STONE MASONRY 3.

Flint Rubble Masonry-

When sufficiently suitable large stones are not
Classification of stone masonry- available then smaller stones such as flints or
Rubble masonry- cobbles of varying width and thickness from 7.5 cm
Stone masonry in which either undressed or rough to 15cm and lengths from 15cm to 30cm are used for
dressed stone are used with a suitable mortar having masonry purpose.
wider joint. • These are hand stones obtained from irregularly
Joints are not in uniform thickness. shaped nodules of silica.
The masonry has wide joints since stones of
irregular size are used.
1. Random rubble masonry-
Stones used in the work are hammer or chisel
dressed. It is the roughest and the cheapest form of
stonewalling. Since stones are not of uniform shape
and size.
Height of stone should be > breadth or length of tail.
More skill is required to make the masonry
structurally stable.
Masonry appearance is good.
Joint thickness ≯ 13 mm.

Ashlar Masonry-
A stone masonry in which finely dressed stones with
extremely fine bed and end joints are laid in cement
or lime mortar is termed as ashlar masonry.
Its have architectural importance that provide
smooth appearance.
This is used for heavy structures arches, architectural
building, high piers, bridge abutment etc.
2. Dry Rubble masonry- This types of masonry is much costly as it requires
It is cheaper than ordinary rubble masonry dressing of stones.
constructed without mortar. The height of stone varies from 25 to 30cm.
More manpower required in construction.
Useful for non-load bearing walls like compound 1. Ashlar Fine Masonry-
retaining wall, boundary wall. All stones have same size and stones are fine tooled
It is also used in pitching the earthen dam and the on all bed and side joints and the face are rendered
canal slope. perfectly.
For any stone H ≯ 30 cm
Height of stone ≮ Breadth and L > (2-3)H
Bed and side joint > 3mm.
thickness
2. Ashlars Rough Tooled Masonry-
Expose faces of stone has rough and uneven but
corners and sides are perfect dressed.
Joint thickness ≯ 6 mm.
Construction of Superstructure 53 YCT
 b. Cross joint/Vertical joint or Head joint-
Mortar joint in masonry normal to the face of the
wall.
Technical terms in masonry–
Bed -Horizontal mortar joints on which masonry
units are laid is known as bed.

3. Ashlars Chamfered Masonry-

Dressing and surface are same as above but edged
around the exposed faces of stone is chamfered at
450.
BRICK MASONRY
Important terminology used in masonry- Quoin-
1. Face and facing- It is the exterior angle or corner of the wall.
Outer or exposed front face of the wall is called face
and material used on face is called facing.
2. Back and Backing-
Internal or back surface of the wall is back and
material used is called backing.
3. Hearting or Filling-
It is the internal portion between face and back.
4. Spall-
Small pieces or chips of stone.
It is used in filling the interstices in stone masonry. Cornice Brick -
5. Frieze- Several shapes and size of brick when combined to
Course of stone masonry provided just below the form cornice are known as cornice bricks.
cornice.
Provided to increase the appearance of wall.
6. Template or bed block-
A stone or concrete block used under a girder or
beam to spread the concentrated load from the roof
over a large area of bearing surface.
7. Intending-
Process of leaving recesses in masonry into which
future work can be bonded.
8. Perpend-
An imaginary lines containing vertical joints in Various forms and shapes of bricks-
masonry. It is represented by 'A'.
9. Joint-
It is junction of two or more bricks/stones.

a. Horizontal or bed joints-

Thickend horizontal layer of mortar just below the
course.
Construction of Superstructure 54 YCT
 Bat- Generally its weight is one third of ordinary bricks.
Portion of a brick cut across the width or a brick cut Sufficiently strong for all purpose except in case of
by some fraction of its length. concentrated load.
Bat is used in flemish bond. Useful for non-load bearing walls.
Closer- Perforated Brick-
Position of bricks obtained by cutting it along Its consists 35-45% cylindrical holes on their thick
length.
surface.
King Closer-
A brick which is cut to remove half the header and
half the stretcher or the triangular pieces between
the center of one end and the center of one side.
When two walls meet at an angle king closer is used.
Queen Closer-
It is a brick cut into two parts longitudinally then
one part is known as Queen closer.
To get a proper bond it is placed next to the first
header in alternate course.
Note-King closer and Queen closer are related to Not useful for hydraulic structure.
brick masonry. It should be free from cracks and free lime.
Bull-Nosed bricks- The dimensions are 19×9×9cm and 29×9×9cm.
Used to round off sharp corners. The shapes of brick may be circular, square,
rectangular or any other shape in cross-section
Use-use in the panel of light weight structure and
multi- storeyed frame structure
. BOND-
The art applying to the overlapping of the brick in a
wall in each alternate course to bind up the whole
wall together is known as bond.
Coping Bricks- Rules for Bonding-
It is used to topmost course of parapet and its shape 1. The amount of overlap should be minimum 1/4 brick
are made like that rain water drained out from the along the length of the wall and 1/2 brick across the
top of parapet. thickness of the wall.
Throat- throw the rain water from the face of wall. 2. As for as the use of brick bat should be avoided
except under a special circumstances.
3. Length of the brick should be twice its width plus
one joint.
4. It is preferable to provide header course on both the
sides of the wall at every six course.
5. The vertical joint in the alternate course should be
along the same perpend.
6. Hearting should be carried out with headers only.

Cant, Splay or plinth brick-

Types of bond-
These are used in door and window jambs and also 1. Stretcher Bond-
in plinth. All the bricks are laid as stretcher horizontally on
There is splay may be on the header or stretcher. the faces of wall.

It is possible only for half brick walls or 10 cm thick

wall.
Hollow or Cavity Brick (IS : 2222-1979)- Ex.- Partition wall.
Solid volume of brick ≮ 1/2 of total volume. It is also known as running bond.
Advantage- Overlap is obtained by commencing each alternate
Provide insulation against heat and sound. course with a half brick bat.
Construction of Superstructure 55 YCT
2. Header Bond- Facing of the wall consist flemish bond while
backing consist English bond in each course.
(b) Double Flemish Bond-

In this types of bond bricks are laid as only header

on the face of wall.
It is mostly used for footing in foundation.
Header bond is usually used for one brick wall (20
cm) or in well lining, well foundation.
Not used for load bearing walls because of it not
contain enough strength in delivering pressure along There is same appearance in each course can be seen
the length of wall. in the front and back face of the wall.
3. English Bond-
Flemish bond is used on both faces.
This bond have better appearance than English bond.
Header and stretchers are laid in each course
alternately.
This bond have maximum used of half bat, quarter
bat and 3/4 brick bat in wall thickness.
Quoin closers are laid next to quoin headers in each
alternate course.
Other types of bond-
This bond consists alternate course of headers and Facing Bond-
stretcher. It is the strongest bond and required more Useful where facing and backing are desired to be
facing bricks than other bond. constructed with bricks of different thickness.
This is most common and popular bond that is used Dutch bond-
for wall thickness ≥ 20 cm.
A queen closer must be provided after the quoin
header.
Header course should never start with queen closer.
Continuous vertical joints should not be allowed.
Joint in a header course should be thinner than those
in stretcher course.
Stretcher should have minimum lap of 1/4th their
length over the headers in stretcher course.
It is costly and stronger than Flemish bond and used It is the modified form of English bond.
in all government works. Dutch bond consists of alternate courses of header
4. Flemish Bond- and stretchers.
Every stretcher course starts with three quarter (3/4
brick) bricks and in every alternate stretcher course
in the header is place after the three quarter bricks.
In every alternate course, a header is placed next to
the three quarter brick bat provided at the quoin.
Flemish Bond
Each course has alternate header and stretchers. HOLLOW CONCRETE BLOCK MASONRY
Every alternate course starts with a header at the The concrete blocks are made of ordinary Portland
corner. cement and aggregate. High-density blocks are
(a) Single Flemish Bond- fabricated using cement, sand, and gravel.
The concrete blocks can be categorized in solid
concrete blocks and hollow concrete blocks. In the
solid concrete blocks, the cavity is not provided or
remains below 25% of the gross cross-sectional area.
In the hollow concrete blocks, one or more cavities
are provided and it can be up to 50% of the total
It is the combination of English and flemish bond. gross cross-sectional area.
Construction of Superstructure 56 YCT
 Stone facing with brick backing :
The wall is constructed of bricks and the stones are
provided at the face.
The advantages of the hollow concrete blocks are as
follows: The stone facing with brick backing is provided to
These are light in weight due to the cavity. So, the improve the appearance of the structure.
handling and placing of the hollow concrete blocks Stone slab facing with brick backing:
are easy. Stone slabs of 5 cm to 10 cm thickness are provided
The construction of structures with hollow concrete on the face of the wall while the wall is constructed
blocks is quick and easy. It consumes less time in of bricks.
construction.
Brick facing with concrete backing:
The buildings can be made earthquake-resistant
using hollow concrete blocks. For this purpose, In this type of composite masonry, concrete is
these blocks can be reinforced with steel bars and provided in the back for providing strength while the
concrete. bricks are used on the surface.
These blocks provide good acoustic and thermal
insulation due to the availability of the cavity. CAVITY WALL
The cavities in the hollow concrete blocks are used Cavity walls are types of walls made up of two
for the installation of electrical setup and plumbing different walls joined with the help of wall ties.
systems. In this type of wall, an outer wall is attached with
The production cost of the hollow concrete blocks is the help of ties to the inner wall separated by
slightly lesser than the bricks. These blocks consume cavity/airspace. Metal strips are used as wall ties.
less mortar as compared to bricks.
The maintenance cost of the hollow concrete blocks Wall ties are placed at the gap of 90 cm along the
is lesser. length and 45 cm in the direction of height.
There is no need for formwork like in the case of The cavity wall protects the building from external
construction of concrete members. wall moisture and rainwater and also provides space
The hollow concrete blocks are divided into A and B for the installation of thermal insulation.
grades. The cavity starts from the floor level to the roof of
If the minimum density for the A-grade hollow the building and is covered from the top to prevent
concrete blocks is 1500 kg/m3. For B-grade blocks,
the density varies. the penetration of rainwater.
The size of cavity wall varies from 4 to 10 cm.
COMPOSITE MASONRY
Composite masonry is composed of more than one
type of masonry.
The construction materials like stones, bricks, etc.
are used for improving the performance and
appearance of the structure.
Composite masonry imparts higher strength and
durability. The appearance of the structures can be
improved using composite masonry.
The optimum use of the locally available material
helps in achieving economy in construction.
Composite masonry is high in cost and requires
skilled workers due to the complexity of
construction.
Glass composite masonry is also used nowadays.
Construction of Superstructure 57 YCT
 DOORS Various Parts of Door-
An openable barrier or as a framework of wood,
steel, aluminium or combination of these material
secured in a wall opening for the purpose of
providing access to the users is known as door.
Common name of all door, window and such units
are called joinery.
Designation of Door-
Width of door × Door type × Height of door
x.DS.y Single shutter door with width of 'x'
module and height equal to 'y' module.
Where,
Width of door = x module or x×100 mm
D - Door
S - Single shutter
x.DT.y Height of door= y module or y × 100 mm
T = Double shutter Horn-
Size of Doors- Horizontal projection of the head and sill of a frame
Types of building Size of door (m) to facilitate the fixing of the frame in the wall
opening.
1. Residential building Projection length beyond post – 10 - 15 cm.
External door 1 × 2 - 1.1 × 2 Rebate-
Internal door 0.9 × 2 - 1 × 2 It is the cut or depression in door frame to fitting the
Bathroom & W.C. door 0.7 × 2 - 0.8 × 2 shutter.
2. Public building as Hospital, 1.2 × 2, 1.2 × 2.1 Rebate size in chaukhat - 12 - 20 mm
School, Library. or 1.2 × 2.25 Depth of rebate = Thickness of shutter
Rebate is cut on both side of post, if double door is
3. Door for garage 2.25 × 2.25
required.
Door should be away 20 cm from the corner. Transom-
As far as possible door should be located near the Transom is defined as the horizontal member of a
corner of room because of proper space utilization frame that is employed to horizontally sub-divided a
and privacy. window opening.
Components of door- Mullion-
Vertical intermediate member of the frame which
1. Frame or Chaukhat-
divide the door/window vertically is known as
A wooden structure made with two vertical member mullion.
known as post and one top horizontal member Post-
known as head is called door frame or chaukhat. These are vertical rectangular compression member
of frame that support the shutter of door.
Hold Fast-
It is mild steel flats bent-up in Z-shape to fix or hold
the frame into wall.
Length of hold fast - 20 cm
Cross-section - 30 mm × 6 mm
Note -
Min. Number of holdfast required on each side.
1. For door frame - 3
• If horn is available - 2
2. For window frame - 2
Sill-
It is the Bottommost horizontal parts or door of
window. Mostly sill is not provided for door. It
should be kept 70-90 cm above floor level.
• Door frame - 8 × 10cm - 10 × 12cm Reveal-
• Window frame - 8 × 8cm - 8 × 10cm The external jamb of door/window opening at right
angle to the wall face is known as reveal.
• Ventilator frame - 8 × 8 cm Dimension - 5 cm
Construction of Superstructure 58 YCT
 Jamb- Panelled Door-
This is the vertical wall face of an opening which This door consist of timber framework with styles
supports the frame. and rails which are grooved on the inside to receive
Its dimension is taken - 20 cm one or more panels.
2. Shutter or Leaf- This types of door provided in all types buildings.
Door shutter is an assembly of style, panel and rail. Bottom and lock rails are of bigger size than the top
It is the openable part of the door.
and frieze rails. Bottom rails are wider than that of
Max. thickness is taken 50 mm.
all.
Style-
Vertical outside member of shutters without any Maximum area of a single panel ≯ 0.5m2
joint is known as style.
Style width generally kept 8-10 cm.
Style which are hang on one side is called hanging
or hinged style.
Top Rail-
Top most horizontal member of shutter (width 8-10
cm)
Lock Rail-
It is middle horizontal member of shutter in which
lock is fixed (width, 20 cm)
It is fixed at the height of 75-85 cm above floor
level.
Bottom Rail-
Lowermost horizontal member of a door shutter
with width of 15-20 cm called bottom rail.
Middle or Frieze Rail-
An extra frame used between top rail and lock rails
is known as middle or frieze rail.
Panel-
For single panel door- Plywood thickness ≮ 12 mm.
Area of shutter enclosed between the adjacent rails
is called panel. For double panel door- Plywood thickness ≮ 10 mm.
Sash bar/Glazing bar-
It is a strip of wood or metal separating and holding Revolving Door-
glass panels in a window.
Types of door-
Framed Ledged and Braced door-

Elevation
It consists mullion at its centre to which four
It is similar to above two doors only different except radiating shutters are attached. It provides entrance
that the braced are introduced. on one side and exit on other simultaneously
Braced should be inclined upward from the hanging keeping the opening automatically closed when not
side. in use.
It can be used for external side because of this is • Revolving door are only provided in public building
more durable and stronger. like museum, banks, libraries etc.
Construction of Superstructure 59 YCT
 Louvered Door- Area required for window-
It permits natural ventilation when closed. It also (a) For residential building
provide privacy in the room. 1
(i) Total area with frame = × A room Floor
8
1
(ii) Total area of door and window = + A room Floor
4
1
(iii) Area of ventilators = + A room Floor
25
1
(iv) Area of window in W.C. and bathroom = + A Floor
10
(b) Hospital, school- 20% × Aroom Floor
Area of glass panel in window - 8% × Aroom Floor for
adequate natural light.
Classification of window-
A. Window on the basis of fitted in walls-
1. Casement Window- It is like as simple doors in
which shutters open like doors.
Rolling Shutter-
This door consists frame, drum and a shutter of thin
steel plate inter locked together. A horizontal shaft is
provided in the drum which helps to open or close
the shutter.
• Use for warehouse, garages, shops etc.

2. Pivoted or Revolving Window-

Shutter rotates about a pivot fixed to window frame.
Window frame have not any rebate. Shutter may
rotate horizontally or vertically.

❖ Use of Doors-
1. Revolving door Public building and AC
building 3. Bay or Projected Window-
2. Sliding door Bank, office garrage,
workshop and AC building.
3. Glazed and Residential and public
planelled door building.
4. Rolling steel shutter Garrage, Godowns, shops.
5. Swinging door Residential building.
6. Louvered door Used in toilets of public and
residential building. Types of window which are projected outward from
7. Collapsible door Workshop, sheds, warehouse. the wall of a room is known as bay window.
Its provide an increase area of opening in three
WINDOWS direction and admitting more light and ventilation.
Window is defined as an opening in the wall for the 4. Clerestory window-
purpose of providing daylight, vision and Provide near the main roof of a room and opens
ventilation. above the adjoining verandah.
Construction of Superstructure 60 YCT
 5. Louvered Window-
This types of window is provided for the purpose of
ventilation and proper outside vision but not permit
inside vision.

B. Window Provided on Roof-

1. Dormer window-
Dormer window is provided on the sloping sides of
roof. This types of window is provided to achieve 6. Lantern Window- This types of window is
proper lighting and ventilation to the enclose space provided on flat roof on a room. It is a glass
below the roof. structure that sits on top of a flat roof. They are
Dormer window projects vertically beyond the plane usually pyramid shaped to encourage light to come
of the pitched roof. through from all angles.
2. Gable Window-
The window provided on the gable end of a pitched
roof is known as gable window.

VERTICAL COMMUNICATION
3. Sky Light-
This types of window is provided on the sloping side STAIR
of pitched roof being parallel to the sloping. Introduction -
A stair is may be defined as a series of steps suitably
arranged between two or more floors of a building to
bridge a large vertical distance.
or
A part of building enclosed with series of steps,
balustrade, hand rail, landings is called stair case.
Terminology related to stair-

4. Fan Light -
Fanlight is fitted between the head of the door frame
and transom. It provides cross ventilation in the
room while the door is closed.
It is also known as transom window.

Steps-
A portion of stairway comprising the tread and riser
which permit the ascent or descent from one floor to
another.
Construction of Superstructure 61 YCT
 Stair consists a set of steps. Winder-
Tread- It is the horizontal portion of the step on Triangular or wedge shaped steps, that is used to
which foot is placed to ascent or descent. changing the direction.
Riser- Landing-
Vertical portion of step to providing support the It is a horizontal platform provided between two
steps which connects the tread is called riser. flights.
Horizontal distance between the two consecutive If, L = 2B → Half space landing
risers is known as Going, go or Run. Where,
Rise- L = Length of rectangular landing
Vertical distance between the upper surface of the B = Width of stair
successive treads is called rise. Head room or head way-
Pitch or slope- The clear vertical distance between the tread of step
The angle at which line of nosing of the stairs makes or nosing line and the ceiling of the stair case or
with the horizontal. soffit of the flight.
Pitch of stair- ≯ 400 and ≮ 250 Head room should not be less than 2.05 m.
Newel Post- Spandrill-
It is a wooden or metallic post supporting the hand A triangular framing under the outside string of an
rail and is usually provided at the top and bottom of open string stair.
a flight.
Baluster-
These are the short wooden, metal or masonry
vertical member which support the hand rail.
Balustrade-
It is the combination of hand rail, newel post and
balusters.
Stringers-
It is a sloping wooden member employed to
provides support for the steps.
Thickness - 32 - 50 mm, Depth - 25 -38 cm.
Soffit-
Inner surface of the stair is known as soffit.
Run-
Total length of stair in horizontal plane including
landing. Requirement of a good stair-
Hand Rail- Number of steps in a flight-
Moulded block of wood or metal provided to afford • Maximum - 12
assistance and safeguard to person during going on • Minimum - 3
stairs. Width of stair-
Railing height - 75 cm from nosing line.
Handrail supports the balustrade and run parallel to
• For public building - 1.5 - 1.8 m
the slope of stair. • For residential building - 90 cm
Flight- Width of landing ≮ width of stair.
Continuous series of steps in one direction without Minimum head room ≮ 2.10 m
any plateform separated by horizontal plateform or Fixing the tread and Rise-
binders. Tread + Rise 40 - 45 cm
Nosing- Tread + 2 × Rise 60 cm
It is the outer front projecting edge of the tread. Tread × Rise 375 - 450
Usually it is rounded in shape that provide good Tread + 2 × Rise 55 - 65 cm
architectural effect to the tread. Standard size of-
Line of nosing joint the ends of nosing of all treads 1. Rise - 15 cm
in a flight. 2. Tread - 30 cm
Scotia- ❖ For residential building-
Molding provided under nosing to beautified the
elevation of steps. • Size of step 25 cm × 16 cm
Scotia block is wooden triangular block used below • Without nosing min. 25 cm
the nosing to given it additional strength. width of tread
• For public buildings 27 cm × 15 cm to
Fliers- 30 cm × 13 cm
A straight step having a parallel and equal width of size of step
• Width of tread for cinema hall 25-30 cm
tread or it is a rectangular steps of uniform shape
• Area of stair case ≯ 12 m2
and size.
Construction of Superstructure 62 YCT
 Tread and Rise Calculation- Use of various stairs-
Ceiling height of Room Residential building Dog-legged, straight flight
Riser height =
No. of risers Public building Open -well, bifurcated
Number of tread To give better Geometrical stair.
Length available − Landing width appearance
=
Tread depth
LIFTS
A lift (or elevator) is a form of vertical
transportation between building floors, levels or
decks, commonly used in offices, public building
and other types of multi-storey building.
• The main components of lifts are following :
No. of Tread
= No. of Riser - 1 (in case of straight staircase) The lift can moving on guide rails.
No. of tread Suspension ropes (steel wire rope with FOS 12 to
= No. of Riser - 2 (in case of one landing and two 20).
flight) Counter weight on pulley to balance the car with 40
Classification of stairs- to 50% of maximum live load.
1. Straight Flight Stair- The passenger capacity of a lift is usually rated
Provided where place is long and narrow and assuming the weight of a person as 68 kg.
possibility of any other form of stair may not be
practically possible.
In case of steep ascending straight flight can be
broken with intermediate landing.

2. Dog-legged stair-
It is a common type of stair case in which two • Structural components of lifts :
consecutive right angle (2×900 or 1800) changes at A lift well of suitable size, usually extending up to
mid landing slab level. 1600 to 2600 mm, below the bottom landing.
It is also known as half turn or U-turn stair. Opening of height of 2 m for entry of people at
No space is provided between two flights. every floor level.
Useful, where width of staircase hall = 2 × width of
landing. ESCALATORS
It A power-driven inclined continuous stair way
used for raising or lowering passengers known as
Escalators.
It is suitable where movement of large number of
people at a controlled rate in a minimum available
space is involved.
The escalators are provided in hospitals, shopping
malls, business areas, and any place where users are
large in number.

SCAFFOLDING
A scaffolding is a temporary structure to support
original structure as well as workmen, material etc.
It is a platform to carry the construction work.
Construction of Superstructure 63 YCT
 Important members used in scaffolding- It is also called as independent scaffolding

1. Standards -
Vertical tube held suitable distance from the wall
that transfer the load to the ground.
2. Ledgers - Mason's Scaffolding
Horizontal member parallel to the wall connected 3. Suspended scaffolding-
between standards. There is no use of standards, bracing etc.
It decide the height of working platform. These scaffolding are suspended using ropes or
3. Putlog - chain from a strong overhead structures.
They are at right angles to the wall. It is free from touch of ground.
These are horizontal member parallel to wall which Used for painting and repairing work.
is placed one end on wall holes and other is SHORING
connected on standards or kept over ledger.
Shoring is the construction of a temporary structure
4. Transom or Bearer -
to support an unsafe structure.
It is used to Supports standards and placed at right
It is used in case of wall cracks, bulge out of wall,
angle to the ledgers.
openings are to be newly made, timbering of the
Bay width may defined by transom. trench etc.
5. Diagonal Braces - Used to change the room dimension.
To increase the strength of basic structure to carry
more loads. Types of shoring-
6. Boards - 1. Inclined or Raking Shore-
It is temporary working platform made of steel or This is a system of giving temporary support to an
wooden boards to kept material and for standing unsafe wall. In this method, inclined members
workmen. known as rakers used to give lateral supports to wall.
It is supported over putlog. Inclination of rakers 450 - 750.
7. Volt - Angle between top shore and platform- 87 to 89
Used to bind the all parts of the scaffold to withstand C/C distance b/w rakers along the wall length 3-4.6
load and make a framed structure. m.
Inclined rakers are suitable for 5 m height of wall.
Types of scaffolding-
1. Single/Brick layer or putlog scaffold -
This cheap and common types of scaffolding widely
used for brick masonry.
One end of scaffold is supported on wall while other
is on standards so it is called single scaffold.
C/C distance b/w standards - 2.4 - 3.0 m and from
wall - 1.2m.
Vertically C/C distance b/w ledgers- 1.2 - 1.5m
C/C distance b/w putlog - 1.20-1.5m
2. Mason or Double Scaffold -
If there is difficult to leave whole in stone wall to
support the putlog mason's or double scaffolding is
provided. In its two frame of standards, ledgers and
braces used. One is placed near the wall and other is
1.5 m apart the first.
Two rows of standards are provided in this system. 2. Flying Shoring or Horizontal Shoring-
It is totally free from masonry wall. Flying shores is a system of providing temporary
It is generally used for stone masonry supports to the partition wall of the two building.
Construction of Superstructure 64 YCT
 Centre line of flying shore and strut and those of the Questions Asked in Previous Years
wall should meet at floor level of the two buildings.
Strut inclination - 450 1. Identify the stair element pointed by the arrow
Single flying shore is suitable for 8-10 m distance.

(a) Handrail (b) Wooden Rail

(c) Baluster (d) Naval Post
Andaman PWD Arch. Asst. 18/02/2023 Shift-III
Ans. (c) : Important terminology about stair–

3. Dead or vertical shoring-

Vertical shore is used to render vertical support to
floors, wall and roofs etc.
Dead shore erected to increase the size of opening in
an existing wall.

Soffit – The underside of a structural component, such

as a beam, arch, staircase.
Headroom– It is the height above the nosing of a tread
to the ceiling above it. The minimum height of a head
room in stair case is 2.1 m.
Pitch – The angle of inclination of the stairs with the
floor is known as a pitch. It also indicates the angle
which the line of noising makes with the horizontal.
Winders– It steps that are narrower on one side than the
other they are used to change the direction of the stair
without landing. A series of winders form a circular or
spiral stairway.
Tread– Horizontal portion of step in stair case is known
as tread.
Riser - It is the vertical portion of a step providing a
support to the tread.
Landing – The width of the landing should not be less
Purpose- than the width of the stair, landing is the horizontal
• Opening in the wall to be made. platform provided at the top of a flight.
• To rebuilt the defective lower part of the wall. Stairwell–The space/void provided for the stairs.
Scotia/cornice–The piece running between the wall and
• To replace or deepen the existing foundation which
ceiling at the top of the wall is called a scotia.
have either becomes unsafe or required Nosing–the edge of the tread projecting beyond the face
strengthening for carrying heavier loads. of the riser and the face of a cut string.
A buttress in a wall is intended to provide lateral Flight– The length of staircase situated between two
support to wall. landings is called flight.
Construction of Superstructure 65 YCT