Kazakh-British Technical University

Faculty Of Information Technology

SIS NO 1
Industrial Robot Control Using PLC

Prepared by: COLLINS MASIMBA

Checked by Samigulina Z.I Assoc.Prof. FIT, Ph.D

Almaty, 2024
Table of Content
SECTION I.................................................................................................................... 3
Opto-Resistive Sensors................................................................................................... 3
Working Principle..................................................................................................... 3
Materials Used in Optoresistive Sensors..........................................................................4
Types of Optoresistive Sensors...................................................................................... 4
Applications of Optoresistive Sensors.............................................................................4
Industrial and Scientific Applications.............................................................................. 5
Limitations of Optoresistive Sensors...............................................................................5
Trends in Optoresistive Sensor Technology......................................................................6
Conclusion.............................................................................................................. 6
SECTION II................................................................................................................... 7
Introduction to Magnetoresistive (MR) Sensors....................................................................7
Basic Working Principle of MR Sensors..........................................................................7
Types of Magnetoresistive Effects.................................................................................. 7
Giant Magnetoresistive (GMR) Sensors.............................................................................. 7
Structure of GMR Sensors........................................................................................... 8
Applications of GMR Sensors....................................................................................... 8
Giant Magnetoimpedance (GMI) Sensors............................................................................8
Structure of GMI Sensors............................................................................................ 9
Limitations of GMI Sensors....................................................................................... 10
Conclusion............................................................................................................ 10
References................................................................................................................... 11
SECTION I
Opto-Resistive Sensors
Optoresistive sensors, commonly called photoresistors or light-dependent resistors (LDRs),
exhibit a change in electrical resistance in response to the intensity of incident light. These
sensors are widely used in various applications due to their simplicity, low cost, and ease of use.
They are primarily employed in systems that detect or measure changes in light levels, such as
automatic lighting systems, security devices, and consumer electronics.
This report provides an in-depth understanding of optoresistive sensors, discussing their working
principle, materials used, types, applications, advantages, limitations, and modern trends in their
development.

Working Principle
Optoresistive sensor functions based on the principle of photoconductivity, a property in which
the electrical conductivity of a material changes when it is exposed to light. The sensor’s core is
made from semiconductor materials, such as cadmium sulfide (CdS), which exhibit a significant
resistance in the absence of light. When light falls on the sensor, the photons excite electrons in
the semiconductor material, reducing the resistance and increasing conductivity.
The relationship between light intensity and resistance is generally inverse: as light intensity
increases, the resistance decreases. This change in resistance can be measured and used to infer
the intensity of the incident light.
The behavior of an optoresistive sensor can be summarized as:
 In darkness: High resistance (typically in the megaohm range).
 In bright light: Low resistance (as low as a few hundred ohms, depending on the
material).
Fundamental Mechanism
The fundamental mechanism behind optoresistive sensors is the photoelectric effect. When light
of sufficient energy strikes the sensor, it excites electrons in the valence band of the
semiconductor material to the conduction band, creating free charge carriers (electrons and
holes). These carriers reduce the overall resistance of the material, allowing more current to flow
through the sensor as light intensity increases.
This resistance change is measured using a circuit, often a voltage divider, to convert the
resistance value into a measurable voltage corresponding to the light intensity.
Materials Used in Optoresistive Sensors
The performance of optoresistive sensors depends largely on the semiconductor material used.
The most common materials include:
Cadmium Sulfide (CdS)
CdS is the most widely used material for photoresistors due to its suitable response to visible
light. It has excellent photoconductive properties in the visible spectrum (400 nm to 700 nm) and
is inexpensive to manufacture. However, environmental concerns related to cadmium toxicity
have led to restrictions in some regions, pushing for the development of alternative materials.
Cadmium Selenide (CdSe)
CdSe offers a broader range of sensitivity, extending into the near-infrared (NIR) region. It has
similar properties to CdS but can detect light beyond the visible range, making it useful in
specialized applications requiring infrared detection.
Lead Sulfide (PbS)
PbS is commonly used in infrared-sensitive LDRs. Its peak sensitivity lies in the infrared range,
which makes it useful for applications such as gas detection and thermal imaging.
Alternative Materials
Efforts are underway to develop optoresistive sensors using environmentally safer materials,
such as zinc sulfide (ZnS), to replace CdS in applications where cadmium restrictions apply.

Types of Optoresistive Sensors

There are two main types of optoresistive sensors based on their construction and mode of
operation:
Photoresistors (Light-Dependent Resistors)
These sensors have a resistance that decreases with increasing light intensity. Photoresistors are
used in applications requiring simple light detection, such as streetlights, light meters, and alarm
systems.
Photoconductive Cells
Photoconductive cells are more sophisticated devices that use photoconductivity to change the
electrical resistance of a material when exposed to light. These are more sensitive and have faster
response times compared to basic photoresistors. They are often used in industrial and scientific
instruments for precise light measurement.

Applications of Optoresistive Sensors

Automatic Lighting Systems
Optoresistive sensors are frequently used in outdoor lighting systems to automatically control
streetlights and garden lights. When ambient light falls below a certain threshold, the sensor
signals the system to switch on the lights. Similarly, the lights turn off when daylight is
sufficient.
Camera Light Meters
Optoresistive sensors are used in camera light meters to measure the intensity of ambient light
and adjust the camera’s exposure settings accordingly. This helps in achieving optimal image
brightness.
Alarm and Security Systems
In security systems, optoresistive sensors can detect sudden changes in light levels, such as when
an intruder enters a restricted area. The sensor triggers an alarm when a preset threshold is
exceeded.
Consumer Electronics
Many consumer electronics, such as smartphones and televisions, use optoresistive sensors to
adjust screen brightness based on ambient light levels. This feature enhances power efficiency
and user comfort.

Industrial and Scientific Applications

In industrial and scientific applications, optoresistive sensors are used in light measurement
systems, flame detectors, gas detection systems, and environmental monitoring equipment.
Advantages of Optoresistive Sensors
 Cost-Effective: Optoresistive sensors are inexpensive and easy to manufacture, making
them suitable for widespread use in low-cost applications.
 Simplicity: Their operation and integration into circuits are straightforward, often
requiring just a few components to function.
 Low Power Consumption: These sensors require minimal power to operate, making
them ideal for battery-powered systems.
 Wide Range of Sensitivity: By choosing appropriate materials, optoresistive sensors can
be tuned to detect a wide range of light intensities, from faint ambient light to bright
sunlight.

Limitations of Optoresistive Sensors

 Slow Response Time: Compared to other types of light sensors like photodiodes or
phototransistors, optoresistive sensors have slower response times, making them
unsuitable for applications requiring fast light detection.
 Temperature Sensitivity: The performance of optoresistive sensors can be affected by
temperature changes. In extreme environments, the sensor’s resistance may vary due to
thermal effects, leading to inaccurate readings.
 Material Restrictions: The use of cadmium-based materials like CdS has been restricted
in some regions due to environmental concerns, driving the need for alternative materials
that meet regulatory standards.
  Limited Accuracy: While optoresistive sensors are suitable for detecting general light
intensity changes, they may not be accurate enough for precise light measurements
required in scientific or industrial applications.

Trends in Optoresistive Sensor Technology

Development of New Materials
Researchers are exploring alternative materials to replace cadmium-based compounds in
optoresistive sensors. These materials are aimed at providing comparable performance while
being environmentally friendly and compliant with international regulations.
Integration with Smart Systems
Optoresistive sensors are increasingly being integrated into smart systems, such as smart
lighting, smart homes, and IoT devices, where they provide real-time light data to enhance
automation and energy efficiency.
Miniaturization and Flexibility
The ongoing miniaturization of sensor technology is driving the development of smaller and
more flexible optoresistive sensors that can be embedded into wearable devices, foldable
electronics, and other compact applications.

Conclusion
Optoresistive sensors have remained popular due to their low cost, simplicity, and versatility in
detecting changes in light intensity. They are integral to a wide range of applications, from
consumer electronics to industrial automation. However, the limitations of traditional materials
and response times have led to new developments, including the use of alternative materials and
the integration of sensors into smart systems. As technology continues to advance, optoresistive
sensors are likely to play a vital role in modern light-sensitive applications, particularly in areas
that prioritize cost and power efficiency over speed and accuracy.
SECTION II
Magnetoresistive (MR) sensors are magnetic field sensors that detect changes in resistance due
to the presence of an external magnetic field. These sensors operate based on the
magnetoresistive effect, where the electrical resistance of a material changes in response to the
magnitude and direction of an applied magnetic field. MR sensors are used in a wide variety of
applications, including magnetic field detection, position sensing, current sensing, and data
storage.
Two key types of advanced MR sensors include Giant Magnetoresistive (GMR) sensors and
Giant Magnetoimpedance (GMI) sensors, both of which are essential for precision magnetic
sensing in various fields.

Introduction to Magnetoresistive (MR) Sensors

Basic Working Principle of MR Sensors
Magnetoresistive sensors work by exploiting the magnetoresistive effect, where the resistance of
a ferromagnetic material changes in response to an applied magnetic field. The key concept is
that, as the magnetic field influences the alignment of magnetic domains within the sensor's
material, its electrical resistance alters. This change can be measured and used to infer properties
like the strength and direction of the magnetic field.

Types of Magnetoresistive Effects

 Anisotropic Magnetoresistance (AMR): AMR sensors have a relatively modest
resistance change in response to magnetic fields. These are often used in less demanding
applications.
 Giant Magnetoresistance (GMR): GMR sensors exhibit a much larger change in
resistance and are more sensitive than AMR sensors.
 Tunnel Magnetoresistance (TMR): TMR sensors use quantum mechanical tunneling to
achieve very high sensitivity to magnetic fields.
 Giant Magnetoimpedance (GMI): GMI sensors detect changes in the impedance (rather
than just resistance) of materials when exposed to magnetic fields, and are known for
their high sensitivity and ability to detect high-frequency fields.

Giant Magnetoresistive (GMR) Sensors

Giant Magnetoresistance Effect
The Giant Magnetoresistance (GMR) effect was discovered in 1988 and refers to a large
change in electrical resistance when an external magnetic field is applied [1]. The GMR effect
occurs in structures composed of alternating layers of ferromagnetic and non-magnetic materials
(often referred to as multilayers). The phenomenon is quantum mechanical in nature and arises
due to spin-dependent scattering of electrons in the ferromagnetic layers.
  Spin-dependent Scattering: When there is no external magnetic field, the magnetic
moments in the ferromagnetic layers are misaligned, leading to higher scattering of
electrons and higher resistance. When a magnetic field is applied, the magnetic moments
align, leading to lower electron scattering and a decrease in resistance.

Structure of GMR Sensors

GMR sensors are typically fabricated as thin-film structures, consisting of multiple layers of
alternating ferromagnetic (such as iron or cobalt) and non-magnetic (such as copper) materials
[1]. The sensor’s sensitivity to magnetic fields depends on the thickness of these layers, the
materials used, and the distance between the layers.

Applications of GMR Sensors

GMR sensors are highly sensitive and are commonly used in:
 Magnetic Recording: GMR sensors have been widely used in hard disk drives as read
heads for reading magnetically stored data.
 Current Sensing: GMR sensors are utilized to measure electric currents without direct
contact, as the magnetic field produced by the current is detected by the sensor.
 Position and Proximity Sensing: GMR sensors can detect the position or proximity of a
magnetic object with high precision, making them suitable for industrial automation,
robotics, and automotive applications.
 Biosensing: In biomedical devices, GMR sensors are used to detect magnetic
nanoparticles for diagnostics and imaging.
Advantages of GMR Sensors
 High Sensitivity: GMR sensors are more sensitive than AMR sensors, enabling the
detection of small magnetic fields.
 Low Power Consumption: The thin-film structure and efficient operation make GMR
sensors power-efficient.
 Compact Size: GMR sensors can be miniaturized, making them ideal for portable
devices and compact systems.
Limitations of GMR Sensors
 Complex Manufacturing: The multilayer fabrication process of GMR sensors can be
complex and costly.
 Thermal Sensitivity: GMR sensors can be sensitive to temperature changes, which may
affect their accuracy.

Giant Magnetoimpedance (GMI) Sensors

Giant Magnetoimpedance Effect
The Giant Magnetoimpedance (GMI) effect refers to the large change in the electrical
impedance of a material when exposed to a magnetic field, particularly at high frequencies [3].
The GMI effect is strongest in materials with high magnetic permeability and low electrical
resistivity, such as certain amorphous and nanocrystalline alloys. GMI sensors take advantage of
the fact that impedance, unlike resistance, also depends on the inductive and capacitive
properties of the material, making them more versatile for detecting alternating magnetic fields.
 High-Frequency Sensitivity: The GMI effect is particularly significant at high
frequencies (MHz to GHz range), where the skin depth (the depth to which an
electromagnetic wave can penetrate a material) becomes dependent on the magnetic field.
This leads to dramatic changes in impedance that can be measured and used for magnetic
field detection.

Structure of GMI Sensors

GMI sensors are typically fabricated using thin wires or thin-film strips of magnetic materials,
often amorphous alloys such as cobalt-based alloys. The magnetic and electrical properties of
these materials can be tailored to optimize their sensitivity to magnetic fields.
Applications of GMI Sensors
GMI sensors are known for their extreme sensitivity, even higher than GMR sensors, and are
used in applications where precision detection of small magnetic fields is critical:
 Biomedical Sensors: GMI sensors are used in biosensing applications, such as detecting
the presence of magnetic nanoparticles in biological samples.
 Magnetic Field Sensing: These sensors are used in devices that require precise
measurement of weak magnetic fields, such as magnetometers and geomagnetic
navigation systems.
 Security Systems: GMI sensors are employed in security systems to detect the presence
of ferromagnetic objects, such as weapons or metal tools, with high sensitivity.
 Automotive Applications: In the automotive industry, GMI sensors are used for current
sensing, proximity sensing, and vehicle navigation systems.
Advantages of GMI Sensors
 High Sensitivity: GMI sensors are among the most sensitive magnetic sensors, capable
of detecting very weak magnetic fields.
 Wide Frequency Range: GMI sensors can operate across a broad range of frequencies,
making them suitable for high-frequency applications.
 Low Power Consumption: Like GMR sensors, GMI sensors are energy-efficient and
can be used in battery-powered or low-power devices.
Limitations of GMI Sensors
 Material Limitations: The performance of GMI sensors is highly dependent on the
choice of materials, and manufacturing amorphous or nanocrystalline alloys can be
challenging.
 High-Frequency Operation: GMI sensors require high-frequency operation for optimal
performance, which can complicate the design of the surrounding circuitry.

Conclusion
Magnetoresistive sensors, particularly Giant Magnetoresistive (GMR) and Giant
Magnetoimpedance (GMI) sensors, offer high sensitivity and precision in detecting magnetic
fields. While both types of sensors exhibit excellent performance in magnetic field sensing
applications, they are optimized for different operating conditions: GMR sensors excel in
applications requiring the detection of small changes in magnetic fields at low frequencies, while
GMI sensors are preferred for high-frequency and ultra-sensitive applications.
Both technologies continue to find new applications in fields like data storage, automotive
systems, biosensing, and industrial automation. The ongoing development of new materials and
fabrication techniques is likely to further enhance the capabilities and reduce the costs of MR
sensors, enabling their broader use in modern technologies.
References

[1 K. Attenborough, "Magnetoresistance in electrodeposited Ni–Fe–Cu/Cu

] multilayers," J Magn Magn Mater, 2020.

[2 M. Phan, "Giant magnetoimpedance materials: fundamentals and applications,"

] Progr Mater Sci, 2018.

[3 G. Nabiyouni, "Dependence of GMR on crystal orientation in electrodeposited Co–

] Ni–Cu/Cu superlattices," J Magn Magn Mater.