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The Solar System

- The Solar System contains

➜ One star, the Sun.

➜ The eight planets.
➜ Asteroids and dwarf planets, also known as minor planets.
➜ Moons, which orbit planets.
➜ Comets and natural satellites.

- Satellites

➜ Objects that orbit a planet.

➜ The Sun is a star and produces its own light.
➜ It is not at the centre of the elliptical orbit, but just at one focus of the orbit.
➜ An elliptical orbit means it isn’t a perfect circle.
➜ It only sits at the centre of a planet’s orbit if it’s approximately circular.
➜ The more elliptical orbit of a planet, the less that the Sun will sit at the centre of the orbit.
➜ The order of the 8 planets are:

Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Uranus, Neptune.

➜ The four inner planets (Mercury, Venus, Earth and Mars) are nearest to the Sun.
➜ They’re rocky and small with a high density and similar sizes.
➜ The four outer planets (Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune) are further away from the
Sun.
➜ They’re gaseous, large and comparatively colder.

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- Dwarf Planets

➜ These have high densities.

➜ Mainly composed of rock and ice.
➜ The best known of them is Pluto.
➜ They are too small to be counted as a major planet.

- Asteroids

➜ Also known as minor planets.

➜ A body orbiting a star, the mass of which is not large enough to be pulled into a sphere by
gravity.
➜ Their density is similar to that of the inner planets.
➜ If they enter the Earth’s atmosphere, they fall as shooting stars or meteors into Earth.
➜ The asteroid belt lies between Mars and Jupiter.

- Comets

➜ Consist of dust and ice made of water and methane.

➜ Have very elliptical orbits.
➜ Density is similar to that of the outer planets.
➜ Often travel to the very outskirts of the solar system.

- Accretion model

➜ There was a vast cloud of hydrogen, helium, and dust (nebulae).

➜ Nearby, a hot star burned up its fuel and destroyed itself.
➜ This explosion is a supernova.
➜ The supernova caused the nebula to collapse.
➜ Due to gravity, the nebula flattened into an exploding disc.
➜ In the disc’s centre, a protostar revs up.
➜ This protostar then went through nuclear fusion, ignited and expanded.
➜ As a result, it became our Sun.
➜ Material in the nebula that wasn’t absorbed by the Sun swirled around in a rotating disc of
dust and gas.
➜ It was held in orbit by the Sun’s high gravitational attraction.
➜ This disk is called the accretion disk.

➜ Gases rotating around a star lead to the formation of orbiting planets.

➜ It explains the range of elements in rocky planets.
➜ Each planet began as microscopic grains of dust in the accretion disk.
➜ The atoms and molecules in it stuck together and they formed balls and then objects
➜ These objects were large enough to attract other objects by gravity.
➜ Whilst the planets were forming, the Sun sent out energy and particles known as the stellar
winds.
➜ It would have been too hot for light molecules like hydrogen, helium, water, and methane to
exist in a solid state in the region of space, where the inner planets were forming

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➜ As a result, the inner planets are made of materials with high melting points, like metals
(including iron) and silicates.
➜ Due to this, Mercury, Venus, Earth and Mars are smaller and rocky.
➜ The four outer planets were so far away from the Sun that these stellars winds couldn’t blow
away their ice and gases.
➜ In the Solar System’s cooler regions, further from the Sun, light molecules may exist as solid
ice.
➜ Because the light elements are more common than the heavier ones, the outer planets
could grow big enough to absorb even the lightest element: hydrogen.
➜ Hence, they’re gaseous and large.
➜ They’re made up of lighter elements e.g. hydrogen, as the Sun’s gravity pulls heavier
elements of the original accretion disc to the Sun’s surface.

- Calculating travel times

➜ The time it takes light to travel a significant distance:

➜ total time = total distance/speed

- Gravitational field strength

➜ The strength of a planet's gravitational field at its surface depends on its mass.
e.g. Jupiter’s gravitational field strength will be higher compared to the Earth’s gravitational
field, because Jupiter’s mass is larger (not in terms of size, but mass).
➜ It is nearly constant across its surface.
➜ As one gets away from the planet, gravitational field strength weakens.
➜ Increasing the distance decreases the gravitational field strength.
➜ The Sun has the largest mass in our solar system and therefore has the largest gravitational
field strength, which explains why all celestial bodies orbit it.
➜ The majority of the solar system's mass is in the Sun.
➜ The strength of the gravitational field there is stronger than that of the gravitational field on
the surfaces of the planets.

➜ Gravitational attraction: the force that keeps an object in orbit around the Sun.
➜ Atmosphere: the envelope of gases surrounding a planet.
➜ Surface temperature: the temperature of the air near the planet’s surface.

- Analysing and interpreting planetary data

➜ The following are tables for the Sun, Earth, Moon and other planets.
➜ This data indicates factors that affect conditions on the surface of the planets and
environmental problems that a visit (using manned spaceships or robots) would encounter.
➜ You don’t need to memorise it, but you should carefully analyse it to see if there’s any trend
between the values
➜ e.g. if a value increases whilst the other one decreases, and then develop this analysis with
what you’ve already learnt about the topic.

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➜ The greater the distance the longer it takes for a year to complete.
➜ This is because as we move further away from the Sun, the size of the orbit around it
increases.
➜ The orbital speed decreases with distance from the Sun.
➜ Neptune travels slower than Mercury due to greater distance from the Sun.
➜ Objects farther from the Sun move slower due to a weaker gravitational pull.
➜ Surface temperature decreases with the distance from the Sun except for Venus.
➜ Venus has a hot atmosphere of carbon dioxide gas and a high surface temperature.
➜ Mars has longer seasons than Earth due to:
- its axis being tilted at 24°
- its distance from the Sun is longer
➜ The first 4 planets have heavier elements, thus increasing their density.

- Orbits and the Conservation of Energy

➜ As a comet orbits the Sun, its orbit’s radius increases as it moves further away from the
Sun.
➜ A comet travels the fastest when it’s the closest to the Sun.
➜ Its speed decreases as it moves away from the Sun.

Stars and the Universe

- The Sun

➜ Medium-sized star.
➜ Mainly contains hydrogen and helium.
➜ Emits radiant energy.
➜ This radiation is given off by glowing hydrogen which is heated by the Sun's nuclear
reactions.

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➜ It radiates most of its energy in the infrared, visible and ultraviolet regions of the
electromagnetic spectrum.

- Nuclear fusion in stars

➜ Stars are powered by nuclear reactions which release energy.

➜ Stable stars are hot and dense enough in the centre (core) for nuclear fusion to occur.
➜ This hot temperature in their centre is required for nuclear fusion.
➜ The energy that nuclear fusion releases maintains the temperature at their core.
➜ Some of the heat from the core is transferred to the star’s outer layer.
➜ This transferred energy is relatively cooler and less dense, but it’s enough to make the
hydrogen gas glow and give off electromagnetic radiation into space.
➜ White and blue stars are hotter and brighter than the others.
➜ Surface temperature: 6000 to 25 000°C.
➜ Red or yellow ones are the coolest.
➜ Surface temperature: 3000 to 6000°C.

Stars
- Basics

➜ Galaxies are each made up of many billions of stars.

➜ The Sun is a star in the Milky Way galaxy.
➜ Other stars that make up the Milky Way are much further away from the Earth than the Sun
is from the Earth.
➜ Light-year: the distance travelled in a vacuum by light in one year.
One light-year = 9.5 × 10¹² km = 9.5 × 10¹⁵m

- The life cycle of a star

➜ It starts with a big cloud of dust and gas (nebula) containing hydrogen.
➜ Overtime, the attractive force of gravity pulls the dust together and forms a protostar.
➜ As more and more particles collide and join the protostar, it gets bigger and bigger.
➜ Therefore, its force of gravity gets stronger, which allows it to attract more dust and gas.
➜ The gravity squeezes the protostar, which causes the particles to collide more, and make it
denser.
➜ This increases the temperature of the protostar.
➜ When the temperature’s high enough, nuclear fusion occurs.
➜ The outward pressure, caused by nuclear fusion, and the inward pressure, caused by
gravity, are perfectly balanced.
➜ This thermal pressure arises from the kinetic energy of the nuclei.
➜ The star is stable due to the balance.
➜ At this point, it’s a main sequence star.
➜ At some point, the star will start to run out of hydrogen as fuel for the nuclear fusion
➜ The inward pressure contracts the star into a small ball, until it’s so hot that nuclear fusion
can start again, causing it to expand again.

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➜ Potential energy is transferred to kinetic energy, so the core becomes hotter.

➜ What will happen next depends on the size of the star at the beginning.

If it was a small/medium star, it’ll expand into a red giant:

➜ The remaining hydrogen gets burned and the star turns into a red giant.
➜ Shortly afterwards, the red giant becomes unstable and expels its outer layers.
➜ This leaves behind a planetary nebula with a hot, dense, white dwarf at its centre.
➜ Nuclear fusion doesn’t occur in the white dwarf.
➜ Overtime, the white dwarf gets cooler and darker as it emits all of its energy.
➜ It transitions into a black dwarf, which can’t give off light.

If it was a truly massive star, it’ll explode and expand into a red supergiant:
➜ Red supergiants star shining brightly again due to more nuclear fusion and eventually
explode into a supernova.
➜ A supernova forms a nebula of elements even heavier than iron, with a neutron star at its ➜
centre.
➜ If the star was absolutely massive, it’ll collapse on itself and become a black hole.
➜ Black Holes are so dense that their gravity pulls in any light that passes nearby.
➜ The nebula from a supernova may form new stars with orbiting planets.

- The Universe

➜ The Milky Way is one of the billions of galaxies making up the Universe.
➜ Its diameter is 100,000 light years.

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- The Big Bang Theory

The Big Bang Theory states that:

➜ If the universe is currently expanding, it must have been smaller in the past.
➜ Initially, the universe was densely packed.
➜ The universe was formed 14 billion years ago from one place with a massive explosion (the
Big Bang).
➜ It started to expand after that and still continues to.

- Redshift and the Doppler Effect

➜ In sound, a wavelength defines its pitch.

➜ The shorter the wavelength is, the higher the pitch. The longer it is, the lower the pitch.
➜ When a police car gets closer to you, the sound waves get compressed and become
shorter, causing the pitch to rise so its sirens sound more high-pitched.
➜ When it passes you, the sound waves get longer, lowering the pitch so it sounds more far off
and distant. This is the doppler effect.

➜ The same phenomenon occurs in the case of light..

➜ When an objec heads towards you, the wavelength of the wave it emits gets shorter. In that
case, we say it's blue shifted.
➜ As it heads away from you, the wavelength gets longer and it's redshifted.
➜ If you apply that to a spectrum, you can measure that shift to see if an object is moving
toward or away from you.
➜ In the electromagnetic spectrum, the red end of the spectrum has a longer wavelength, and
the blue-violetish end has a shorter wavelength.

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➜ Wave being emitted by an object heading towards you gets blue-shifted (gets a shorter
wavelength). Wave being emitted by an object heading away from you, gets red-shifted (gets a
longer wavelength).

➜ In the diagram here, we can see that the black lines are moving towards the red end of this
absorption spectrum shown. This depicts the object moving away.

➜ Over here though, the black lines are more towards the blue end. This shows us that the
object is moving towards the observer.

➜ If the object is stationary (in this case we’ll relate it to space, hence the ‘object’ is a galaxy),
then the black lines will be evenly distributed toward both ends:

➜ When we analyse light from distant galaxies, its waves get stretched hence the light
stretches to the red end of the spectrum.
➜ This process of the light shifting to the red end of the spectrum is redshift.
➜ The light waves get stretched when they reach the Earth.
➜ That's because the space between Earth and the galaxies which are giving off/emitting light
are expanding.
➜ Because of the distance, we end up further away from the galaxy and the light waves get
stretched.
➜ The galaxies aren't travelling away from us through space, the space between Earth and the
galaxy is expanding.

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- Evidence supporting the Big Bang Theory

➜ If it wouldn't have been expanding, then the light waves would stay exactly the same to
Earth too as they travel from galaxies.

Redshift:
➜ The increase in the observed wavelength of electromagnetic radiation emitted from receding
stars and galaxies

IGCSE ONLY
- Cosmic background microwave radiation (CMBR)

➜ The Big Bang produced a radiation energy which still exists in the Universe.
➜ It was produced shortly after the Universe was formed.
➜ It exists in the form of CMBR.
➜ It’s present in all corners of the universe.
➜ Initially, it was high energy radiation towards the gamma end of the spectrum.
➜ As the universe expanded more and more, it expanded into the microwave region of the
electromagnetic spectrum.
➜ It’s present everywhere in the form of background radiation.
➜ It has maximum intensity at a wavelength of 1.1mm.

- Evidence for the Big Bang Theory

➜ Because of it being so evenly distributed at all points of the universe, it became evident that
it’s because the universe is expanding.

Recessional velocity:
➜ The velocity at which something moves away from the observer.

- Hubble’s law

➜ Hubble’s law states that recessional velocity is proportional to its distance from the Earth.
➜ It can be written as: v = H₀/d, where:
v = recessional velocity (km s⁻¹)
H₀ = Hubble’s constant (km s⁻¹ Mpc⁻¹)
d = distance between the object and the Earth (Mpc)
recessional velocity = Hubble’s constant x distance away
➜ Edwin Hubble discovered that the further a galaxy is away, the faster it’s moving away from
us.
➜ Hubble constant isn’t actually constant; it keeps changing because it represents the current
rate of expansion.
➜ Its current agreed value is: 2.2 x 10⁻¹⁸ per second.
➜ H₀ is defined as the ratio of the speed at which the galaxy is moving away from the Earth to
its distance from the Earth.

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Section 5: Nuclear Physics

The Nuclear Atom
➜ Atoms are the tiniest particles with chemical properties.
➜ They consist of a nucleus with protons and neutrons and are surrounded by electrons.
➜ The protons and neutrons make up the positively-charged nucleus.
➜ Negatively charged electrons orbit the nucleus, making the overall charge neutral.
➜ Protons have a charge of +1 and a mass of 1.
➜ Neutrons have a charge of 0 and a mass of 1.
➜ Electrons have a charge of -1 and have a negligible mass of 1/1840.
➜ The mass number, or the nucleon number, is the total number of protons and neutrons in a
nucleus of an atom.
➜ The proton number or the atomic number is the number of protons in an atom.
➜ The difference between the mass number and proton number gives the neutron number.
➜ In a neutral atom, the number of electrons is equal to the number of protons.
➜ A positive charge represents a loss of electrons.
➜ A negative charge represents a gain of electrons.
➜ Isotopes are different atoms of the same element with the same proton number but different
neutron number.
➜ They have similar chemical properties as the number of electrons and protons are the same.

- Alpha-particle scattering experiment

➜ This experiment includes alpha particles fired at thin gold foil and a detector on the other
side.
➜ Most of the particles went straight, which shows that the atom is mostly empty space.
➜ Some of them deflected, suggesting the existence of a small positive nucleus at the centre.
➜ Only a small number of particles were deflected back, showing the nucleus has most of the
mass of the atom.

- Nuclear Fission and Fusion

➜ Some unstable nuclei break up in one go, known as fission.

➜ Fission requires energy which is given by hitting the nucleus with a neutron.
➜ The nucleus breaks up into two daughter nuclei along with a few neutrons.
➜ The products carry away the released energy as kinetic energy.
➜ Fusion involves the colliding of small nuclei at high speed to form larger nuclei.
➜ Fusion also releases energy.

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- The Nuclear reactor

➜ A chain reaction takes place in a Nuclear reactor.

➜ The purpose of a coolant in the reactor is to remove or transfer heat.
➜The number of free neutrons in a reactor is controlled using control rods and moderators.
➜ Control rods absorb neutrons.
➜ The number of neutrons absorbed is controlled by varying the depth of the rods.
➜ Moderators are used to slow down neutrons by colliding with them.
➜ This helps to control the speed of the nuclear reaction.

Radioactivity

- Background Radiation

➜ There is some radiation always present around us in the environment.

➜ Most of it is natural, and some can be artificial, such as X-rays.
➜ It varies from place to place.

- Detecting radiation

➜ Radiation knocks out some electrons when it passes close to an atom.

➜ These atoms are ionised.
➜ Radiation detectors detect the presence of these ions to measure radiation.
➜ Geiger-Muller tube is an example of a detector.

- Alpha, Beta and Gamma particles

➜ Radiation consists of high-energy particles emitted from a nucleus.

➜ Alpha particles are high-energy particles made up of 2 protons and 2 neutrons.
➜ Alpha particles are the same as a helium nucleus.
➜ Beta particles are high-energy electrons.
➜ Gamma rays are high-energy electromagnetic waves.

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➜ These particles can hit atoms and knock out electrons, ionising the atom.
➜ Ionisation can cause chemical changes and damage or kill living cells.

Alpha:
➜ Alpha particles have a charge of +2.
➜ They can travel a few centimetres in air.
➜ They can be stopped by a piece of paper.
➜ They have the highest ionisation ability.
➜ Low danger due to their very small range and penetration ability.
➜ When emitted, the atom loses 2 protons and a total of 4 nucleons.

Beta:
➜ Beta particles have a charge of -1.
➜ They can travel a few 10s of centimetres in air.
➜ They can not pierce through a few millimetres of aluminium.
➜ They have medium ionisation ability.
➜ More dangerous than alpha, due to their higher penetration and range, and can kill cells.
➜ Can be used to measure the thickness of sheets by measuring the effect on the count rate.
➜ Particles gain a proton number by each beta emission.

Gamma:
➜ Gamma rays have a charge of 0.
➜ They can travel infinite distances in the air.
➜ A few centimetres of lead can reduce them
➜ They have low ionising ability.
➜ Can be hazardous due to high range and penetration.
➜ Used to sterilise medical equipment.
➜ Can be used to treat cancer.
➜ Emission of gamma ray does not affect the proton or the mass number of atom.

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- Deflection

➜ In electric fields, alpha particles are slightly deflected towards the negative plate due to the
positive charge; they deflect slightly because they have a mass of 4.
➜ Beta particles are attracted towards the positive plate and deflect completely as they have a
charge of -1 and negligible mass.
➜ Gamma rays pass through unaffected as they have no charge.

Half life and Hazards

- Half life

➜ Half-life is the time taken for the number of atoms of a radioactive isotope to half.
➜ With every half-life passing, the number of nuclei of that isotope and activity will half.
➜ Half-life varies from isotope to isotope and can be extremely short or extremely long.

- Calculations

➜ If the half-life of an isotope is given, along with the number of atoms and time of decay, find
out the number of half-lives passed by dividing the time by the half-life, and half the number of
atoms that many times to get the final number of atoms. If you start off with the final count,
double it that many times.
➜ If you are given the initial number of atoms, the final number of atoms, and the time taken,
and need to calculate the half-life, find out how many times the half-life passed by dividing the
initial count by 2 till it reaches the final count, the number of times you halve it is the number of
half-lives passed. Divide the time taken by this number to get the half-life of the isotope.
➜ If you need to find the time taken, get the number of half-lives passed by halving the initial
count till it reaches the final count, and multiply the number with the half-life to get the time
taken.
➜ If the background radiation is mentioned in the question, make sure to subtract the
background radiation before doing anything else, and then carry out the required calculations
and add the background radiation again at the end.

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- Hazards of radiation and safety

➜ The ionisation of atoms caused by radioactive decay can cause chemical changes.
➜ It can cause cancer, mutations, or kill living cells.
➜ The radioactive sources should be stored in lead-lined boxes, away from people.
➜ It should be stored away right after use.
➜ Keep yourself away from the sources and handle with tongs.
➜ Minimise the time of exposure to radiation.

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- A.C Generator

➜ An A.C. generator is spun mechanically instead of by being connected to a power supply.

➜ When a coil is spun in a magnetic field, a voltage is induced between the ends of the coil.
➜ Rotating the coil cuts the magnetic field, inducing an e.m.f.
➜ The e.m.f. can be increased by rotating the coil faster, using a stronger magnet, or adding
more turns to the coil.
➜ Slip rings are attached to the end of the coil, which transfer current to brushes.
➜ The current produced as the coil rotates is A.C. that changes size and direction.
➜ When the coil is horizontal, the e.m.f. is greatest as it moves the fastest.
➜ When the coil is vertical, the e.m.f. is the smallest.

- Transformers

➜ Transformers are a device used to increase or decrease the voltage of alternating current.
➜ A step-up transformer is used to increase the voltage.
➜ A step-down transformer is used to decrease the voltage.
➜ The transformer consists of two coils wrapped around a soft iron core.
➜ The number of turns in the coils determines the size of the voltage.
➜ The secondary coil has more turns than the primary coil in a step-up transformer.
➜ In a step-down transformer, the secondary coil has fewer turns than the primary coil.

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➜ When an alternating current passes through the primary coil, a magnetic field is produced.
➜ Due to the changing direction of the current, the field changes and a magnetic flux is
generated.
➜ The field is strengthened by the soft iron core and passes through the secondary coil.
➜ The changing magnetic field induces an e.m.f. in the secondary coil.
➜ The ratio of the turns of the primary coil to the turns of the secondary coil is equal to the ratio
of the voltage in the primary coil to the voltage in the secondary coil.
➜ Input voltage/Output voltage = No. of turns in the primary coil/No. of turns in the secondary
coil
➜ The input power is equal to the output power if the transformer is 100% efficient.

- Transmission of electricity

➜ Electricity is transmitted at high voltages through power cables.

➜ A step-up transformer is used at the power station to increase the voltage.
➜ A step-down transformer is used to reduce the voltage before it reaches homes.
➜ The high voltage reduces the current, reducing the energy loss.
➜ High current in wires heats them, causing energy loss.
➜ Raising the voltage transfers the same amount of power at a lower current.
➜ This reduces the energy loss during transmission.

- Magnetic Effect of Current

➜ Concentric magnetic fields are generated around current-carrying wires.

➜ The right-hand grip rule gives the direction of the field lines.
➜ Make a fist around the wire and point the thumb in the direction of the current.
➜ The direction your fingers’ curl shows the direction of the magnetic field.
➜ The direction of the magnetic field at a point is the direction of the force on the north pole of
a magnet placed in the field.
➜ The greater the current in the wire, the stronger the magnetic field.
➜ Reversing the direction of the current reverses the direction of the field.
➜ The distance between field lines represents their strength; the closer the field lines, the
stronger the magnetic field.
➜ Field lines are closer near the wire, and get further apart.

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- Solenoid

➜ The magnetic field of a solenoid is similar to that of a bar magnet.

➜ The solenoid develops a north pole at one end and a south pole at the other.
➜ The field lines on the inside of a solenoid are straight.
➜ Solenoids can be used as electromagnets.
➜ Their magnetic field can be strengthened using a soft iron core.
➜ These electromagnets are used in relays, doorbells, and electronic door locks.

- Motor effect

➜ A force is exerted on a current-carrying wire in a magnetic field.

➜ The direction of the force depends on the direction of current and the direction of the

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magnetic field.
➜ If the direction of one of the two is reversed, the direction of the force will reverse.
➜ If both are reversed, the direction of the force will remain the same.
➜ The force is always perpendicular to both the current and the direction of the field.
➜ The left-hand rule can be used to determine the direction of the force.
➜ Hold your left hand with the thumb, index finger, and middle finger perpendicular to each
other.
➜ The thumb is in the direction of the force, the index finger is in the direction of the magnetic
field, and the middle finger is in the direction of the current.

- Charged particles

➜ A charged particle will deflect when passing through a magnetic field.

➜ The moving charge forms a current, causing the deflection.
➜ The direction of the current is opposite to the flow of the negative charge.
➜ The deflection of particles can be demonstrated by a C.R.O.

- D.C Motor

➜ A d.c motor consists of a coil in a uniform field.

➜ When current passes through the coil, it produces a turning effect.
➜ The turning effect can be increased by increasing the current, increasing the strength of the
magnetic field, and/or adding more turns to the coil.
➜ As the current passes through the coil, it produces a magnetic field around the coil.
➜ The two magnetic fields interact and exert a force on the coil.
➜ One side is pushed up and one side is pulled down, causing it to rotate.
➜ A split-ring commutator is used to reverse the direction of current every half turn.
➜ The split-ring commutator allows the coil to keep rotating.

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- Oscilloscope

➜ Oscilloscope is a laboratory instrument used to display, measure and analyse

waveforms of electrical circuits.
➜ The x-axis (or timebase) is the time and the y-axis is the voltage (or y-gain).
➜ The period of the wave can be determined from the time-base. This is how many
seconds each division represents, measured commonly in s div-1 or s cm-1.
➜ Dividing the total time by the number of wavelengths will give the time period T (Time
taken for one complete oscillation).
➜ The frequency is then determined through 1/T.

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