A computer network is a network of computer devices like computers, servers, routers,

switches, or other related hardware’s that are interlinked with one another to
communicate and share resources, exchange data, and shared services.

Characteristics of a Computer Network

The following are the characteristics of a computer network −

 Share resources from one computer to another.

 Create files and store them in one computer, access those files from the other computer(s)
connected over the network.
 Connect a printer, scanner, or a fax machine to one computer within the network and let other
computers of the network use the machines available over the network.

Goals of computer Network

The main goals of computer networks are as follows −

Resource Sharing

The main goal of the computer network is Resource Sharing. It is to create all the programs,
data and hardware accessible to anyone on the network without considering the resource’s
physical area and the client.

Saving Money

The second goal of a computer network is saving money. Small computers have a much
excellent value proportion than higher ones. Mainframes are approximately a method ten
times quicker than the quickest single-chip microprocessors, but they cost a huge number of
times more.

This imbalance has made numerous system designers build systems, including dynamic
personal computers, one per customer, with data kept on at least one shared document server
machines. This objective prompts networks for specific computers situated in a similar
building, including a network is known as LAN (Local Area Network).

High Reliability

The third goal is to support high reliability by acquiring a different authority of supply. For
example, all files can be recreated on a few machines, and thus if one of them is nonexistent,
the additional copies could be available.

Improve Performance
The fourth goal of a computer network is to improve accessibility and the performance of the
system. A system’s performance can be improved by inserting one or more processors into it
as its workload grows.

For example, if the system is full, replacing it with a larger one at a large expense, it is better
to add more processors to it at less cost and less disruption to the user. This improves both
accessibilities as well as the performance of a system.

Communication Medium

The fifth goal of the computer network offers a powerful communication medium. The
different user on the network can immediately identify a document that has been refreshed on
a network.

Data Communication System Components :

There are mainly five components of a data communication system:

1. Message
2. Sender
3. Receiver
4. Transmission Medium
5. Set of rules (Protocol)

All above mentioned elements are described below:

 Figure – Components of Data Communication System
1. Message
This is most useful asset of a data communication system. The message simply refers to
data or piece of information which is to be communicated. A message could be in any
form, it may be in form of a text file, an audio file, a video file, etc.

2. Sender
To transfer message from source to destination, someone must be there who will play
role of a source. Sender plays part of a source in data communication system. It is
simple a device that sends data message. The device could be in form of a computer,
mobile, telephone, laptop, video camera, or a workstation, etc.

3. Receiver
It is destination where finally message sent by source has arrived. It is a device that
receives message. Same as sender, receiver can also be in form of a computer, telephone
mobile, workstation, etc.

4. Transmission Medium
In entire process of data communication, there must be something which could act as
a bridge between sender and receiver, Transmission medium plays that part. It is physical
path by which data or message travels from sender to receiver. Transmission medium could
be guided (with wires) or unguided (without wires), for example, twisted pair cable, fiber
optic cable, radio waves, microwaves, etc.

5. Set of rules (Protocol)

To govern data communications, various sets of rules had been already designed by the
designers of the communication systems, which represent a kind of agreement between
communicating devices. These are defined as protocol. In simple terms, the protocol is a
set of rules that govern data communication. If two different devices are connected but
there is no protocol among them, there would not be any kind of communication
between those two devices. Thus the protocol is necessary for data communication to
take place.

A typical example of a data communication system is sending an e-mail. The user which
send email act as sender, message is data which user wants to send, receiver is one whom
user wants to send message, there are many protocols involved in this entire process, one of
them is Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP) , both sender and receiver must have an
internet connection which uses a wireless medium to send and receive email.

Types of a Computer Network

 A computer network can be categorized into three main categories −

 LAN (Local Area Network)

 MAN (Metropolitan Area Network)
 WAN (Wide Area Network)

These networks can be built using geographical scope and the medium of connection (wired
or wireless). A computer network allows to access network, file sharing, printing and
collaboration between users at a time. Computer networks can be designed using network
topologies (star, bus, ring, mesh) and protocols (TCP/IP, Ethernet, Wi-Fi) depending on the
specific requirements and constraints of the environment they serve.

Description of LAN, MAN and WAN are as follows −

1. Local Area Network (LAN)

As its name implies, A LAN is a network which is limited to local area only for example
home, office building, school, or campus. Hence, any network that exists within a single
building, or even a group of adjacent buildings, is considered as LAN. It is often used to
connect separate LANs together so they can communicate and exchange data. In a LAN,
limited computer and networking devices are connected because its geographical area is
small; it is specifically design for shorter distance and used for sharing resources like files,
printers, and internet connections among connected devices; the devices are physically
connected with cables in wired LAN while in wireless LAN; devices are connected using
wireless media.

Overall, LANs are essential for communication, sharing of resources and communication
between devices within a given area and facilitate its users for file sharing, printing,
multimedia and streaming, which are common tasks for commercial and home networks.

Characteristics of LANs

 Limited Geographic Area − A LAN network is dedicated for small area like a single
building, campus, school, hospital.
 High Data Transfer Rates − A LAN network covers a short distance so the data transmits
with high speed as compare to MANs and WANs.
 Ownership and Control − Because of its local network and small size; they are owned,
controlled, and managed by individuals or organizations with full control over the network,
access and security policies.
 Connectivity − Generally, A LAN connects using Ethernet cables, Wi-Fi, or both.
 Topology − It’s a method to making a LAN; some common topologies are bus, star, ring, or
mesh.

2. Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)

 Metropolitan Area Network (MAN) is an extensive network that connects two or more LANs
together within a specific geographical area, such as a city or a town. Usually MANs are not
owned by sole organization. Their communication devices and equipment are maintained by
a group or single network provider that sells its networking services to corporate customers.
MANs often take the role of high-speed network that allows sharing of regional resources.
MANs also can provide a mutual connection between two or more local networks.

Characteristics of MANs

 Geographical Coverage − MANs cover a larger geographical as it combines multiple LANs

across different locations; for example - a network of a city.

 High-Speed Connectivity − MANs provide high-speed data transmission between multiple

LANs within interconnected devices in the metropolitan area.

 Public or Private Ownership − Municipal governments and telecommunications firms can

own and operate MANs.

Scalability − MANs are scalable networks, whenever network needs to span, MANs can be
expanded or upgraded.

 Reliability and Redundancy − MANs use redundant network components and backup
solutions to reduce network failure and down network. In case of equipment failure or
network disturbances, alternate network paths, backup power sources, and failover processes
preserve network availability.
 Support for Various Technologies − MANs support network technologies like Ethernet,
fiber optics, wireless communication, and microwave links.

 Service Provisioning − A MAN provides services to its users like network access, data
transfer, voice communication, video conferencing, and cloud services.

 Security Measures − MANs implement security measures to protect network resources, data
and communications from unauthorized access, cyber threats, and other security risks.

Overall, MANs are well-suited to providing fast, reliable, and scalable connectivity to users
and organisations in metropolitan regions, allowing for efficient communication,
collaboration, and access to network resources.

3. Wide Area Network (WAN)

A network which combines multiple MANs and LANs is known as Wide Area Network; a
WAN network covers wide geographical area typically covering multiple cities, regions,
countries, or even continents.

Example

A company may have its corporate headquarters and manufacturing plant located in one city
and marketing office in another city. Each site needs resources, data and programs locally,
but it also needs to share data with other sites. To accomplish this, the company can attach
devices that connect over public utilities to create a WAN.
 Characteristics of WANs

 Large Geographical Coverage − WANs includes cities, regions, and countries network and
span it over the time as per the requirements increases. This covers worldwide geographical
coverage.
 Interconnection of LANs − WANs interconnect geographically dispersed LANs. Users in
one area can communicate with another whose location is different as well as access
resources located in other locations.
 Use of Public and Private Telecommunication Infrastructure − WANs use leased lines,
fibre optic cables, satellite links, and microwave links. The WAN's infrastructure allows
long-distance data transfer.
 High Bandwidth and Long-Distance Communication − WANs provide quick data transfer
and communication across vast distances with high-bandwidth connectivity. WAN bandwidth
and speed depend on transmission medium and network technology.
 Multiprotocol Support − To fulfil communication needs, WANs enable multiple
networking protocols and technologies. It includes TCP/IP, MPLS, Frame Relay, ATM etc.
 Centralized Management and Control − WANs use centralised administration and control
to optimise performance, manage network resources, and enforce security regulations across
different locations. Centralised management ensures network efficiency and consistency.
 Security Considerations − Encryption, virtual private networks (VPNs), firewalls, intrusion
detection/prevention systems (IDS/IPS), and access control mechanisms are the security
measures used by WANs to protect data and network resources against cyber threats and
unauthorised access.
 Scalability and Flexibility − WANs are flexible and scalable, allows network growth, traffic
volume, and new locations or users. WAN technologies can meet changing business needs
and technology development.

Types of Network Architecture

Computer networks can be classified based on architecture into two primary types:
 Peer-to-Peer Architecture
 Client/Server Architecture

Types of
Network Architecture
What is Peer-to-Peer Architecture?

In the P2P (Peer-to-Peer) network, “peers” generally represent computer system. These
peers are connected to each other with help of Internet. Files might be shared directly
without requirement of central server among these systems on the network. It can be said
that each of computers on P2P network usually becomes file server even as client also.
In this architecture, system is generally decomposed into various computational nodes that
contain the same and equivalent capabilities, abilities, and responsibilities. In this network,
tasks are allocated at each and every device available on network. This network is very
essential and important for small environments, usually up to at least 10 computers. There
is also no separate division as clients and servers. Each and every computer in this network
are treated same and equally and might send even receive message directly. This P2P
network is generally useful in various fields such as business, education, military, etc.

Peer-to-Peer Architecture
Advantages of Peer-to-Peer Architecture

 P2P network is less costly and cheaper. It is affordable.

 P2P is very simple and not complex. This is because all computers that are connected
in network communication in an efficient and well-mannered with each other.
 It is very easy and simple to set up and manage as installation and setup is less painless
and computer manages itself. This is because of built-in support in modern operating
systems.
 Security is one of major issues in this type of network.
 If computer working with some of resources is down and sharing of resources might
become major problem.
 Performance, security, and access can also become major problem with an increase in
number of computers on this network.

Disadvantages of Peer-to-Peer Architecture

 It is more difficult to manage security policies consistently.
 Each peer demands individual care and control.
 As the network expands in size, it may become inefficient.

What is Client/Server Architecture?

CSN (Client/Server Network) is type of computer network in which one of centralized and
powerful computers (commonly called as server) is hub to which many of personal
computers that are less powerful or workstations (commonly known as clients) are
connected. It is type of system where clients are connected to server to just share or use
resources. These servers are generally considered as heart of system. This type of network
is more stable and scalable as compared to P2P network. In this architecture, system is
generally decomposed into client and server processor or processes.

Client/
Server Architecture

Advantages of Client/Server Architecture

 A special Network Operating System (NOS) is provided by server to provide resources
to many users that request them.
 It is also very easy and simple to set up and manage data updates. This is because data is
generally stored in centralized manner on server.
 The server usually controls resources and data security.
 This network also boosts speed of sharing resources.
 If anyhow server goes down or crashes, entire will be affected by this.
 It is very expensive as compared to P2P. This is due to need for server with
more memory as well as need for many networking devices such as
hubs, routers, switches, etc.
 Cost of NOS being provided is very high.

Disadvantages of Client/Server Architecture

 If the server fails, clients may lose access to services.
 Setting up servers requires a higher investment in hardware and software.
 Managing servers requires skilled personnel.

Protocol Hierarchies in Computer Network

A Protocol Hierarchy is a fixed set of rules and conventions that govern the communication
between two or more computers. The hierarchical structure allows for modular design,
interoperability, and ease of implementation in computer networks.

What is Protocol?

A protocol is simply defined as a set of rules and regulations for data communication. Rules
are defined for every step and process at the time of communication among two or more
computers. Networks are needed to follow these protocols to transmit the data successfully.
All protocols might be implemented using hardware, software, or a combination of both of
them. There are three aspects of protocols given below:

 Syntax – It is used to explain the data format that is needed to be sent or received.
 Semantics – It is used to explain the exact meaning of each of the sections of bits that
are usually transferred.
 Timings – This is used to explain the exact time at which data is generally transferred
along with the speed at which it is transferred.

Protocol Hierarchies

Generally, Computer networks are comprised of or contain a large number of hardware and
software. For network design, various networks are organized and arranged as a stack of
layers of hardware and software, one on top of another. The number, name, content, and
function of each layer might vary and can be different from one network to another. The
main purpose of each layer is to provide services to higher layers that are present. Every
layer has some particular task or function. The networks are organized and arranged as
different layers or levels simply to reduce and minimize the complexity of the design of
network software.

Example of Protocol Hierarchy

Below is diagram representing a five-layer network the diagram shows communication

between Host 1 and Host 2. The data stream is passed through a number of layers from one
host to other. Virtual communication is represented using dotted lines between peer layers.
Physical communication is represented using solid arrows between adjacent layers.
Through physical medium, actual communication occurs. The layers at same level are
commonly known as peers. The peer basically has a set of communication protocols. An
interface is present between each of layers that are used to explain services provided by
lower layer to higher layer.

Advantages of Protocol Hierarchy

 The layers generally reduce complexity of communication between networks
 It increases network lifetime.
 It also uses energy efficiently.
 It does not require overall knowledge and understanding of network.

Disadvantages of Protocol Hierarchy

 Protocol Hierarchy require a deep understanding of each layers of OSI model.

 Implementation of protocol hierarchy is very costly.
 Every layer in protocol hierarchy introduce over heading in terms of memory, bandwidth
and processing.
 Protocol Hierarchy is not scalable for complex networks.
OSI Model-Layers of OSI Model

The OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) Model is a set of rules that explains how
different computer systems communicate over a network. OSI Model was developed by
the International Organization for Standardization (ISO). The OSI Model consists of 7
layers and each layer has specific functions and responsibilities. This layered approach
makes it easier for different devices and technologies to work together. OSI Model provides
a clear structure for data transmission and managing network issues. The OSI Model is
widely used as a reference to understand how network systems function.

Layers of the OSI Model

There are 7 layers in the OSI Model and each layer has its specific role in handling data.
All the layers are mentioned below:
 Physical Layer
 Data Link Layer
 Network Layer
 Transport Layer
 Session Layer
 Presentation Layer
 Application Layer

Layer 1 – Physical Layer

The lowest layer of the OSI reference model is the Physical Layer. It is responsible for the
actual physical connection between the devices. The physical layer contains information in
the form of bits. Physical Layer is responsible for transmitting individual bits from one
node to the next. When receiving data, this layer will get the signal received and convert it
into 0s and 1s and send them to the Data Link layer, which will put the frame back together.
Common physical layer devices are Hub, Repeater, Modem, and Cables.

Physical Layer

Functions of the Physical Layer

 Bit Synchronization: The physical layer provides the synchronization of the bits by
providing a clock. This clock controls both sender and receiver thus providing
synchronization at the bit level.
 Bit Rate Control: The Physical layer also defines the transmission rate i.e. the number
of bits sent per second.
 Physical Topologies: Physical layer specifies how the different, devices/nodes are
arranged in a network i.e. bus topology, star topology, or mesh topology.
 Transmission Mode: Physical layer also defines how the data flows between the two
connected devices. The various transmission modes possible are simplex, half-duplex
and full duplex.

Layer 2 – Data Link Layer (DLL)

The data link layer is responsible for the node-to-node delivery of the message. The main
function of this layer is to make sure data transfer is error-free from one node to another,
over the physical layer. When a packet arrives in a network, it is the responsibility of the
DLL to transmit it to the Host using its MAC address. Packet in the Data Link layer is
referred to as Frame. Switches and Bridges are common Data Link Layer devices.

The Data Link Layer is divided into two sub layers:

 Logical Link Control (LLC)
 Media Access Control (MAC)

The packet received from the Network layer is further divided into frames depending on the
frame size of the NIC Network Interface Card DLL also encapsulates Sender and
Receiver’s MAC address in the header.
The Receiver’s MAC address is obtained by placing an ARP (Address Resolution Protocol)
request onto the wire asking, “Who has that IP address?” and the destination host will reply
with its MAC address.

Functions of the Data Link Layer

 Framing: Framing is a function of the data link layer. It provides a way for a sender to
transmit a set of bits that are meaningful to the receiver. This can be accomplished by
attaching special bit patterns to the beginning and end of the frame.

 Physical Addressing: After creating frames, the Data link layer adds physical addresses
(MAC addresses) of the sender and/or receiver in the header of each frame.

 Error Control: The data link layer provides the mechanism of error control in which it
detects and retransmits damaged or lost frames.

 Flow Control: The data rate must be constant on both sides else the data may get
corrupted thus; flow control coordinates the amount of data that can be sent before
receiving an acknowledgment

 Access Control: When a single communication channel is shared by multiple devices,

the MAC sub-layer of the data link layer helps to determine which device has control
over the channel at a given time.

Layer 3 – Network Layer

The network layer works for the transmission of data from one host to the other located in
different networks. It also takes care of packet routing i.e. selection of the shortest path to
transmit the packet, from the number of routes available. The sender and receiver’s
IP address are placed in the header by the network layer. Segment in the Network layer is
referred to as Packet. Network layer is implemented by networking devices such as routers
and switches

Functions of the Network Layer

 Routing: The network layer protocols determine which route is suitable from source to
destination. This function of the network layer is known as routing.
 Logical Addressing: To identify each device inter-network uniquely, the network layer
defines an addressing scheme. The sender and receiver’s IP addresses are placed in the
header by the network layer. Such an address distinguishes each device uniquely and
universally.

Layer 4 – Transport Layer

The transport layer provides services to the application layer and takes services from the
network layer. The data in the transport layer is referred to as Segments. It is responsible
for the end-to-end delivery of the complete message. The transport layer also provides the
acknowledgment of the successful data transmission and re-transmits the data if an error is
found. Protocols used in Transport Layer are TCP, UDP NetBIOS, PPTP.

At the sender’s side, the transport layer receives the formatted data from the upper layers,
performs Segmentation, and also implements Flow and error control to ensure proper
data transmission. It also adds Source and Destination port number in its header and
forwards the segmented data to the Network Layer.

 Generally, this destination port number is configured, either by default or manually. For
example, when a web application requests a web server, it typically uses port number 80,
because this is the default port assigned to web applications. Many applications have
default ports assigned.

At the Receiver’s side, Transport Layer reads the port number from its header and
forwards the Data which it has received to the respective application. It also performs
sequencing and reassembling of the segmented data.

Functions of the Transport Layer

 Segmentation and Reassembly: This layer accepts the message from the (session) layer
and breaks the message into smaller units. Each of the segments produced has a header
associated with it. The transport layer at the destination station reassembles the message.
 Service Point Addressing: To deliver the message to the correct process, the transport
layer header includes a type of address called service point address or port address.
Thus, by specifying this address, the transport layer makes sure that the message is
delivered to the correct process.

Services Provided by Transport Layer

 Connection-Oriented Service
 Connectionless Service
Layer 5 – Session Layer
Session Layer in the OSI Model is responsible for the establishment of connections,
management of connections, terminations of sessions between two devices. It also provides
authentication and security. Protocols used in the Session Layer are NetBIOS, PPTP.

Functions of the Session Layer

 Session Establishment, Maintenance, and Termination: The layer allows the two
processes to establish, use, and terminate a connection.
 Synchronization: This layer allows a process to add checkpoints that are considered
synchronization points in the data. These synchronization points help to identify the
error so that the data is re-synchronized properly, and ends of the messages are not cut
prematurely, and data loss is avoided.
 Dialog Controller: The session layer allows two systems to start communication with
each other in half-duplex or full duplex.

Example
Let us consider a scenario where a user wants to send a message through some Messenger
application running in their browser. The “Messenger” here acts as the application layer
which provides the user with an interface to create the data. This message or so-
called Data is compressed, optionally encrypted (if the data is sensitive), and converted
into bits (0’s and 1’s) so that it can be transmitted.

Communication in Session Layer

Layer 6 – Presentation Layer

The presentation layer is also called the Translation layer. The data from the application
layer is extracted here and manipulated as per the required format to transmit over the
network. Protocols used in the Presentation Layer are JPEG, MPEG, GIF, TLS/SSL, etc.
Functions of the Presentation Layer

 Translation: For example, ASCII to EBCDIC.

 Encryption/ Decryption: Data encryption translates the data into another form or code.
The encrypted data is known as the cipher text, and the decrypted data is known as plain
text. A key value is used for encrypting as well as decrypting data.
 Compression: Reduces the number of bits that need to be transmitted on the network.
Layer 7 – Application Layer

At the very top of the OSI Reference Model stack of layers, we find the Application layer
which is implemented by the network applications. These applications produce the data to
be transferred over the network. This layer also serves as a window for the application
services to access the network and for displaying the received information to the user.
Protocols used in the Application layer are SMTP, FTP, DNS, etc.

Application Layer

Functions of the Application Layer

The main functions of the application layer are given below.

 Network Virtual Terminal (NVT): It allows a user to log on to a remote host.

 File Transfer Access and Management (FTAM): This application allows a user to
access files in a remote host, retrieve files in a remote host, and manage or control files
from a remote computer.
 Mail Services: Provide email service.
 Directory Services: This application provides distributed database sources and access
for global information about various objects and services.

How Data Flows in the OSI Model?

When we transfer information from one device to another, it travels through 7 layers of OSI
model. First data travels down through 7 layers from the sender’s end and then climbs back
7 layers on the receiver’s end.

Data flows through the OSI model in a step-by-step process:

 Application Layer: Applications create the data.

 Presentation Layer: Data is formatted and encrypted.

 Session Layer: Connections are established and managed.

 Transport Layer: Data is broken into segments for reliable delivery.

 Network Layer: Segments are packaged into packets and routed.

 Data Link Layer: Packets are framed and sent to the next device.

 Physical Layer: Frames are converted into bits and transmitted physically.
Each layer adds specific information to ensure the data reaches its destination correctly, and
these steps are reversed upon arrival.
We can understand how data flows through OSI Model with the help of an example
mentioned below.

Let us suppose, Person A sends an e-mail to his friend Person B.

Step 1: Person A interacts with e-mail application like Gmail, outlook, etc. Writes his
email to send. (This happens at Application Layer).

Step 2: At Presentation Layer, Mail application prepares for data transmission like
encrypting data and formatting it for transmission.

Step 3: At Session Layer, there is a connection established between the sender and
receiver on the internet.

Step 4: At Transport Layer, Email data is broken into smaller segments. It adds sequence
number and error-checking information to maintain the reliability of the information.

Step 5: At Network Layer, addressing of packets is done in order to find the best route for
transfer.

Step 6: At Data Link Layer, data packets are encapsulated into frames, then MAC address
is added for local devices and then it checks for error using error detection.

Step 7: At Physical Layer, Frames are transmitted in the form of electrical/ optical signals
over a physical network medium like ethernet cable or WiFi.

After the email reaches the receiver i.e. Person B, the process will reverse and decrypt the
e-mail content. At last, the email will be shown on Person B email client.
Please refer the below animation for detailed flow.
Protocols Used in the OSI Layers

Protocol Data
Layer Working Unit Protocols

Establishing Physical
1 – Physical
Connections between Bits USB, SONET/SDH, etc.
Layer
Devices.

2 – Data Link Node to Node Delivery

Frames Ethernet, PPP, etc.
Layer of Message.

Transmission of data
3 – Network from one host to another, IP, ICMP, IGMP, OSPF,
Packets
Layer located in different etc.
networks.

Take Service from Segments

4 –
Network Layer and (for TCP) or
Transport TCP, UDP, SCTP, etc.
provide it to the Datagram
Layer
Application Layer. (for UDP)

5 – Session Establishes Connection, Data NetBIOS, RPC, PPTP, etc.

Layer Maintenance, Ensures
 Protocol Data
Layer Working Unit Protocols

Authentication and
Ensures security.

Data from the application

6 – layer is extracted and
TLS/SSL, MIME, JPEG,
Presentation manipulated in the Data
PNG, ASCII, etc.
Layer required format for
transmission.

7 – Helps in identifying the

FTP, SMTP, DNS, DHCP,
Application client and synchronizing Data
etc.
Layer communication.

Why Does the OSI Model Matter?

The OSI Model matters because it provides the user a clear structure of “how the data
moves in the network?”. As the OSI Model consists of 7 layers, each layer has its specific
role, and due to which it helps in understanding, identifying and solving the complex
network problems easily by focusing on one of the layers not the entire network.
As the modern Internet does not prefer the OSI Model, but still, the OSI Model is still very
helpful for solving network problems. It helps people understanding network concepts very
easily.

Difference between OSI and TCP/IP Model

OSI Model TCP/IP Model

OSI stands for Open Systems TCP/IP stands for Transmission Control
Interconnection. Protocol/Internet Protocol.

OSI model has 7 layers. TCP/IP model consists of 4 layers.

Package delivery is guaranteed in OSI Package delivery is not guaranteed in the

Model. TCP/IP Model.

In the OSI model, only layers 1, 2 and 3 All layers of the TCP/IP model are needed
are necessary for data transmission. for data transmission.

Protocols at each layer are independent of Layers are integrated; some layers are
the other layer. required by other layers of TCP/IP model.

OSI Model is a conceptual framework, less Widely used in actual networks like Internet
 OSI Model TCP/IP Model

used in practical applications. and Communication Systems.

OSI vs TCP/IP

Advantages of OSI Model

The OSI Model defines the communication of a computing system into 7 different layers.
Its advantages include:

 It divides network communication into 7 layers which makes it easier to understand and
troubleshoot.
 It standardizes network communications, as each layer has fixed functions and protocols.
 Diagnosing network problems is easier with the OSI model.
 It is easier to improve with advancements as each layer can get updates separately.

Disadvantages of OSI Model

 The OSI Model has seven layers, which can be complicated and hard to understand for
beginners.
 In real-life networking, most systems use a simpler model called the Internet protocol
suite (TCP/IP), so the OSI Model is not always directly applicable.
 Each layer in the OSI Model adds its own set of rules and operations, which can make
the process more time-consuming and less efficient.
 The OSI Model is more of a theoretical framework, meaning it’s great for understanding
concepts but not always practical for implementation.

Difference between Connection-oriented and Connection-less Services

In computer networks, communication between devices occurs using two types of

services: connection-oriented and connectionless. These services define how data is
transferred between a source and a destination. Connection-oriented services establish a
dedicated connection before data transfer, ensuring reliability. In contrast, connectionless
services do not establish a connection, sending data without acknowledgment or error
correction.

This article explores the differences between connection-oriented and connectionless

services, including their definitions, characteristics, advantages, and applications.

What is a Connection-Oriented Service?

Connection-oriented services involve setting up a dedicated path between the source and
destination before data transfer begins. These services ensure that data is delivered in the
correct sequence and without errors. In a connection-oriented service,
the Handshake method is used to establish the connection between sender and
receiver. Before data transmission starts, connection-oriented services create a dedicated
communication channel between the sender and the recipient. As the connection is kept
open until all data is successfully transferred, this guarantees dependable data delivery. One
example is TCP (Transmission Control Protocol), which ensures error-free and accurate
data packet delivery.

Examples of Connection-Oriented Services

 TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) in the TCP/IP suite.

 Telephone calls in traditional telecommunication systems.

Key Features of Connection-Oriented Services

 Dedicated Connection: A logical or physical connection is established before data

transfer.
 Reliable Transmission: Data is transmitted with error checking, acknowledgments, and
retransmissions in case of errors.
 Sequencing: Data packets arrive at the destination in the correct order.
 Higher Overhead: Establishing and maintaining a connection involves additional
overhead.

Advantages of Connection-Oriented Services

 Reliable Data Transfer: Ensures that all data reaches its destination without errors.
 Data Sequencing: Packets are delivered in the correct order.
 Error Correction: Mechanisms are in place to detect and correct errors during
transmission.
 Guaranteed Delivery: Retransmissions occur if data is lost.
Disadvantages of Connection-Oriented Services

 Higher Latency: Establishing a connection adds latency before data transfer begins.
 More Overhead: Requires more resources for maintaining the connection,
acknowledgments, and retransmissions.
 Less Efficient for Small Transfers: For short messages, the overhead of connection
setup can outweigh the benefits.

What is Connection-Less Service?

Connectionless services send data without establishing a dedicated connection between the
source and destination. Each data packet is treated independently, and there is no guarantee
of delivery or sequencing. Connection-less Service does not give a guarantee of reliability.
In this, Packets do not follow the same path to reach their destination. Connectionless
Services deliver individual data packets without first making a connection. Since each
packet is sent separately, delivery, order, and mistake correction cannot be guaranteed. As a
result, the service is quicker but less dependable. UDP (User Datagram Protocol) is one
example, which is frequently used for streaming where dependability is not as important as
speed.

Examples of Connectionless Services

 UDP (User Datagram Protocol) in the TCP/IP suite.

 Postal services (analogous to sending letters without confirmation of receipt).

Key Features of Connectionless Services

 No Connection Setup: Data is sent directly without establishing a prior connection.

 Independent Packets: Each packet is treated individually and may take different routes
to the destination.
 Faster Transmission: No time is spent establishing or tearing down a connection.
 Unreliable: No acknowledgment, retransmission, or error correction is performed.

Advantages of Connectionless Services

 Low Latency: Data is transmitted immediately without waiting for a connection to be

established.
 Efficient for Small Transfers: Ideal for small, time-sensitive messages like DNS
lookups or VoIP.
 Scalable: Suitable for systems with many simultaneous users, as no connection needs to
be maintained.

Disadvantages of Connectionless Services

 Unreliable: Data packets may be lost, duplicated, or arrive out of order.

 No Error Handling: any built-in mechanisms for retransmissions or error correction.
 Unsuitable for Large Transfers: Not ideal for applications requiring reliable and
ordered delivery.

Difference between Connection-oriented and Connectionless Services

Connection-oriented services, like TCP, ensure reliable data transfer, while connection-less
services, like UDP, offer faster, less secure communication.

Connection-oriented Service Connection-less Service

Connection-oriented service is related to the Connection-less service is related to the

telephone system. postal system.

Connection-oriented service is preferred by Connection-less Service is preferred by

long and steady communication. burst communication.

Connection-less Service is not

Connection-oriented Service is necessary.
compulsory.

Connection-oriented Service is feasible. Connection-less Service is not feasible.

In connection-oriented Service, Congestion is In connection-less Service, Congestion is

not possible. possible.

Connection-oriented Service gives the Connection-less Service does not give a

guarantee of reliability. guarantee of reliability.

Includes error detection, correction, and No error handling; errors are not
retransmission. corrected.

In connection-oriented Service, Packets follow In connection-less Service, Packets do

the same route. not follow the same route.

Ensures data is delivered in the correct order. Data may arrive out of order or not at all.

Less scalable due to the need for maintaining Highly scalable for large networks with
connections. many users.
 Connection-oriented Service Connection-less Service

Higher overhead due to connection setup and Lower overhead as no connection is

maintenance. required.

Connection-oriented services require a Connection-less Service requires a

bandwidth of a high range. bandwidth of low range.

Ex: TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) Ex: UDP (User Datagram Protocol)

Connection-less Service does not require

Connection-oriented requires authentication.
authentication.

Conclusion

Both connection-oriented and connectionless services are essential for modern networking,
each suited to different applications:

 Connection-Oriented Services: Prioritize reliability, sequencing, and error correction,

making them ideal for applications like file transfers, email, and telecommunication.
 Connectionless Services: Focus on speed and efficiency, perfect for time-sensitive
applications like DNS lookups, VoIP, and online gaming.
The choice of service depends on the specific requirements of the application, such as
reliability, speed, and data size.

Protocol Hierarchies

Generally, Computer networks are comprised of or contain a large number of hardware

and software. For network design, various networks are organized and arranged as a
stack of layers of hardware and software, one on top of another. The number, name,
content, and function of each layer might vary and can be different from one network to
another. The main purpose of each layer is to provide services to higher layers that are
present. Every layer has some particular task or function. The networks are organized
and arranged as different layers or levels simply to reduce and minimize the
complexity of the design of network software.
 Protocol Hierarchy

Example of Protocol Hierarchy

Below is diagram representing a five-layer network. The diagram shows
communication between Host 1 and Host 2. The data stream is passed through a
number of layers from one host to other. Virtual communication is represented using
dotted lines between peer layers. Physical communication is represented using solid
arrows between adjacent layers. Through physical medium, actual communication
occurs. The layers at same level are commonly known as peers. The peer basically
has a set of communication protocols. An interface is present between each of layers
that are used to explain services provided by lower layer to higher layer.
Advantages of Protocol Hierarchy
 The layers generally reduce complexity of communication between networks
 It increases network lifetime.
 It also uses energy efficiently.
 It does not require overall knowledge and understanding of network.

Disadvantages of Protocol Hierarchy

 Protocol Hierarchy require a deep understanding of each layers of OSI model.

 Implementation of protocol hierarchy is very costly.
 Every layer in protocol hierarchy introduce overheading in terms of memory,
bandwidth and processing.
 Protocol Hierarchy is not scalable for complex networks

TCP/IP Model
Last Updated : 05 Feb, 2025
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The TCP/IP model is a fundamental framework for computer networking. It

stands for Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol, which are the core
protocols of the Internet. This model defines how data is transmitted over
networks, ensuring reliable communication between devices. It consists of
four layers: the Link Layer, the Internet Layer, the Transport Layer, and the
Application Layer. Each layer has specific functions that help manage
different aspects of network communication, making it essential for
understanding and working with modern networks.
TCP/IP was designed and developed by the Department of Defense (DoD) in
the 1960s and is based on standard protocols. The TCP/IP model is a concise
version of the OSI model. It contains four layers, unlike the seven layers in
the OSI model. In this article, we are going to discuss the TCP/IP model in
detail.
TCP/IP model was developed alongside the creation of the ARPANET, which
later became the foundation of the modern internet. It was designed with a
focus on the practical aspects of networking at the time. The lower-level
hardware details and physical transmission medium were largely abstracted
away in favor of higher-level networking protocols.
What Does TCP/IP Do?
The main work of TCP/IP is to transfer the data of a computer from one device
to another. The main condition of this process is to make data reliable and
accurate so that the receiver will receive the same information which is sent
by the sender. To ensure that, each message reaches its final destination
accurately, the TCP/IP model divides its data into packets and combines them
at the other end, which helps in maintaining the accuracy of the data while
transferring from one end to another end. The TCP/IP model is used in the
context of the real-world internet, where a wide range of physical media and
network technologies are in use. Rather than specifying a particular Physical
Layer, the TCP/IP model allows for flexibility in adapting to different physical
implementations.
Difference Between TCP and IP
TCP (Transmission Control
Feature Protocol) IP (Internet Protocol)

Ensures reliable, ordered, and Provides addressing and

Purpose error-checked delivery of data routing of packets across
between applications. networks.

Type Connection-oriented Connectionless

Function Manages data transmission Routes packets of data from

 TCP (Transmission Control
Feature Protocol) IP (Internet Protocol)

between devices, ensuring the source to the destination

data integrity and order. based on IP addresses.

No, IP itself does not handle

Yes, includes error checking
Error Handling errors; relies on upper-layer
and recovery mechanisms.
protocols like TCP.

Yes, includes flow control

Flow Control No
mechanisms.

Yes, manages network

Congestion Control No
congestion.

Breaks data into smaller

Breaks data into packets but
Data Segmentation packets and reassembles
does not handle reassembly.
them at the destination.

Header Size Larger, 20-60 bytes Smaller, typically 20 bytes

Does not guarantee delivery,

Reliability Provides reliable data transfer
reliability, or order.

Transmission Yes, acknowledges receipt of

No
Acknowledgment data packets.

How Does the TCP/IP Model Work?

Whenever we want to send something over the internet using the TCP/IP
Model, the TCP/IP Model divides the data into packets at the sender’s end and
the same packets have to be recombined at the receiver’s end to form the
same data, and this thing happens to maintain the accuracy of the data.
TCP/IP model divides the data into a 4-layer procedure, where the data first
go into this layer in one order and again in reverse order to get organized in
the same way at the receiver’s end.
For more, you can refer to TCP/IP in Computer Networking.
Layers of TCP/IP Model
 Application Layer
 Transport Layer(TCP/UDP)
 Network/Internet Layer(IP)
 Network Access Layer
The diagrammatic comparison of the TCP/IP and OSI model is as follows:

TCP/IP and OSI

1. Network Access Layer

The Network Access Layer represents a collection of applications that require

network communication. This layer is responsible for generating data and
initiating connection requests. It operates on behalf of the sender to manage
data transmission, while the Network Access layer on the receiver’s end
processes and manages incoming data. In this article, we will focus on its role
from the receiver’s perspective.
The packet’s network protocol type, in this case, TCP/IP, is identified by
network access layer. Error prevention and “framing” are also provided by
this layer. Point-to-Point Protocol (PPP) framing and Ethernet IEEE 802.2
framing are two examples of data-link layer protocols.

2. Internet or Network Layer

This layer parallels the functions of OSI’s Network layer. It defines the
protocols which are responsible for the logical transmission of data over the
entire network. The main protocols residing at this layer are as follows:
 IP:IP stands for Internet Protocol and it is responsible for delivering
packets from the source host to the destination host by looking at the IP
addresses in the packet headers. IP has 2 versions: IPv4 and IPv6. IPv4 is
the one that most websites are using currently. But IPv6 is growing as the
number of IPv4 addresses is limited in number when compared to the
number of users.
 ICMP:ICMP stands for Internet Control Message Protocol. It is encapsulated
within IP datagrams and is responsible for providing hosts with information
about network problems.]

 ARP:ARP stands for Address Resolution Protocol. Its job is to find the
hardware address of a host from a known IP address. ARP has several
types: Reverse ARP, Proxy ARP, Gratuitous ARP, and Inverse ARP.

The Internet Layer is a layer in the Internet Protocol (IP) suite, which is the
set of protocols that define the Internet. The Internet Layer is responsible for
routing packets of data from one device to another across a network. It does
this by assigning each device a unique IP address, which is used to identify
the device and determine the route that packets should take to reach it.
Example: Imagine that you are using a computer to send an email to a
friend. When you click “send,” the email is broken down into smaller packets
of data, which are then sent to the Internet Layer for routing. The Internet
Layer assigns an IP address to each packet and uses routing tables to
determine the best route for the packet to take to reach its destination. The
packet is then forwarded to the next hop on its route until it reaches its
destination. When all of the packets have been delivered, your friend’s
computer can reassemble them into the original email message.
In this example, the Internet Layer plays a crucial role in delivering the email
from your computer to your friend’s computer. It uses IP addresses and
routing tables to determine the best route for the packets to take, and it
ensures that the packets are delivered to the correct destination. Without the
Internet Layer, it would not be possible to send data across the Internet.

3. Transport Layer

The TCP/IP transport layer protocols exchange data receipt acknowledgments

and retransmit missing packets to ensure that packets arrive in order and
without error. End-to-end communication is referred to as such. Transmission
Control Protocol (TCP) and User Datagram Protocol are transport layer
protocols at this level (UDP).
 TCP: Applications can interact with one another using TCP as though they
were physically connected by a circuit. TCP transmits data in a way that
resembles character-by-character transmission rather than separate
packets. A starting point that establishes the connection, the whole
transmission in byte order, and an ending point that closes the connection
make up this transmission.
 UDP: The datagram delivery service is provided by UDP , the other
transport layer protocol. Connections between receiving and sending hosts
are not verified by UDP. Applications that transport little amounts of data
use UDP rather than TCP because it eliminates the processes of
establishing and validating connections.
4. Application Layer
The Application Layer in the TCP/IP model combines the functions of three
layers from the OSI model: the Application, Presentation,
and Session layers. This layer is analogous to the transport layer of the OSI
model. It is responsible for end-to-end communication and error-free delivery
of data. It shields the upper-layer applications from the complexities of data.
The three main protocols present in this layer are:
 HTTP and HTTPS:HTTP stands for Hypertext transfer protocol. It is used
by the World Wide Web to manage communications between web
browsers and servers. HTTPS stands for HTTP-Secure. It is a combination of
HTTP with SSL(Secure Socket Layer). It is efficient in cases where the
browser needs to fill out forms, sign in, authenticate, and carry out bank
transactions.
 SSH:SSH stands for Secure Shell. It is a terminal emulations software
similar to Telnet. The reason SSH is preferred is because of its ability to
maintain the encrypted connection. It sets up a secure session over a
TCP/IP connection.
 NTP:NTP stands for Network Time Protocol. It is used to synchronize the
clocks on our computer to one standard time source. It is very useful in
situations like bank transactions. Assume the following situation without
the presence of NTP. Suppose you carry out a transaction, where your
computer reads the time at 2:30 PM while the server records it at 2:28 PM.
The server can crash very badly if it’s out of sync.
The host-to-host layer is a layer in the OSI (Open Systems Interconnection)
model that is responsible for providing communication between hosts
(computers or other devices) on a network. It is also known as the transport
layer.
Some common use cases for the host-to-host layer include:
 Reliable Data Transfer: The host-to-host layer ensures that data is
transferred reliably between hosts by using techniques like error correction
and flow control. For example, if a packet of data is lost during
transmission, the host-to-host layer can request that the packet be
retransmitted to ensure that all data is received correctly.
 Segmentation and Reassembly: The host-to-host layer is responsible
for breaking up large blocks of data into smaller segments that can be
transmitted over the network, and then reassembling the data at the
destination. This allows data to be transmitted more efficiently and helps
to avoid overloading the network.
 Multiplexing and Demultiplexing: The host-to-host layer is responsible
for multiplexing data from multiple sources onto a single network
connection, and then demultiplexing the data at the destination. This
allows multiple devices to share the same network connection and helps to
improve the utilization of the network.
 End-to-End Communication: The host-to-host layer provides a
connection-oriented service that allows hosts to communicate with each
other end-to-end, without the need for intermediate devices to be involved
in the communication.
Example: Consider a network with two hosts, A and B. Host A wants to send
a file to host B. The host-to-host layer in host A will break the file into smaller
segments, add error correction and flow control information, and then
transmit the segments over the network to host B. The host-to-host layer in
host B will receive the segments, check for errors, and reassemble the file.
Once the file has been transferred successfully, the host-to-host layer in host
B will acknowledge receipt of the file to host A.
In this example, the host-to-host layer is responsible for providing a reliable
connection between host A and host B, breaking the file into smaller
segments, and reassembling the segments at the destination. It is also
responsible for multiplexing and demultiplexing the data and providing end-
to-end communication between the two hosts.
Why TCP/IP Model Does Not Have Physical Layer
The physical layer is not covered by the TCP/IP model because the data link
layer is considered the point at which the interface occurs between the TCP/IP
stock and the underlying network hardware. Also, it is designed to be
independent of the underlying physical media. This allows TCP/IP to be
flexible and adaptable to different types of physical connections, such as
Ethernet, Wi-Fi, fiber optics, or even older technologies like dial-up modems.
The physical layer is typically handled by hardware components and
standards specific to the physical medium being used, like Ethernet cables or
radio waves for Wi-Fi.
Other Common Internet Protocols
TCP/IP Model covers many Internet Protocols. The main rule of these Internet
Protocols is how the data is validated and sent over the Internet. Some
Common Internet Protocols include:
 HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol):HTTP takes care of Web Browsers
and Websites.
 FTP (File Transfer Protocol):FTP takes care of how the file is to be sent
over the Internet.
 SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol):SMTP is used to send and
receive data.
Difference between TCP/IP and OSI Model
TCP/IP OSI

TCP refers to Transmission Control OSI refers to Open Systems

Protocol. Interconnection.

TCP/IP uses both the session and

OSI uses different session and
presentation layer in the application layer
presentation layers.
itself.

TCP/IP follows connectionless a horizontal

OSI follows a vertical approach.
approach.

The Transport layer in TCP/IP does not In the OSI model, the transport layer
provide assurance delivery of packets. provides assurance delivery of packets.

While in the OSI model, Protocols are

Protocols cannot be replaced easily in
better covered and are easy to replace
TCP/IP model.
with the technology change.

TCP/IP model network layer only provides Connectionless and connection-oriented

connectionless (IP) services. The transport services are provided by the network
layer (TCP) provides connections. layer in the OSI model.

Advantages of TCP/IP Model

 Interoperability: The TCP/IP model allows different types of computers
and networks to communicate with each other, promoting compatibility
and cooperation among diverse systems.
 Scalability: TCP/IP is highly scalable, making it suitable for both small and
large networks, from local area networks (LANs) to wide area networks
(WANs) like the internet.
 Standardization: It is based on open standards and protocols, ensuring
that different devices and software can work together without
compatibility issues.
 Flexibility: The model supports various routing protocols, data types, and
communication methods, making it adaptable to different networking
needs.
 Reliability: TCP/IP includes error-checking and retransmission features
that ensure reliable data transfer, even over long distances and through
various network conditions.
Disadvantages of TCP/IP Model
 Complex Configuration: Setting up and managing a TCP/IP network can
be complex, especially for large networks with many devices. This
complexity can lead to configuration errors.
 Security Concerns: TCP/IP was not originally designed with security in
mind. While there are now many security protocols available (such as
SSL/TLS), they have been added on top of the basic TCP/IP model, which
can lead to vulnerabilities.
 Inefficiency for Small Networks: For very small networks, the overhead
and complexity of the TCP/IP model may be unnecessary and inefficient
compared to simpler networking protocols.
 Limited by Address Space: Although IPv6 addresses this issue, the older
IPv4 system has a limited address space, which can lead to issues with
address exhaustion in larger networks.
 Data Overhead: TCP, the transport protocol, includes a significant
amount of overhead to ensure reliable transmission. This can reduce
efficiency, especially for small data packets or in networks where speed is
crucial.

Conclusion
In conclusion, the TCP/IP model is the backbone of modern internet
communication, allowing different devices and networks to connect and
share information reliably. Despite some complexity and security concerns,
its flexibility, scalability, and widespread adoption make it essential for both
small and large networks. Overall, the TCP/IP model is crucial for ensuring
efficient and effective network communication.