DCFM
DCFM
Fan-out:
The fan-out is defined as the maximum number of inputs that can be connected to the output of a
gate without degrading the normal operation.
Fan Out is calculated from the amount of current available in the output of a gate and the amount
of current needed in each input of the connecting gate.
Noise Margin: In communications system engineering, noise margin is the ratio by which the
signal exceeds the minimum acceptable amount. It is normally measured in decibels.
Ans:
Que) Difference between Satic & Dynamic RAM.
Ans:
RAM :
Advantages:
Price
Capacity
Size
Varying power consumption
DRAM
The capacitor can either be charged or discharged; these two states are taken to represent the two
values of a bit, conventionally called 0 and 1.
The electric charge on the capacitors slowly leaks off, so without intervention the data on the chip
would soon be lost.
To prevent this, DRAM requires an external memory refresh circuit which periodically rewrites
the data in the capacitors, restoring them to their original charge.
ROM
The memory from which we can only read but cannot write on it.
PROM
Its programmable ROM (programmable read-only memory) is a computer memory chip that can
be programmed once after it has been created.
Once the PROM has been programmed, the information written is permanent and cannot be
erased or deleted.
EPROM
If exposed to ultraviolet light, an EPROM can be reprogrammed if needed, but otherwise does not
accept or save any new data.
EPROM chips are not used in computers and have been replaced by EEPROM chips.
EEPROM
Electrically erasable programmable read-only memory, EEPROM is a PROM that can be erased
and reprogrammed using an electrical charge.
The only advantage to ROMs are that it doesn’t lose it contents when you lose power.
e.g. in your TV set, it may include the entire program in the ROM. In some cases, ROMs
may use less power as well.
UNIT-6 FUNDAMENTAL OF MICROPROCESSOR
ARCHITECTURE OF 8085
The architecture of 8085 microprocessor mainly includes the timing & control unit, Arithmetic
and logic unit, decoder, instruction register, interrupt control, a register array, serial input/output
control. The most important part of the microprocessor is the central processing unit.
Accumulator
It is an 8-bit register used to perform arithmetic, logical, I/O & LOAD/STORE operations. It is
connected to internal data bus & ALU.
Program counter
It is a 16-bit register used to store the memory address location of the next instruction to be
executed.
Stack pointer
It is also a 16-bit register works like stack, which is always incremented/decremented by 2
during push & pop operations.
Temporary register
It is an 8-bit register, which holds the temporary data of arithmetic and logical operations.
Flag register
It is an 8-bit register having five 1-bit flip-flops, which holds either 0 or 1 depending upon the
result stored in the accumulator.
Sign (S)
Zero (Z)
Parity (P)
Carry (C)
There are 5 interrupt signals in 8085 microprocessor: INTR, RST 7.5, RST 6.5, RST 5.5,
TRAP.
Address bus
A15-A8, it carries the most significant 8-bits of memory/IO address.
Data bus
AD7-AD0, it carries the least significant 8-bit address and data bus.
Control and status signals
These signals are used to identify the nature of operation. There are 3 control signal and 3 status
signals.
RD − This signal indicates that the selected IO or memory device is to be read and is
ready for accepting data available on the data bus.
WR − This signal indicates that the data on the data bus is to be written into a selected
memory or IO location.
ALE − It is a positive going pulse generated when a new operation is started by the
microprocessor. When the pulse goes high, it indicates address. When the pulse goes
down it indicates data.
IO/M
This signal is used to differentiate between IO and Memory operations, i.e. when it is high
indicates IO operation and when it is low then it indicates memory operation.
S1 & S0
These signals are used to identify the type of current operation.
Power supply
There are 2 power supply signals − VCC & VSS. VCC indicates +5v power supply and VSS
indicates ground signal.
Clock signals
There are 3 clock signals, i.e. X1, X2, CLK OUT.
X1, X2 − A crystal (RC, LC N/W) is connected at these two pins and is used to set
frequency of the internal clock generator. This frequency is internally divided by 2.
CLK OUT − This signal is used as the system clock for devices connected with the
microprocessor.
Interrupts & externally initiated signals
Interrupts are the signals generated by external devices to request the microprocessor to perform
a task. There are 5 interrupt signals, i.e. TRAP, RST 7.5, RST 6.5, RST 5.5, and INTR.
RESET IN − This signal is used to reset the microprocessor by setting the program
counter to zero.
RESET OUT − This signal is used to reset all the connected devices when the
microprocessor is reset.
READY − This signal indicates that the device is ready to send or receive data. If
READY is low, then the CPU has to wait for READY to go high.
HOLD − This signal indicates that another master is requesting the use of the address
and data buses.
HLDA (HOLD Acknowledge) − It indicates that the CPU has received the HOLD
request and it will relinquish the bus in the next clock cycle. HLDA is set to low after
the HOLD signal is removed.
SOD (Serial output data line) − The output SOD is set/reset as specified by the SIM
instruction.
SID (Serial input data line) − The data on this line is loaded into accumulator whenever a
RIM instruction is executed.
Addressing Modes in 8085
These are the instructions used to transfer the data from one register to another register, from
the memory to the register, and from the register to the memory without any alteration in the
content.
For example: LDB 5000K: means the data at address 5000K is copied to register B.
For example: MOV K, B: means data is transferred from the memory address pointed by the
register to the register K.
Interrupts are the signals generated by the external devices to request the microprocessor to
perform a task. There are 5 interrupt signals, i.e. TRAP, RST 7.5, RST 6.5, RST 5.5, and INTR.
Vector interrupt − In this type of interrupt, the interrupt address is known to the
Non-Vector interrupt − In this type of interrupt, the interrupt address is not known to
the processor so, the interrupt address needs to be sent externally by the device to
Maskable interrupt − In this type of interrupt, we can disable the interrupt by writing
Software interrupt − In this type of interrupt, the programmer has to add the
instructions into the program to execute the interrupt. There are 8 software interrupts in
8085, i.e. RST0, RST1, RST2, RST3, RST4, RST5, RST6, and RST7.
Hardware interrupt − There are 5 interrupt pins in 8085 used as hardware interrupts,
TRAP
It is a non-maskable interrupt, having the highest priority among all interrupts. By default, it is
enabled until it gets acknowledged. In case of failure, it executes as ISR and sends the data to
backup memory. This interrupt transfers the control to the location 0024H.
RST7.5
It is a maskable interrupt, having the second highest priority among all interrupts. When this
interrupt is executed, the processor saves the content of the PC register into the stack and
branches to 003CH address.
RST 6.5
It is a maskable interrupt, having the third highest priority among all interrupts. When this
interrupt is executed, the processor saves the content of the PC register into the stack and
branches to 0034H address.
RST 5.5
It is a maskable interrupt. When this interrupt is executed, the processor saves the content of the
PC register into the stack and branches to 002CH address.
INTR
It is a maskable interrupt, having the lowest priority among all interrupts. It can be disabled by
resetting the microprocessor.
When INTR signal goes high, the following events can occur −
The microprocessor checks the status of INTR signal during the execution of each
instruction.
When the INTR signal is high, then the microprocessor completes its current instruction
and sends active low interrupt acknowledge signal.