proximity
to this alternating magnetic field, then eddy currents
are induced in it. The eddy currents themselves
produce a magnetic field. This distorts the magnetic
field responsible for their production. As a result, the
impedance of the coil changes and so the amplitude
of the alternating current. At some preset level, this
change can be used to trigger a switch.

Fig 1.23 Eddy current sensor

Figure 1.23 shows the basic form of such a sensor; it is used for the detection of
non-magnetic but conductive materials. They have the advantages of being relatively inexpensive, small in
size, with high reliability, and can have high sensitivity to small displacements.

INDUCTIVE PROXIMITY SENSOR:

This consists of a coil wound round a core. When the end of the coil is close to a
metal object its inductance changes. This change can be monitored by its effect on a resonant circuit and
the change used to trigger a switch. It can only be used for the detection of metal objects and is best with
ferrous metals.

OPTICAL ENCODER:

An encoder is a device that provides a digital output as a result of a linear or

angular displacement. Position encoders can be grouped into two categories; incremental encoders that
detect changes in rotation from some datum position and absolute encoders which give the actual
angular position.

Fig 1.24.1 Incremental encoder

22 | P a g e
 Fig 1.24.1 shows the basic form of an incremental encoder for the measurement of angular
displacement. A beam of light passes through slots in a disc and is detected by a suitable light sensor.
When the disc is rotated a pulsed output is produced by the sensor with the number of pulses being
proportional to the angle through which the disc rotates Thus the angular position of the disc and hence
the shaft rotating it, can be determined by the number of pulses produced since some datum position. In
practice three concentric tracks with three sensors are used. The inner track has just one hole and is used
to locate the home position of the disc. The other two tracks have a series of equally spaced holes that go
to completely round the disc but with the holes in the middle track offset from the holes in the outer track
by the one half the width of the hole this offsets enables the direction of rotation to be determined. In a
clockwise direction the pulses in the outer track lead those in the inner in the anti-clockwise direction
they lag. The resolution is determined by the number of slots on the disc. With 60 slots in 1 resolution
then, since 1 revolution is a rotation of 360o, the resolution is 360/60 = 6o.

Fig 1.24.2 shows the basic form of an absolute encoder for the measurement of angular
displacement. This gives an output in the form of a binary number of several digits each such number
representing a particular angular position. The rotating disc has three concentric circles of the slots and
three sensors to detect the light pulses. The slots are arranged in such a way that the sequential output
from the sensors is a number in the binary code. Typical encoders tend to have up to 10 to 12 tracks.
Thus with 10 tracks there will be 10 bits and so the number of positions that can be detected is 210, a
resolution of 360/1024= 0.35o.

Fig 1.24.2, a 3-bit absolute encoder

PNEUMATIC SENSOR

Fig 1.25 Pneumatic sensor

23 | P a g e
 Pneumatic sensors involve the use of compressed air, displacement or the proximity of an
object being transformed into a change in air pressure. Fig 1.25 shows the basic form of such a sensor.
Low-pressure air is allowed to escape through a port in the front of the sensor. This escaping air, in the
absence of any close-by object, escapes and in doing so also reduces the pressure in the nearby sensor
output port. However, if there is a close-by Object the air cannot so readily escape and the result is that
the pressure Increases in the sensor output port. The output pressure from the sensor thus depends on
the proximity of Objects. Such sensors are used for the measurement of displacements of fractions of
millimeters in a range which typically are about 3 to 12mm.

PROXIMITY SWITCHES:

There are a number of forms of switch which can be activated by the presence of an object
in order to give a proximity sensor with an output which is either on or off. The micro switch is a small
electrical switch which requires physical contact and a small operating force to close the contacts.

For example, in the case of determining the presence of an item on a conveyor belt, this
might be actuated by the weight of the item on the belt depressing the belt and hence a spring loaded
platform under it, with the movement of this platform then closing the switch. Fig 1.26 shows examples of
ways such switches can be actuated.

(a) (b) (c)

Fig 1.26(a) Lever operated, (b) Roller operated (c) Cam operated switches.

Fig 1.27 shows the basic form of a reed switch.

It consists of two magnetic switch contacts sealed in a glass
tube. When a magnet is brought Close to the switch, the
magnetic reeds are attracted to each other and close the switch
contacts. It is a non-contact proximity switch.

Such a switch is very widely used for checking

the closure of doors. It is also used with such devices as
tachometers, which involve the rotation of a toothed wheel
past the reed switch. If one of the teeth has a magnet attached
to it,
Fig 1.27 Reed switch

24 | P a g e
Then every time it passes the switch it will momentarily close the contacts and hence produce a
current/voltage pulse in the associated electrical circuit hence produce a current/voltage pulse in the
associated electrical circuit.

Photosensitive devices can be used to detect the presence of an opaque object by its
breaking a beam of light or infrared radiation, falling on such a device or by detecting the light reflected
back by the object (Fig 1.28).

Fig 1.28 Using photo electric sensor to detect objects by (a) the object breaking the beam,
(b) the object reflecting the light

HALL EFFECT SENSOR:

When a beam of charged particles passes through a magnetic field, forces act on the
particles and the beam is deflected from its straight line path. A current flowing in a conductor is like a
beam of moving charges and thus can be deflected by a magnetic field. This effect was discovered by
ER.Hall in 1879 and is called the Hall Effect. Consider electrons moving in a conductive plate with a
magnetic field applied at right angles to the
plane of the plate (Fig 1.29). As a
consequence of the magnetic field, the
moving electrons are deflected to one side of
the plate and thus that side becomes
negatively charged, while the Opposite side
becomes positively charged since the
electrons are directed away from it. This
charge separation produces an electric field
in the material. The charge separation
continues until the forces produced by the
magnetic field.

Fig 1.29 Hall Effect sensor

25 | P a g e
The result is a transverse potential difference V given by,

V = KH

Where B is the magnetic flux density at right angles to the plate, I the current through it, t the
plate thickness and KH a constant called the Hall coefficients.

Such sensors can be used as position, displacement

and proximity sensors if the Object being sensed is fitted
with a small permanent magnet. As an illustration, such a
sensor can be used to determine the level of fuel in an
automobile fuel tank. A magnet is attached to a float and as
the level of fuel changes so the float distance from the Hall
sensor changes (Fig 1.30). The result is a Hall voltage
output which is a measure of the distance of the float from
the sensor and hence the level of fuel in the tank.

Fig 1.30 Fluid level detector

Another application of Hall Effect sensors is in brushless D.C. motors. With such motors it is
necessary to determine when the permanent magnet rotor is correctly aligned with the windings on the
stator so that the current through the windings can be switched on at the right instant to maintain the
rotor rotation. Hall Effect sensors are used to detect when the alignment is right.

VELOCITY AND MOTION SENSOR

The following are examples of sensors that can be used to monitor linear and angular
velocities and detect motion. The applications of motion detectors includes security system used to detect
intruders and interactive toys and appliance, e.g. the cash machine screen which becomes active when
you get near to it.

INCREMENTAL ENCODER

The incremental encoder described in the previous section can be used for measurement of
angular velocity, the number of pulse produced per second being determined.

TACHOGENERATOR

The tachogenerator is used to measure angular velocity. One form, the variable reluctance
tachogenerator, consists of a toothed wheel of ferromagnetic material which is attached to the rotating
shaft (fig 1.31.1) a pick-up coil is wound on a permanent magnet. As the wheel rotates, so the teeth move
past the coil and the air gap between the coil and the ferromagnetic material changes. We have a magnetic
circuit with an air gap which periodically changes. Thus the flux linked by a pickup coil changes. The
resulting cyclic change in the flux linked produces an alternating e.m.f in the coil.

26 | P a g e
 Fig 1.31.1 Variable reluctance tachogenerator Fig 1.31.2 AC generator form of
tachogenerator.

Another form of tachogenerator is essentially an a.c. generator.lt consists of a coil, termed

the rotor, which rotates with the rotating shaft. This coil rotates in the magnetic field produced by a
stationary permanent magnet or electromagnet (Figure 1.31.2) and so an alternating e. m f is induced in
it; the amplitude or frequency of this alternating e.m.f. can be used as a measure of the angular velocity of
the rotor. The output may be rectified to give a dc. Voltage with a size which is proportional to the angular
velocity.

PYROELECTRIC SENSOR

Pyro electric materials, e.g. lithium tantalate, are crystalline materials which generate
charge in response to heat flow. When such a material is heated to a temperature just below the curie
temperature, this being about 610oC for lithium tantalate, in an electric field and the material cooled while
remaining in the field, electric dipoles within the material line up and it becomes polarized (Fig 1.32).

When the field is then removed, the material retains its polarization. When the pyro electric
material is exposed to infrared radiation, its temperature rises and this reduces the amount of polarization
in the material, the dipoles being shaken up more and losing their alignment. A pyroelectric sensor
consists of a polarized pyroelectric crystal with thin metal film electrodes on opposite faces. Because the
crystal is polarized with charged surfaces, ions are drawn from the surrounding air and electrons from any
measurement circuit connected to the sensor to balance the surface charge (Fig 1.33 a)

Fig 1.32 polarizing a pyroelectric material

If infrared radiation is incident on the crystal and changes its temperature, the polarization
in the crystal reduced and consequently that is a reduction in charge at surfaces of the crystal. There is

27 | P a g e
then an excess of charge on the metal electrodes over that needed to balance the charge on the crystal
surface (Fig 1.33b). The pyroelectric sensor thus behaves as a charge generator which generates change
when there is change in its temperature as a result of the incidence of infrared radiation. When there is a
temperature change the change in charge ▲q is proportional to the change in temperature ▲t.
▲q = k p ▲t.
Where kp is a sensitivity constant for the crystal.

Fig 1.33 Pyroelectric sensor

To detect the motion of a human or other heat source, the sensing element has to
distinguish between general background heat radiation and that given by a moving heat source. A single
pyroelectric sensor would not be capable of this and so a dual element is used (figure 1.34). One form has
the sensing element with a single front electrode but two,
separated, back electrodes. The result is two sensors which
can be connected so that when both receive the same heat
signal their outputs cancel. When a heat source moves so that
the heat radiation moves from one of the sensing elements to
the other, then the resulting current through the resistor
alternates from being first in one direction and then reversed
to the other direction.

Fig 1.34 Dual pyroelectric sensor

FORCE

A spring balance is an example of a force sensor in which a force a weight, is applied to the
scale pan and causes a displacement, i.e. the spring stretches. The displacement is then a measure of the
force. Forces are commonly measured by the measurement of displacements, the following method
illustrating this.

STRAIN GAUGE LOAD CELL

A very commonly used form of force-measuring transducer is based on the use of electrical
resistance strain gauges to monitor the strain produced in some member when stretched, compressed or
bent by the application of the force .The arrangement is generally referred to as a load cell. Figure 1.35
shows an example of such a cell.

This is a cylindrical tube to which strain gauges have been attached. When forces are
applied to the cylinder to compress it, then the strain gauges give a resistance change which is a measure

28 | P a g e
of the strain and hence the applied forces. Since temperature also produces a resistance change, the
signal conditioning circuit used has to be able to eliminate the effects due to temperature. Typically such
load cells are used for forces up to about 10MN, the non-linearity error being about ±0.03% of full range,
hysteresis error ±0.02% of full range and repeatability error ±0.02% of full range. Strain gauge load cells
based on the bending of a strain-gauged metal element tend to be used for smaller forces, e.g. with ranges
varying from 0 to 5 N up to 0 to 50 KN. Errors are typically a non- linearity error about ±0.03% of full
range, hysteresis error ±0.02% of full range and repeatability error ±0.02% of full range.

Fig 1.35 Strain gauge

FLUID PRESSURE

Chemical, petroleum, power industry often need to monitor fluid pressure. Various types of
instruments such as diaphragms, capsules, and bellows are used to monitor the fluid pressure. The types
of pressure measurement that can be required are; absolute pressure where the pressure is measured
relative to zero pressure, differential pressure where a pressure difference is measured and gauge pressure
where the pressure is measured relative to the barometric pressure.

For a diaphragm when there is difference in pressure between the two sides then the centre
of the diaphragm becomes displaced. Corrugations in diaphragm result in greater sensitivity. This
movement can be monitored by some form of displacement sensor like strain gauge. A typical arrangement
of strain gauges on a diaphragm is shown in figure 1.36.1.

Figure 1.36.1 Diaphragm pressure gauge

29 | P a g e
 Application of pressurized fluid displaces the diaphragm. This displacement is measured
by the strain gauges in terms of radial and/or lateral strains. These strain gauges are connected to form
the arms of a Wheatstone bridge. Specially designed strain gauges doped in diaphragms are generally used
to measure the inlet manifold pressure in applications such as automobiles.
Capsule is formed by combining two corrugated diaphragms. It has enhanced
sensitivity in comparison with that of diaphragms. Figure 1.36.2(a), (b) shows a schematic of a Capsule
and a Bellow. A stack of capsules is called as ‘Bellows’. Bellows with a LVDT sensor measures the fluid
pressure in terms of change in resultant voltage across the secondary coils of LVDT. Figure 1.36.2(c)
shows a typical arrangement of the same. Diaphragms, capsules and bellows are made from such
materials as stainless steel, phosphor bronze and nickel, with rubber and nylon also used for some
diaphragm. Pressures in the range of about 103 to 108 Pa can be monitored with such sensors.

Figure1.36.2 (a) capsule, (b) bellows

Figure 1.36.2 (c) LVDT with bellows

TACTILE SENSOR:

In general, tactile sensors are used to sense the contact of fingertips of a robot with an
object. They are also used in manufacturing of ‘touch display’ screens of visual display units (VDUs) of
CNC machine tools. Figure 1.37 shows the construction
of piezo-electric polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF) based
tactile sensor. It has two PVDF layers separated by a
soft film which transmits the vibrations. An alternating
current is applied to lower PVDF layer which generates
vibrations due to reverse piezoelectric effect. These
vibrations are transmitted to the upper PVDF layer via
soft film. These vibrations cause alternating voltage
across the upper PVDF layer. When some pressure is
applied on the upper PVDF layer the vibrations gets
affected and the output voltage changes. This triggers a
switch or an action in robots or touch displays.

Fig 1.37 Tactile Sensors

30 | P a g e
PIEZO ELECTRIC SENSORS:

Piezo electric materials when stretched or compressed generate electric charges with one
face of the material becoming positively charged and the opposite face negatively charged (Fig 1.38). As a
result voltage is produced. It contains piezoelectric ionic crystal materials such as Quartz which when
stretched or compressed result in the charge distribution in the crystal changing so that there is net
displacement of charge with one face of the material becoming positively charged and the other negatively
charged. The net charge q on the surface is proportional to the amount x by which the charges have been
displaced. The displacement is proportion to force. Therefore we can write,

q = kx = SF

Where k is constant and S is a constant termed the charge sensitivity. The charge sensitivity is depends
on the material concerned and the orientation on crystals.

Figure 1.38 Piezo Electric Sensors

Piezoelectric sensor is used for the measurement of pressure, acceleration and dynamic-
forces such as oscillation, impact, or high speed compression or tension. The applications have, however,
to be such that the charge produced by the pressure does not have much time to leak off and thus tends
to be used mainly for transient rather than steady pressure.

LIQUID FLOW

Liquid flow is generally measured by applying the Bernoulli’s principle of fluid flow through
a constriction. The quantity of fluid flow is computed by using the pressure drop measured. The fluid flow
volume is proportional to square root of pressure difference at the two ends of the constriction. There are
various types of fluid flow measurement devices being used in manufacturing automation such as Orifice
plate, Turbine meter etc.

ORIFICE METER

Figure 1.39 shows a schematic of Orifice plate device. It has a disc with a hole at its center,
through which the fluid flows. The pressure difference is measured between a point equal to the diameter
of the tube upstream and a point equal to the half the diameter downstream. Orifice plate is inexpensive

31 | P a g e
and simple in construction with no moving parts. It exhibits nonlinear behavior and does not work with
slurries.

Figure 1.39 Orifice plate

Figure 1.40 Turbine meter

TURBINE METER

Turbine flow meter has a multi blade rotor mounted centrally in the pipe along which the
flow is to be measured. Figure 1.40 shows the typical arrangement of the rotor and a magnetic pick up
coil. The fluid flow rotates the rotor. Accordingly the magnetic pick up coil counts the number of magnetic
pulses generated due to the distortion of magnetic field by the rotor blades. The angular velocity is
proportional to the number of pulses and fluid flow is proportional to angular velocity.

LIQUID LEVEL

The level of liquid in a vessel can be measured directly by monitoring the position of the liquid surface or
indirectly by measuring some variable related to the height.

Direct method  Float

Indirect method  Differential Pressure

Indirect methods include the monitoring of the weight of the vessel by, perhaps, load cells. The weight of
the liquid is Ahg, where A is the Cross-sectional area of the vessel, h the height of liquid,  its density
and g the acceleration due to gravity. Thus changes in the height of liquid give weight changes. More
commonly, indirect methods involve the measurement of the pressure at some point in the liquid; the
pressure due to a column of liquid of height h being hg, where  is the liquid density.

FLOATS

A direct method of monitoring the level of liquid in a vessel is by monitoring the movement
of a float. Figure1.41 illustrates this with a simple float system. The displacement of the float causes a
lever arm to rotate and so move a slider across a potentiometer. The result is an output of a voltage related
to the height of liquid. Other forms of this involve the lever causing the core in an LVDT to become
displaced, or stretch or compress a strain-gauged element.

32 | P a g e
 Fig 1.41 Float system Fig 1.42 Using a differential pressure sensor

DIFFERENTIAL PRESSURE

Figure 1.42 shows two forms of level measurement based on the measurement of
differential pressure. In Figure 1.42 (a), the differential pressure cell determines the pressure difference
between the liquid at the base of the vessel and atmospheric pressure, the vessel being open to
atmospheric pressure. With a closed or open vessel the system illustrated in (b) can be used. The
differential pressure cell monitors the difference in pressure between the base of the vessel and the air or
gas above the surface of the liquid.

TEMPERATURE SENSORS

Changes that are commonly used to monitor the temperature are the expansion or
contraction of solids, liquids or gases, the change in electrical resistance of conductors and semi-
conductors and thermo electric e.m.f.s. the following are some of the methods that are commonly used
with the temperature control systems.

BIMETALLICSTRIPS

This device consists of two different metal strips bonded

together. The metals have different coefficients of
expansion and when the temperature changes the
composite strip bends into a curved strip, with the
higher coefficient metal on the outside of the curve. This
deformation may be used as a temperature controlled
switch, as in the simple thermostat which was
commonly used with domestic heating systems. The
small magnet enables the sensor to exhibit hysteresis,
meaning that the switch contacts close at a different
temperature from that at which they open.

Fig 1.43 Bimetallic thermostat

33 | P a g e
RESISTANCE TEMPERATURE DETECTORS (RTDS)

The resistance of most metals increases, over a limited temperature range, in a reasonably linear way with
temperature. For such a linear relationship:

Rt= R0 (1 + t)

Where Rt, is the resistance at a temperature t (°C), R0

the resistance at 0°C and  a constant for the metal
termed the temperature coefficient of resistance.
Resistance temperature detectors (RTDs) are simple
resistive elements in the form of coils of wire of such
metals as platinum, nickel or nickel-copper alloys;
platinum is the most widely used. Thin-film platinum
elements are often made by depositing the metal on a
suitable substrate, wire-wound elements involving a
platinum wire held by a high-temperature glass
adhesive inside a ceramic tube. Such detectors are
highly stable and give reproducible responses over long
periods of time. They tend to have response times of the
order of 0.5 to 5 s or more.

Fig 1.44 Variation of resistance with

temperature for metals

Fig 1.44.2 Construction of RTD

34 | P a g e
THERMISTORS

Thermistors are small pieces of material made from mixtures of metal oxides, such as those
of chromium, cobalt, iron, manganese and nickel.
These oxides are semiconductors. The material is
formed into various forms of element, such as beads,
discs and rods.

Thermistors have many advantages

when compared with other temperature sensors. They
are rugged and can be very small, so enabling
temperatures to be monitored at virtually a point.
Because of their small size they respond very rapidly
to changes in temperature. They give very large
changes in resistance per degree change in
temperature. Their main disadvantage is their non-
linearity. Thermistors are used with the electronic
systems for cars to monitor such variables as air
temperature and coolant air temperature.

Fig 1.45 Thermistors

THERMOCOUPLE

If two different metals are joined together, a potential difference occurs across the junction.
The potential difference depends on the metals used and the temperature of the junction. A thermocouple
is a complete circuit involving two such junctions.

Fig 1.46 (a) thermocouple, (b) Thermoelectric e.m.f.s-Temperature graphs

35 | P a g e
 If both junctions are at the same temperature there is no net e.m.f. If, however, there is a
difference in temperature between the two junctions, there is an e. m. f. The value of this e m. f. E depends
on the two metals concerned and the temperatures t of both junctions. Usually one junction is held at 0°C
and then, to a reasonable extent, the following relationship holds:

E = at + bt2

Where a and b are constants for the metals concerned.

Commonly used thermocouples are shown in the table 1.1, with the temperature ranges
over which they are generally used and typical sensitivities. These commonly used thermocouples are
given reference letter. For example, the iron-constantan thermocouple is called a type J thermocouple.
Fig1.46 (b) shows how the e.m.f.s varies with temperature for a number of commonly used pairs of metals.

Table 1.1 Thermocouples

A thermocouple circuit can have other metals in the circuit and they will have no effect on
the thermoelectric e.m.f. provided all their junctions are at the same temperature. This is known as the
law of intermediate metals.

A thermocouple can be used with the reference junction at a temperature other than 0°C.
The standard tables, however, assume a 0°C junction and hence a correction has to be applied before the
tables can be used. The correction is applied using what is known as the law of intermediate
temperatures, namely

Et,0 = Et,I +EI,0

A compensation circuit can, however, be used to provide an e.m.f. which varies with the
temperature of the cold junction in such a way that when it is added to the thermocouple e.m.f. it
generates a combined e.m.f. which is the same as would have been generated if the cold junction had been
at 0°C (Figure 1.47). The compensating e.m.f can be provided by the voltage drop across a resistance
thermometer element.

36 | P a g e
 Figure 1.47 Cold Junction Compensation
LIGHT SENSOR:

PHOTODIODES:

Fig 1.48 Photodiodes

Photodiodes are semiconductor junction diodes which are connected into a circuit in reverse bias,
so giving a very high resistance. With no incident light, the reverse current is almost negligible and is
termed the dark current. When light falls on the junction, extra hole-electron pairs are produced and there
is an increase in the reverse current and the diode resistance drops. The reverse current is very nearly
proportional to the intensity of light.

PHOTOTRANSISTORS

The phototransistors have a light-sensitive

collector-base p-n junction. When there is no incident
light there is a very small collector-to-emitter current.
When light is incident, a base current is produced that is
directly proportional to the light intensity. This leads to
the production of a collector current which is then to
measure light intensity. Phototransistors are often
available as integrated packages with the phototransistor
connected in a Darlington arrangement with a
conventional transistor. Because this arrangement gives
Fig 1.49 Photo Darlington

a higher current gain, the device gives a much greater collector current for a given light intensity.
37 | P a g e
PHOTORESISTOR:

A photo resistor has a resistance which depends on the intensity of light falling on it,
decreasing linearly as the intensity increases. The cadmium sulphide photo resistor is most responsive to
light having wavelength shorter than about 515 nm and the cadmium selinide photo resistor for
wavelength less than about 700 nm.

An array of light sensors is often required in a small space in order to determine the
variations of light intensity across that space. An example of this is in the digital camera to capture the
image being photographed and convert it into a digital form. For this purpose a charged-coupled device
(CCD) is often used. A CCD is a light-sensitive arrangement of small light sensitive cells called pixels.
These cells are basically p-type layer silicon separated by a depletion layer from n-type silicon layer.

When exposed to light, a cell becomes electrically charged and this charge is converted into
an 8-bit digital number. In taking a photograph the digital camera electronic circuitry discharges the light-
sensitive cells, activates an electromechanical shutter to expose the cells to the image, then reads the 8-bit
charge value for each cell and so capture the image.

Since the p-n cells are color blind and we need color photographs, the light passes through
a color filter matrix before striking the cells. This allows just green light to fall on some cells, blue on some
cells and red on others. Then, by later taking account of the output from neighboring cells, a color image
can be created.

SELECTION OF SENSORS:

In selecting a sensor for a particular application there are a number of factors that need to be
considered:

 The nature of the measurement required, e.g. the variable to be measured its nominal value,
the range of values, the accuracy required, the required speed of measurement, the reliability
required, the environmental conditions under which the measurement is to be made.
 The nature of the output required from the sensor, this determining the signal conditioning
requirements in order to give suitable output signals from the measurement.
 Then possible sensors can be identified, taking into account such factors has their range,
accuracy, linearity, speed of response, reliability, maintainability, life, power supply
requirements, ruggedness, availability, cost.

The selection of sensor cannot be taken in isolation from a consideration of the form of output that is
required from the system after signal conditioning. And thus there has to be a suitable marriage between
sensor and signal conditioner.

Example:

Consider the selection of sensor for the measurement of the level of a corrosive acid in a vessel. The
level can vary from 0 to 2m in a circular vessel diameter 1m. The empty vessel weight 100kg. Minimum
variation in level to be detected is 10cm. Acid density 1050kg/m3. The output from the sensor is to be
electrical.

38 | P a g e
 Load cells would give an electrical output. The weight of the liquid changes from 0 when empty to,
when full, 1050 X 2 X π (12/4) X 9.8 = 16.2kN. Adding this to the weight of the empty vessel gives a weight
that varies from about 1 to 17 kN. The resolution required is for a change of a level of 10cm, i.e. a change
in weight of 0.10 X 1050 X π (12/4) X 9.8 = 0.8 kN. If three load cells are used to support the tank then
each will require a range of about 0 to 6 kN. With resolution of 0.27kN. Manufacturer’s catalogues can
then be consulted to see if such load cells can be obtained.

39 | P a g e