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 MODELLING AND COMPUTATION IN ENGINEERING

© 2011 by Taylor and Francis Group, LLC

 PROCEEDINGS OF THE INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON MODELLING AND
COMPUTATION IN ENGINEERING, CMCE 2010, HONG KONG, 6–7 NOVEMBER 2010

Modelling and Computation in

Engineering

Editor
Jinrong Zhu
North China Electric Power University, Beijing, China

© 2011 by Taylor and Francis Group, LLC

 Sponsored by Society for Resources, Environment and Engineering

CRC Press/Balkema is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business

© 2011 Taylor & Francis Group, London, UK

Typeset by MPS Limited, a Macmillan Company, Chennai, India

Printed and bound in Great Britain by Antony Rowe (A CPI Group Company),
Chippenham, Wiltshire

All rights reserved. No part of this publication or the information contained herein may be
reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means,
electronic, mechanical, by photocopying, recording or otherwise, without written prior
permission from the publisher.

Although all care is taken to ensure integrity and the quality of this publication and the
information herein, no responsibility is assumed by the publishers nor the author for any
damage to the property or persons as a result of operation or use of this publication
and/or the information contained herein.

Published by: CRC Press/Balkema

P.O. Box 447, 2300 AK Leiden, The Netherlands
e-mail: [email protected]
www.crcpress.com – www.taylorandfrancis.co.uk – www.balkema.nl

ISBN: 978-0-415-61516-7 (Hbk)

ISBN: 978-0-203-82985-1 (eBook)

© 2011 by Taylor and Francis Group, LLC

 Modelling and Computation in Engineering – Zhu (ed)
© 2011 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-61516-7

Table of Contents

Preface VII

Influence analysis of core rock construction in super large section and span tunnel 1
D. Zhou, L. Cao, Y. Ma & Z. Shi
Research on the application of BVP members in the seismic reduction technology for
core-outrigger structures 7
Z. Deng, F. Sun & G. Li
Relaxation modulus prediction of asphalt-rubber concrete based on micromechanics 13
N.S. Guo, Y.Q. Tan, Z.C. Wang & Y.H. Zhao
Effect of forward swept leading edge on a transonic axial compressor rotor stall margin 19
Y.F. Shi, H. Wu, M. Li, K. Mao & L.X. Chen
Research on inherent characteristics of the wind turbine tower based on field testing 23
R.L. Ma, Y.Q. Ma & H.Q. Liu
Map-matching algorithm based on the index mechanism 29
J. Zhai, H. Zhao, H. Mao & W. Sun
Laboratory model experiments on dynamic behavior of road structures under repeated traffic loads 33
Z. Lu, H. Yao, J. Liu & M. Hu
An agent-based distributed decision support system for fire rescue 39
Y. Wang, W. Shao & Y. Wang
Optimum analysis of construction sequences in super large section and span tunnel 45
D. Zhou, Y. Ma, L. Cao & Z. Shi
Force mechanism and nonlinear finite element analysis on the behavior of CFDSST
column-to-beam connections 51
Y. Li, Y.-B. He, J. Guo, H.-B. Zhou, P. Huang & B. Chen
Seismic isolation of the railway bridge with tall piers using controlled rocking approach 57
X. Xia, X. Chen & X. Li
Application of Miner’s Law to the remaining service life prediction of airport
cement concrete pavement 63
J.F. Liang, X.D. Zhang & Z.Q. Zhu
Structural robust design based on Info-Gap model 67
R. Xu, H. Tang & S. Xue
Mathematical modeling method of trawler equipped with CPP 73
X.-F. Sun, Y. Yin, H.-L. Shen & X.-Y. Zhang
Modeling preferential zone-regulated freshwater-saltwater mixing zone 79
Y.Q. Xia & M.C. Boufadel
Stability analysis of the built tunnel support affected by construction of overlapped
tunnel based on numerical simulation 85
J. Jia & H. Wang
Study on simulation test of heat transfer in unsaturated compacted red clay 89
Y.ZH. Tan, L.W. Kong & AI.G. Guo
Numerical simulation of free-space explosion based on LS-DYNA 95
L. Liu, Y. Yao, Y. Li & K. Xia

V
© 2011 by Taylor and Francis Group, LLC
 Dynamic response of harmonic plane compressional waves around a circular cavity in
liquid-filled solid half-space 101
L.F. Jiang, S.X. Chen & Z. Han
Unsaturated creep tests and empirical models of the sliding zone soils of the
Qianjiangping landslide in Three Gorges 107
S.M. Wang & X.L. Lai
Pounding effects of movable bearing on seismic behaviors of continuous girder bridges 113
W.L. Qiu, M. Jiang & L. Zhou
Research on transient state of ultrasonic feeding 119
L. Li & Q. He
Crack identification of multi-layer plane frames based on wavelet transform of rotation mode 123
D.-Q. Guan, N. Jiang & Y.-T. Dong
Research on lateral shearing deformation of asphalt pavement under heavy axle load 127
Y. Zhu, X. Kong & K. Wang
Theoretical explanation on the characteristics of earthquake induced landslides by
computation on model slopes 133
Y.-H. Lang & H. Nakamura
Energy and exergy analysis of air cooling systems with consideration of the thermal comfort 139
F.H. Ge, Q.S. Yu & C.Q. Wang
Application of soil-water characteristic curve taking stress influence into
considerations in unsaturated seepage analysis 147
Sh.M. Wang, H.B. Qin & G. Wang
Upper bound analysis and calculation comparison for rock slope stability with
Hoek–Brown failure criterion based on strength reduction technique 153
L.H. Zhao, D.P. Deng, F. Huang & Y.L. Lin
Study on contribution rate of equipment manufacturing industry to the Northeast
China’s economic increase 159
W. Shao, L. Chen & W. Zhou
Application of fiber wall element model in nonlinear analysis of steel high performance
concrete shear walls 165
L. Bai & X. Liang
Upper bound multi-rigid-body limit analysis on positive soil pressure based on the
slip-line field theory 171
L.H. Zhao, F. Yang, L. Li & J. Zhou
Fabrication and testing of frequency selective surface based on fabrics 177
C. Li, Q. Wang, Z. Tang, J. Han, M. Shi & M. Li
Apply grey relational analysis to microstructure and mechanical property of weld metal 181
L. Zhao, L.T. Yang & K.J. Dai
Optimum study on wind-induced vibration control by IGA 185
D.Y. Wang & Y. Zhou
Risk analysis of tunnel shield machine driving-in and driving-out construction process in
tunnelling engineering 191
D.L. Yang, R.J. Zheng & H.Z. Guo
Research on CPR parameters impact on hemodynamic effects based on mathematics model 197
L. Xu & X. Wu
Infinite element method for solving open boundary field problem and its application in
resitivity well-logging 203
Z. Tang, J. Yuan, J. Zhu & W. Yan

Author index 209

VI
© 2011 by Taylor and Francis Group, LLC
 Modelling and Computation in Engineering – Zhu (ed)
© 2011 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-61516-7

Preface

In recent years the theory and technology of modelling and computation in engineering has expanded rapidly,
and has been widely applied in various kinds of engineering projects. The 2010 International Conference on
Modeling and Computation in Engineering (CMCE Hong Kong, November 6–7, 2010), sponsored and hosted
by the Society for Resources, Environment and Engineering, provided a forum for discussion on this highly
topical subject. The 37 contributions selected from 130 submissions cover the state-of-the-art on a broad range
of topics, including:
– Tunnelling
– Seismic reduction technologies
– Wind-induced vibration control
– Asphalt-rubber concrete
– Open boundary field problems
A special word of thanks goes to all committee members and the editors from Taylor & Francis/ CRC Press /
Balkema for their excellent work. We hope that the book will attract much interest from academics, leading
engineers, industry researchers and scholar students in engineering and engineering-related disciplines.

Jinrong Zhu

VII
© 2011 by Taylor and Francis Group, LLC
 Modelling and Computation in Engineering – Zhu (ed)
© 2011 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-61516-7

Influence analysis of core rock construction in super large section

and span tunnel

Dingheng Zhou
Technical University of Munch, Munich, Germany

Liqiao Cao
China Railway Siyuan Survey and Design Group Co., Ltd, Hubei, China

Yongfeng Ma
China Petroleum East China Design Institute, Shandong, China

Zhan Shi
Tongji University, Shanghai, China

ABSTRACT: Different from normal tunnel, the mechanical behaviors of super large section tunnel with two
bores and eight lanes are more complex and the construction methods are also diversified. Based on the largest
four-lane super large section and span highway tunnel in China, the influence of core rock excavation and
temporary support dismantling in super large section and span tunnel is analyzed in detail with the numerical
analysis method. Some conclusions have been drawn. (1) During the construction of super large section and span
tunnel, the excavation of the core rock has a great effect on the deformation and stress state of the surrounding
rock and tunnel support. (2) When excavating the core rock and dismantling the temporary support, the stress
change of the zone above the inverted arch is larger than that of the inverted arch zone. (3) The effect on the
support stress in the left and right heading caused by the dismantling of temporary support is different and the
stress change of the left heading larger than that of the right heading. The experience and data presented in
the paper can be refereed in the design, construction and research of similar tunnels.

1 INTRODUCTION monitoring. And Zhou Dingheng made a detailed anal-

ysis of rock deformation based on in-situ test of super
Recently, many four-lane super large section tunnels large section and span tunnel. Based on one four-
have been built all over China to suit for multiply-lane lane tunnel, Liu Heng finished some research about
highway construction. There are some developments on the durability of tunnel structure. At present, the
about the stress, deformation and stability research on design and construction standard of super large sec-
rockmass and lining in four-lane super large section tion and span tunnels has not been formed and the
tunnels. As to theory analysis aspect, Qu Haifeng pro- related research is limited. Therefore, it is essential
posed a new load mode for large cross-section and low to do further research about four-lane tunnels. Except
flat-ratio tunnel. Some researchers such as Sun Xiang, that, due to the characteristics of large excavation span
Huang Lunhai, Wu Mengjun, Xu Chongbang and LI and low flat-ratio, the construction sequences conver-
Zhigang have done some work on numerical analy- sion is complicated and multiply blast has multiply
sis and model test. Those researches are mainly about disturbance to the surrounding rock. Especially, the
model test and numerical analysis of dynamic con- core rock stress is very complicated. Thus, there tends
struction process and the mechanical characteristics. to be many stability problems such as large section and
Except that, Yuan Yong proposed a pre-built and pre- tunnel collapse. Therefore, further research on super
stressed innovative support method for four-lane super large section and span tunnel is an important content of
large section tunnel and made a validation about the rock tunnels.
pre-built and prestressed structure. Huang Chengzao Based on the largest four-lane super large section
proposed cross anchor to control the deformation of and span rock tunnel in China, the effect on the pre-
core rock in four-lane tunnel. As for in-situ test on liminary lining safety caused by core rock excavation
four-lane tunnel, Chen Gengye analyzed the stress and temporary support dismantling is analyzed with
characteristics of four-lane tunnel based on stress site monitoring and numerical simulation methods.

1
© 2011 by Taylor and Francis Group, LLC
 Table 1. Physical-mechanical parameters.

Material γ/ kN·m−1 E/GPa µ ϕ/(◦ ) c/MPa

Gravelly 16.6 0.14 0.38 24.5 40

clayey
Completely 19 0.2 0.35 100 21
decomposed
granite
Highly 21 0.65 0.3 30 130
decomposed
granite
Weakly 26.1 2.5 0.21 1055 47.6
decomposed
granite Figure 2. Mesh division of model.
Backfill 25 1.0 0.2 1500 50

Table 2. Supporting structures parameters.

Support γ/
structure E/GPa (kN·m−1 ) A/m2 I /m4

System bolt 210 77 0.000491 /

Temporary bolt 210 77 0.000491 /
Preliminary 27.8 22 0.27 0.00164
lining
Secondary 31 26 0.6 0.018
lining

excavation, the model size is described as following.

The distance from the left or right boundary to the
Figure 1. Design construction sequence. tunnel is 3 times of the span and the distance from the
bottom boundary to the tunnel is also 3 times of tunnel
2 BACKGROUNDS span. The upper boundary is the ground surface. The
physical-mechanical parameters are listed in table 1.
The construction of this two bores and eight lanes tun- Because of the bad geotechnical condition and com-
nel began from January, 2005 to May, 2006, with the plicated rock stress field, the failure modes of rock
normal speed 100 km/h. The length of the left and right have diversity, such as tension rupture, brittle shear
line is 1010 m and 1006 m with the distance of two tun- failure or plastic failure. And those failure types are
nels 25 m. The rock includes second to fifth class rock regarded as plastic failure. Therefore, the ideal elasto-
with the maximum depth 98 m. The large excavation plastic model and Drucker-Prager yield criterion are
width and height are 20.7 m and 13.58 m. According to chosen in FEM analysis.
the engineering geological exploration, the rock layer Boundary-restraint condition: 2-dimenssion plane
is simple. The bedrock is granite intrusive mass with strain model is used in the numerical simulation with
the rock type monzonitic granite. The rock parameters the left and right boundary horizontal restraint and the
are listed in table 1. bottom boundary vertical restraint. And the top is free
The design construction sequence in soft rock is with restraint. The mesh division is shown in figure 2.
shown in figure 1. The firstly-excavated left head- The construction process is achieved by the ele-
ing and the secondly-excavated right heading can be ments provide by some commands such as “Excava-
divided into two parts. The excavation of the core rock tion”, “Backfill” and “Copy of linear material”. And
has three stages. The structure is composite lining with the rock and backfill are simulated by 4-point solid ele-
preliminary supports such as anchor bolt and steel ments. The anchor bolts, preliminary lining and spray
fiber reinforced concrete. Except that, other support concrete layer of core rock is simulated with 2-D bar
measures such the steel support and pre-grouting with element. As to the simulation of the secondary lining,
small ducts are also available. steel arch and temporary steel arch and horizontal sup-
port of core rock, the 2-D beam element is adopted.The
supporting structures parameters are listed in table 2.
3 NUMERICAL SIMULATION

3.1 Numerical model 3.2 Dynamic simulation of construction scheme

The K5 + 870 section has been chosen as the simu- The dynamic simulation process of tunnel construc-
lation section. According to the incidence of tunnel tion is: (1) upper-stage of left stage; (2) preliminary

2
© 2011 by Taylor and Francis Group, LLC
 Figure 3. Schematic diagram of displacement acquisition. Figure 4. Comparison of rock displacement near arch
crown.
lining and temporary support; (3) upper-stage of right
stage; (4) preliminary lining and temporary support;
(5) bottom-stage of right stage; (6) preliminary lin-
ing and temporary support; (7) secondary lining in
invert arch; (8) backfill; (9) bottom-stage of left
stage; (10) preliminary lining and temporary support;
(11) secondary lining in invert arch; (12) backfill;
(13) upper-part in core rock; (14) preliminary lining;
(15) middle-part in core rock; (16) temporary sup-
port dismantling of core rock; (17) bottom-part in core
rock; (18) preliminary lining; (19) secondary lining;
(20) backfill; (21) secondary lining of other parts.

4 NUMERICAL RESULTS ANALYSIS

Figure 5. Comparison of horizontal displacement of
4.1 Displacement analysis left side.

The effect of excavation and dismantling of core

rock can be reflected with the surrounding rock dis-
placement. The displacement of the feature points is
collected in numerical simulation. And the sign of
surrounding rock is accorded with that of the model
coordinate.

4.1.1 Rock displacement above the tunnel top

The crown settlement is an important index for sur-
rounding rock stability and safety evaluation of con-
struction. The rock displacement above the tunnel top
before and after the core rock excavation and tempo-
rary support dismantling is shown in figure 4. It can be
Figure 6. Comparison of horizontal displacement of
seen from figure 4 that the core rock excavation causes
right side.
a great change of the rock displacement. The displace-
ment change at the tunnel top is about 4 mm, which
is 90% of the former displacement. The displacement
decreases with the distance to the tunnel top the rock. convergence. Thus, the tunnel construction is benefit
Compared with excavation of core rock, the rock dis- to the deformation control of side walls.
placement caused by temporary support dismantling
is smaller. And the difference for different distance to 4.1.3 Ground subsidence
the tunnel top is not apparent. The ground subsidence before and after the core
rock excavation and temporary support dismantling
4.1.2 Horizontal displacement is shown in figure 7. The ground subsidence change
The horizontal displacement of line b and c in fig- of the midline is the largest. The subsidence change
ure 3 is shown in figure 5 and 6. Based on figure caused by excavation of core rock is about 2 mm. The
5 and 6, it can be drawn that the core rock excava- ground subsidence at the both side become small with
tion and temporary support dismantling can reduce the distance from that point to the midline. As same
the horizontal displacement and control the horizontal as rock displacement above the tunnel top, the ground

3
© 2011 by Taylor and Francis Group, LLC
 Figure 7. Comparison of surface settlement.

subsidence caused by the dismantling of temporary

support is small.
Based on the numerical analysis of rock displace-
ment above the top, rock displacement in side wall
direction and ground subsidence results, it can be
drawn that the excavation of core rock causes a great
change of surrounding rock displacement. Except that,
the displacement change above the tunnel top is larger
than the displacement change in the side wall direc-
tion. Thus, the rock deformation should be controlled
during the core rock construction in super large sec-
tion and span tunnel and the key point to deformation
control is the top deformation.

4.2 Stress analysis

The effect of different construction procedures can be
reflected by the rock stress distribution, the force of
the preliminary lining and secondary lining. There-
fore, the state of the rock stress distribution, the force
of the preliminary lining and secondary lining before
and after the core rock excavation and temporary
support dismantling are compared in the following.

4.2.1 Rock stress

The change of rock stress state before and after excava-
tion of core rock and dismantling of temporary support
is shown in figure 8. Comparing figure 8(a) and 8(b),
the core rock excavation caused a larger change of rock
stress. Before core rock excavation, stress concentra-
tion appears at the top of the left and right hole and Figure 8. Stress of core rock excavation and support dis-
the backfill zone of two holes is in extremely small mantling.
tension stress condition. After core rock excavation,
the rock stress state change greatly. The stress con-
centration at the top of the left and right hole has been 4.2.2 Stress of support structure
controlled with the concentration zone smaller. But the The support stress of the feature points is collected in
rock stress level is improved and tension stress appears numerical simulation (figure 9). With the axial force
at the top of the left hole. After core rock excavation, as the subject, the effect on support structure stress
the anchor bolts are construction and the rock stress caused by core rock excavation and temporary sup-
are better controlled with no apparent change (fig- port dismantling is analyzed. The axial force of the
ure 8(c)). Comparing figure 8(c) and 8(d), the rock preliminary lining before and after core rock exca-
stress changes with a certain extent. While compared vation and temporary support dismantling is listed in
with excavation procedure, the change is smaller. The table 3. It can be seen from table 3 that the support
apparent change is that the tension zone at the top of structure stress change greatly and the change caused
left hole reduces. Except that, the stress state of the by excavation procedure is larger than that of disman-
down-stage of core rock changes a littlie. tling procedure. Except that, the effect on the support

4
© 2011 by Taylor and Francis Group, LLC
 stress monitoring should be strengthened to ensure
the tunnel construction safety.
(2) When doing core rock excavation and temporary
support dismantling, the rock displacement at the
tunnel top is large and the horizontal displacement
of side wall is small. Thus, the crown settlement
monitoring should be strengthened and the crown
settlement control should be paid attention to.
(3) During the construction of super large section and
span tunnel, the stress change above the inverted
arch caused by excavation and dismantling is
greatly larger than that of inverted arch zone. The
support dismantling has different influence on left
Figure 9. Schematic diagram of stress acquisition. and right hole with the construction effect on the
support stress of the left hole larger than that of the
right hole. Therefore, the control of support stress
Table 3. Comparison of internal force in lining (kN) in the upper stage zone should be strengthened,
especially the stress change during temporary sup-
Stress No Stage-1 Stage-2 Stage-3 Stage-4 port dismantling to ensure the preliminary lining
bears load effectively .
1 259 381 491 602
2 310 638 779 934
3 168 534 670 828
4 349 486 556 571
REFERENCES
5 510 864 1020 1136
Chengzao H, Zongxue Y & Xiaorong Z (2007). Cross anchor
6 511 942 1101 1267
and its application in the fracture zone in highway tunnel.
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8 119 150 170 172
3(5): 923–927.
9 91 34 −56 −71
Chongbang X, Caichu X & Hehua Z (2009). Optimum anal-
10 224 558 676 816
ysis of construction scheme of multi-arch tunnel with
11 133 183 198 192
eight traffic lane. Chinese Journal of Rock Mechanics and
12 133 −24 9 −16
Engineering 28(1): 66–73.
13 / / 113 211
Dingheng Z, Haifeng Q & Yongchang C et al. (2009). In-situ
test on surrounding rock deformation of super large sec-
tion and span tunnel. Chinese Journal of Rock Mechanics
and Engineering 8(9):1773–1782.
structure stress caused by core rock excavation is dif- Gengye C, Bin L & Wan Mingfu et al. (2005). Analysis of
stress monitoring of a large-span highway tunnel in Han-
ferent with different positions. The stress change above jiangling mountain. Chinese Journal of Rock Mechanics
the inverted arch is larger than that of inverted arch and Engineering 24(Supplement 2):5509–5515.
zone. The change difference of support structure stress Lunhai H, Wei L & Mengjun W (2007). Model test on single
of the left and right hole is not apparent. It means the four-lane highway tunnel excavation. Highway Tunnel (4):
excavation effect on two holes is not apparently dif- 10–15.
ferent. As same as excavation procedure, the stress Mengjun W & Lunhai H (2006). Research on dynamic
change above the inverted arch is larger than that of construction mechanics of four-lane highway tunnel. Chi-
inverted arch zone. But the dismantling procedure has nese Journal of Rock Mechanics and Engineering 25
different influence on the support stress between the (Supplement 1): 3057–3062.
Mingfu W, Zhe H & Jianping L et al. (2007). Analysis of
left and right hole. stability about excavation and support of super-span road
tunnel. Journal of Liaoning Technical University (Natural
Science 26(1):71–73.
5 CONCLUSIONS Mingfu W, Hong H & Bin L (2007). Investigation on exca-
vating a 4-lane road tunnel through indoor model test,
Based on the displacement and stress simulation Journal of Northeastern University (Natural Science)
before and after core rock excavation and temporary 28(2):266–269.
Yong Y & Shenghui W (2008). Numerical modeling of pre-
support dismantling, the experience and data presented built and prestressed innovative support system for super
in the paper can be refereed in the design, construction cross-section highway tunnel with lower flat-ratio. Rock
and research of super large section and span tunnels. and Soil Mechanics 29(1): 240–244.
(1) During the construction of super large section and Zhigang L, Wenqi D & Zhongcun Y (2007). Simulation and
analysis of core rock in flat and large span highway tunnel.
span tunnel, based on the displacement and stress Chinese Journal of Underground Space and Engineering
results, the core rock excavation has a great influ- 3(4): 627–632.
ence on the deformation and stress of rock and
lining. That procedure is the key point of tunnel
construction control. Thus, the deformation and

5
© 2011 by Taylor and Francis Group, LLC
 Modelling and Computation in Engineering – Zhu (ed)
© 2011 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-61516-7

Research on the application of BVP members in the seismic reduction

technology for core-outrigger structures

Zhongliang Deng
Building Department, College of Civil engineering, Tongji University, Shanghai China

Feifei Sun & Guoqiang Li

Building Department, College of Civil engineering, Tongji University, Shanghai China
State Key Laboratory for Disaster Reduction in Civil Engineering, Tongji University, Shanghai, China

ABSTRACT: The core-outrigger structure is an excellent and efficient structure style, especially for the super
high-rise building, however, the arrangement of outriggers causes the stiffness break inevitably, which will be the
potential hazard in the earthquake. The mature and wide application of energy dissipation technology provides
a reasonable solution for the defect of core-outrigger structures. This paper proposes a new seismic reduction
technology (BVP) for the core-outrigger structure, which lays the buckling-restrained brace (BRB) with the
viscous damper as the buckling-restrained column (BRC) in parallel, this specific structural assembly will be
arranged below the outrigger, which connects with exterior columns in series. The stiffness break alleviation
mechanism of BVP installed in the core-outrigger structure is also analyzed. One practical projects applied
with three seismic reduction plan are compared, which contains the one with the parallel dissipation structural
assembly of BRB and the viscous damper (BVPS), the one with viscous dampers located below the outrigger
near the exterior column (VDS) and the original common core-outrigger structure (CCOS). By comparing the
different reaction of the three models by using IDA method (Incremental dynamic analysis method), the different
seismic reduction effect could be achieved in different intensity region.

1 INTRODUCTION

The core-outrigger structure (COS) is an efficient lat-

eral resistant system, which had been widely used
in the super high buildings, such as: global financial
center in Shanghai (492 m), Jinmao building (421 m),
and abuilding Shanghai Center (680 m), etc. How-
ever, the arrangement of outriggers causes the stiffness
break, which may be the potential danger in the rare
earthquake. In addition, the setting of multi-defensive
line for COS is rather difficult (Li Guoqiang, et al.). Figure 1. Schematic diagram: Deformation of COS under
Energy dissipation technology is kind of passive con- lateral load.
trol measures for structures, which uses some specific
members to dissipate energy inputted by the earth- 3 MECHNANICAL PROPERTY OF BVP
quake, consequently, the main structure is protected
(T.T Song). BVP consists of BRB and VD in parallel, as in figure
2, the basic property of BRB is simulated by using
double-linear model, in which α is the post stiffness
2 SEISMIC REDUCTION STRATEGY FOR COS ratio, α = 0.01∼0.02, Fb,y is yielding capacity of BRB,
Fb,max is the ultimate capacity, ub,y , ub,max is yielding
The author proposes a new seismic reduction method and ultimate displacement of BRB respectively, kb is
for COS by combining the BRB and viscous damper. elastic stiffness, kb is the secondary stiffness, kb∗ is the
Since the stiffness of outriggers is rather larger, the equivalent linear stiffness. kd is the lost stiffness of VD.
deformation of COS under lateral loads mainly con- According to the figure 3, the mechanical property
centrated on the exterior column, as illustrated in the of BVP can be presented:
figure 1. Consequently, the position between outrig-
gers and exterior columns is the most optimal location
of energy dissipation members.

7
© 2011 by Taylor and Francis Group, LLC
 Figure 2. The BVP model.

Figure 4. Simplified analysis diagram for stiffness break in

the COS.

Equation (6) indicates that the magnitude of shear-

ing break depends on the stiffness and the height of
the outrigger. BRB in the BVP can buckled in some
Figure 3. Hysteresis loop of BVP. kind of
earthquake, which decreases stiffness, which
u means M becomes smaller, then the shearing break
In which, µD = µb = b,max
uy
is the ductility factor. and subsequent moment will be reduced, then the
For simplification, the equation above can be dis- deformation is also reduce.
posed:
5 NUMERICAL EXAMPLE

According to the deformation style of COS, setting

energy dissipation members under the outrigger is an
efficient way to improve the seismic property of COS
Energy dissipated in one cycle ED : by applying passive energy dissipation technology.The
following analysis will be based on a numerical exam-
ple, in which two finite model of BVP and VD will be
analyzed and compared with the original COS model.
Maximal force: For simplification, the name of three models are as
follows:
(1) BVP is set under the outrigger (BVPS).
(2) Viscous damper is set under the outrigger (VDS).
In which, Cd is the coefficient of the damper. (3) Common core-outrigger structures (CCOS).

4 IMPROVEMENT MECHANISM OF THE 5.1 Project overview

STIFFNESS BREAK IN THE COS The core-outrigger structure consists of 39 floors, 148
meters; the core is composed with central brace frame.
Owing to the setting of outriggers changes the ver- Classification of design earthquake is the first group,
tical stiffness along the height, the stiffness break is the site classification is III, site intensity is 7degree
inevitable. As can be seen in the figure 4, the horizontal (0.1 g), two outriggers are located on the 19th and 35th
shearing force equilibrium can be obtained: floor respectively. The distance between grids of cen-
tral brace frame is 7.5 meters; the span of frame beam
is 9 meters. The component size of three models above
is listed in the table 1.
The couple equilibrium caused by the outrigger can
be got:
5.2 Model establishment and related parameters
The model is established in the SAP2000 V14. The
material of the whole structure is Q345. The BVP and
VD are designed according to the equivalent energy,
Then, which means the energy dissipated in one cycle of
BVP and VD is same. The damping coefficient of
VD is 3000 N · s/mm, the damping coefficient of VD
in the BVP is the same, BRB of BVP is design

8
© 2011 by Taylor and Francis Group, LLC
 Table 1. Components size.

Name of
components Location Size (mm)

Exterior columns Up 1200 × 1200 × 200

mid 1500 × 1500 × 200
bottom 1500 × 1500 × 250
Frame beam I400 × 300 × 12 × 8 Figure 6. Distribution of fiber hinges of
section.
Column Central I800 × 700 × 35 × 30
Beam brace frame I600 × 500 × 22 × 18
Brace I400 × 300 × 12 × 8
Beam Top I600 × 500 × 22 × 18
Brace outrigger I450 × 350 × 16 × 12
Beam Mid I600 × 500 × 22 × 18
Brace outrigger I450 × 350 × 16 × 12

Figure 7. Distribution of fiber hinges of I section.

Figure 8. Axial force hinges.

referred to figure 6 and figure 7. The length of plas-

tic zone on the beam and column is assumed as 8%
Figure 5. Analysis model. of the length of components. The plastic property of
brace is simulated by P hinge, whose hystersis rule
Table 2. Period comparison. is assumed as Takeda, and the skeleton curve can be
seen in the figure 8. This assumption is only to sim-
Period(s) 1 2 3 4 ulate the pinch phenomenon of brace approximately.
Although this assumption may not be exact to simulate
CCOS 2.647 0.823 0.420 0.271 the post-buckling behavior, however, it could provide
BVPS 2.891 0.897 0.437 0.282 approximate effect of brace in the earthquake.
VDS 4.277 1.176 0.590 0.525 Incremental Dynamic Analysis method (IDA) [16] is
a sort of parameter analysis method which was devel-
oped recently to evaluate the structural performance
as being ‘elastic in the mid-earthquake, plastic in under seismic ground motion.
the rare earthquake’, hence, the section of BRB is For COS, the lateral deformation is control by
I800 × 800 × 30 × 25. The VD and BRB are simu- moment and shear, the time consistence doesn’t exist
lated by the damper and plastic-wen model, in which like the frame structure, the former seismic index for
α = 0.02, the index of Bouc-Wen differential equation COS is selected and the relationship between maximal
is 2. story drift angle and PGA is also considered. The PGA
in this paper for IDA analysis is as follows: 220 gal,
400 gal, 620 gal, 800 gal, 900 gal.
5.3 Model analysis Owing to paper limit, only results of PGA = 900 gal
at the 20th s is chosen. Since the fiber hinge can
The vibration model of the 3 models is similar, whose not appear directly in the SAP2000, the P hinge
periods are listed in the table 2. can be got intuitively; hence, the structural damage
could be estimated by the combined results of P
hinge and fiber hinge. The P hinge of three models
5.4 Elasto-plastic time history and IDA analysis
can be seen from figure 9.  indicates the yielding
The elasto-plastic property of the frame is simulated by point,  indicates the hinge has lost its ultimate bear-
applying fiber hinges, for different sections of columns ing capacity, × indicates the hinge had lost its load
and beams, the distribution of fiber hinges can be capacity completely.

9
© 2011 by Taylor and Francis Group, LLC
 5.5 Deformation analysis increases. Figure 13 is the story drift angle ratio of the
maximal value above the mid-outrigger and the one
From figure 10∼12, the story drift angle of CCOS,
below the mid-outrigger (DF), which characterize the
BVPS and VDS could be found. The maximal story
deformation magnitude of the COS. For BVPS, the
drift angle appears at the 18th floor, where the damper
deformation is rather uniform, DF = 1. The deforma-
was located. In the figure 12, the floors near the
tion of VDS concentrates on the lateral drift of floors
outrigger are sensitive to be damaged. For BVPS,
above the mid-outrigger, hence, DF < 1. Detailed data
the deformation appears the proportional as the PGA
of the deformation of three models could be found in
the table 3.

Figure 9. The occurrence of plastic hinges of CCOS, BVPS,

VDS (PGA = 900 gal, t = 20 s).

Table 3. Summary of IDA analysis-deformation.

Figure 11. Story drift angles of BVPS.
Story drift angle
Top
Peak Occurring drift
PGA(gal) value floor DF (mm)

CCOS 220 1/412 10 1.44 241.2

400 1/252 7 1.53 410.2
620 1/92 5 2.69 812.8
800 1/81 5 2.36 1023
900 1/79 2∼5 2.27 1132
BVPS 220 1/386 18 1.40 323.9
400 1/303 18 1.03 574.1
620 1/185 18 1.03 899.9
800 1/134 25 9.63 1196
900 1/111 3 1.03 1400
VDS 220 1/224 20∼33 0.80 565.9
400 1/124 20∼33 0.79 1012
620 1/84 20∼33 0.77 1473 Figure 12. Story drift angles of VDS.
800 1/56 18 0.65 1903

Figure 10. Story drift angles of CCOS. Figure 13. PGA-story drift angle ratios.

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© 2011 by Taylor and Francis Group, LLC
 5.6 Mechanical analysis For further investigation of the mechanical property
of the models, the ratio of participation in the anti-
Figure 15 is the IDA curve: Maximal shear force
bending (RPAB) is defined as follows:
and maximal top drift, which illustrates that the rel-
RPAB=Maximal moment provided by the bottom
ative deformation of stories in VDS is nearly linear
columns/Total overturning moment.
with the PGA increases, and the maximal deformation
From the table 4, owing to paper limit, only results
occurs at the floor where the VD is located. CCOS’s
of PGA > 620 are chose, the base shearing forces and
curve turns at the PGA = 400 gal, while the maxi-
overturning moment accretes as the PGA increases.
mal story drift angle of BVPS equals to CCOS at
The incremental amplitude of mechanical behavior is
PGA = 400 gal, which is less than the CCOS and VDS
bigger than BVPS and VDS. The base shearing force
when PGA > 620 gal. Before PGA = 400 gal, the main
of BVPS is slightly larger than the one of VDS, when
structure of CCOS remains elastic. For fiber hinges of
PGA > 400 gal, the discrepancy is not observably. For
bottom beams and beams near the outrigger, where the
RPAB comparison, CCOS nearly is 57.6%, BVPS is
element becomes partial plastic, all the plastic hinge
about 40%, VDS is only 20%. Because of buckling
concentrates on the brace of the core.
of BRB, the anticipation ability of exterior columns
decreases nearly 20%.
The overturning moment and the shearing force of
BVPS is not significantly different, owing the antici-
pation of exterior columns in BVPS, the moment of
interior columns in BVPS reduces approximately 50%
compared with CCOS andVDS, the BVP could protect
the core from earthquake and reduces the degree of
damage of the core.

5.7 Hystersis loops

For comparing the hysteresis property of BVP and VD,
maximal energy dissipated in the hysteresis loop could
be found in the table 5. In the same seismic ground
motion, the BVP could provide much larger lost stiff-
Figure 14. PGA-story drift angles. ness and storage stiffness. In addition, the maximal
energy dissipated in the hysteresis loop of BVP and
VD are approximately consistent. For PGA = 400 gal,
the hysteresis loop of BVP and VD could be seen in
the figure 16.

6 CONCLUSIONS

The mechanical property of BVP and stiffness reduc-

tion mechanism for COS by applying BVP as well as
the a new seismic reduction technology is proposed
by the author, an actual engineering sample is com-
pared by CCOS, BVPS and VDS, then some available
conclusions could be obtained as follows:
(1) The seismic property of BVPS is the most excel-
Figure 15. IDA curve: Maximal shear force and maximal lent compared with CCOS and VDS, whose
top drift. overall and local deformation is controllable.

Table 4. Summary of IDA analysis-mechanical analysis.

Maximal base Total overturning Maximal axial force Maxima moment

PGA shearing force moment RPAB of interior columns of interior columns
(gal) (KN) (×108 N · m) (%) (KN) (N · m)

CCOS 800 7479 5.56 58.85 15617.63 10560000.00

900 7647 5.83 59.55 17421.47 11630000.00
BVPS 800 5083 4.43 37.72 17370.20 4073401.90
900 5544 4.87 37.63 17648.89 5788251.06
VDS 800 4677 4.26 19.90 23564.91 8200821.49
900 5110 4.29 23.02 22800.66 11410000.00

11
© 2011 by Taylor and Francis Group, LLC
 The deformation style is uniform along the build- Li, G.Q. 2004. Design of high-rise steel buildings. China
ing, no matter the arrangement of outriggers. Architecture & Building Press.
(2) BVP could make the exterior column partici- Lu, X.Z & Ye, L.P et al. 2009. Seismic elastic-plastic
pate overall anti-bending, and buckled timely in analysis-principles, model and practice on the ABAQUS,
MSC.MRC and SAP2000. China Architecture & Building
the rare earthquake, which protects the core and Pres.
relieves the harmful stiffness break effect to avoid Song, T.T & Dargush, G.F. 1997. Passive energy dissipation
the occurrence of weakness story, and elevate the systems in structural engineering. John Wiley & Sons.
seismic property. Smith, R & Willford, M. 2007. Damped outriggers for tall
(3) In conclusion, for existed projects, the seismic buildings. The Arup Journal.
plan of merely applying viscous dampers under Smith, R.J & Willford, M. R. 2007. The damped outrigger
the outrigger in the core-outrigger structure should concept for tall buildings. The structural design of tall
pay more attention to excessive deformation near and special buildings, 16: 501–517.
the stories of VD and the protection of the core. Seismic Design of Building (GB50011-2001). 2008. China
Architecture & Building Press.
Vamvatsikos, D & Comel A. 2002. Incremental dynamic
analysis. Earthquake Engineering and Structural Dyna-
REFERENCES mics, 31(3): 491–514.
Chen, F.S & Qiu, G.H & Fan. Z. 2004. Building Structures
Design (2nd Edition). China Building Industry Press.

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© 2011 by Taylor and Francis Group, LLC
 Modelling and Computation in Engineering – Zhu (ed)
© 2011 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-61516-7

Relaxation modulus prediction of asphalt-rubber concrete based

on micromechanics

N.S. Guo & Y.Q. Tan

School of Transportation Science and Engineering, Harbin Institute of Technology, Harbin, China

Z.C. Wang & Y.H. Zhao

Institute of Road and Bridge Engineering, Dalian Maritime University, Dalian, China

ABSTRACT: Crumb rubber modified asphalt concrete (CRMAC) has been found to be an effective material
comparing to the common asphalt concrete for its favorable engineering performance. Relaxation modulus
of asphalt concretes is one of the fundamental engineering properties. Although laboratory tests provide the
way to obtain the value of modulus of CRMAC, a predictive model based on the microstructure of CRMAC is
more desirable considering saving of energy source. A modified Mori-Tanaka’s theory for the effective moduli of
composite materials is used to establish the effective relaxation modulus of CRMAC. “Four-unit, five-parameter”
and Burgers models are employed to express the viscoelastic properties of asphalt concrete and crumb rubber
in the model, respectively. The relaxation modulus of CRMAC is then predicted with the newly developed
viscoelastic micromechanics model. Laboratory test results show that a discrepancy exists between the predicted
and measured relaxation modulus. The reasons for the discrepancy between the measured and predicted results
may be attributed to interface bonding, interaction of inclusions and matrix. Thus the studies on mechanical
properties of crumb rubber and microstructure characteristics of CRMAC are essential to be carried out to
obtain the satisfactory viscoelastic micromechanics model.

1 INTRODUCTION
five-parameter” model (Xu 1991) are employed to
Over 300 million vehicle tires have been generated depict the creep behavior of the asphalt concrete).Then
until 2010 in China. Of these, approximately 200 mil- the relaxation modulus can be determined from a sim-
lion are scrap tires and added to stockpiles, landfills, ple laboratory test. However, current research mainly
or illegal dumps (Ren et al. 2009). The alternative use focuses on the creep property by means of tests rather
of crumb rubber as an additive in asphalt concrete has than investigate the relaxation property of CRMAC.
been discussed and researched for the last 30 years.The There is much less viscoelastic theory analysis, espe-
crumb rubber modified asphalt concrete (CRMAC) cially relaxation property of CRMAC is necessary
can be broken down into wet and dry processes. The to know.
wet process means the crumb rubber as an additive Micromechanical models have been long used to
used in the asphalt binder, mixing of the crumb rubber analyze and predict the mechanical property of the
with the binder and allowing time for their reaction composite. Based on Mori-Tanaka’s theory, the effec-
prior to mixing with the aggregate. The dry process tive elastic moduli of a particle-reinforced composite
means rubber as an aggregate, simultaneous mixing with spherical inclusions are constituted by Weng
of the crumb rubber, the binder, and the aggregate. (1984). In addition, the effective elastic moduli of
Several researchers have proved that CRMAC have ribbon-reinforced composites are derived by Zhao &
favorable performance with respect to resistance to Weng (1990). Guo et al. (2006) have presented a
moisture damage, high temperature stability and resis- model to predict equivalent stiffness modulus of fiber-
tance to cracking at low temperature in laboratory tests reinforced asphalt concrete according to the model of
(Zhang et al. 2005). ribbon-reinforced composites. A developed microme-
It is well known that asphalt concrete is viscoelas- chanical model is proposed to investigate the vis-
tic material. The relaxation modulus is a fundamental coelastic property of fiber reinforced concrete. In the
engineering property that represents the rheological model, the fiber reinforced asphalt concrete is consid-
behavior of viscoelastic materials and the capacity ered as a two phases composite of asphalt concrete as
of asphalt pavement to resistance to cracking under the viscoelastic matrix and fiber as the elastic inclu-
low temperature. The interrelation between relaxation sion, and the “Four-unit, five-parameter” viscoelastic
modulus and creep compliance are available in the model is employed to describe creep properties of fiber
viscoelasticity models (Burgers model, “Four-unit, reinforced asphalt concrete (Guo et al. 2008).

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© 2011 by Taylor and Francis Group, LLC
 Many micromechanical models are available to A modified Burgers model named “Four-unit and
study the mechanical property of the composite, five-parameter” is presented to describe viscoelas-
whereas the inclusions are all considered as linear elas- tic property of asphalt concrete. The modified model
tic material rather than account for nonlinear material makes up the defect of Burgers model and indicates
in these models. The CRMAC can be regarded as a effectively deformation characteristic of asphalt con-
composite with asphalt concrete and crumb rubber, crete. The experimental data show that the viscoelastic
and the two constituents of CRMAC are viscoelastic property of CRMAC is similar to plain asphalt con-
material, thus it is more desirable to take into account crete. Thus, the “Four-unit and five-parameter” model
the material properties of the two phases in a microme- is employed to describe the viscoelastic property of
chanical model for analyzing the relaxation property CRMAC. Lin et al. (2007) have proved that Burgers
of CRMAC. It can also help us better to understand model can depict accurately the viscoelastic property
the viscoelastic behavior of CRMAC, and analyze the of rubber. Therefore Burgers model is used to describe
effect of the two constituents. the viscoelastic property of crumb rubber.
The primary objective of this study is to develop a
micromechanical model to investigate the relaxation
property of CRMAC. The newly developed model has 3 EFFECTIVE MODULI OF THE PARTICLE
the capability of taking into account the viscoelastic EINFORCED COMPOSITE
effect of the two constituents. Laboratory experiments
are used to verify the proposed model. The secondary Based on Eshelby’s (1957) equivalence principle and
objective is to investigate the effect of crumb rubber Mori-Tanaka’s (1973) concept of average stress. The
considered as viscoelastic material on the relaxation inclusion phase will be referred to as phase 1 and the
property of CRMAC. matrix as phase 0 in the two-phase system. The bulk
and shear moduli of the rth phase are denoted by κr and
µr , and volume fraction of the inclusion by c. When the
2 VISCOELASTICITY THEORY two phases are assumed homogeneous and isotropic
and the inclusions are spherical, the equations for the
2.1 Constitutive equations effective bulk and shear moduli of the composite are
proposed by Weng (1984)
The general form of the linear viscoelastic stress-strain
relations are given by

Where G(t) = the relaxation function, J (t) = the creep Where α = 3(1−ν
1+ν0
0)
, β = 2(4−5ν 0)
15(1−ν0 ) , ν0 = Poisson’s ratio of
function. matrix.
To establish the relationship between them, it is While the two phases are viscoelastic or viscoplastic
convenient to employ the Laplace transform. Tak- material, the bulk and shear moduli of the constituents
ing the Laplace transforms of Equation 1, using the in Equation 5 are secant moduli. The two phases
convolution can be expressed as (asphalt concrete as phase 0 and crumb rubber as
phase 1) are both considered as viscoelastic material
in this study.

Where s = the transform variable, the Equation 2 can

be represented as follows 4 EFFECTIVE RELAXATION MODULI
OF CRMAC

To analyze the viscoelasticity of CRMAC and establish

the relationship between effective moduli and time, in
2.2 Viscoelasticity model the transformed domain Equation 5can be expressed
Burgers model may describe viscoelastic properties as follows
of asphalt concrete and rubber (Zhou et al. 2001; Lin
et al. 2007). The Equation 4 presents the relationship
between time and Burgers model’s parameters as

Where κrTD = bulk modulus, µTD r = shear modulus of

Where σ0 = applied stress, t = time of loading, EM = the rth phase in the transformed domain, respectively,
Young’s modulus of immediate elasticity, EV = modu- phase 0 as asphalt concrete, phase 1 as crumb rub-
lus of delayed elasticity, ηM = coefficient of viscosity, ber, c is volume fraction of crumb rubber, and, ν0TD is
ηV = coefficient of elastic delay viscosity. Poisson’s ratio of asphalt concrete.

14
© 2011 by Taylor and Francis Group, LLC
 k TD and µTD are given by

Then the Young’s modulus in the transformed

domain can be expressed as

With the Burgers model, the Young’s modulus in

the transformed domain E TD is given by (Li & Weng
1995)

With the four-unit and five-parameter model, the

creep compliance J (t) is given in Equation 9 as

Thus, J (s) can be obtained through Laplace trans-

forms, substituting it into the Equation 10, then

Figure 1. Variation of creep strain with loading time.

Burgers model and four-unit and five-parameter

model are employed to describe viscoelastic proper-
5 COMPARISONS BETWEEN PREDICTED
ties of rubber and asphalt concrete, respectively. First,
AND MEASURED RESULTS
substituting Equation 9 into Equation 7, we can obtain
bulk modulus κ1TD and shear modulus µTD 1 of crumb Zeng (2006) presents an experimental study on the
rubber. For asphalt concrete, substituting Equation
creep behavior of CRMAC with different volume
11 into Equation 7, we have bulk modulus κ0TD and
fractions of crumb rubber. Figure 1 (a) shows the
shear modulus µTD 0 of asphalt concrete. Also, sub- experimental results and the fitting curve of CRMAC
stituting the equations obtained into Equation 6, 8,
with the loading time from 0 to 1800s at 50◦ . Lin et al.
we can obtain the Young’s modulus of CRMAC E TD .
(2007) provide test results for creep behavior of butyl
Finally, substituting E TD into Equation 3, the effective
rubber with different test temperatures (25◦ , 50◦ and
relaxation modulus in the transformed domain G(s)
100◦ ). The test results and fitting curve of rubber with
can be obtained. However, it is difficult to obtain the
loading time from 0 to 500 s at 50◦ are shown in Figure
final results especially by using of inverse Laplace
1 (b). The experimental data of CRMAC with crumb
transform to derive the effective relaxation modulus
rubber mesh 40, mass fraction cm = 10% (by mass of
of CRMAC G(t). The test data show that Poisson’s
asphalt; volume fraction c = cm × 0.106) are chosen
ratio of CRMAC is similar to asphalt concrete matrix.
to compare with the predicted results. The Poisson’s
Thus, it is assumed that Poisson’s ratio of CRMAC
ratio of asphalt concrete ν0 and crumb rubber ν1 are
ν, asphalt concrete matrix ν0 , and asphalt concrete
assumed as 0.35 and 0.49, respectively.
matrix in the transformed domain ν0TD are approxi-
The parameters presented in Equation 4 and Equa-
mately equal, as ν = ν0 = ν0TD . Substituting κTD into
tion 10 are achieved by means of mathematic iterative
Equation 6, the Young’s modulus of CRMAC in the
methods. The non-linear fit function is used to carry
transformed domain can be expressed as follows
out the complicated computing process. The fitting
results are shown in Table 1–2.
However, Burgers, Four-unit and five-parameter
viscoelastic model are only suitable to some certain
range. The fitting results can not be expressed accu-
Then substituting Equation 12 into Equation 3, tak- rately by the viscoelastic models provided that beyond
ing the inverse Laplace transforms of the equations that range. For instance, it is meaningless that the fit-
derived above, the effective relaxation modulus G(t) ting result of theYoung’s modulus of delayed elasticity
of CRMAC can be obtained. E2 is negative. Therefore the experimental data for

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© 2011 by Taylor and Francis Group, LLC
 Table 1. Viscoelastic parameters of CRMAC.

Crumb
rubber E1 E2 η2 A B
% MPa MPa MPa·s MPa MPa

0 87.30 2.64 2443.21 15.18 1.65

1.06 288.80 1.20 21063.95 249.24 11.52

Table 2. Viscoelastic parameters of rubber.

EM EV ηM ηV
MPa MPa 1010 MPa · s MPa · s Figure 2. Comparison of the measured and predicted
results.
6.99 11.57 1.7585 1083.66

CRMAC with mass fraction 20% and 30% (by mass

of asphalt) of crumb rubber can not be used to analyze
the viscoelastic model.
It is expedient for comparison to employ the loga-
rithmic time scale. Figure 2 shows the comparison of
the measured (by viscoelastic model) and predicted (by
micromechanical model) effective relaxation modulus
G(t) at 50◦ of CRMAC with 1.06 % volume fraction
of crumb rubber.
It can be seen that the predicted results have good
consistence with the measured ones. The effective
relaxation modulus G(t) decrease drastically from 0 to
400 s, and tend to stable value after 400 s, which means Figure 3. Effect of viscoelasticity of crumb rubber on G(t).
that the effect of time on G(t) is limited after 400 s. The
predicted curve intersects with the measured at 90 s, are very close to that of crumb rubber considered as
and the corresponding G(t) is 9.5 MPa. The predicted viscoelastic material. This indicates that the effect of
results are much lower than the measured ones from the viscoelasticity of crumb rubber on the predicted
0 to 90 s and always bigger than them after 90 s. The G(t) is limited. It can also be seen that the predicted
discrepancy between the predicted and measured may results of crumb rubber considered as elastic material
be explored as follows: are closer to the measured values than that of crumb
Based on Mori-Tanaka’s theory, it is assumed that rubber considered as viscoelastic material from 0 to
the interface of the two phases of composite united 90 s. However, the predicted error is slightly larger
absolutely. However, the interface of crumb rubber and when crumb rubber is considered as elastic material
asphalt concrete may be loose partly in CRMAC. after 90 s. The reason may be attributed to the effect
The viscoelastic parameters and elastic modulus of loading time on the mechanical property of inclu-
are derived from the test of butyl rubber and crown sions. During 90 s of this study, crumb rubber behaves
of tires, respectively. The discrepancy exists between more like an elastic material. Therefore the discrep-
the mechanical property of this agglomerate rubber ancy between the predicted and measured is smaller
and crumb rubber. Thus, to better predict the effec- before 90 s. Crumb rubber develops more viscoelas-
tive relaxation modulus of CRMAC, the viscoelastic tic property and the predicted effective modulus of
parameters andYoung’s modulus of crumb rubber need crumb rubber considered as viscoelastic material are
to be determined. closer to the measured values after 90 s.Thus, it is more
The inclusions are viscoelastic material in this desirable to neglect the viscoelasticity of crumb rubber
study. Thus, it is necessary to analyze the effect of before 90 s. To better predict the long-term effective
the viscoelasticity of crumb rubber inclusions on the relaxation modulus of CRMAC, the viscoelasticity of
predicted effective relaxation modulus of CRMAC. It crumb rubber are necessary to be considered for the
is assumed that crumb rubber is an elastic material, further research.
and the Young’s modulus of crumb rubber is equiv-
alent to that of the crown of tires Ec according to
the presented study (Liu and Wang 2002). Therefore 6 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
the Young’s modulus in Equation 7 can be written as
E TD = Ec = 9.6 MPa. A micromechanical model is proposed for analyzing
From Figure 3, it can be seen that the predicted the relaxation modulus of CRMAC in this study. The
results of crumb rubber considered as elastic material microstructure is represented by two-phase systems:

16
© 2011 by Taylor and Francis Group, LLC
 the viscoelastic crumb rubber as the spherical inclu- Guo, N.S. et al. 2006. Equivalent stiffness moduli of fiber
sion and the viscoelastic asphalt concrete as the matrix. reinforced asphalt concrete. Journal of Highway and
With Burgers model of crumb rubber and four-unit and Transportation Research and Development 23(9): 23–26.
five-parameter model of CRMAC, the effective relax- Itoh, K. et al. 2003. Centrifugal simulation of vibration reduc-
tion generated by high-speed trains using rubber-modified
ation moduli is used to describe the viscoelasticity of asphalt foundation and EPS barrier. International Journal
CRMAC by applying a modified Mori-Tanaka’s theory of Physics Model 3(2): 1–10.
for the effective moduli of composite. The measured Li, J. & Weng, G.J. 1995. Effect of a viscoelastic interphase
results are also compared with the predicted ones from on the creep and stress/strain behavior of fiber-reinforced
the proposed model. The following conclusions can be polymer matrix composites. Composites part B 27:
drawn. 89–598.
The developed micromechanical model can pre- Lin, S. et al. 2007. Nonlinear creep behavior of viscoelastic
dict the effective relaxation modulus of CRMAC, and material butyl rubber. Materials for Mechanica1 Engi-
has the capability of considering the viscoelastic effect neering31(7): 35–41.
Liu, Y. & Wang, W.M. 2002. Experimental study on mechan-
on the predicted results. ical characteristics of tire compounds. China Rubber
The laboratory test is limited to one type of vol- Industry 49(6): 325–329.
ume fraction of crumb rubber, thus the verification of Mori, T. & Tanaka, K. 1973. Average Stress in the Matrix
the developed model is preliminary. More tests on dif- and Average Elastic Energy of Materials with Misfitting
ferent volume fraction of crumb rubber are needed Inclusions. Acta Metallurgic 21: 571–574.
to further verify this micromechanical viscoelastic Ren, Z.W. et al. 2009. Recycling situation and prospects
model. of scrap tires in China, China Resources Comprehensive
The tests of mechanical properties of crumb rubber Utilization 27(6): 12–14.
are essential to be carried out for further analyzing the Weng, G.J. 1984. Some elastic properties of reinforced
solids with special reference to isotropic ones containing
viscoelastic properties of CRMAC. spherical inclusions. International Journal of Engineering
Science 22: 845–856.
Xu, S.F. 1991. A rheological model representing the defor-
ACKNOWLEDGMENT mation behavior of asphalt mixtures. Journal of Beijing
Institute of Civil Engineering and Architecture1: 57–65.
This work is supported by the Doctoral Foundation Zeng, W. 2006. Experiment studies on creep of the rubber
Ministry of Education of The People’s Republic of powder pitch compound with dry-blending method. Rub-
China under Grant No. 20092125120005, and the Fun- ber Asphalt in Pavement Engineering Applied Technology
damental Research Funds for the Central Universities Seminar 72–77.
Zhang, L.P. et al. 2005. Laboratory investigation of perfor-
under Grant No.2009QN052. The writers gratefully mance of discarded tire rubber modified asphalt mixes.
acknowledge this support. Journal of Shenyang jianzhu University21(4): 293–296.
Zhao, Y.H. & Weng, G.J. 1990. Effective elastic moduli of
ribbon-reinforced composites. Transactions of the ASME
REFERENCES 57: 158–167.
Zhou, Z.G. et al. 2001. Research on the method of testing
Eshelby, J.D. 1957. The determination of the elastic field of viscoelastic parameters of bituminous mixtures. Journal
an ellipsoidal inclusion and related problems. Proceedings of Changsha Communications University 21(4): 23–28.
of Royal Society. London 240: 367–396.
Guo, N.S. et al. 2008. Relaxation property of fiber reinforced
asphalt concrete. Journal of Building Material 11(1):
28–32.

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© 2011 by Taylor and Francis Group, LLC
 Modelling and Computation in Engineering – Zhu (ed)
© 2011 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-61516-7

Effect of forward swept leading edge on a transonic axial compressor

rotor stall margin

YaFeng Shi, Hu Wu, Mi Li & Kai Mao

School of Power and Energy, Northwestern Polytechnical University, Xi’an city, ShaanXi province, China

LiXin Chen
Electric power design institute, Zhengzhou city, HeNan province, China

ABSTRACT: The flow field of a transonic axial flow compressor rotor (NASA Rotor 37) has been numeri-
cally simulated, and the detailed experimental measurements of this rotor prove the correctness of numerical
computation. On the basis of rotor 37 original geometry, the forward swept rotor is produced by moving the tip
span section forwards by 75% tip chord length, the 75% span section forwards by 20% tip chord length, the mid
span section backwards by 3% tip chord length, the 25% span section backwards by 1% tip chord length. The
computational results of forward swept rotor show that the stall margin is largely improved.

1 INTRODUCTION Sweep is the inclination of the leading edge against

the flow direction. If the outer span of a profile is posi-
Compressor performance at the peak of the pressure tioned upstream relative to mid-span, then it is called
rise characteristic is limited by aerodynamic instabili- “forward sweep”. On forward-swept blades, the end-
ties, which lead to rotating stall and surge. Rotating wall regions can be relieved, as wadia (1998) showed
stall has harassed the researchers from the onset in his investigations. The goal of this paper is to exam-
of axial compressor industry, and it can deteriorate ine the flow phenomena induced by forward sweep
the compressor performance and lead to excessive and to assess the influence of forward sweep on the tip
blade vibration which possibly makes blade broken, leakage vortex and rotating stall in a transonic axial
so improving the compressor stability is the aim of compressor rotor.
many researchers in this field. To avoid the rotating
stall and improve the stability, it is necessary to firstly
reveal the instability mechanism.
2 ROTOR 37 AERODYNAMIC DESIGN
Casing treatment can delay the rotating stall inAxial
AND GEOMETRY
compressor, which shows the relationship of rotating
stall with blade tip region flow. Cumpsty (1989) dis-
NASA Rotor 37 is selected as the original rotor for its
covered the endwall boundary layer at rotor inlet has
experimental investigation which has been provided by
been quickly thicken before stall. Hah (1999) investi-
Suder (1997). The rotor design pressure ratio is 2.106
gated the flow field of a low speed axial compressor
at a mass flow of 20.19 kg/s, and its peak efficiency is
and indicated the stall inception with the tip clear-
0.889. The rotor design rotation speed is 17188r/min,
ance leakage vortex. Furukawa (1999) pointed out
and its choked mass flow is 20.93 kg/s. The inlet rela-
the tip clearance vortex breakdown as an indicator
tive Mach number is 1.13 at the hub and 1.48 at the tip
near stall. The work by Mailach (2000) and Maerz
at the design speed of 454 m/s. The rotor aspect ratio
(2002) indicated the rotating instabilities were caused
is 1.19 and the hub/tip radius ratio is 0.70. The rotor
by the tip clearance vortex. Adamczyk (1993) studied
has multiple circular arc (MCA) blade shapes and 36
the effect of variations in tip clearance on the per-
blades, and it has a tip clearance of 0.356 mm.
formance of a transonic rotor, and showed that the
shock/vortex interaction plays a major role in deter-
mining the compressor flow range. The work by Hah
(2001) showed that a transonic rotor begins to stall 3 COMPUTATIONAL PROCEDURE
with the tip clearance spillage emerging near the adja-
cent blade pressure side at blade leading edge. From A block-structured H-O-H grid is used with a total of
the work by these researchers, it can be concluded that 506193 nodes. The stagnation pressure of 101325Pa,
the tip clearance leakage flow plays an important role stagnation temperature of 288 K and 0◦ flow angle
on the rotating stall. are given at the inlet. The characteristic line of rotor

19
© 2011 by Taylor and Francis Group, LLC
 Figure 1. The experimental and computational performance
under 100% design rotation speed. Figure 2. The forward swept rotor and rotor 37 performance
under 100% design rotation speed.

5 FORWARD SWEPT ROTOR

performance is acquired by changing the exit imposed In order to study the effects of sweep the datum rotor
static pressure. 37 is modified by sweeping the blade sections along
An explicit cell-centered 2nd-order-accurate finite their local chord line. In doing this the blade sections
volume scheme is used to solve the Reynolds-averaged are not changed and no attempt is made to optimize the
Navier-Stokes equations. To speed up convergence to design for the new flow environment. Hence, the mod-
steady state, local time-stepping, residual smoothing ified designs do not necessarily represent the best that
and successive mesh refinement are applied. could be produced for a specified amount of sweep.
The stalling point of the rotor is taken to be the point However, the objectives are to obtain a physical under-
at which the calculation fails to converge as the exit standing of the effect of sweep upon the flow behavior
static pressure is increased. and the designs are considered suitable for this.
The forward swept rotor is produced by moving the
tip span section forwards by 75% tip chord length, the
75% span section forwards by 20% tip chord length,
the mid span section backwards by 3% tip chord
4 COMPARISION WITH EXPERIMENTAL length, the 25% span section backwards by 1% tip
RESULTS chord length. It is important to note that the entire cas-
ing is moved with the tip section so that the tip speed
The experimental and computational stagnation pres- remains the same.
sure ratio and adiabatic efficiency of rotor37 are The computational procedure to forward swept rotor
plotted against normalized mass flow (the ratio of mass is the same with the rotor 37.
flow to choked flow) in Figure 1. The computational stagnation pressure ratio and
From Figure 1, it can be seen that the computa- adiabatic efficiency of forward swept rotor and rotor
tional results is basically distributed in accordance 37 are plotted against normalized mass flow (the ratio
with the experimental results with minor differ- of mass flow to choked flow) in Figure 2.
ence, which proves the correctness of computation From Figure 2, it can be seen the stable mass flow
method. range in the forward swept rotor is improved three

20
© 2011 by Taylor and Francis Group, LLC
 Figure 3. Contours of relative mach number at mid pitch Figure 4. Contours of relative mach number at 70% blade
surface under 100% design rotation speed. span under 100% design rotation speed.

7 CONCLUSIONS
times compared with the datum rotor 37, however the
forward swept rotor has lower total pressure ratio and Forward swept rotor can largely improve the stall mar-
adiabatic efficiency which may be because it is pro- gin, and it can change the passage shock structure,
duced by simply displacing the datum sections with which apparently improves the flow field near rotor
no attempt to optimize their blade sections. tip. Using forward swept rotor as a measure to con-
trol rotating stall should be considered during the
designing process of transonic rotor.

6 THE EFFECTS OF FORWARD SWEEP TO THE

SHOCK STRUCTURE AND STALL MARGIN REFERENCES

Figure 3 shows the contour of relative mach number Adamczyk, J. J. & Celestina, M. L. 1993. The Role of Tip
near peak efficiency at mid pitch surface under design Clearance in High-Speed Fan Stall. ASME Journal of
Turbomachinery, 115: 28–39.
rotation speed. Cumpsty, N. A. 1989. Part-circumference Casing Treatment
It can be seen that the passage shock structure of for- and the Effect on Compressor Stall, ASME Paper, 89-
ward swept rotor is different from the rotor 37. Near GT -312.
the tip, the shock in forward swept rotor is weaker than Furukawa, M. & Inoue, M. 1999. The Role of Tip Leakage
in rotor 37, and the passage flow velocity is accord- Vortex Breakdown in Compressor Rotor Aerodynamics.
ingly higher, which decreases the accumulating of low ASME Journal of Turbomachinery, 121(3): 469–480.
energy tip vortex and deters the endwall blockage. This Furukawa, M. & Saiki, K. 2000.Unsteady Flow Behavior
accounts for the good stall margin of forward swept Due to Breakdown of Tip Leakage Vortex in an Axial
rotor. Compressor Rotor at Near-Stall Condition. ASME Paper,
2000-GT-666.
Figure 4 gives the Contours of relative mach number Hah, C. & Rabe, D C. 2001. Role of Tip Clearance Flows
at 70% blade span. It can be seen that the shock in on Flow Instability in Axial Flow Compressors. ISABE
rotor 37 is attached to the leading edge, however the Paper, 2001–1223.
Forward swept rotor moves the shock away from the Hah, C. & Schulze, R. 1999. Numerical and Experimen-
leading edge, which also improves the flow stability tal Study for Short Wavelength Stall Inception in a
and lowers the stall mass flow. Low-Speed Axial Compressor. ISABE Paper, 99–7033.

21
© 2011 by Taylor and Francis Group, LLC
 Maerz, J. & Hah, C. 2002. An Experimental and Numerical Suder, K. L. & Celestina, M. L. 1997. Experiment and Com-
Investigation into the Mechanism of Rotating Instability. putational Investigation of the Tip Clearance Flow in a
ASME Journal of Turbomachinery, 124: 367–374. Transonic Axial Compressor Rotor. ASME Journal of
Mailach, R. & Lehmann, I. 2000. Rotating Instabilities in an turbomachinery, 118: 218–229.
Axial Compressor Originating from the fluctuating Blade Wadia, A. R. & Szucs P. N. 1998. Inner workings of
Tip Vortex. ASME Paper, 2000-GT-506. aerodynamic sweep, ASME Journal of Turbomachinery,
Suder, K. L. 1998. Blockage Development in a Transonic, 120:671–682.
Axial Compressor Rotor. ASME Journal of Turbomachin-
ery, 120(3): 465–476.

22
© 2011 by Taylor and Francis Group, LLC
 Modelling and Computation in Engineering – Zhu (ed)
© 2011 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-61516-7

Research on inherent characteristics of the wind turbine tower

based on field testing

R.L. Ma, Y.Q. Ma & H.Q. Liu

Department of Building Engineering, University of Tongji, Shanghai, China

ABSTRACT: Based on the theory of random vibration and system identification, the ambient vibration tests
of the three wind turbine towers in wind-power station of the Inner Mongolia Wulanyiligeng were carried out.
The method of coupling overall modeling of blade, hub, nacelle and tower was put forward, and the numerical
stimulation and tests results show that the wind turbine towers can effectively avoid resonance, and meet the
standard design requirements of Germanischer Lloyd. The vibrational forms of wind turbine tower mainly are
lateral bending vibration, forth-and-back bending vibration and torsional vibration; the translational damping
ratio in the first phrase is about 1.75%, and the torsional damping ratio in the first phrase about 0.6%. The
overall modeling shows excellent consistency with the tests results, which can benefit the wind-induced dynamic
response analysis and the vibration control research on the wind turbine tower system.

1 INTRODUCTION damping ratio. Meanwhile, on the basis of the charac-

teristics of the wind turbine main components and the
With the fast development of the wind turbine orient- previous models (Bazeos et al., 2002; Lavassas et al.,
ing to the large-scaled and flexible and in order to 2003), this paper puts forward an method of the over-
ensure the system working reliably, we should keep it all model considering coupling of the blade, the hub,
in good inherent characteristics. During rotor’s rotat- the nacelle and the tower, conducted modal analysis,
ing, if the incentive frequency or passing frequency and collected the inherent frequencies and formation
produced by the rotation approaches the inherent fre- of the tower from the system. Finally, by comparison
quency of the tower, it will cause the tower in great with the measured value, we verify the correctness of
vibration or even in resonance. Vibration can make the overall modeling and pave the way for the wind-
the tower causing greater dynamic stress, structure induced dynamic response analysis and the vibration
fatigue so that it will also shorten the service life of control research on the wind turbine tower system.
the machine (Burton et al., 2001). Therefore, it has
profound significance of the research on the inherent
characteristics of the wind turbine tower. 2 PROJECTING BACKGROUND AND
Currently, the research on the inherent character- MEASURING STRATEGY
istics of the wind turbine tower mostly adopts the
methods of analytic mechanics (Miller et al., 1978; 2.1 Projecting background
Sheu, 1978), multi-body dynamics (Wright et al.,
1999; Lee, 2002) and the theory of finite element The tested wind turbines in wind-power station of
(Lobtiz, 1984; Murtagh et al., 2005). However, the the Inner Mongolia Wulanyiligeng are situated in the
report of the inherent characteristics based on the field average altitude for 1380 m with the southwest prevail-
measurement is hardly to be available. Since the wind ing wind direction. There are 200 sets wind turbines
turbine tower is always situated in severely changeable installed there in the type of 1500 KW/77. the hub
environment with the special structure that at the top height is 65 m, diameter of the rotor is 77 m, and rotat-
of the tower there is an installed rotor, therefore, the ing speed is 17.3 rmp. However, we choose model
field measurement is an comparatively reliable way N53,N65 and N73, three of them as the tested wind
to obtain the inherent characteristics of the wind tur- turbines.
bine tower, as well as an way to provide the forceful
verification for the theoretical analysis.
2.2 Measuring-point arrangement and testing
The paper deals with the inherent characteristics of
methods
the three wind turbine towers based on the ambient
vibration testing in wind-power station of the Inner We use piezoelectric acceleration transducers to mea-
Mongolia Wulanyiligeng, we obtain the valuable first- sure acceleration time curve of the towers and use
hand information of the tower’s inherent frequency and SVSA software for data collection, the sampling

23
© 2011 by Taylor and Francis Group, LLC
 frequency for 50 Hz, the sampling length for 9216. 3 TEST DATA ANALYSIS AND PROCESSING
Suppose X is along the head, Y perpendicular to
the head and Z vertical to the head. There are eight 3.1 Analysis method
measuring-points in all during the test. Lay out point
Under the case of the input signal unknown, we directly
1, 5 and 7 along the X direction, point 2, 6 and 8 along
utilize the pulsation responded signal of the wind tur-
theY direction and point 3 and 4 parallel to the X direc-
bine tower to discern the modal parameter of structure.
tion. The measuring-points are positioned respectively
Through the peaks of power spectrum curve we get the
on the platform 2, 3 and 4, in Figure 1 to Figure 3. The
inherent frequency of the overall vibration in the sys-
sensor absorbs are facilitated inside of the tower by its
tem (He et al., 2001; Yan et al., 2010). Since the partial
own magnet.
resonant may exist, we need a comprehensive analysis
and judgment from the power spectrum diagram of the
measuring-points in the same direction and then make
a decision. Use the half-power point method to deter-
mine the damping ratio. For translation and torsion
coupled vibration, we can identify them with “ + ” and
“ − ” of the acceleration of symmetry points. When
signals add together, it can offset torsional signals and
gains double translational signal; when signals sub-
tract each other, it can offset translational signals and
gains double torsional signals.

3.2 Test results

We get the acceleration time curve of each measuring-
point through the test. We get the power spectrum curve
through the frequency spectrum analysis of the point
1, point 2, point 5, point 6, point 7 and point 8. Figure 4
and Figure 5 are the power spectrum curves of point
5 and 6 on the N65 wind turbine tower. We get the
tower’s translation frequency and the damping ratio.
The subtraction of the accelerated speeds of point3 and
point4 divided by the distance of them, and through the
torsional power spectrum analysis of the tower, we get
Figure 1. Measuring-point elevation layout.
the tower’s torsional frequency and the damping ratio.
Figure 6 is the torsional power spectrum curve on the
N65 wind turbine tower. N53, N73 and N65 almost
keep in the same testing results. Table 1 is the testing
results of the inherent frequencies and damping ratio
of the previous five phrases of the three towers.
Table 1 shows that the inherent frequencies and
damping ratio of the previous five phrases of the three
towers is basically the same values. Averaging them,

Figure 2. Measuring-point plan layout.

Figure 4. Power spectrum curves of point 5 on the N65 wind

Figure 3. Measuring-point plan layout. turbine tower.

24
© 2011 by Taylor and Francis Group, LLC
 we get that the inherent frequencies of the previous wind turbine tower is larger, so we recommend the
five phrases of the towers are 0.4028 Hz, 0.4150 Hz, parameters in the dynamic analysis.
1.1963 Hz, 3.4415 Hz and 3.5052 Hz which meet the
design requirements of Germanischer Lloyd guide-
line, and the wind turbine towers can effectively avoid 4 FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS
the resonance. Translational damping ratio of the first
phrases is 1.75% and torsion damping ratio is 0.56%. A wind turbine consists of three blades and a hub con-
At present recommended value of damping ratio nected to a nacelle, which in turn is rigidly connected to
is not given in Germanischer Lloyd guideline and the top of a wind turbine tower. Coupling among them
other related wind turbine guidelines, and we often have a great influence for natural characteristics of the
use damping ratio (1%) of high-rise steel structures. tower. this paper puts forward an method of the over-
We can see that the translational damping ratio of the all model considering coupling of the blade, the hub,
the nacelle and the tower, conducted modal analysis,
and collected the inherent frequencies and formation
of the tower from the system.

4.1 Overall model of wind turbine system

The test wind turbine consists of three tower sections
and its hub height is 65 m. The section diameter and
thickness at base are 4 m and 26 mm and Its section
diameter and thickness at top are 2.57 m and 12 mm.
the elastic modulus and density of the tower were
taken as 2.1 × 1011 N/m2 and 7850 kg/m3 . According
to the geometric characteristics and major fore charac-
teristics of the tower, this paper uses eight-node shell
element—shell 181.
According to the principle of rigidity equivalent,
the three blades are assumed to be hollow rectangu-
Figure 5. Power spectrum curves of point 6 on the N65 wind lar cross-section cantilever beam and simulated by
turbine tower.
beam 189 element. Each blade is 37.3 m in length
with a hub radius of 3 m. the section of blade
root is 3 m × 0.8 m × 0.01 m and the apex section is
0.3 m × 0.08 m × 0.01 m. The blades are made of GRP
and regard as the orthogonal anisotropic material. the
density of the tower were taken as 2100 kg/m3 . The
axial elastic modulus is 6.25 × 1010 N/m2 , the radial
elastic modulus is 1.65 × 1010 N/m2 , and the tangen-
tial elastic modulus is 5.5 × 109 N/m2 . The Poisson
ratio is 0.22.
As the nacelle and the hub structure is complicated
and the internal detail features are not required atten-
tion in the overall analysis, the nacelle and the hub can
be simplified to the quality of points and simulated by
mass 21 element. This paper sets element parameters
to consider its quality, moment of inertia and eccen-
tric position, and then the quality of points, top of the
Figure 6. Torsional power spectrum curve on the N65 wind tower and the blades root are connected rigidly through
turbine tower. CERIG order of ANSYS. As the base is relatively

Table 1. Inherent frequencies and damping ratio of the previous five phrases of the three towers.

Number of 1st lateral 1st forth-and- 1st 2nd lateral 2nd forth-and-back
Setting wind turbine bending back bending twisting bending bending

Measured Frequency N53 0.4028 0.4150 1.1963 3.4422 3.5522

(Hz) N65 0.4028 0.4150 1.1963 3.4546 3.5278
N73 0.4028 0.4150 1.1963 3.4478 3.5411
Measured Damping Ratio N53 1.77 1.73 0.54 0.28 0.27
(%) N65 1.76 1.74 0.58 0.26 0.26
N73 1.78 1.72 0.56 0.30 0.28

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© 2011 by Taylor and Francis Group, LLC
 large stiffness of the upper structure, the bottom of and tenth modes appear lateral bending vibration
the tower is considered as full consolidation. Through and forth-and-back bending vibration in the second
the above method, the integrated finite element model phrase respectively, and the frequency respectively are
was established. The model was illustrated in Figure 7. 3.4572 Hz and 3.4769 Hz. By comparison with the
measured value, the theoretical value is a little higher.
But they are consistent basically on the whole. This
4.2 Modal analysis of wind turbine tower is mainly because the theoretical value is calculated
This paper uses the method of BLOCK LANCZOS in certain hypothesis foundation which have a differ-
to conduct modal analysis. Table 2 shows the inherent ence with the actual structure, and in addition pulsation
frequencies and description of modes of the previous testing itself has certain error. The primary purpose
ten phrases of the wind turbines. for the testing was to understand the modes of the
Table 2 shows that the first mode and second mode wind turbine and to verify the correctness of the overall
are lateral bending vibration and forth-and-back bend- modeling for wind power tower and pave the way for
ing vibration in the first phrase respectively, and the the wind-induced dynamic response analysis and the
frequency respectively are 0.4357 Hz and 0.4375 Hz. vibration control research on the wind turbine tower
The fifth mode appears torsional vibration in the first system.
phrase and the frequency is 1.2322 Hz. The ninth

5 CONCLUSIONS

Based on the three wind turbine towers, this paper car-

ried out the ambient vibration testing of the inherent
characteristics and obtained the valuable first-hand
information of the tower’s inherent frequency and
damping ratio. It provides the basis of appraisal for
the existing theoretical model and also provides basic
date for the wind-induced dynamic response analysis
and the vibration control research on the wind turbine
tower system. At present Germanischer Lloyd guide-
line and other related wind turbine guidelines required
dynamic analysis for the whole wind turbine, but rec-
ommended value of damping ratio was not given. On
the basis of the characteristics of the wind turbine
Figure 7. Overall model of the wind turbine system. and the previous models, this paper puts forward an

Table 2. The inherent frequencies and Description of Modes of the previous ten phrases.

Mode Analytical
number Frequency (Hz) Description of modes

1 0.4357 1st lateral bending vibration of the tower.

2 0.4375 1st forth-and-back bending vibration of the tower.
3 1.0524 1st out-of-plane vibration of the blades: the upper blade remain unchanged and the bottom
two blades vibrate in the opposite direction.
4 1.1762 1st out-of-plane vibration of the blades the upper blade and the bottom two blades vibrate in
the opposite direction.
5 1.2322 1st out-of-plane vibration of the blades: the three blades vibrate in the opposite direction.
1st torsional vibration of the tower
6 1.4025 2nd out-of-plane vibration of the blades: the upper blade remain unchanged and the bottom
two blades vibrate in the opposite direction.
7 2.3398 1st in-plane vibration of the blades: the three blades vibrate in the opposite direction.
8 3.202 2nd out-of-plane vibration of the blades the upper blade remain unchanged and the bottom
two blades vibrate in the opposite direction.
1st in-plane vibration of the blades: the upper blade remain unchanged and the bottom two
blades vibrate in the opposite direction.
9 3.4572 1st in-plane vibration of the blades: the upper blade and the bottom two blades vibrate in the
opposite direction.
2nd lateral bending vibration of the tower.
10 3.4769 2nd out-of-plane vibration of the blades: the upper blade and the bottom two blades
vibrate in the opposite direction.
1st in-plane vibration of the blades: the upper blade remain unchanged and the bottom two
blades vibrate in the opposite direction.
2nd forth-and-back bending vibration of the tower.

26
© 2011 by Taylor and Francis Group, LLC
 method of overall model, whose correctness is verified Miller, R.H., Dugundji, J., Wendell, J., 1978. Dynamic of
compared with the measured value. horizontal axis wind turbine. Wind Energy Conversion.
MIT, ASRL-IR-184-9, DOE COO-4131-T1.
Murtagh, P.J., Basu, B., Broderick, B.M., 2005. Along-wind
REFERENCES response of a wind turbine tower with blade coupling sub-
jected to rotationally sampled wind loading. Engineering
Bazeos, N., Hatzigeorgiou, G.D., Hondros, I.D. et al., 2002. Structures, 27(8): 1209–1219.
Static, seismic and stability analysis of a prototype wind Sheu, D.L., 1978. Effects of tower motion on dynamic
turbine stell tower. Engineering Structures, 24(8): 1015– response of windmill rotor. Wind Energy Conversion,VO1
1025. VII, ASRL-IR-184-13, DOE COO-4131-T1.
Burton, T., Sharpe, D., Jenkins, N., 2001. Wind energy Thomas, G.C., 1983. Modal testing of a rotating wind turbine.
handbook. New York: John Wiley & Sons. Sandia National Laboratories, SAND82-0631.
He, M.J., Ma, R.L., Huang, Z., 2001. Measurements and anal- Wright,A.D., Kelley, N.D., Osgood, R.M., 1999. Validation of
ysis of model parameter of broadcast and television steel a model for a two-bladed flexible rotor system: progress to
tower. Journal of Tongji University, 29(4): 862–866. date. Proceedings of the 37th AIAA Aerospace Sciences
Lee, D., Hodges, D.H., Patil, M.J., 2002. Multi-flexible-body Meeting and Exhibit: 293–307.
dynamic analysis of horizontal axis wind turbines. Wind Yan X.M., He M.J., Ma R.L., 2010. Full-scale measurements
Energy, 25(5): 281–300. of ambient vibration around two adjacent transmission
Lobtiz, D.W., 1984. A Nanstran-based computer program towers. Journal of Vibration and Shock, 29(3): 77–78.
of structural dynamic analysis of horizontal axis wind
turbine. Proceedings of the Horizontal Axis Wind Tur-
bine Technology Workshop, Department of Energy and
NASA-Lewis, Cleveland.

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© 2011 by Taylor and Francis Group, LLC
 Modelling and Computation in Engineering – Zhu (ed)
© 2011 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-61516-7

Map-matching algorithm based on the index mechanism

Jing Zhai & Hantao Zhao

School of Vehicle Engineering, Harbin Institute of Technology

Hongyan Mao
Library, Harbin Institute of Technology

Wencai Sun
School of Traffic&Transportation, Jilin University

ABSTRACT: The emergency vehicle equipped with GPS plays an important role in the highway rapid response
behavior. In order to remove the display error produced by the GPS locating data and the E-map, the matching
algorithm has been put forward based on the map index and the shortest distance algorithm. According to the
difference between highways and urban roads, the proposed map-matching algorithm links the vehicle location
information with the road information of E-map database, achieving the effective and rapid search of the road,
thus, the vehicle’s position relative to E-map can be determined. In order to validate the map-matching algorithm,
the simulation program is developed using VB and MapObject module. The results of test show that the algorithm
can greatly decrease the influence of the locating error and reduce the ratio of mismatch.

1 INTRODUCTION Table 1. Spatial data structure of VL.

In the terminal monitoring software system of high- NodeID RoadID DiretionID X Y

way Emergency Command Center, real-time access
to the location of patrol vehicle is a prerequisite for Ni 001 01 … …
Nj 001 02 … …
dynamically monitoring. GPS vehicle location data
Nk 002 02 … …
and electronic map data exit inevitably of a variety Nl 003 02 … …
of errors, which tend to bring the deviation from the
vehicles trajectory of the actual road. At present, there
are mainly two kinds of treatment methods to solve
this problem (Sun Wencai 2006). One is to take action is composed of discrete points and used to calcu-
to improve GPS positioning accuracy and precision of late) as the identification point, searches highway layer
electronic map, the other is the use of map-matching data stored in the space database, and then quickly
method. The current study of map-matching algorithm determines the matching path (Zhang Xiaoguo 2003).
takes advantage of a variety of theories. Commonly After the matching road has been found, the matching
used algorithm includes the shortest distance algo- point of GPS location can be accessed by the shortest
rithm, semi-deterministic algorithm, probability and distance algorithm.
statistics algorithm, map matching algorithm based on The basic source data used in highway electronic
fuzzy logic or based on the cost function and so on map is a series of SN (Stake Number of correspond-
(Chen Jiayu 2004). These algorithms have their own ing point on highway) with a certain distance interval,
conditions of application, and most of them are appli- these data are measured on the basis of highway cen-
cable to intensive urban roads. But for the scattered terline. However, the road needs to be distinguished in
highways, the above matching algorithm can not be different directions of traffic.
fully applicable. In view of this, one matching algo- In this paper, the structure of highway spatial data is
rithm based on the map index is put forward which adjusted. The centerlines spatial data of bilateral lane
suits for the topographical features of highway road. carriageway is added to the original data. As shown
in the Table 1, field NodeID is the main keywords of
node table, which means the various marking points of
2 ESTABLISHMENT OF MAP INDEX lane carriageway centerlines. Field RoadID expresses
the name codes of the highways. Field DirectionID
Based on GPS location information and driving direc- expresses the name of the different directions of the
tions, the so-called map index mechanism takes the same highway. Field X and Field Y express the coordi-
dispersed stake number of VL (Virtual Line, which nates of the corresponding marking points. After this

29
© 2011 by Taylor and Francis Group, LLC
 structure adjustment, the map index mechanism for
road searching is established.

3 ALGORITHM DESIGN

3.1 GPS data acquisition and preprocessing

The GPS positioning data includes longitude, latitude,
speed, direction, time, etc. The data should be stored
to prevent loss, and then extracted by application
software to change data format. Figure 1. Determination of the matching points.

3.2 Determination of the data effectiveness Then,

Because of the block of the tall buildings, the GPS (1) If N = 1, the identification point is the match
data drift phenomenon maybe happen in data receiv- point.
ing process, which often generates invalid data. So, (2) If N = 2, vertical line is made from vehicle loca-
these abnormal positioning data should be filtered out tion point to the line segment connected by the two
before map-matching. The criteria of data characteris- identification points. If the pedal point is located
tics, velocity and acceleration need to be added in the at the segment, the pedal point is the matching
algorithm to determine the data validity. point. If else, the identification point close to the
center is the matching point.
(3) If N > 2, vertical lines are made from vehicle
3.3 Road index location point to the line segments connected by
The road number of highway network is limited.There- the adjacent identification points. The pedal point
fore, the entire map database of the highway can be nearest to the center is the matching point. If
searched as a candidate object. In order to build up the pedal points are located out of the segments,
search circle, two-dimensional coordinates (x,y) is the identification point nearest to the center is the
taken for the center, r means the radius, J means the matching point.
node of VL, G represents the GPS data point. Then the
following formula can be used to determine whether
the nodes are located at the search circle. 4 KEY TECHNOLOGIES

4.1 VL
As shown in Figure 2, the VL is determined by the
If the map object in the circle, which is the com- translational of the SN. It is worth noting that the VL
position identification point of VL, belongs to the is in fact composed of discrete points. Therefore, the
same road in one direction, then, this object is the discrete points of VL can be gotten by the coordinates
matching road. If the map object in the circle belongs of the SN.
to the same road in different direction, the matching The VL is not simple level translational, vertical
road should be further screened based on the direction translational, or translational of a certain angle of the
of vehicles. If the angle between road direction and SN. For the highway with relatively large curvature,
vehicle direction is less than 180 degrees, this road such as a larger arc or ring roads, simple translational
direction is judged to be the vehicle direction. If there will cause coordinates offset. The geometric principle
is no map object in the circle, the vehicle is consid- is used to calculate the coordinates of VL, as shown
ered to enter the square, gas stations, service areas and in Figure 3. The symbols of k1 to k5 are five con-
other open spaces, vehicle positioning does not require tinuous SN, (x, y) are their corresponding geodetic
matching. coordinates. Through making vertical line from k2 to
the line segment connected with k1 and k3, the geode-
3.4 Amendments to the shortest distance algorithm tic coordinates of k2 and k2 can be calculated based
on pavement width, coordinate (x1, y1) and coordinate
According to the road attribute, the shortest distance (x3, y3). So, all the coordinates of discrete points of
algorithm set up a match threshold in advance. The VL can be figured out. The coordinates of destination
matching point can be determined by calculating the and starting point need to take translational approach.
shortest distance path between the GPS point and
the corresponding road. In this paper, the vertical point
4.2 Radius of search circle
algorithm is used to improve the shortest path algo-
rithm. Matching points can be the projector from GPS How to determine the scope of the neighboring regions
point to the road. Assuming that the number of iden- of the GPS locating points is the key constraint factor
tification points located at the search circle is N, as in algorithm performance, that is, the determination
shown in Figure 1. of the radius of search circle. Too large radius will

30
© 2011 by Taylor and Francis Group, LLC
 Figure 4. The maximum radius value of search circle.

Figure 2. Difference between VL for GPS locating and VL

for emergency locating.

Figure 5. Comparison of vehicle location before and after

the use of map-matching algorithm.

5 ALGORITHM REALIZATION

The positioning function is achieved by the control of

MapObject. MapObject contains a dynamic tracking
control layer known as TrackingLayer, which is always
Figure 3. Coordinates determination of discrete points of situated at the top of the map window, and its great-
VL for GPS locating. est feature is the faster refresh rate. So, the dynamic
tracking control layer provides interface for setting up
increase the volume of the calculation and lead to mis- GPS positioning system, realizes real-time tracking in
carriage of justice. Too small radius will lead to road the vehicle monitoring and dispatching system. With
object can not be found in the neighborhood of the vehicle moving, the position can be dynamic shown.
GPS locating points. Combined with TrackingLayer, the map-matching
The errors in the process of vehicle positioning are algorithm can be realized by VB language.
mainly produced from the following sections (Su Jie, In order to verify the validity of map-matching algo-
2001): GPS positioning errors (E1 ), electronic map rithm, the effect of vehicle location before and after the
error (E2 ) and coordinate projection transformation use of algorithm for mobile vehicles is contrasted. The
error (E3 ). International Airport – Changchun eastern section of
Under the normal state of VL composed of con- the Changchun – Jilin expressway is selected to test.
secutive points, the error range of GPS locating point The vehicle location is amended by the map-matching
should be one round-domain. The center is the GPS algorithms based on indexing mechanism, the effect
locating point, the radius is the sum of these three of positioning is shown in Figure 5. The results show
errors. That is, that the road can be quickly searched and the vehicle
can be accurately located.

In addition, because the VL is linked by marking 6 CONCLUSIONS

points with distance less than or equal to 50 meters,
the maximum radius of search circle can be calculated In accordance with highway characteristics, the con-
as shown in Figure 4 and formula (3). cept of the VL is put forward based on SN. Then
the matching algorithm is proposed based on the map
index and the shortest distance algorithm, and the key

31
© 2011 by Taylor and Francis Group, LLC
 technologies of the algorithm are studied. The prin- Su Jie, Zhou Dongfang, Yue Chunsheng (2001), “Real-
ciple of this arithmetic is simple and its operation is time Map-matching Algorithm in GPS Navigation System
convenient. This arithmetic can reduce the ratio of mis- for Vehicles”. Acta Geodaetica et Cartographica Sinica,
match and improve the performance of the dynamic Vol.30, No.3, 252–256.
Sun Wencai(2006), “Study on dynamic monitoring and
monitoring and controlling system. However, in the controlling technology for vehicle with GPS on free-
course of the road index, the direction of vehicles is way”, Master Degree thesis, Changchun: Jilin University.
chosen to match the map object belonging to the same 22–24.
road in different direction, which will lead to GPS data Zhang Xiaoguo,Wang Qing (2003), “The Relationship among
drift and should be given further research. Vehicle Positioning Performance, Map Quality, and Sen-
sitivities and Feasibilities of Map-matching Algorithms”.
Proc IEEE IntelligentVehicles Symposium 2003, 468–473.
REFERENCES
Chen Jiayu (2004), “Research and Realization of Vehicle
Monitor and Control System Based on GPS/GPRS/GIS”,
Master Degree thesis, Fuzhou: Fuzhou University.

32
© 2011 by Taylor and Francis Group, LLC
 Modelling and Computation in Engineering – Zhu (ed)
© 2011 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-61516-7

Laboratory model experiments on dynamic behavior of road structures

under repeated traffic loads

Zheng Lu, Hailin Yao, Jie Liu & Mengling Hu

State Key Laboratory of Geomechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Institute of Rock and Soil Mechanics,
Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wuhan, China

ABSTRACT: A laboratory full-size model experiment is presented in this paper in order to better understand
the dynamic behaviour of road structures under repeated traffic loads. Different transducers measuring vertical
pressures, elastic deformation and cumulative plastic deformation of road structure layers are installed. The
distributions of dynamic stress and elastic deformation of road structures are obtained, and the variation laws of
irreversible deformation with the number of loading cycles are also derived from the experiments. Furthermore,
a three dimensional multi-layered computing model is employed to compare the experimental results with
theoretical ones. The conclusions developed herein may be used as a preliminary reference in road pavement
and subgrade engineering design.

1 INTRODUCTION calculating were performed in FE program Abaqus.

Manzari and Prachathananukit et al. (2001) also cal-
The study of dynamic behaviour of road structures culated the cumulative plastic deformation of road
under vehicle loads is one of the important researches structures subjected to cyclic mechanical loads by
in the domain of transport. With the rapid development introducing different elastoplastic material models.
of economy and mechanical technology, heavy load- Theoretically, explicit simulation is preferable. How-
ings and the traffic volume on the highway become ever, it would consist in implementing a conventional
much greater than ever before. Thus, the subject of step-by-step elastoplastic procedure, requiring the dis-
the dynamic response of road structures to repeated cretization of each individual load cycle into suffi-
traffic loads is of great significance in the field of ciently small number of cycles, will quite rapidly
geotechnical and transportation-related engineering. lead to considerable computational time and complete
The dynamic characteristics of road structures loss of numerical accuracy as the number of cycles
under traffic loads were early investigated by using increase.
analytical method. Senddon (1952) firstly discussed It is noted that although many problems involving
the vibration of the elastic ground under a moving load. the dynamic behavior of road pavement and subgrade
He considered the two-dimensional problem of a line subjected to traffic loads have been investigated, the
load moving with constant subsonic speed over the experiment or field measured data are still rather limi-
surface of a homogeneous elastic half-space by using ted. In this paper, the somewhat complex phenomena
integral transform method. A homogeneous 3D elas- involved in this kind of dynamic behavior is analyzed
tic half-space subjected to forces moving at constant by using model experiments. Specific experimental
speed was studied by Eason (1965) using the double devices are set up for testing representative sections of
Fourier transformation method. More recently, many road structures subjected to repeated wheel loading.
researchers worked on the problems of traffic-load- A three dimensional multi-layered computing model
induced dynamic responses by considering the road is also employed to compare the experimental results
structures as different models such as thin plate, elas- with theoretical ones.
tic medium or water saturated pore medium (Picoux
2005,Takemiya 2005 and Xu 2008, and among others).
The development of computational methods has 2 EXPERIMENT DESCRIPTION
opened the possibility to perform numerical simula-
tions of the response of road structures under repeated A laboratory experiment at full-scale which represents
load. By means of dynamic numerical analysis, Hyodo the typical road structures with multi-layers has been
et al. (1996) investigated the deformation of the soft built in order to simulate the dynamic response of road
clay foundation of low embankment road under traf- subjected to vehicle traffic loads as shown in Fig. 1.
fic loading. Kettil et al. (2007) presented modeling The model includes, from bottom to top, a layer of
and simulation of inelastic deformation in road struc- subgrade (completely decomposed granite) of 0.9 m
tures leading to rutting. In his paper, the modeling and height compacted in three layers of 0.3 m each, a layer

33
© 2011 by Taylor and Francis Group, LLC
 Figure 3. Elevation view drawing of measuring points.
Figure 1. Representation of full-scale model.

Figure 4. Plain view drawing of measuring points.

Design Highway Asphat Pavement (2006). The load-

ing equipments are composed of, form bottom to top,
rubber bearings, steel plates, loading beam and actu-
ator. The shape of the tire-pavement contact area is
assumed to be circular, and the load pressure within
the contact area is assumed to be uniformly distributed.
Figure 2. (a) Loading equipments; (b) distribution of the According to JTGD50 (2006), the diameter of contact
loads. circular d is 0.213 m, the force and pressure induced by
single load is 25 KN and 0.7 MPa respectively, corre-
sponding to the static conditions, the distance between
of subbase of 0.3 m height composed of cement stabi- two circulars is 1.5d.
lized gravels with 4% cement content, a layer of base The detailed size of the model are as follows: the
of 0.3 m height composed of cement stabilized gravels longitudinal length is 2.3 m, the horizontal width of
with 6% cement content and an asphalt surface layer of the top is 2.0 m, the horizontal width of the bottom
0.18 m height in order to simulate flexible pavement on is 3.6 m, and the slope ratio is 1:1 as shown in Figs.
which the loading equipments are placed with respect 3–4. Different transducers are installed in the model
to the position of the loading plate. The structure lay- of the road structures in order to measure stresses
ers are limited on two opposite sides by inclined planes and displacements. All of the transducers are installed
(slopes) that represent free edges. The other sides are at the bottom of road structure layers as shown in
limited by vertical steel baffle plates representing the Fig. 3. In the plain of the surface of subgrade, four
beginning and the end of the model. The loading equip- stress transducers are placed along horizontal direc-
ments are fixed on a reaction beam which is bolted on tion and longitudinal direction, respectively, as shown
the steel frame. All components of the experiment are in Fig. 4 in order to derive the distribution of dynamic
located on a reinforced concrete foundation able to stresses. And the distances between each transducer
support the important weights of these components. are 0.20 m, 0.25 m and 0.25 m for horizontal direc-
In this experiment, the effect of double wheels load- tion, and 0.18 m, 0.20 m and 0.30 m for longitudinal
ing is taken into consideration to simulate the vehicle direction. These accelerometers and their cables are
loads as shown in Fig. 2, and the distribution of the protected by aluminum tubes to prevent damage from
loads meets the requirements of Specifications for cyclic loadings.

34
© 2011 by Taylor and Francis Group, LLC
 Table 1. Load amplitude and frequency of multi-stage
loading.

Load amplitude (kN) 10 15 20 30 40 45 50 60

Load frequency (Hz) 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
Load amplitude (kN) 70 75 75 75 75 75 75
Load frequency (Hz) 2 2 3 4 5 6 7

A typical experiment consists in generating signals

of semi-sinusoidal wave in order to simulate the pas-
sage of traffic vehicles on the portion. If a truck is
moving on a rough pavement surface, there will be a
variation in the load amplitude imposed by the truck. Figure 5. Applied stress at the top of every layer.
According to Yao et al. (2009), the impact coefficient
(the ratio of dynamic load to static load) of general
highway pavement whose rough index is no more than
IRI 2 mm is between 1.2∼1.5. Therefore, we propose
to choose the maximum dynamic load amplitude of
the double wheels as 1.5 times than the static load.
By multi-stage loading, the experiment contains sev-
eral stages where every stage consists of 1000 cycles
and corresponds to a frequency as shown in table 1.
It is called “DT” whose purpose is to study the effect
of traffic loads on the dynamic characteristics of road
structure layers.
In order to obtain the cumulative deformation
of road structures under long-term repeated vehicle Figure 6. Variation of vertical stress with depth.
loads, additional experiment called “CT” is performed
by choosing the dynamic load amplitude as 75 KN and
frequency as 7 Hz, and it consists of 106 cycles.

3 EXPERIMENT RESULTS

The dynamic load with signal of semi-sinusoidal wave

is applied in this experiment. According to elasto-
dynamical theory, the waveform of stress should be
similar to that of load. Fig. 5 gives the measured stress
waveforms of every layer’s top of the model when the
dynamic load amplitude is 75 KN and frequency is
7 Hz. It is shown that the stress waveforms are identi-
cal with semi-sinusoidal wave. The stress amplitudes Figure 7. Variation of vertical stress with load.
increase gradually at initial several cycles since the
hydraulic actuator needs adjusting pressure, and the
waveforms keep steady after 20 cycles.
“DT” is conducted with respect to the effects of
depth, load amplitude and load frequency on vertical
stress and elastic deformation of road structure layers.
Some test results are presented in Figs. 6–10. It can be
seen from Fig. 6 that the vertical stress at the top of
the base decrease with depth under different load. The
curves decrease sharply in the initial range of depth of
0.8m, then gradually decrease to zero when depth is
more than 0.8m. The ratios of the stresses of the base
top, subbase top and subgrade top to the top of surface
layer are 62.20% ∼ 81.45%, 20.12% ∼ 34.06% and Figure 8. Variation of vertical stress with load.
3.0% ∼ 4.63% respectively, which shows that the most
part of stresses caused by vehicle loads are imposed in Fig. 4) are given in Fig. 7 and Fig. 8. It is seen that
or dispersed by road pavement. the vertical stresses of all observation points increase
The variations of vertical stresses at the subgrade linearly with load increasing from 10 KN to 75 KN.
top with load at different observation point (as shown In Fig. 9, the vertical stresses of different depth are

35
© 2011 by Taylor and Francis Group, LLC
 Figure 9. Variation of vertical stress with frequency. Figure 12. Variation of cumulative deformation with the
number of cycles.

Table 2. Physical and mechanic characteristics of road

structure layers.

Elastic
modulus/ Poisson depth/ density/
Layers MPa ratio m (kg/m3 )

Surface layer 1 400.00 0.30 0.18 2 400

Base 734.63 0.30 0.30 2 201
Subbase 636.58 0.30 0.30 2 187
Subgrade layer 1 45.15 0.35 0.30 1 981
Subgrade layer 2 28.88 0.35 0.30 1 946
Figure 10. Variation of elastic deformation with load. Subgrade layer 3 36.45 0.35 0.30 1 979

of the layer. We can see from Fig. 11 that the rela-

tionships between cumulative deformation and load
amplitude of all layers are approximately linear, which
follow on the same trends as those in Figs. 7–8 and
Fig. 10. It is noted that the increasing law of cumu-
lative deformation with the number of applied load
cycles is very important in the study of the dynamic
behavior of road structure. Therefore, the effect of the
number of loading cycles on cumulative deformation
is investigated as shown in Fig. 12. As can be seen,
the cumulative deformation of each layer has the same
Figure 11. Variation of cumulative deformation with load. tendency to increase with the number of cycles till one
million cycles.The cumulative deformation is very fast
for a short number of cycles and becomes much lower
plotted versus the loading frequency. As can be seen, at other moments. These fast deformations come from
the variation of vertical stress with frequency is slight the reorganization of grains of the road structure layers.
when frequency varies from 2 Hz to 7 Hz. It reveals
that the influence of loading frequency on dynamic
characteristics of road structures can be neglected at 4 COMPARISONS OF MODEL EXPERIMENT
low frequency. Fig. 10 presents the variation of elastic RESULTS WITH THEORETICAL ONES
deformation with load amplitude. Six different depths
corresponding to each interface of road structure are In order to compare theoretical results to experimen-
taken into consideration. An exact linear relationship tal ones, a computing model of multi-layered road
between elastic deformation and load amplitude can structure is also built by assuming that all of the road
be observed from Fig. 10. layers are considered as continuous and linear elastic
The effects of load amplitude and the number medium. The physical and mechanical characteristics
of loading cycles on cumulative deformation (irre- of road structure layers are obtained according labo-
versible permanent deformation) of road structure ratory tests, and are shown in table 2. In this part,
layers are also investigated by using “CT”, and are the applied double-circular loads of experiment are
shown in Fig. 11 and Fig. 12. The cumulative defor- simplified as equivalent double-rectangular loads by
mation of each layer is considered as the difference keeping the tire-pavement pressure consistent, and the
between the cumulative deformation of top and bottom moving load velocity is also obtained by using the

36
© 2011 by Taylor and Francis Group, LLC
Another Random Scribd Document
with Unrelated Content
 About the year of our Lord 1496, when James IV. King of
Scotland, upon a truce with King Henry VII. of England, had
expulsed from Scotland that counterfeit sham Prince, Perkin
Warbeck (the pretended Richard of Shrewsbury, youngest son of
King Edward IV. who had before been murdered in the Tower), to
whom he had given in marriage his near kinswoman the Lady
Katherine Gordon; he, together with his wife and family, sailed from
thence over into Ireland, to seek friendship there of the rebels and
all others well affected to the House of York; where being arrived,
and fortune favouring him according to his expectation, news was
brought him there that the Cornish rebels were ready to renew their
former hostility, and venture their lives in battle upon the title of the
house of York against that of Lancaster, had they a valiant and able
General to lead them, notwithstanding Flammock and his
confederates under the same engagement were defeated and
executed in 1495.
These tidings were very acceptable to Perkin; who thereupon
consulted his privy councillors, Hearn, Astley, and Skelton, a mercer,
a tailor, and a scrivener, all bankrupts; these all agree, nemine
contradicente, that his four ships of war should forthwith be rigged
and manned for an expedition into Cornwall; which accordingly
being prepared, himself with his lady, and 120 soldiers, embarked
thereon, and being favoured with a fair wind, took his leave of his
Irish friends, and in the month of September, 1499, 15th Henry VII.
(Carew’s Survey of Cornwall, p. 98,) came safely to anchor in St.
Michael’s Mount’s Bay; where soon after he landed, and went up to
the Mount, and made himself known to the monks and other
inhabitants, publishing himself to be the true and real Richard of
Shrewsbury aforesaid, the true heir of the House of York; which the
monks, greatly affected to that title, were so very ready to believe,
that they yielded the Mount and garrison without resistance into his
hands; who presently renewed the old fortifications, and put the
same into a better posture of defence.
 Which having done, himself with a band of soldiers marched from
thence to Bodmin (where the rendezvous of Flammock’s rebels in
those parts formerly was,) in which place, by false words and
promises, he so prevailed with the discontented rebels of that town
and contiguous country, that he soon got together, without money or
reward, at least three thousand men that could bear arms; these he
divided into companies, and bands, and regiments, under Captains,
Majors, and Colonels expert in war to instruct them in military
discipline, till at length his army grew to six thousand well-armed
soldiers. Whereupon King Henry VII. having notice of Perkin’s
landing and formidableness in these parts, ordered Sir Peter
Edgecombe, Knight, then Sheriff of Cornwall (whose father, Sir
Richard Edgecombe, Knight, was one of that King’s Privy Councillors,
and had comparatively been raised to his great estate by his boon
and favour), that he should forthwith, by virtue of his office, raise
the country, and give battle to this counterfeit Richard of Shrewsbury
and his confederate rebels. Whereupon, the Sheriff did as he was
commanded, and raised an army of twenty thousand men, as
tradition saith, and led them towards Bodmin; but when they
approached near, and saw Perkin entrenched at Castle Keynock, on
the east hill of Bodmin Downs, with the body of his army, and divers
troops of horse and bands of foot placed towards Lanhydrock and
the roads from Cardenham, in order to resist and oppose the Sheriff,
his men resolved to march no further, but to return from whence
they came without giving battle. Which accordingly they did
(notwithstanding the Sheriff’s threats and commands to the
contrary), in great terror and confusion and astonishment; but
whether this fear proceeded from the cowardice of the Sheriff and
his men, or their disaffection to the Lancastrian dominion of King
Henry, is uncertain, for the like fact was committed two years before
by the posse comitatus of John Basset, of Tehidy, then Sheriff, which
he had raised to suppress Flammock’s rebellion.
Upon news of this flight and disbanding of the Sheriff’s men,
Perkin was saluted by his soldiers and confederates as King of
England: and soon after, not only in his camp, but in divers places of
Bodmin town, was proclaimed by a trumpeter and others, King of
England and France, and Lord of Ireland, with great shouts and
acclamations of the people, and bonefires, by the name of Richard
IV. And it is reported he assumed majesty with such a boon grace
and affable deportment, that immediately he won the affections and
admiration of all who made addresses unto him; in which art of
kingship he had long before been educated and instructed by his
pretended aunt, Margaret Duchess of Burgundy, sister to King
Edward IV. which he had also acted to the good liking of all that saw
him in Burgundian, Irish, Scots, and French courts. And, moreover,
besides his magisterial port and mien, being an incomparable
counterfeit, natural crafty, liar and dissembler, “Qui nescit
dissimulare, nescit regnare,” as the old proverb saith; so that in
short time he grew to be so popular and formidable about Bodmin
that no power durst oppose him there. But, alas! this Cornish
regniculum gave him not content, for his pride and ambition put him
upon further expedients, viz. to get possession of the whole
kingdom of England, and reduce it also to his obedience; in order to
which, with a well-prepared army of four thousand men and two
thousand of other sorts, he marched out of Cornwall into Devon,
where met him also great numbers of volunteers of that county and
Somerset, that joined with his forces; the dread whereof so terrified
James Chudleigh, Esq. then Sheriff of Devon, and the power of his
bailiwick raised to stop his march to Exeter, that they durst not give
him battle or obstruct his passage till he came before that city,
pitched his camp, and laid siege thereto.
Upon whose approaches the citizens shut their gates and
prepared to defend themselves; when soon after he sent a message
or summons to them in the name of Richard IV. King of England,
commanding them to surrender the same to him upon their
allegiance: but the citizens so ridiculed his pretended title, and
slighted his summons, that by his own messenger they gave him
defiance; at which time Dr. Richard Redman was Lord Bishop of
Exeter; William Burgoigne, Esq. Recorder; William Frost, Mayor;
Francis Gilbert, Sword-bearer; John Bucknam, William Wilkinson,
John Doncaster, and Richard Howse, were Stewards, or Bailiffs; John
Clodworthy, John Bonifant, Philip Bullock, John Wilkin, Nicholas
Auburne, John Atwell, William York, Thomas Lanwordaby, Philip
Binks, John Slugg, Thomas Andrews, Thomas Oliver, and others,
Aldermen. See Isaack’s Memorials of Exeter, 1499.
Soon after this defiance given, Perkin and his soldiers surrounded
the city walls, and attempted to scale the same in several places
daily for some time, but always were repulsed with considerable loss
by the valour of the citizens. During which siege they sent to King
Henry for his aid and assistance in this great distress; whereupon
the Lord Daubeny was ordered to raise forces and march towards
Exeter therewith, in order to remove the siege thereof; but before he
came, Edward Courtenay, sixteenth Earl of Devon, and the Lord
William his son, accompanied with Sir Edmund Carew, Sir Thomas
Fulford, Sir William Courtenay, Sir John Halwell, Sir John Croker,
Walter Courtenay, Peter Edgecombe, William St. Maur, Richard
Whiteleigh of Efford (Sheriff of Devon the year after), Richard Hals
of Kenedon, John Fortescue of Vallapit, James Chudleigh aforesaid,
and other gentlemen of those parts, had raised a considerable army
of soldiers, with which they marched towards the rebels. At the sight
of whose approach Perkin and his host were as much dispirited then
as they were elevated before; whereupon he called a council of war,
in which it was unanimously agreed upon, that it was not advisable
to give them battle, being at least ten thousand fighting men, but to
dislodge from their trenches, and leave the siege of that place, and
forthwith to march into Somersetshire, a country better affected to
King Perkin, where he might raise more soldiers. Accordingly, this
order of council was observed and put in practice, so that the night
after Perkin and all his army marched towards Taunton; where he
mustered his men as if he intended to give battle; but when, by the
muster-roll, he saw what numbers of men had deserted him in his
nightly march from Exeter, falling then much short of six thousand,
and further, notice being brought him that King Henry was in pursuit
of him with a much greater army, he foresaw the worst, and
doubted that fortune would favour him no longer in his military and
regal practices; and therefore contrived, for the preservation of
himself, with sixty horse troopers, to forsake his army by night, and
fly to the Abbey of Beauley, in Southampton, as resting upon the
name and privilege of the place, where he took sanctuary. As soon
as King Henry understood Perkin had deserted his soldiers and had
taken sanctuary at Beauley, he forthwith ordered a band of soldiers
to guard and surround that Abbey to prevent his escape beyond the
seas (from whence it appears that at that time the privilege of
sanctuary was allowed to traitors). So that Perkin, despairing of
getting thence, submitted to the King’s mercy, and was committed
prisoner to the Tower of London; from whence he made an escape,
and fled to the Priory of Sheen, at Richmond; where, on condition of
making a true confession who he was, in a pair of stocks set before
Westminster Hall door, and true answer make to such questions as
should be demanded of him, the Prior got the King’s pardon for him.
And accordingly, he sat in the stocks a whole day before
Westminster Hall door, afterwards on a scaffold in Cheapside, openly
reading, declaring, and giving manuscripts under his own hand,
wherein he told his parentage, the place of his birth, the passages of
his life; that he was a cheat, an impostor, and by what ways and
means he was drawn into those treasonable and bloody attempts
and practices, &c. After which he was again committed to the Tower
of London, where endeavouring to make an escape, he was
afterwards, with others, executed at Tyburn.
After Perkin took sanctuary at Beauley, his soldiers from about
Taunton and elsewhere, were all brought to Exeter; where King
Henry, in St. Peter’s church-yard, pardoned them all, on their
promise of being good subjects afterwards. But some of them were
not so good as their word. King Henry also then sent the Lord
Daubeny to St. Michael’s Mount for Perkin’s wife, the Lady Katherine
Gordon, whom he brought to King Henry; who commiserating her
youth, birth, and beauty, bestowed a competent maintenance upon
her, which she enjoyed during that King’s life and long after, to her
dying day.
 PART V.

This Priory, or Abbey, being dissolved by act of Parliament, and

given to the King, 33d Henry VIII. 1542, he gave the revenues and
government of the place to Humphry Arundell, Esq. of the Lanherne
family, who enjoyed the same till the first year of King Edward VI.
1549; at which time that King set forth several injunctions about
religion: amongst others, this was one, viz. that all images found in
churches, for divine worship or otherwise, should be pulled down
and cast forth out of those churches; and that all preachers should
perswade the people from praying to saints or for the dead; and
from the use of beads, ashes, processions, masses, dirges, and
praying to God publicly in an unknown tongue; and least there
should be a defect of preachers as to those points, homilies were
made and ordered to be read in all churches. Pursuant to this
injunction one Mr. Body, a commissioner for pulling down images in
the churches of Cornwall, going to do his duty in Helston church, a
priest, in company with Killtor of Kevorne and others, at unawares
stabbed him in the body with a knife; of which wound he instantly
fell dead in that place. And though the murderer was taken and sent
up to London, tried, found guilty of wilful murder in Westminster
Hall, and executed in Smithfield, yet the Cornish people flocked
together in a tumultuous and rebellious manner by the instigation of
their priests in diverse parts of the shire or county, and committed
many barbarities and outrages in the same; and though the justices
of the peace apprehended several of them, and sent them to jail, yet
they could not with all their power suppress the growth of their
insurrection; for soon after Humphry Arundell aforesaid, Governor of
this Mount, sided with those mutineers, and broke out into actual
rebellion against his and their Prince. The mutineers chose him for
the General of their army, and for inferior officers as Captains,
Majors, and Colonels,—John Rosogan, James Rosogan, Will.
Winslade of Tregarrick or St. Agnes at Mithian, John Payne of St.
Ives, Robert Bochym of Bochym, and his brother, Thomas Underhill,
John Salmon, William Segar; together with several priests, rectors,
vicars, and curates of churches, as John Thompson, Roger Barret,
John Woolcock, William Asa, James Mourton, John Barrow, Richard
Bennet, and others, who mustered their soldiers according to the
rules of military discipline at Bodmin, where the general rendezvous
was appointed. But no sooner was the General Arundell departed
from St. Michael’s Mount to exert his power in the camp and field
aforesaid, but diverse gentlemen, with their wives and families, in
his absence possessed themselves thereof; whereupon he
dispatched a party of horse and foot to reduce his old garrison;
which quickly they effected, by reason the besieged wanted
provision and ammunition, and were distracted with the women and
children’s fears and cries, and so they yielded the possession to their
enemies on condition of free liberty of departing forthwith from
thence with life, though not without being plundered.
The retaking of St. Michael’s Mount by the general Arundell
proved much to the content and satisfaction of his army at Bodmin,
consisting of about six thousand men, which they looked upon as a
good omen of their future success, and the first-fruits of the valour
and conduct of their general. Whereupon the confederates daily
increased his army with great numbers of men from all parts, who
listed themselves under his banner, which was not only pourtrayed,
but by a cart brought into the field for their encouragement, viz. the
pyx under its canopy, that is to say, the vessel containing the Roman
host, or sacramental sacrifice, or body of Christ, together with
crosses, banners, candlesticks, holy bread and water, to defend them
from devils and the adverse power; (see Fox’s Martyrology, p. 669,)
which was carried wheresoever the camp removed; which camp
grew so tremendously formidable at Bodmin, that Job Militon, Esq.
then Sheriff of Cornwall, with all the power of his bailiwick, durst not
encounter with it during the time of the general’s stay in that place,
which gave him and his rebels opportunity to consult together for
the good of their public interest, and to make out a declaration, or
manifesto, of the justice of their cause, and grounds of taking up
arms; but the army, in general, consisting of a mixed multitude of
men of diverse professions, trades, and employments, could not
easily agree upon the subject matter and form thereof. Some would
have no justice of the peace, for that generally they were ignorant of
the laws, and could not construe or English a Latin bill of indictment
without the clerk of the peace’s assistance, who imposed upon them,
with other attornies, for gain, wrong sense, and judgment; besides,
in themselves, they were corrupt and partial in determining cases;
others would have no lawyers nor attornies, for that the one cheated
the people in wrong advice or counsel, and the other of their money
by extravagant bills of costs; others would have no court leets, or
court barons, for that the cost and expense in prosecuting an action
at law therein was many times greater than the debt or profit. But
generally it was agreed upon amongst them, that no inclosure
should be left standing, but that all lands should be held in common;
yet what expedients should be found out and placed in the room of
those several orders and degrees of men and officers, none could
prescribe.
However, the priests, rectors, vicars, and curates, the priors,
monks, friars, and other dissolved collegiates, hammered out seven
articles of address for the King’s majesty; upon grant of which they
declared their bodies, arms, and goods should all be at his disposal,
viz.
1. That curates should administer baptism at all times of need, as
well week days as holy days.
2. That their children might be confirmed by the Bishop.
3. That mass might be celebrated, no man communicating with
the priest.
4. That they might have reservation of the Lord’s body in
churches.
5. That they might have holy bread and water in remembrance of
Christ’s body and blood.
6. That priests might not be married.
 7. That the six articles set forth by King Henry VIII. might be
continued at least till the King came of age.
Now those six articles were invented by Stephen Gardiner, Bishop
of Winchester (who was the bastard son of Lionel Woodvill, Bishop
of Salisbury, by his concubine, Elizabeth Gardiner; the which Lionel
was fifth son of Richard Woodvill, Earl Rivers, 1470), and therefore
called his creed, viz.
1. That the body of Christ is really present in the sacrament after
consecration.
2. That the sacrament cannot truly be administered under both
kinds.
3. That priests entered into holy orders might not marry.
4. That vows of chastity entered into upon mature deliberation,
were to be kept.
5. That private masses were not to be omitted.
6. That auricular confession was necessary in the church of God.
To those demands of the Cornish rebels the King so far
condescended as to send an answer in writing to every article, and
also a general pardon to every one of them if they would lay down
arms. (See Fox’s Acts and Monuments, Book ix. p. 668.) But, alas!
those overtures of the King were not only rejected by the rebels, but
made them the more bold and desperate; especially finding
themselves unable longer to subsist upon their own estates and
money, or the bounty of the country, which hitherto they had done.
The general therefore resolved, as the fox who seldom chucks at
home, to prey upon other men’s goods and estates further off, for
his army’s better subsistence. Whereupon he dislodged from
Bodmin, and marched with his soldiers into Devon, where Sir Peter
Carew, Knight, was ready to obstruct their passage with his posse
comitatus. But when they saw the order and discipline of the rebels,
and that their army consisted of above six thousand fighting men,
desperate, well-armed, and prepared for battle, the Sheriff and his
troops permitted them quietly to pass through the heart of that
country to Exeter; where the citizens, upon notice of their
approaches (as formerly done), shut the gates, and put themselves
in a posture of defence. At which time Dr. John Voysey was Bishop
of Exeter, viz. 10th July, 1549, John Blacaler was Mayor, William
Tothill was Sheriff, Lewis Pollard, Recorder, William Beaumont,
Sword-bearer; John Drake, Geffery Arundell, Henry Maunder, and
John Tooker, were Bailiffs or Stewards; Thomas Prestwood, John
Maynard, John Webb, William Hals, Hugh Pope, William Hurst,
Nicholas Limmet, Robert Midwinter, Henry Booth, John Berry, John
Britnall, John Tuckfield, John Stawell, Edward Bridgman, Thomas
Grigg, John Drake, Thomas Skidmore, John Bodley, and others (all
which had before that time been Mayors), Stewards or Bailiffs of the
city.—See Isaack’s Memorials of Exeter, p. 122.
Things being in this posture, the general Arundell summoned the
citizens to deliver their town and castle to his dominion; but they
sent him a flat denial. Whereupon, forthwith he ordered his men to
fire the gates of the city, which accordingly they did; but the citizens
on the inside supplied those fires with such quantities of combustible
matter, so long till they had cast up a half-moon on the inside
thereof, upon which, when the rebels attempted to enter, they were
shot to death or cut in pieces. Their entrance being thus obstructed
at the gates, they put in practice other expedients, viz. either to
undermine the walls or blow them up with barrels of gunpowder,
which they had placed in the same; but the citizens also prevented
this their design, by countermining their mines and casting so much
water on the places where their powder barrels were lodged, that
the powder would not take fire. Thus stratagems of war were daily
practised between the besieged and besiegers, to the great hurt and
damage of each other.
King Edward being informed by his council of this siege, and that
there was little or no dependance upon the valour and conduct of
the Sheriff of Devon, and his bailiwick, to suppress this rebellion or
raise the siege of Exeter, granted his commission to John Lord
Russell, created Baron Russell of Tavistock by King Henry, and Lord
High Admiral and Lord Privy Seal, an old experienced soldier who
had lost an eye at the siege of Montrueil in France, to be his general
for raising soldiers to fight those rebels; who forthwith, pursuant
thereto, raised a considerable army and marched with them to
Honiton; but when he came there he was informed that the enemy
consisted of ten thousand able fighting men armed; which
occasioned his halting there longer than he intended, expecting
greater supplies of men, that were coming to his aid under conduct
of the Lord Grey; which at length arrived and joined his forces,
whereupon he dislodged from thence and marched towards Exeter;
where on the way he had several sharp conflicts with the rebels with
various success, sometimes the better and sometimes the worse;
though at length, after much fatigue of war, maugre all opposition
and resistance of the rebels, he forced them to raise their siege, and
entered the city of Exeter with relief, 6th August, 1549, after thirty-
two days’ siege; wherein the inhabitants had valiantly defended
themselves, though in that extremity they were necessitated by
famine to eat horses, moulded cloth, and bread made of bran; in
reward of whose loyalty King Edward gave to the city for ever the
manor of Evyland, since sold by the city for making the river Exe
navigable.
After raising the siege as aforesaid, the general Arundell rallied
his routed forces of rebels, and gave battle to the Lord Russell and
the King’s army, with that inveterate courage, animosity, and
resolution, that the greatest part of his men were slain upon the
spot, others threw down their arms on mercy, the remainder fled,
and were afterwards many of them taken and executed. Sir Anthony
Kingston, Knight, a Gloucestershire man, after this rebellion was
made Provost Marshal for executing such western rebels as could be
taken, or were made prisoners in Cornwall and Devon, together with
all such who had been aiders or assisters of them in that rebellion;
upon whom, according to his power and office, he executed martial
law with sport and justice (as Mr. Carew and other historians tell us);
and the principal persons that have come to my knowledge, over
whose misery he triumphed, was Boyer the Mayor of Bodmin;
Mayow of Clevyan, in St. Colomb Major, whom he hanged at the
tavern sign-post in that town, of whom tradition saith his crime was
not capital; and therefore his wife was advised by her friends to
hasten to the town after the Marshal and his men, who had him in
custody, and beg his life. Which accordingly she prepared to do, and
to render herself the more amiable petitioner before the Marshal’s
eyes, this dame spent so much time in attiring herself and putting on
her French hood then in fashion, that her husband was put to death
before her arrival. In like manner the Marshal hanged one John
Payne, the Mayor, or Portreeve of St. Ives, on a gallows erected in
the middle of that town, whose arms are still to be seen in one of
the fore-seats in that church, viz. in a plain field three pine apples.
Besides those he executed many more in other places in Cornwall,
that had been actors, assisters, or promoters of this rebellion. Lastly,
it is further memorable of this Sir Anthony Kingston, that in Sir John
Heywood’s Chronicle he is taxed of extreme cruelty in doing his
Marshal’s office aforesaid. Of whom Fuller, in Gloucestershire, gives
us this further account of him: that afterwards, in the reign of Queen
Mary, being detected, with several others, of a design to rob her
exchequer, though he made his escape and fled into his own
country, yet there he was apprehended and taken into custody by a
messenger, who was bringing him up to London in order to have
justice done upon him for his crime, but he being conscious of his
guilt, and despairing of pardon, so effectually poisoned himself that
he died on the way, without having the due reward of his desert.
After the death of Humphrey Arundell, Governor of St. Michael’s
Mount, executed for treason as aforesaid, King Edward VI. sold or
gave the government and revenues thereof to Job Militon, Esq.
aforesaid, then Sheriff of Cornwall, during his life; but his son dying
without issue male, the government, by what title I know not,
devolved upon the Bassets of Tihidy, from some of whom, as I am
informed, it came by purchase to Sir John St. Aubyn, Bart. now in
possession thereof.
 In the month of July, 1676, at St. Michael’s Mount, about four of
the clock in the afternoon, came from the British ocean, or sea, a
ball of fire, seen by the inhabitants and fishermen at sea, which
struck against the south moorstone wall of this Mount’s church or
chapel; where, meeting resistance from the wall, it glanced through
the stones thereof with some rebounds, making a path, or strake,
through the same, in some places about four inches broad and two
inches deep, from one end of the long side wall almost to the other;
and from thence, by another rebound, it struck the strong oak durns
of the dwelling-house entry, and broke the same in two or three
pieces, and so flew into the hall, where it fell to the ground, having
spent its force and strength as aforesaid, and then brake asunder in
pieces, by the side of Mrs. Catherine St. Aubyn, without doing her
any manner of hurt, leaving a sulphurous smoke behind it in the
room; which ball of fire then appeared to consist of a black-blue
metally matter, congealed or melted by fire like as coal and cinders
may be, as Sir John St. Aubyn, the elder, and other spectators told
me.

TONKIN.

Mr. Tonkin has not any thing in addition to Mr. Hals, except an
uninteresting dissertation to prove that St. Michael’s Mount is not the
Ocrinum of Ptolemy.

WHITAKER.

Mr. Whitaker has given several notes and comments on the

narrative of Mr. Hals, which will here be placed, together with
references to the passages to which they relate.
p. 170. (a) The name is Mara-zion, or zien, on the sea, I believe,
and Market-Jew is merely a similar appellation in English. A Jew, in
Cornish language, is Ethow, and Edheuon, Ethchan, are Jews.
p. 170. (b) This corrects Mr. Willis, in ii. 3, who there says of the
Market-Jew, and other towns expressly, “none of them ever sent
Members to Parliament, or were ever summoned so to do.” Yet it
coincides exactly with what Dr. Brady remarks in his very valuable
treatise on Boroughs, p. 57, 59, and adds one more to his few
returns, and instances of very many more which might have been
produced “if needful,” p. 59.
p. 172. (c) Sel, sil, or sul is merely a view, or prospect, from the
Welsh sylly, to look or behold, and the Armorick sell, a look or sight;
and din-sil, or din-sul, means only the hill of prospect.
(d) The real name of St. Michael’s Mount in Cornish is this, Carreg
luz en kuz, a hoary rock in a wood. Borlase’s Scilly Isles, p. 94.
p. 178. (e) This notice, unobserved by the noticer himself, lets us
into a part of the history of this Mount, which has never been
unfolded yet. There was plainly a nunnery here, as well as a
monastery. Accordingly we find before what this circumstance alone
explains, that there were two chapels upon the Mount. One is
described before as “a little chapel yet standing, and dedicated to
the Archangel St. Michael, part whereof is now converted to a
dwelling-house.” The other is thus, as “that which renders this place
most famous, the present church or chapel, yet extant, and kept in
good repair with pews; upon the tower of this church or chapel, for
it is bigger than many other Cornish parish churches, is that
celebrated place called Kader-Migell, i. e. Michael’s chair.” So distinct
are these chapels! The monastery I apprehend to have been,
“where, towards the north-west, is a kind of level plain about four or
six landyards,” with “a downright precipice of rocks towards the sea,
at least twenty fathoms high.” And where, about the greater chapel,
are “cells cut in the rocks for hermitical monks of the aforesaid
order.” And the nunnery I suppose to have been where, “from this
little square, or plain, there is an artificial kind of ascent going
towards the east, which offers you a full sight of the outer walls of
the castle, and brings you to Porth Horne (Hourn), part of which is
yet to be seen.”
 Thus do we get a glimpse of a nunnery that is invisible from every
other point. Tanner, that witness for all other authors upon monastic
notices, gives us no intimation from any of them concerning this
nunnery. Yet Leland confirms what I have observed in Mr. Hals
before, the existence of two churches, or chapels, upon the summit
of the Mount. “The way to the church,” he says, concerning the
ascent to the top, “entereth at the north side from half ebb to half
flood, to the foot of the Mount, and so ascendeth by steps and
grices westward, and thence returneth eastward to the utterward of
the church,” or Mount. Within the said ward is a court strongly
walled, “wherein on the south side is the Chapel of St. Michael, and
in the east side a chapel of our Lady. The Captain and priest’s
lodgings be in the south side of St. Michael’s Chapel.” (Itin. VII.
118.) When this Captain was fixed there with a garrison, as we shall
soon see when he was, the nuns were obliged to relinquish their
cells to him and them. For this reason we have not a hint in all the
ages afterwards of a nunnery here. Only the chapel was continued
for the use of the garrison, while the church itself was still left to the
monks. Such an union as this, of a monastery and a nunnery upon
the summit of a pyramidal hill, and amid the sequestrations of
solitude, carries a strange appearance with it to our Protestant
suspiciousness; yet it was not very uncommon in the reign of
popery. It seems to have been peculiarly calculated for that purpose
for which both monastery and nunnery were generally calculated, to
shew the triumph of faith over the impulses of sense, and to shew
that triumph more conspicuously, by the association of monks and
nuns in monastic vicinity to each other. “This little fortress,” as Mr.
Hals has told us before, “comprehendeth sufficient rooms and
lodgings for the Captain, or Governor, and his soldiers to reside in,”
which I have supposed above “to have been the original habitations
of the nuns and their Abbess; to which adjoining are several other
houses, or cells, heretofore pertaining to the monks that dwell here,
all admirable for their strength, buildings, and contrivance,” and all
probably therefore contemporary or nearly so.
 p. 180. (f) This account of St. Michael’s Mount is in a strain of
intelligence and judiciousness much superior to the general tenor of
Mr. Hals’s writings. To it I wish to add some useful notices, in
accompaniment of some that I have given before.
Upon the very crown and summit of this pyramidal hill, stands
proudly eminent the church, stretching from east to west, and
having a tower in the middle. It was built by Edward the Confessor,
who was the first to consecrate the Mount to religion, and erected
the church on the little plain at the top of it. Having done this, and
erected habitations for the clergy attending it, he gave them, by
charter still existing in recital, the whole of the Mount, and many
lands beside. “Ego Edwardus, Dei gracia Anglorum Rex, dare volans
pretium redemptionis animæ meæ vel parentum meorum, sub
consensu et testimonio bonorum virorum, tradidi Sancto Michaeli
Archangelo, in usum fratrum Deo servientium in eodem loco,
Sanctum Michaelem,” the church, “qui est juxta mare.” He also gives
them “totam terram de Venefire;” and proceeds “portum addere qui
vocatur Ruminella.” Romney, in Kent. Then came Robert Earl of
Mortaigne, the falsely reputed founder, merely to associate this
church with another of the same appellation in Normandy, and to
enlarge its endowments. In a new charter, equally as the old without
a date, he, “habens in bello Sancti Michaelis vexillum,” says, “do et
concedo Montem Sancti Michaelis de Cornubiâ Deo et monachis
ecclesiæ Sancti Michaelis de Periculo Maris servientibus, cum dimidiâ
terræ hidâ.” But, as he adds, “postea autem ut certissime comperi,
Beati Michaelis meritis monachorumque suffragiis michi a Deo ex
propriâ conjuge mea filio concesso, auxi donum ipsi beato militiæ
celestis principi, dedi et dono in Amaneth (Quere, where?) tres acras
terræ, Travalaboth videlicet, Lismanoch, Trequaners, Carmailoc,” &c.
2. And, finally, comes the Bishop of Exeter, in a charter dated
expressly 1085, to free “ecclesiam Beati Michaelis Archangeli de
Cornubiâ,” from all episcopal jurisdiction. 3. Thus erected and thus
privileged, the church remained till the day of William of Worcester,
and he thus notes the dimensions of it: “Memorandum, longitudo
ecclesiæ Montis Sancti Michaelis continet 30 steppys, latitudo
continet 12 steppys.” 4. Carew also speaks of it as “a chapel for
devotion, builded by William Earl of Morton,” (Carew so speaking
with the multitude, when he ought to have given the building to the
Confessor,) “and greatly haunted while folk endured (endeared) their
merits by farre travailing.” 5. Carew thus refers obscurely, perhaps
unconsciously, to a particular privilege annexed to the church, which
was given by one decree from Pope Gregory, and confirmed by
another from Bishop Leofric. “Universis Sanctæ Matris ecclesiæ
presentes literas inspecturis vel audituris salutem,” cries the former,
“noverit universitas vestra quod sanctissimus Papa Gregorius, anno
ab incarnatione Domini millesimo septuagesimo,” the very year,
therefore, in which Earl Montaign gave this church to the other in
Normandy, “ad ecclesiam Montis Sancti Michaelis, in comitatu
Cornubiæ, gerens eximiæ devocionis affectum, piè concessit
ecclesiæ predictæ, [et] omnibus fidelibus, qui illam cum suis
beneficiis et elemosinis,” (with alms and oblations, so that “folke
endeared their merits,” not merely “by farre travailing,” but by a tax
upon their purse,) “exepecierint seu visitaverint, tertiam partem
penetenciarum suarum eis condonari,” a third of all those acts being
remitted, which penitents were enjoined to perform, in order to
prove the sincerity of their penitence to God, and to themselves. The
same privilege is repeated by the Bishop of Exeter in 1085, thus:
“omnibus illis, qui illum ecclesiam suis cum beneficiis et elemosinis
expetierint et visitaverint, tertiam partem penitentiarum
condonamus.” Yet, what is surprising, the privilege became nearly as
much unknown afterwards as it is at present, and was therefore
promulgated by the clergy of the church at the beginning of the
fifteenth century: “Tota verba,” adds the reciter, “in antiquis registris
de novo,” a little before William’s visit, “in hâc ecclesiâ repertis,
inventa,” being then unknown to the very clergy themselves, and
only discovered by the discovery of some registers equally unknown,
“prout his in valvis ecclesiæ publicè ponuntur,” were exhibited to
public view by being posted upon the folding-doors of the church.
“Et quia pluribus istud est incognitum, ideo nos, in Christo Dei famuli
et ministri hujus ecclesiæ, universitatem vestram qui regimen
animarum possidetis,” all the rectors and vicars of the kingdom, “ob
mutuæ vicissitudinis obtentum requirimus et rogamus, quatenus ista
publicetis in ecclesiis vestris, ut vestri subditi et subjecti ad majorem
exoracionem devocionis attentius animentur, et locum istum
gloriosius peregrinando frequentent ad dona et indulgencias predicta
graciosè consequenda.” From this republication of the privilege,
undoubtedly, did the numerous resort of pilgrims to the church
begin. Then too was formed assuredly that seat on the tower, which
is so ridiculously described by Carew, as “a little without the castle—
a bad seat in a craggy place—somewhat dangerous for access;”
when it is only a chair, composed of stones, projecting from the two
sides of the tower battlements, and uniting into a seat without the
south-western angle, but elevated above the battlements on each
side. It thus appears somewhat dangerous from the elevation or
projection only, is an evident addition to the tower, and was
assuredly made at this period for the pilgrims, that they might
complete their devotions at the Mount by sitting in this St. Michael’s
Chair, as denominated, and by showing themselves as pilgrims to the
country round. Hence, in an author[6] who alludes to customs
without feeling the force of his allusion, we read this intimation:
Who knowes not Michael’s Mount and Chaire,
The pilgrim’s holy vaunt?

We thus find a reason for the construction of such a chair, that

comports with all the purposes of the church on the tower of which
it is constructed, and that shows it ministered equally with this to
the uses of religion then predominant; making it not, as Carew most
extravagantly makes it, “somewhat dangerous for access, and
therefore holy for the adventure,” but holy in itself, as on the church-
tower, holy in its purposes, as the seat of the pilgrims, and doubly
holy as the seat of accomplishment to all their vows, as the seat of
invitation to all the country. And the whole church remains to this
day, beaten by the rains and buffeted by the winds, yet a venerable
monument of Saxon architecture.
This Mount appears decisively, from the charter of the Confessor,
to have been in his time not surrounded with the sea during all the
flood tide, and not accessible by land only during some hours of the
ebb-tide, as it is at present. It was then not surrounded at all. It was
only near the sea then. Thus the Confessor describes it expressly, as
“Sanctum Michaelem qui est juxta mare.” But as Worcestre adds,
with a range back into the past that is very striking, yet is in general
confirmed by the charter above, “the space of ground upon Mount
St. Michael is two hundred cubits, surrounded with the ocean,” at
flood tide; “the place aforesaid was originally inclosed with a very
thick wood, distant from the ocean six miles, affording the finest
shelter for wild beasts.”

THE EDITOR.

Nothing is known with any certainty respecting the ancient state

of St. Michael’s Mount.
It may have been the seat of a Celtic superstition somewhat
similar to that imagined and described by Dr. William Borlase. Sir
Christopher Hawkins has adduced many arguments for proving this
semi-island to have been the Ictis of Diodorus Siculus; and its
situation, united to its sea-port, may well have recommended such a
place for a factory to the merchants of any civilized nation engaged
in commercial transactions with people so rude as were the Britons
of those remote times. The universal practice in our days, is to
establish fortified stations under similar circumstances, since neither
person or property can be effectually protected in any other way.
The earliest definite tradition of a Christian establishment dates
with the pilgrimage of St. Kenna, in consequence of the appearance
of the Arch-angel at that place. No particular circumstances are ever
related of this extraordinary vision, neither as to the occasion nor as
to the persons so eminently favoured as to behold the celestial glory,
nor as to the time, nor of the exact spot, since it could not have
taken place on the top of the tower, that building having been
constructed in honour of the vision itself.
 It may be remarked that lofty and elevated situations throughout
Europe are dedicated to St. Michael, probably on account of the
Archangel being uniformly painted with wings, and therefore tacitly
imagined to have habits similar to birds; and perhaps the dedication
of the largest of our domestic fowls to the celebration of his festival,
may owe its origin to a similar analogy.
Saint Kenna is believed to have imparted the same identical virtue
to the chair which overhangs the tower, as she bestowed on the
celebrated well near Liskeard, and since no one obtains a seat in this
chair without much resolution and steadiness of head, one may be
inclined to anticipate the supposed effect with greater certainty from
the achievement of sitting in St. Michael’s chair, than from drinking
water from St. Kenna’s well. The time of St. Kenna’s visitation is not
accurately known. She is supposed to be the same St. Keyna,
daughter of a prince of Brecknockshire, who lived a recluse life for
many years near a town situated midway between Bristol and Bath,
since called Cainsbarn, after her name, where she founded a
monastery in the beginning of the sixth century, and cleaned the
neighbourhood from snakes and vipers by converting them all into
Cornua Ammonis, which have abounded there ever since, in
testimony of her sanctity and of the fervour of her prayers.
The supposed ancient site of St. Michael’s Mount, its being the
hoary monk in a wood surrounded by forests, is deduced from
arguments very similar to those which prove the miraculous power
of St. Kenna in converting serpents into stones.
Trees have been found buried under the sand and silt in the
Mount’s Bay, as they are frequently found in every similar inlet of the
sea on the southern coast of England. And the tradition, if a term so
respectable may be applied to such vague conjectures, applies
equally to Mount St. Michael; or they may have been derived from a
common origin. See Le Grand Dictionaire Historique, par M. Moreri,
Paris edition of 1188, with the Supplement of 1735. In the 5th folio
volume of the Dictionary, p. 193, and in the 2d. folio volume of the
Supplement, p. 261, will be found these passages:
 “Saint Michel ou Mont Saint Michel, en Latin Mons Sancti
Michaelis in periculo Maris. Bourg de France en Normandie,
avec une Abbaie celebre et un chateau. Sa situation est assez
particuliere, sur un rocher qui s’etend au milieu d’une grand
greve, que la mer couvre de son reflux. On dit qu’ Augustin,
evêque d’Avranches, qui vivait au commencement du
huitieme siecle, y suit des chanoines apres une apparition de
l’Archange Seint Michel.
“Ce mont s’appelloit le Mont de Tombe à cause de sa
figure. On pretend qu’une foret occupoit autrefois sont le
terrain depuis le mont jusques aux Paroisses de Tanis et
d’Ardevon; que la mer a detruit cette foret, et qu’elle en a pris
la place; et c’est de la, dit on, que le Mont Saint Michel est
surnomme, ‘Au peril de la mer,’ Mons in periculo Maris.”
The first authentic document relative to St. Michael’s Mount is the
charter of Saint Edward the Confessor, the original of which
remained among the archives of Mount St. Michael.
In the recent edition of Dugdale’s Monasticon Anglicanum, vol. vii.
p. 988:
Priory of St. Michael’s Mount, in Cornwall.—A priory of Benedictine
monks was placed here by King Edward the Confessor. Before A.D.
1085, however, it was annexed by Robert Earl of Moreton and
Cornwall, to the Abbey of St. Michael in Periculo Maris, in Normandy.
The following entry relating to the property of St. Michael’s Priory,
in Cornwall, occurs in the Domesday Survey:
“Terra Sancti Michaelis.—Ecclesia S. Michaelis tenet
Treiwal, Brismar tenebat tempore regis Edwardi. Ibi sunt ii
hidæ quæ numquam geldaverunt. Terra est viii car. Ibi est i.
car. cum uno villano, et ii. bord. et x. acr. pasturæ. Val. xx.
solid. De hiis ii. hid. abstulit Comes Moriton i. hidam. Val. xx.
sol.”
 In Hampshire, Domesday, tom. i. fol. 43, there is another entry
concerning St. Michael’s Priory:
In Basingstoches Hund.—Ecclesia S. Michaelis de Monte
tenet de lege unam ecclesiam cum i. hida et decima M. de
Basingestoches. Ibi est presbyter et ii. villani et iiii. bord. cum
i. car. et molin. de xx. sol. et ii. acr. prati. Tot. val. iiii. lib. et v.
sol.
Oliver, in his Historic Collections relating to the monasteries of
Devon, p. 147, gives the following list of Priors of St. Michael’s
Mount:—

Ralph de Carteret, admitted Dec. 21, 1260.

Richard Perer, April 11, 1275.
Geoffrey de Gernon, July 8, 1283.
Peter de Cara Villa, Sept. 12, 1316.
John Hardy, Oct. 3, 1349.
John de Volant, April 24, 1362.
Richard Auncell, Dec. 7, 1385.
William Lambert, Oct. 1, 1410.

As the alien priories were suppressed by Henry V. who began his

reign in 1413, William Lambert was probably the last Prior.
Bishop Tanner says, in his Notitia Monastica:—After the
suppression of the alien priories, this was first given by King Henry
VI. to King’s College, Cambridge, and afterwards by King Edward IV.
to the nunnery of Sion, in Middlesex. At the first seizure by King
Edward III. the farm was rated but at 10l. per annum, but at the
general dissolution by Henry VIII. the lands belonging to this house,
as parcel of Sion Abbey, were valued at 110l. 12s. per annum.
The charter of Saint Edward may be thus translated:
 “In the name of the holy and indivisible Trinity. I Edward,
by the grace of God King of the English, willing to give the
price of the redemption of my own soul, or of the souls of my
parents, with the consent and attestation of good men, have
delivered to St. Michael the Archangel, for the use of the
brethren serving God in that place, Saint Michael, which is
near the sea, with all its appendages, that is to say, with its
towns, castles, lands, and other appurtenances. I have
added, moreover, all the land of Vennefire, with its towns,
villages, fields, meadows, and grounds, cultivated or
uncultivated, with their proceeds. And I have joined, as an
addition to the things already given, the harbour called
Ruminella, with all things belonging to it, that is, with mills
and establishments for fisheries and with their proceeds.
“But if any one shall endeavour to interpose subtile
impediments against these gifts, let him be made an
anathema, and incur the perpetual anger of God.
“And that the authority of our donation may be held the
more truly and firmly hereafter, I have, in confirming it,
underwritten with my own hand, which many also of the
witnesses have done.

Signum Regis Edwardi ✠

Roberti Archiepiscopi Rothomagensis ✠
Herberti Episcopi Lexoviensis ✠
Roberti Episcopi Constantiensis ✠
Radulphi ✠
Vinfredi ✠ Nigelli Vicecomitis.
Anschitelli Choschet. Turstini.
The next charter:
“In the name of the holy and indivisible Trinity, I Robert, by
the grace of God Earl of Moriton, influenced with the fire of
divine love, supporting in battle the standard of St. Michael,
do make known to all the sons of our holy mother church,
that for the salvation of the souls of myself and of my wife,
also for the salvation, the prosperity, and safety of the most
glorious King William, and for obtaining the reward of eternal
life, do give and grant Mount Saint Michael, of Cornwall, to
God and to the monks serving (God) of the church of Saint
Michael in danger of the sea; with half a hide of land, so
unbound, and peaceable and free from all customs,
complaints, and suits, as I hold them. And I appoint, the King
my Lord consenting, that they may hold a market on every
Friday. Lastly, as I have most certainly ascertained that a son
has been given me from God by my wife, through the merits
of the blessed Michael, by the prayers of the monks, I have
increased the gift to him the blessed chief of the heavenly
host. I have given and do give in Amaneth three acres of
land; that is to say, Trevelaboth, Lismanoch, Trequaners,
Carmailoc, my most pious Lord King William assenting,
together with the Queen Mathilde, and their noble sons the
Earl Robert, William Rufus, and Henry yet a boy, to be quiet
and free from all pleas, complaints, and forfeits, so that the
monks shall not answer in any matter to the King’s justice,
homicide alone excepted.
“And I Robert Earl of Moriton have made this donation,
which William the glorious King of the English, and the
Queen, and their children, have permitted and testified.

Signum Willielmi Regis ✠

Reginæ Mathildis ✠
Roberti Comitis ✠
Willielmi Rufi filii Regis ✠
Henrici Pueri ✠
Roberti Comitis Moritoni ✠
Matildis Comitissæ ✠
Willielmi filii eorum ✠
 This charter is ratified and confirmed in the year one
thousand and eighty-five from the Incarnation of our Lord.

Signum Liurici Essecestriæ Episcopi ✠”

Among several other charters there is one from Richard King of
the Romans, granting to the Prior three annual fairs, to be holden
near their Grange, now the Long Barn.
“Richard by the grace of God King of the Romans, and
always Augustus, to the Bishops, Abbats, Priors, Earls,
Barons, and to all holding free tenures, and to others his
lieges in the county of Cornwall, health, and every good. May
you all know that we, by this our present confirmation, have
granted and confirmed to the Prior of the blessed Michael, in
Cornwall, and to his successors, that they may have and hold,
and for ever possess, the three fairs and three markets on
their own proper ground in Marchadyon, near their Barn;
which three fairs and three markets they have hitherto held
by the concession of our predecessors Kings of England, in
Marghasbigan, on ground belonging to others; that is to say,
on the middle day in Lent, and on the following day; and on
the eve of the blessed Michael, and on the following day; and
on the eve of the blessed Michael in monte tumbæ, and on
the following day, provided that these fairs and markets may
not cause any damage or injury to other fairs or markets, in
conformity with the laws and customs of this kingdom of
England.
“In witness of all which things we have thought fit to
certify this present confirmation with our royal seal.”
There is also a bull of Pope Adrian, in the year 1155, confirming
all their possessions to the Abbat and monks of Mount St. Michael,
and among them Saint Michael’s Mount, in Cornwall; which,
previously to its subjugation, had been exempted from all episcopal
interference by Liuricus Bishop of Exeter, as he states by the
exhortation and command of his Lord, Pope Gregory, and in
compliance with the wishes of the King, of the Queen, and of all the
magnates in the realm. And he also grants a release from a third
part of their penances to all such persons as may visit this church of
St. Michael with oblations and alms.
The Mount appears never to have received a religious society
after its suppression as an alien priory in the reign of King Henry the
Fifth. At the period of the general dissolution it must have been let
at an annual rent, for in the abstract roll preserved in the
Augmentation Office this entry occurs under Syon Abbey: “Cornub.—
S. Michael. ad Montem, Firma 26l. 13s. 4d.”
The history of St. Michael’s Mount since its dissolution, as a parcel
of Sion Abbey, is very far from being clear. It appears to have been
granted at first for terms of years to different gentlemen of the
neighbourhood. To Millington, supposed of Pengersick, in Breage; to
Harris, of Kenegie, in Gulval; and perhaps jointly with Millington to a
Billett or Bennett. A person of that name, half-deranged, who died
about the middle of the last century, continued during the whole of
his life to shoot rabbits on the Mount one day in the year by way of
maintaining a supposed right, which, being utterly groundless, was
humanely allowed to pass unobserved.
Queen Elizabeth, or King James I. appears to have granted the
whole in fee to Robert Cecil, created Earl of Salisbury May 4, 1605.
But the Mount was seised into his own hands by King Charles I. just
at the breaking out of the civil war, probably on account of the great
military importance of this hold, when William Cecil, son of the
former, having subscribed the Declaration made at York, on the 13th
of June, 1642, left the party of which the King was at the head, and
joined the opposite party in London.
An order was soon after given to Sir Francis Basset, then Sheriff
of Cornwall, to place the Mount in a state of defence, and to supply
it with ammunition and provisions; and it is not improbable that a
grant was made of the castle and Mount to Sir Francis Basset at
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