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Basic Electrical Theory

The document provides a comprehensive overview of basic electrical theory, including key terminology, concepts of electricity, atomic structure, and the behavior of electrical charges. It explains the roles of conductors, insulators, and resistors, as well as fundamental principles like electrostatic force and current flow. Additionally, it covers the measurement units and laws governing electrical circuits, such as Ohm's Law and Coulomb's law.

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Praveen Kumar Valluri

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0% found this document useful (0 votes)

9 views301 pages

Basic Electrical Theory

Uploaded by

Praveen Kumar Valluri

We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.

Available Formats

Download as DOCX, PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd

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BASIC ELECTRICAL THEORY

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Electrical Terminology
Knowledge of key electrical terminology is necessary to fully understand principles in electrical science.

1 Electrical Terminology
1.1 Conductors
1.2 Insulators
1.3 Resistors
1.4 Voltage
2 Electrical Concepts
2.1 Atomic Structure
2.1.1 Protons and Neutrons
2.1.2 Electrons
2.1.3 Atomic Charge
3 Electrostatic Force
3.1 The First Law of Electrostatics
3.2 Electrostatic Field
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3.2.1 Electrostatic Field Between

Opposite Charges
3.2.2 Electrostatic Field Between Like
Charges
3.3 Potential Difference
3.3.1 Electromotive Force
3.3.2 The Volt
3.4 Free Electrons
3.4.1 Electron Orbital Shells and
Subshells
3.4.2 Valence Electrons
3.4.3 Ions
3.5 Electron Current Flow
3.5.1 Current
3.5.2 Conventional Current
3.5.3 Electron Current Flow Classification
4 Units of Electrical Measurement
4.1 System International Metric System
4.1.1 Current
4.1.2 Resistance
4.2 Ohm's Law
4.3 Power
4.4 Magnetism
5 Electric Circuits
5.1 Closed Circuit
5.2 Open Circuit
5.3 Short Circuit
6 Series Circuit
6.1 Total Resistance in a Series Circuit
6.2 Total Voltage in a Series Circuit
6.3 Voltage Drops
7 Parallel Circuit
7.1 Parallel Currents
7.2 Resistance in a Parallel Circuit
7.3 Simplified Formulas for Parallel
Circuits
7.3.1 Equal Resistors
7.3.2 Unequal Resistors
7.3.3 Unknown Resistors
8 DC Circuit Faults
8.1 Open Series Circuit
8.2 Open Parallel Circuit
8.3 Shorted Series Circuit
8.4 Shorted Parallel Circuit
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Conductors
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Conductors are materials with electrons that are loosely bound to their atoms, or materials that permit free
motion of a large number of electrons. Atoms with only one valence electron, such as copper, silver, and gold,
are examples of good conductors. Most metals are good conductors.

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Insulators
Insulators, or non-conductors, are materials with electrons that are tightly bound to their atoms and require
large amounts of energy to free them from the influence of the nucleus. The atoms of good insulators have
their valence shells filled with eight electrons, which means they are more than half filled. Any energy applied
to such an atom will be distributed among a relatively large number of electrons. Examples of insulators are
rubber, plastics, glass, and dry wood.

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Resistors
Resistors are made of materials that conduct electricity but also offer opposition to current flow. These types of
materials are also called ''semiconductors'' because they are neither good conductors nor good insulators.
Semiconductors have more than one or two electrons in their valence shells, but less than seven or eight.
Examples of commonly used semiconductors are silicon and germanium. Each has four valence electrons.

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Voltage
The basic unit of measure for difference in electrical potential is the volt (symbol V or E). Because the volt unit
is used, potential difference is called voltage. An object's electrical charge is determined by the number of
electrons that the object has gained or lost. Because such a large number of electrons are involved, a unit
called the coulomb is used to indicate the charge. One coulomb is equal to 6.24 x 10 18 (billion, billion) electrons.
For example, if an object gains one coulomb of negative charge, it has gained 6,240,000,000,000,000,000 extra
electrons. A volt is defined as “a difference of potential causing one coulomb of current to do one joule of
work.” A volt is also defined as “that amount of force required to force one ampere of current through one ohm
of resistance.” The latter is the definition with which we will be most concerned in this manual.

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Electrostatic Field Between Like Charges

When two objects of like charge are brought near one another, the lines of force repel each other, as shown in
the figure below.

Figure 6: Electrostatic Field Between Like Polarity

The strength of the attraction or of the repulsion depends upon two factors: (1) the amount of charge on each
object, and (2) the distance between the objects. The greater the charge on the objects, the greater the
electrostatic field between them. The greater the distance between the objects, the weaker the electrostatic
field between them, and vice versa. This leads us to the Law of Electrostatic Attraction, commonly referred to
as Coulomb's law of electrostatic charges, which states that the force of electrostatic attraction or repulsion is
directly proportional to the product of the two charges and inversely proportional to the square of the distance
between them, as shown in the following equation:

frameless where:

F = force of electrostatic attraction or repulsion (Newtons)

K = constant of proportionality (Coulomb2/N∙m2) q1 = charge of first particle (Coulombs) q2 = charge of

second particle (Coulombs) d = distance between two particles (meters)
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If q1 and q2 are both either positively or negatively charged, the force is repulsive. If q1 and q2 are of opposite
polarity or charge, the force is attractive.

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Potential Difference
Potential difference is the term used to describe the magnitude of the electrostatic force between two charged
objects. If a charged body is placed between two objects with a potential difference, the charged body will try
to move in one direction, depending upon the polarity of the object. If an electron is placed between a
negatively charged body and a positively charged body, the potential difference pushes the electron toward the
positively charged object. The electron, being negatively charged, will be repelled from the negatively charged
object and attracted by the positively charged object.

Figure 7: Potential Difference Between Two Charged Objects

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Electromotive Force
Due to the force of the electrostatic field, these electrical charges have the ability to do work by moving
charged particles by attraction and/or repulsion. This ability to do work is called ''potential;'' therefore, if one
charge is different from another, there is a potential difference between them. The sum of the potential
differences of all charged particles in the electrostatic field is referred to as ''electromotive force'' (EMF).

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The Volt
The basic unit of measure of potential difference is the ''volt''. The symbol for potential difference is ''V'',
indicating the ability to do the work of forcing electrons to move. Because the volt unit is used, potential
difference is also called ''voltage''.

Potential difference, or voltage, can be measured at any two points in an electrical circuit. For example, the
potential difference across a power supply may be several hundred volts, while the potential difference across a
load on the same power supply may only be a few volts. The magnitude of the potential difference depends
upon both the power supply and the location in the circuit where the potential is measured. This does not mean
that the circuit in question does not still contain a high voltage, only that the difference between those two
points in the circuit is only a few volts.

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Free Electrons
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Electron Orbital Shells and Subshells

Electrons are in rapid motion around the nucleus. While the electrostatic force is trying to pull the nucleus and
the electron together, the electron is in motion and trying to pull away. These two effects balance out, keeping
the electron in orbit. The electrons in an atom exist in different energy levels. The energy level of an electron is
proportional to its distance from the nucleus. Higher energy level electrons exist in orbits, or shells, that are
farther away from the nucleus. These shells nest inside one another and surround the nucleus. The nucleus is
the center of all the shells. The shells are lettered beginning with the shell nearest the nucleus: K, L, M, N, O, P,
and Q. Each shell has a maximum number of electrons it can hold. For example, the K shell will hold a
maximum of two electrons, while the L shell will hold a maximum of eight electrons. As shown below, each shell
has a specific number of electrons that it will hold for a particular atom.

Figure 8: Energy Shells and Electrons

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Valence Electrons
An important point to remember is that when the outer shell of an atom contains eight electrons, the atom
becomes very stable, or very resistant to changes in its structure. This also means that atoms with one or two
electrons in their outer shell can lose electrons much more easily than atoms with full outer shells. The
electrons in the outermost shell are called valence electrons. When external energy, such as heat, light, or
electrical energy, is applied to certain materials, the electrons gain energy, become excited, and may move to
a higher energy level. If enough energy is applied to the atom, some of the valence electrons will leave the
atom. These electrons are called free electrons. It is the movement of free electrons that provides electric
current in a metal conductor.

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Ions
An atom that has lost or gained one or more electrons is said to be ionized, or to have had an ion change. If an
atom loses one or more electrons, it becomes positively charged and is referred to as a positive ion. If an atom
gains one or more electrons, it becomes negatively charged and is referred to as a negative ion.
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Electron Current Flow

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Current
The density of the atoms in copper wire is such that the valence orbits of the individual atoms overlap, causing
the electrons to move easily from one atom to the next. Free electrons can drift from one orbit to another in a
random direction. When a potential difference is applied, the direction of their movement is controlled. The
strength of the potential difference applied at each end of the wire determines how many electrons change
from their random motion to a more directional path through the wire. The movement, or flow, of these
electrons is called electron current flow, or just current.

To produce current, the electrons must be moved by a potential difference. The symbol for current is I. The
basic measurement for current is the ampere (A). One ampere of current is defined as “the movement of one
coulomb of charge past any given point of a conductor during one second of time.”

If a copper wire is placed between two charged objects that have a potential difference, all of the negatively
charged free electrons will be pushed from the negative charge to the positive charge. This force opposite to
the conventional direction of the electrostatic lines of force is shown in the following figure.

Figure 9: Electron Flow Through a Copper Wire with a Potential Difference

The direction of electron flow in the next figure is from the negative (-) side of the battery, through the wire,
and back to the positive (+) side of the battery.
301 Page 15 of

Figure 10: Potential Difference Across a Conductor Causes a Current to Flow

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Conventional Current
The direction of electron flow is from a point of negative potential to a point of positive potential. The solid
arrow shown in Figure 10 indicates the direction of electron flow. As electrons vacate their atoms during
electron current flow, positively charged atoms (holes) result. The flow of electrons in one direction causes a
flow of positive charges. The direction of the positive charges is in the opposite direction of the electron flow.
This flow of positive charges is known as ''conventional current'' and is shown in the figure above as a dashed
arrow. All of the electrical effects of electron flow from negative to positive, or from a higher potential to a
lower potential, are the same as those that would be created by a flow of positive charges in the opposite
direction. Therefore, it is important to realize that both conventions are in use and that they are essentially
equivalent; that is, all effects predicted are the same.

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Electron Current Flow Classification

Generally, electric current flow can be classified as one of two general types: direct current (DC) or alternating
current (AC). A direct current flows continuously in the same direction. An alternating current periodically
reverses direction. An example of DC current is the current obtained from a battery. An example of AC current
is common household current.

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Units of Electrical Measurement

Using Ohm's law and the System International (SI) Metric System, electrical measuring units can be derived.

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System International Metric System

Electrical units of measurement are based on the International (metric) System, also known as the SI System.
Units of electrical measurement in the SI System include the following:

 Ampere
 Volt
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 Ohm
 Watt

Voltage, or electromotive force (EMF) or potential difference, is the pressure or force that causes electrons to
move in a conductor. Voltage is similar to differential pressure in a piping system that has the potential to
cause fluid to flow. In electrical formulas and equations, voltage is symbolized with a capital E, while on
laboratory equipment or schematic diagrams, voltage is often represented with a capital V.

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Current
Electron current, or amperage, is described as the movement of free electrons through a conductor. In
electrical formulas, current is symbolized with a capital I, while in the laboratory or on schematic diagrams, it is
common to use a capital A to indicate amperage (amps).

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Resistance
''Resistance'' is “the opposition to current flow.” The amount of opposition to current flow produced by a
material depends upon the number of available free electrons it contains and the types of obstacles the
electrons encounter as they attempt to move through the material. Resistance is measured in ohms and is
represented by the symbol R in equations. One ohm is defined as “the amount of resistance that will limit the
current in a conductor to one ampere when the potential difference (voltage) applied to the conductor is one
volt.” The symbol for ohm is the Greek letter capital omega (Ω). If a voltage is applied to a conductor, current
flows. The amount of current flow depends upon the resistance of the conductor. The lower the resistance, the
higher the current flow for a given amount of voltage. The higher the resistance, the lower the current flow.

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Ohm's Law
In 1827, Georg Simon Ohm discovered that there was a definite relationship between the voltage, current, and
resistance in an electrical circuit. Ohm's law defines this relationship and can be stated in three ways:

1. Applied voltage equals circuit current times circuit resistance. Expressed mathematically:

E = IxR or E = IR

1. Current is equal to the applied voltage divided by the circuit resistance. Expressed mathematically:
2. Resistance of a circuit is equal to the applied voltage divided by the circuit current. Expressed
mathematically:

where:

If any two of the component values are known, the third can be calculated.

Example 1: Given that I = 2 A and E = 12 V, find the circuit resistance.

Solution: Since applied voltage and circuit current are known, use Ohm's law to solve for resistance.
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Example 2: Given E = 260 V and R = 240 Ώ, solve for the current flow through a circuit.

Solution: Since applied voltage and resistance are known, use Ohm's law to solve for current.

Example 3:Find the applied voltage when given a circuit resistance of 100 Ώ and circuit current of 0.5 amps.

Solution: Since circuit resistance and circuit current are known, use Ohm's law to solve for applied voltage.

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Power
Electricity is used to do work, such as turning a motor or generating heat. Specifically, ''power'' is “the rate at
which work is done,” or “the rate at which heat is generated.” The unit commonly used to specify electric
power is the watt. In equations, you will find power abbreviated with the capital letter P, and the watt, the unit
of measure for power, is abbreviated with the capital letter W. Power is also described as the current (I) in a
circuit times the voltage (E) across the circuit. The following equation is a mathematical representation of this
concept.

Using Ohm's law for the value of voltage (E),

and using substitution laws,

power can be described as the current (I) in a circuit squared times the resistance (R) of the
circuit. The following equation is the mathematical representation of this concept.

P = I2R

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Magnetism
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To understand electricity and one of its major means of generation you must first understand the basic
principles of magnetism. '''Magnetism''' is a property of matter which responds to a magnetic field. All matter
responds to a magnetic field to some degree on the atomic or subatomic level, although some materials such
as glass or plastic are affected to such a small degree that it is essentially negligible. Because electricity is
basically the movement of charged particles (electrons) along a conductor, magnetism has a profound effect on
electrical currents in a material.

Figure 11: Basic Magnetic Field

Figure 11 shows a basic permanent bar magnet and its magnetic field. The north and south "poles" are labeled
as such. The lines of flux are illustrated, and represent the direction of force the magnetic field will have on
other objects.

Now look what happens as an electrical conductor is passed through this field (Figure 12). For this example we
will use a copper wire. As the wire passes through the field, the electrons in the wire are forced to move in one
direction along the wire.

Figure 12: Conductor Through a Magnetic Field

If the wire was kept still and instead the magnet itself was rotated in a circle, causing the north and south poles
to alternatively pass by the wire, the electrons would move first in one direction (as seen in Figure 12), and
then in the opposite direction for the opposite pole.? This back and forth movement of electrons in a conductor
is the basis for alternating current (AC) power. Figure 13 demonstrates what happens when you do this with a
load in a closed circuit.
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Figure 13: Magnetic Field with a Load

Just as a moving magnetic field can generate electrical current, a conductor with an electrical current moving
though it (I) generates its own magnetic field (B)(Figure 14).

Figure 14: Magnetic Field generated by a Current

The magnetic properties of electrical conductors can be utilized in many different ways to achieve specific
goals. Coils, transformers, generators and electric motors are just a few examples of the technology you use
every day, all thanks to the relationship between electricity and magnetism.

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Electric Circuits
There are several types of electrical circuits. Each type has distinct characteristics related to how voltage and
current behave within the circuit.

Each electrical circuit has at least four basic parts:

1. A source of electromotive force from a battery or generator

2. Conductors that connect the various components
3. A load or loads, such as resistors, coils, or motors
4. Some means of control, such as start/stop switches

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Closed Circuit
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In the next figure, the source of electromotive force or EMF is the battery, the conductors are wires that
connect the various component parts, the resistor is the load, and a switch is used as the circuit control device.

A closed circuit (shown below) is an uninterrupted, or unbroken, path for current from the source (EMF),
through the load, and back to the source.

Figure 15: Closed Circuit

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Open Circuit
An open circuit, or incomplete circuit (Figure 16), exists if a break in the circuit occurs; this removes the
complete path for current flow.

Figure 16: Open Circuit

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Short Circuit
A short circuit is a circuit that offers very little resistance to current flow and can cause dangerously high
current flow through a circuit. Short circuits usually are caused by an inadvertent connection between two
points in a circuit that offers little or no resistance to current flow. Shorting around resistor R in the figure below
will probably cause the fuse to blow.
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Figure 17: Short Circuit

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Series Circuit
A series circuit is a circuit where there is only one path for current flow. In a series circuit, the current is the
same throughout the circuit. This means that the current flow through R 1 is the same as the current flow
through R2 and R3. In a series circuit, current is the same, while the voltage throughout the circuit is different.

Figure 18: Series Circuit

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Total Resistance in a Series Circuit

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The total resistance in a series circuit is equal to the sum of all the parts of that circuit, as shown in the
following equation:

RT = Resistance
Total

where

R1, R2, R3 = Resistance in

Series

Example: A series circuit has three resistors with resistances of 60Ω, 100Ω, and 150Ω in series (shown below).
What is the total resistance of the circuit?

Figure 19: Resistance in a Series Circuit

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Total Voltage in a Series Circuit

The total voltage across a series circuit is equal to the sum of the voltages across each resistor in the circuit
(Figure 20), as shown in the following equation:

where:
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Figure 20: Voltage Drops in a Series Circuit

Ohm's law may now be applied to either the entire series circuit or to individual component parts of the circuit.
When used on individual component parts, the voltage across that part is equal to the current times the
resistance of that part. For the circuit shown in the following figure, the voltage can be determined as shown
below:
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Figure 21: Voltage Total in a Series Circuit

To find the total voltage across a series circuit, multiply the current by the total resistance, as shown in the
following equation:

where:

Example 1: A series circuit has three resistors with resistances of 50Ω, 75Ω, and 100Ω in series (Figure 22). Find
the voltage necessary to produce a current of 0.5 amps.

Figure 22: Example 1 Series Circuit

Solution:

Step 1: Find circuit current. As we already know, current is the same throughout a series circuit. In this case, it
is already given as 0.5 amps.

Step 2: Find RT.

Step 3: Find VT. Use Ohm's law.

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Example 2: A 120 V battery is connected in series with three resistors with resistances of 40Ω, 60Ω, and 100Ω.
Find the voltage across each resistor.

Figure 23: Example 2 Series Circuit

Solution:

Step 1: Find total resistance.

RT = R1 + R2 + R3

RT = 40Ω + 60Ω +
100Ω

RT = 200Ω
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Step 2: Find circuit current (I).

Solving for I:

Step 3: Find the voltage across each component.

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Voltage Drops
The voltages of V1, V2, and V3 in Example 2 are known as voltage drops or IR drops. Their effect is to reduce
the available voltage to be applied across the other circuit components. The sum of the voltage drops in any
series circuit is always equal to the applied voltage. We can verify our answer in Example 2 by using the
following equation:

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Parallel Circuit
Parallel circuits are those circuits that have two or more components connected across the same voltage
source as shown below. Resistors R1, R2, and R3 are in parallel with each other and the source. Each parallel
path is a branch with its own individual current. When the current leaves the source V, part I 1 of IT will flow
through R1, part I2 will flow through R2, and part I3 will flow through R3. Current through each branch can be
different, but voltage is the same.
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Figure 24: Parallel Circuit

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Parallel Currents
The sum of the currents flowing through each branch of a parallel circuit is equal to the total current flow in the
circuit. Using Ohm's law, the branch current for a three-branch circuit equals the applied voltage divided by the
resistance, as shown in the following equations:

Example 1: Two resistors, each drawing 3 A, and a third resistor drawing 2 A are connected in parallel across a
115 V source (Figure 25). What is the total current?
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Figure 25: Parallel Circuit

Solution:

Example 2: Two branches, R1 and R2, are across a 120 V power source. The total current flow is 30 A. Branch
R1 takes 22 A. What is the current flow in Branch R2?

Figure 26: Example 2 Parallel Circuit

Solution:
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Example 3: In a parallel circuit, R1= 15 Ω, R2 = 20 Ω, and R3 = 10 Ω, with an applied voltage of 120 V. What
current will flow through each branch?

Figure 27: Example 3 Parallel Circuit

Solution:

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Resistance in a Parallel Circuit

Total resistance in a parallel circuit can be found by applying Ohm's law. Divide the voltage across the parallel
resistance by the total line current, as shown in the following equation:
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Example: Find the total resistance of the circuit shown in the figure below if the line voltage is 120 V and total
current is 26 A.

Figure 28: Equivalent Resistance in a Parallel Circuit

The total load connected to a 120 V source is the same as the single equivalent resistance of 4.62 Ω connected
across the source (Figure 28). Equivalent resistance is the total resistance, or a combination of the loads
present in a circuit.

The total resistance in a parallel circuit can also be found by using the following equation:

Example 1: Find the total resistance of a 4Ω, an 8Ω, and a 16Ω resistor in parallel (Figure 29).
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Figure 29: Total Resistance in a Parallel Circuit

Solution:

NOTE: Whenever resistors are in parallel, the total resistance is always smaller than in any single branch.

Example 2: Now add a fourth resistance of 4Ω in parallel to the circuit in Figure 29 above. What is the new total
resistance of the circuit?

Solution:

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Simplified Formulas for Parallel Circuits

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Equal Resistors
The total resistance of equal resistors in a parallel circuit is equal to the resistance of one resistor divided by
the number of resistors.

where:

Example: Five lamps, each with a resistance of 40Ω, are connected in parallel. Find the total resistance.

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Unequal Resistors
When any two resistors are unequal in a parallel circuit, it is easier to calculate RT by multiplying the two
resistances and then dividing the product by the sum, as shown in the following equation. (This is only valid
when there are only two resistors in parallel.)

Example: Find the total resistance of a parallel circuit that has one 12 Ω resistor and one 4 Ω resistor.

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Unknown Resistors
In certain cases involving two resistors in parallel, it is useful to find an unknown resistor, R x, to obtain a certain
RT. To find the appropriate formula, we start with the equation for total resistance and let the known resistor be
R and the unknown resistor be Rx.

Cross-
RTR + RTRX = RRX
multiply:

RRX - RTRX = RTR Transpose:

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RX (R - RT) = RTR Factor:

Solve for Rx:

Example: What value of resistance must be added, in parallel, with an 8Ω resistor to provide a total resistance
of 6 Ω (shown below)?

Figure 30: Example Parallel Circuit

Solution:

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DC Circuit Faults
Faults within a DC circuit will cause various effects, depending upon the nature of the fault. An understanding of
the effects of these faults is necessary to fully understand DC circuit operation.

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Open Series Circuit

A circuit must have a complete path for current flow; that is, it must be connected from the negative side to the
positive side of a power source without interruption. A series circuit has only one path for current to flow. If this
path is broken, no current flows, and the circuit becomes an open circuit (Figure 31), and the resistance across
the broken circuit is infinite (∞).
301 Page 34 of

Figure 31: Open Series Circuit

Circuits can be opened deliberately, such as by the use of a switch, or they may be opened by a defect, such as
a broken wire or a burned-out resistor.

Since no current flows in an open series circuit, there are no voltage drops across the loads. No power is
consumed by the loads, and total power consumed by the circuit is zero.

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Open Parallel Circuit

A parallel circuit has more than one path for current to flow.? If one of the paths is opened, current will continue
to flow as long as a complete path is provided by one or more of the remaining paths (Figure 32). It does not
mean that you cannot stop current flow through a parallel circuit by opening it at one point; it means that the
behavior of a parallel circuit depends on where the opening occurs.

Figure 32: Open Parallel Circuit (Total)

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If a parallel circuit is opened at a point where only a branch current flows, then only that branch is open, and
current continues to flow in the rest of the circuit (Figure 33).

Figure 33: Open Parallel Circuit (Branch)

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Shorted Series Circuit

In a DC circuit, the only current limit is the circuit resistance. If there is no resistance in a circuit, or if the
resistance suddenly becomes zero, a very large current will flow. This condition of very low resistance and high
current flow is known as a ''short circuit'' (Figure 34).

Figure 34: Shorted DC Circuit

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A short circuit is said to exist if the circuit resistance is so low that current increases to a point where damage
can occur to circuit components. With an increase in circuit current flow, the terminal voltage of the energy
source will decrease. This occurs due to the internal resistance of the energy source causing an increased
voltage drop within the energy source. The increased current flow resulting from a short circuit can damage
power sources, burn insulation, and start fires. Fuses are provided in circuits to protect against short circuits.

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Shorted Parallel Circuit

When a parallel circuit becomes short circuited, the same effect occurs as in a series circuit; there is a sudden
and very large increase in circuit current (Figure 35).

Figure 35: Shorted Parallel Circuit

Parallel circuits are more likely than series circuits to develop damaging short circuits. This is because each
load is connected directly across the power source. If any of the load becomes shorted, the resistance between
the power source terminals is practically zero. If a series load becomes shorted, the resistance of the other
loads keeps the circuit resistance from dropping to zero (Figure 36).

Figure 36: Shorted Resistor in a Series Circuit

Copper Wire Resistance and Voltage Drop

301 Page 37 of

AWG stands for "American Wire Gauge" and is a standardized wire

gauge system used in the US since 1857 for diameters of round,
nonferrous, electrically conducting wire. The cross-sectional area of a
wire determines it's resistance and current-carrying capacity. The large
the wire diameter, the less resistance it has to the flow of electrons, and
the more current it can carry without overheating. The table below list
copper wire resistance for various gauges of copper wire. These
should be used as a rule of thumb as there are other factors that play
into the current ratings of wire including ambient temperature, insulation
temperature limit, air convection, etc. You should consult the National
Electrical Code (NEC) for specific guidelines.

AWG Wire Sizes and Resistance

Conductor
Ohms per Conductor AWG
Diameter
1000 ft. Diameter mm gauge
Inches

0.049 11.684 0.46 0000

0.0618 10.40384 0.4096 000

0.0779 9.26592 0.3648 00

0.0983 8.25246 0.3249 0

0.1239 7.34822 0.2893 1

0.1563 6.54304 0.2576 2

0.197 5.82676 0.2294 3

0.2485 5.18922 0.2043 4

0.3133 4.62026 0.1819 5

0.3951 4.1148 0.162 6

0.4982 3.66522 0.1443 7

0.6282 3.2639 0.1285 8

0.7921 2.90576 0.1144 9

0.9989 2.58826 0.1019 10

1.26 2.30378 0.0907 11

1.588 2.05232 0.0808 12

2.003 1.8288 0.072 13

2.525 1.62814 0.0641 14

301 Page 38 of

3.184 1.45034 0.0571 15

4.016 1.29032 0.0508 16

5.064 1.15062 0.0453 17

6.385 1.02362 0.0403 18

8.051 0.91186 0.0359 19

10.15 0.8128 0.032 20

12.8 0.7239 0.0285 21

16.14 0.64516 0.0254 22

20.36 0.57404 0.0226 23

25.67 0.51054 0.0201 24

32.37 0.45466 0.0179 25

40.81 0.40386 0.0159 26

51.47 0.36068 0.0142 27

64.9 0.32004 0.0126 28

81.83 0.28702 0.0113 29

103.2 0.254 0.01 30

130.1 0.22606 0.0089 31

164.1 0.2032 0.008 32

The diagram below shows many of the common copper wire sizes used
when wiring a home. General ampacity ratings are listed as well but you
should consult the tables below for more accurate ampacity ratings. This
illustration is meant to show relative sizes of the common gauges of wire.
301 Page 39 of

Common Copper Wire Sizes

This table provides the amperage rating for common insulated conductors
including Romex. Insulated conductors should have the temp rating and
type (i.e. THWN 75ºC) printed on the outside of the cable. You can then
follow the chart below to see how much current you are allowed to put
through the conductor. This table assumes not more than three conductors
in a raceway or cable or earth (directly buried) and is based on ambient
temperature of 30ºC (86ºF).

Ampacities of Insulated Conductors

Size Temperature Rating of Conductor Size

90ºC 75ºC 60ºC 90ºC 75ºC 60ºC

(194ºF) (167ºF) (140ºF) (194ºF) (167ºF) (140ºF)

Types Types Types Types Types Types

AWG AWG
THW THW
RHH T RHH T
THWN THWN
THHN TW THHN TW
XHHW XHHW
XHHW UF XHHW UF
USE USE

Aluminum Copper 0

---- ---- ---- ---- 25 20 20 14

12 25 20 20 30 25 25 12
301 Page 40 of

10 35 30 25 40 35 30 10

8 45 40 30 55 50 40 8

6 60 50 40 75 65 55 6

4 75 65 55 95 85 70 4

3 85 75 65 110 100 85 3

2 100 90 75 130 115 95 2

1 115 100 85 150 130 110 1

0 135 120 100 170 150 125 0

00 150 135 115 195 175 145 00

000 175 155 130 225 200 165 000

0000 205 180 150 260 230 195 0000

250 230 205 170 290 255 215 250

300 255 230 190 320 285 240 300

350 280 250 210 350 310 260 350

400 305 270 225 380 335 280 400

500 350 310 260 430 380 320 500

The table below provides the maximum number of THNN conductors that
you can put in a given size conduit. Correction factors should be used if
putting more than 3 conductors in a raceway.

Maximum Number of THNN Conductors in Conduit

Conduit Size (inches)

6 5 4 3 1/2 3 2 1/2 2 1 1/2 1 1/4 1 3/4 1/2 AWG

154 94 69 39 24 13 14

164 114 70 51 29 18 10 12

160 104 73 44 32 18 11 6 10

136 106 51 51 36 22 16 9 5 3 8

154 98 76 37 37 26 15 11 6 4 1 6

137 94 60 47 22 22 16 9 7 4 2 1 4
301 Page 41 of

116 80 51 39 29 19 13 8 6 3 1 1 3

97 67 43 33 25 16 11 7 5 3 1 1 2

72 50 32 25 18 12 8 5 3 1 1 1

61 42 27 21 15 10 7 4 3 1 1 0

51 35 22 17 13 8 6 3 2 1 1 00

42 29 18 14 11 7 5 3 1 1 1 000

35 24 15 12 9 6 4 2 1 1 1 0000

28 20 12 10 7 4 3 1 1 1 250

24 17 11 8 6 4 3 1 1 1 300

21 15 9 7 5 3 2 1 1 1 350

19 13 8 6 5 3 1 1 1 400

16 11 7 5 4 2 1 1 1 500

Ampacity Correction Factors for more than 3 conductors in Raceway

31 to 40 21 to 30 10 to 20 7 to 9 4 to 6 No. Conductors

0.4 0.45 0.6 0.7 0.8 Factor

Why do I need larger gauge wire to carry more current?

The larger the copper wire size the less resistance and hence the more
current it can carry without over-heating. Resistance impedes to the flow of
electrons and causes a voltage drop across the wire. You want to avoid
voltage drops on your wiring as much as possible because they generate
heat and wasted energy. The calculator below will help determine how
much voltage drop you will get with a given copper wire and its associated
resistance.
301 Page 42 of

Voltage Drop Calculator

This calculator determines the voltage drop for an aluminum or copper wire
of any gauge. You should generally target less than 3% voltage drop in a
given circuit. Wire resistances are based on NEC 2008, Table 8 at 75oC.

Copper
Select Copper or Aluminum

18 AWG
Select American Wire Gauge (AWG) Size

1-PHASE
Select Phase

Enter one-way circuit length in feet (calc uses round trip distance)

240
Enter Volts

Enter Load in amps

Voltage drop

Voltage at load end of circuit

Per Cent voltage drop

Wire cross section in circular mils

Voltage Drop Calculator Download

The following Excel spreadsheet is a voltage drop calculator that is a little

more advanced. It can be used to determine recommended wire gauges,
maximum distances, or maximum amperage

See more at: http://www.buildmyowncabin.com/electrical/copper-wire- -

resistance.html#sthash.VEqu6z9Z.dpuf
301 Page 43 of

Water-and-Pipe Analogy for Ohm’s Law

Posted Aug 15 2012 by Edvard in Electrical Lectures, Energy and Power with 5 Comments

An analogy for Ohm’s Law

Ohm’s Law also makes intuitive sense if you apply it to the water-and-pipe analogy. If we
have a water pump that exerts pressure (voltage) to push water around a ”circuit” (current)
through a restriction (resistance), we can model how the three variables interrelate.

If the resistance to water flow stays the same and the pump pressure increases, the flow rate
must also increase.

Voltage = Increase Pressure = Increase

Current = Increase Flow rate = Increase
Resistance = Same Resistance = Same

If the pressure stays the same and the resistance increases (making it more difficult for
the water to flow), then the flow rate must decrease:
301 Page 44 of

Voltage = Same Pressure = Same

Current = Decrease Flow rate = Decrease
Resistance = Increase Resistance = Increase

If the flow rate were to stay the same while the resistance to flow decreased, the
required pressure from the pump would necessarily decrease:

Voltage = Decrease Pressure = Decrease

Current = Same Flow rate = Same
Resistance = Decrease Resistance = Decrease

Review of Water-and-Pipe Analogy for Ohm’s Law

1. With resistance steady, current follows voltage (an increase in voltage means an
increase in current, and vice versa).
2. With voltage steady, changes in current and resistance are opposite (an increase in
current means a decrease in resistance, and vice versa).
3. With current steady, voltage follows resistance (an increase in resistance means an
increase in voltage).

Resource: Lessons in electric circuits , Volume I – DC

Short review of resistance, reactance and

impedance
Posted Apr 8 2012 by Edvard in Electrical Lectures, Energy and Power with 7 Comments
301 Page 45 of

Figure 1 - Perfect resistor, inductor and capacitor

Resistance, R

Resistance is essentially friction against the motion of electrons. It is present in all conductors
to some extent (except superconductors!), most notably in resistors. When alternating current
goes through a resistance, a voltage drop is produced that is in-phase with the current.

Resistance is mathematically symbolized by the letter “R” and is measured in the unit of
ohms (Ω).

Reactance, X

Reactance is essentially inertia against the motion of electrons. It is present anywhere electric
or magnetic ﬁelds are developed in proportion to applied voltage or current. respectively; but
most notably in capacitors and inductors. When alternating current goes through a pure
reactance, a voltage drop is produced that is 90° out of phase with the current.

Reactance is mathematically symbolized by the letter “X” and is measured in the unit of
ohms (Ω).

Impedance, Z

Impedance is a comprehensive expression of any and all forms of opposition to electron ﬂow,
including both resistance and reactance. It is present in all circuits, and in all components.
When alternating current goes through an impedance, a voltage drop is produced that is
somewhere between 0” and 90° out of phase with the current.

Impedance is mathematically symbolized by the letter “Z” and is measured in the unit of
ohms (Ω), in complex form.

Perfect resistors (Figure 1) possess resistance, but not reactance. Perfect inductors and perfect
capacitors possess reactance, but not resistance.

All components possess impedance, and because of this universal quality, it makes sense to
translate all component values (resistance, inductance, capacitance) into common terms of
impedance as the ﬁrst step in analyzing an AC circuit.

The impedance phase angle for any component is the phase shill. between voltage across that
component and current through that component. For a perfect resistor, the voltage drop and
current are always in phase with each other, and so the impedance angle of a resistor is said
to be 0°. For an perfect inductor, voltage drop always leads current by 90°, and so an
inductor’s impedance phase angle is said to be +90°.
301 Page 46 of

For a perfect capacitor, voltage drop always lags current by 90°, and so a capacitor‘s
impedance phase angle is said to be -90“.

Impedances in AC circuit behave analogously to resistances in DC circuit: they add in series,

and they diminish in parallel. A revised version of Ohm’s Law, based on impedance rather
than resistance, looks like this:

Ohm’s Law for AC circuit:

E = IZ ; I=E/Z ; Z=E/I
All quantities expressed in complex, not scalar form.

Kirchhoff’s Laws and all network analysis methods and theorems are true for AC circuits as
well, so long as quantities are represented in complex rather than scalar form. While this
qualiﬁed equivalence may be arithmetically challenging, it is conceptually simple and
elegant. The only real difference between DC and AC circuit calculations is in regard to
power.

Because reactance doesn’t dissipate power as resistance does, the concept of power in AC
circuit is radically different from that of DC circuit.

Resource: Lessons in electric circuits, Volume II – AC, Sixth Edition

Ohm’s Law – The Resistance

Posted Sep 2 2011 by Edvard in Energy and Power with 8 Comments

It is intuitive that voltage and current would be

somehow related. For example, if the potential difference between two ends of a wire is
increased, we would expect a greater current to flow, just like the flow rate of gas through a
pipeline increases when a greater pressure difference is applied.

For most materials, including metallic conductors, this relationship between voltage and
current is linear: as the potential difference between the two ends of the conductor increases,
the current through the conductor increases proportionally.

This statement is expressed in Ohm’s law:

301 Page 47 of

V=IR

To say that Ohm’s law is true for a particular conductor is to say that the resistance of this
conductor is, in fact, constant with respect to current and voltage. Certain materials and
electronic devices exhibit a nonlinear relationship between current and voltage, that is, their
resistance varies depending on the voltage applied.

The relationship V = IR will still hold at any given time, but the value of R will be a different
one for different values of V and I.

These nonlinear devices have specialized applications and will not be discussed in this article.
Resistance also tends to vary with temperature, though a conductor can still obey Ohm’s law
at any one temperature.

For example, the resistance of a copper wire increases as it heats up. In most operating
regimes, these variations are negligible. Generally, in any situation where changes in
resistance are significant, this is explicitly mentioned. Thus, whenever one encounters the
term “resistance” without further elaboration, it is safe to assume that within the given
context, this resistance is a fixed, unchanging property of the object in question.

Resistance depends on an object’s material composition as well as its shape. For a wire, resistance
increases with length, and decreases with cross-sectional area.

Again, the analogy to a gas or water pipe is handy: we know that a pipe will allow a higher
flow rate for the same pressure difference if it has a greater diameter, while the flow rate will
decrease with the length of the pipe. This is due to friction in the pipe, and in fact, an
analogous “friction” occurs when an electric current travels through a material.

This friction can be explained by referring to the microscopic movement of electrons or ions,
and noting that they interact or collide with other particles in the material as they go. The
resulting forces tend to impede the movement of the charge carriers and in effect limit the
rate at which they pass. These forces vary for different materials because of the different
spatial arrangements of electrons and nuclei, and they determine the material’s ability to
conduct.

This intrinsic material property, independent of size or shape, is called resistivity and is
denoted by ρ (the Greek lowercase rho).

The actual resistance of an object is given by the resistivity multiplied by the length of the
object (l) and divided by its cross-sectional area (A):

The units of resistance are ohms, abbreviated Ω (Greek capital omega). By rearranging
Ohm’s law, we see that resistance equals voltage divided by current. Units of resistance are
thus equivalent to units of voltage divided by units of current. By definition, one ohm equals
one volt per ampere (Ω = V/A).
301 Page 48 of

The units of resistivity are ohm-meters (Ω-m), which can be reconstructed through the
preceding formula: when ohm-meters are multiplied by meters (for l) and divided by square
meters (for A), the result is simply ohms. Resistivity, which is an intrinsic property of a
material, is not to be confused with the resistance per unit length (usually of a wire), quoted
in units of ohms per meter (Ω/m).

The latter measure already takes into account the wire diameter; it represents, in effect, the
quantity ρ/A. The resistivities of different materials in Ω-m can be found in engineering
tables.

An example how to calculate voltage drop

and size of electrical cable
Posted Jun 30 2014 by jiguparmar in Cables, Energy and Power with 30 Comments

An example how to calculate voltage drop and size of electrical cable (photo credit:
12voltplanet.co.uk)

Input information

Electrical details:
301 Page 49 of

Electrical load of 80KW, distance between source and load is 200 meters, system voltage
415V three phase, power factor is 0.8, permissible voltage drop is 5%, demand factor is 1.

Cable laying detail:

Cable is directed buried in ground in trench at the depth of 1 meter. Ground temperature is
approximate 35 Deg. Number of cable per trench is 1. Number of run of cable is 1 run.

Soil details:

Thermal resistivity of soil is not known. Nature of soil is damp soil.

Ok, let’s dive into calculations…

 Consumed Load = Total Load · Demand Factor:

Consumed Load in KW = 80 · 1 = 80 KW
 Consumed Load in KVA = KW/P.F.:
Consumed Load in KVA = 80/0.8 = 100 KVA
 Full Load Current = (KVA · 1000) / (1.732 · Voltage):
Full Load Current = (100 · 1000) / (1.732 · 415) = 139 Amp.

Calculating Correction Factor of Cable from following data:

Temperature Correction Factor (K1) When Cable is in the Air

Temperature Correction Factor in Air: K1

Insulation
Ambient Temperature
XLPE/EPR PVC

1.15 1.22 10

1.12 1.17 15

1.08 1.12 20

1.04 1.06 25

0.96 0.94 35

0.91 0.87 40

0.87 0.79 45

0.82 0.71 50

0.76 0.61 55
301 Page 50 of

0.71 0.5 60

0.65 0 65

0.58 0 70

0.5 0 75

0.41 0 80

Ground Temperature Correction Factor (K2)

Ground Temperature Correction Factor: K2

Insulation
Ground Temperature
XLPE/EPR PVC

1.07 1.1 10

1.04 1.05 15

0.96 0.95 20

0.93 0.89 25

0.89 0.77 35

0.85 0.71 40

0.8 0.63 45

0.76 0.55 50

0.71 0.45 55

0.65 0 60

0.6 0 65

0.53 0 70

0.46 0 75

0.38 0 80
301 Page 51 of

Thermal Resistance Correction Factor (K4) for Soil (When Thermal Resistance of Soil is
known)
Soil Thermal Resistivity: 2.5 KM/W

K3 Resistivity

1.18 1

1.1 1.5

1.05 2

1 2.5

0.96 3

Soil Correction Factor (K4) of Soil (When Thermal Resistance of Soil is not known)
K3 Nature of Soil

1.21 Very Wet Soil

1.13 Wet Soil

1.05 Damp Soil

1 Dry Soil

0.86 Very Dry Soil

Cable Depth Correction Factor (K5)

Rating Factor Laying Depth (Meter)

1.1 0.5

1.05 0.7

1.01 0.9

1 1

0.98 1.2

0.96 1.5
301 Page 52 of

Cable Distance correction Factor (K6)

0.5m 0.25m 0.125m Cable diameter Nil No of Circuit

1 1 1 1 1 1

0.9 0.9 0.85 0.8 0.75 2

0.85 0.8 0.75 0.7 0.65 3

0.8 0.75 0.7 0.6 0.6 4

0.8 0.7 0.65 0.55 0.55 5

0.8 0.7 0.6 0.55 0.5 6

Cable Grouping Factor (No of Tray Factor) (K7)

8 6 4 3 2 1 No of Cable/Tray

1 1 1 1 1 1 1

0.75 0.76 0.77 0.78 0.8 0.84 2

0.71 0.72 0.73 0.74 0.76 0.8 3

0.69 0.7 0.71 0.72 0.74 0.78 4

0.67 0.68 0.69 0.7 0.73 0.77 5

0.66 0.68 0.68 0.7 0.71 0.75 6

0.64 0.66 0.66 0.675 0.69 0.74 7

0.64 0.66 0.67 0.68 0.69 0.73 8

According to above detail correction factors:

- Ground temperature correction factor (K2) = 0.89

- Soil correction factor (K4) = 1.05
- Cable depth correction factor (K5) = 1.0
- Cable distance correction factor (K6) = 1.0

Total derating factor = k1 · k2 · k3 · K4 · K5 · K6 · K7

- Total derating factor = 0.93

301 Page 53 of

Selection of Cable

For selection of proper cable following conditions should be satisfied:

1. Cable derating amp should be higher than full load current of load.
2. Cable voltage drop should be less than defined voltage drop.
3. No. of cable runs ≥ (Full load current / Cable derating current).
4. Cable short circuit capacity should be higher than system short circuit capacity at that
point.

Selection of cable – Case #1

Let’s select 3.5 core 70 Sq.mm cable for single run.

 Current capacity of 70 Sq.mm cable is: 170 Amp,

Resistance = 0.57 Ω/Km and
Reactance = 0.077 mho/Km
 Total derating current of 70 Sq.mm cable = 170 · 0.93 = 159 Amp.
 Voltage Drop of Cable =
(1.732 · Current · (RcosǾ + jsinǾ) · Cable length · 100) / (Line voltage · No of run · 1000) =
(1.732 · 139 · (0.57 · 0.8 + 0.077 · 0.6) · 200 · 100) / (415 · 1 · 1000) = 5.8%

Voltage drop of cable = 5.8%

Here voltage drop for 70 Sq.mm Cable (5.8 %) is higher than define voltage drop (5%) so either
select higher size of cable or increase no of cable runs.

If we select 2 runs, than voltage drop is 2.8% which is within limit (5%) but to use 2 runs
of cable of 70 Sq.mm cable is not economical, so it’s necessary to use next higher size of
cable.

Selection of cable – Case #2

Let’s select 3.5 core 95 Sq.mm cable for single run, short circuit capacity = 8.2 KA.

 Current capacity of 95 Sq.mm cable is 200 Amp,

Resistance = 0.41 Ω/Km and
Reactance = 0.074 mho/Km
 Total derating current of 70 Sq.mm Cable = 200 · 0.93 = 187 Amp.
 Voltage drop of cable =
(1.732 · 139 · (0.41 · 0.8 + 0.074 · 0.6) · 200 · 100) / (415 · 1 · 1000) = 2.2%

To decide 95 Sq.mm cable, cable selection condition should be checked.

1. Cable derating Amp (187 Amp) is higher than full load current of load (139 Amp) = O.K
2. Cable voltage Drop (2.2%) is less than defined voltage drop (5%) = O.K
301 Page 54 of

3. Number of cable runs (1) ≥ (139A / 187A = 0.78) = O.K

4. Cable short circuit capacity (8.2KA) is higher than system short circuit capacity at that point
(6.0KA) = O.K

95 Sq.mm cable satisfied all three condition, so it is advisable to use 3.5 Core 95 Sq.mm
cable.

How to choose transformer rating?

Posted Mar 12 2011 by Edvard in Transformers with 6 Comments

When an installation is to be supplied directly from a MV/LV transformer and the

maximum apparent-power loading of the installation has been determined, a suitable rating
for the transformer can be decided, taking into account the following considerations:

 The possibility of improving the power factor of the installation (see chapter L)
 Anticipated extensions to the installation
 Installation constraints (e.g. temperature)
 Standard transformer ratings

In (A) Apparent power [kVA]

- 410V - - 237V -

141 244 100

225 390 160

352 609 250

444 767 315

563 974 400

704 1218 500

887 1535 630

1127 1949 800

1408 2436 1000

1760 3045 1250

2253 3898 1600

2816 4872 2000

3520 6090 2500

301 Page 55 of

4436 7673 3150

Figure. 1 : Standard apparent powers for MV/LV transformers and related nominal output
currents

3-phase transformer

The nominal full-load current In on the LV side of a 3-phase transformer is given by:

where:

 Pa = kVA rating of the transformer

 U = phase-to-phase voltage at no-load in volts (237 V or 410 V)
 In is in amperes

Single-phase transformer

For a single-phase transformer:

where

 V = voltage between LV terminals at no-load (in volts)

Simplified equation for 400 V (3-phase load)

 In = kVA x 1.4

The IEC standard for power transformers is IEC 60076.

SOURCE: Schneider Electric

BASIC DC THEORY
Talk Page

Basic DC Circuit Calculations

301 Page 56 of

Each type of DC circuit contains certain characteristics that determine the way its voltage and current behave.
To begin analysis of the voltages and currents at each part of a circuit, an understanding of these
characteristics is necessary.

1 Basic DC Circuit Calculations

1.1 Series Resistance
1.2 Parallel Currents
1.3 Resistance in Parallel
1.4 Simplified Formulas
1.5 Voltage Divider
1.6 Current Division
2 DC Circuit Analysis
2.1 Loop Equations
2.2 Node Equations
2.3 Series-Parallel Circuit Analysis
2.4 Y and Delta Network
Calculation
3 DC Circuit Faults
3.1 Open Circuit Series
3.2 Short Circuit Series
3.3 Short Circuit Parallel
4 DC Circuit Terminology
4.1 Schematic Diagram
4.2 One-Line Diagram
4.3 Block Diagram
4.4 Wiring Diagram
4.5 Resistivity
4.6 Temperature Coefficient of
Resistance
4.7 Electric Circuit
4.8 Series Circuit
4.9 Parallel Circuit
4.10 Equivalent Resistance
5 DC Sources
5.1 Batteries
5.2 DC Generator
5.3 Thermocouples
5.4 Rectifiers
5.5 Forward Bias
5.6 Reverse Bias
5.7 Half-Wave Rectifier Circuit
5.8 Full-Wave Rectifier Circuit
6 Kirchhoff's Laws
6.1 Kirchhoff's Voltage Law
6.2 Applying Kirchhoff's Voltage
Law
6.3 Kirchhoff's Current Law
7 Voltage Polarity and Current
Direction
301 Page 57 of

7.1 Conventional and Electron

Flow
7.2 Polarities
Talk Page

Series Resistance
The total resistance in a series circuit is equal to the sum of all the parts of that circuit, as shown in equation (2-
3).

Example:

A series circuit has a 60Ω, a 100Ω, and a 150Ω resistor in series (Figure 1). What is the total resistance of the
circuit?

Solution:
301 Page 58 of

Figure 1: Resistance in a Series Circuit

The total voltage across a series circuit is equal to the sum of the voltages across each resistor in the circuit
(Figure 2) as shown in equation (2-4).
301 Page 59 of

Figure 2: Voltage Drops in a Series Circuit

Ohms law may now be applied to the entire series circuit or to individual component parts of the circuit. When
used on individual component parts, the voltage across that part is equal to the current times the resistance of
that part. For the circuit shown in Figure 3, the voltage can be determined as shown below.
301 Page 60 of

Figure 3: Voltage Total in a Series Circuit

To find the total voltage across a series circuit, multiply the current by the total resistance as shown in equation
(2-5).

Example 1: A series circuit has a 50Ω, a 75Ω, and a 100Ω resistor in series (Figure 4). Find the voltage
necessary to produce a current of 0.5 amps.
301 Page 61 of

Figure 4: Example 1 Series Circuit

Solution:

Step 1: Find circuit current. As we already know, current is the same throughout a series circuit, which is
already given as 0.5 amps.

Step 2: Find RT.

Step 3: Find VT. Use Ohms law.

Example 2: A 120 V battery is connected in series with three resistors: 40Ω, 60Ω, and 100Ω (Figure 5). Find the
voltage across each resistor.
301 Page 62 of

Figure 5: Example 2 Series Circuit

Solution:

Step 1: Find total resistance.

Step 2: Find circuit current (I).

301 Page 63 of

Step 3: Find the voltage across each component.

The voltages of V1, V2, and V3 in Example 2 are known as "voltage drops" or "IR drops." Their effect is to reduce
the available voltage to be applied across the other circuit components. The sum of the voltage drops in any
series circuit is always equal to the applied voltage. We can verify our answer in Example 2 by using equation
(2-4).

Talk Page

Parallel Currents
The sum of the currents flowing through each branch of a parallel circuit is equal to the total current flow in the
circuit. Using Ohms Law, the branch current for a three branch circuit equals the applied voltage divided by the
resistance as shown in equations (2-6), (2-7), and (2-8).

Example 1: Two resistors, each drawing 3A, and a third resistor, drawing 2A, are connected in parallel across a
115 volt source (Figure 6). What is total current?
301 Page 64 of

Figure 6: Example 1 Parallel Circuit

Example 2: Two branches, R1 and R2, are across a 120 V power source. The total current flow is 30 A (Figure
7). Branch R1 takes 22 amps. What is the current flow in Branch R2?

Figure 7: Example 2 Parallel Circuit

301 Page 65 of

Example 3: A parallel circuit consists of R1 = 15Ω, R2 = 20Ω and R3 = 10Ω, with an applied voltage of 120 V
(Figure 8). What current will flow through each branch?

Figure 8: Example 3 Parallel Circuit

Talk Page

Resistance in Parallel
Total resistance in a parallel circuit can be found by applying Ohms Law. Divide the voltage across the parallel
resistance by the total line current as shown in equation (2-9).

Example: Find the total resistance of the circuit shown in Figure 8 if the line voltage is 120 V and total current is
26A.
301 Page 66 of

The total load connected to a 120 V source is the same as the single "equivalent resistance" of 4.62Ω
connected across the source (Figure 9). Equivalent resistance is the total resistance a combination of loads
present to a circuit.

Figure 9 Equivalent Resistance in a Parallel Circuit

The total resistance in a parallel circuit can also be found by using the equation (2-10).

Example 1: Find the total resistance of a 4Ω, an 8Ω, and a 16Ωresistor in parallel (Figure 10).
301 Page 67 of

Figure 10 Total Resistance in a Parallel Circuit

Solution:

Note: Whenever resistors are in parallel, the total resistance is always smaller than any single branch.

Example 2: Now add a fourth resistance of 4Ω in parallel to the circuit in Figure 11. What is the new total
resistance of the circuit?

Solution:
301 Page 68 of

Talk Page

Simplified Formulas
Total resistance of equal resistors in a parallel circuit is equal to the resistance of one resistor divided by the
number of resistors.

Example: Five lamps, each with a resistance of 40Ω, are connected in parallel. Find total resistance.

When any two resistors are unequal in a parallel circuit, it is easier to calculate R T by multiplying the two
resistances and then dividing the product by the sum, as shown in equation (2-11). As shown in equation (2-
11), this is valid when there are only two resistors in parallel.

Example: Find the total resistance of a parallel circuit which has one 12Ω and one 4Ω resistor.
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In certain cases involving two resistors in parallel, it is useful to find an unknown resistor, R x, to obtain a certain
RT. To find the appropriate formula, we start with equation (2-10) and let the known resistor be R and the
unknown resistor be Rx.

Example: What value of resistance must be added, in parallel, with an 8Ω resistor to provide a total resistance
of 6Ω (Figure 11)?

Figure 11 Example Parallel Circuit

Solution:
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Voltage Divider
A voltage divider, or network, is used when it is necessary to obtain different values of voltage from a single
energy source. A simple voltage divider is shown in Figure 12. In this circuit, 24 volts is applied to three
resistors in series. The total resistance limits the current through the circuit to one ampere. Individual voltages
are found as follows using equation (2-12).

Figure 12 Voltage Divider

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Current Division
Sometimes it is necessary to find the individual branch currents in a parallel circuit when only resistance and
total current are known. When only two branches are involved, the current in one branch will be some fraction
of IT. The resistance in each circuit can be used to divide the total current into fractional currents in each
branch. This process is known as current division.

Note that the equation for each branch current has the opposite R in the numerator. This is because each
branch current is inversely proportional to the branch resistance.

Example: Find branch current for I1 and I2 for the circuit shown in Figure 13.
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Figure 13 Current Division Example Circuit

Solution:

Since I1 and IT were known, we could have also simply subtracted I 1 from IT to find I2:

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DC Circuit Analysis
All of the rules governing DC circuits that have been discussed so far can now be applied to analyze complex
DC circuits. To apply these rules effectively, loop equations, node equations, and equivalent resistances must
be used.

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Loop Equations
As we have already learned, Kirchhoff's Laws provide a practical means to solve for unknowns in a circuit.
Kirchhoff's current law states that at any junction point in a circuit, the current arriving is equal to the current
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leaving. In a series circuit, the current is the same at all points in that circuit. In parallel circuits, the total
current is equal to the sum of the currents in each branch. Kirchhoff's voltage law states that the sum of all
potential differences in a closed loop equals zero.

Using Kirchhoff's laws, it is possible to take a circuit with two loops and several power sources (Figure 14) and
determine loop equations, solve loop currents, and solve individual element currents.

Figure 14 Example Circuit for Loop Equations

The first step is to draw an assumed direction of current flow (Figure 15). It does not matter whether the
direction is correct. If it is wrong, the resulting value for current will be negative.

Figure 15 Assumed Direction of Current Flow

Second, mark the polarity of voltage across each component (Figure 16). It is necessary to choose a direction
for current through the center leg, but it is not necessary to put in a new variable. It is simply I2 - I1.
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Figure 16 Making Polarity

Third, apply Kirchhoff's voltage law to loops one and two by picking a point in each loop and writing a loop
equation of the voltage drops around the loop; then set the equation equal to zero.

Figure 17 Applying Voltage Law to Loop 1

Figure 17 shows Loop 1.

From Point A to Point B, there is an increase in voltage of 8 volts. From Point C to Point D, there is an increase in
voltage of 200 (I2 - I1). From Point D to Point E, there is a decrease in voltage of 10 volts. From Point E to Point
A, there is a voltage decrease of 50I1 volts. The result in equation form is illustrated in equation (2-16).

Using the same procedure for Loop 2 of Figure 16, the resulting equation is shown in equation (2-18).

Fourth, solve equations (2-17) and (2-18) simultaneously. First, rearrange and combine like terms in the
equation for Loop 1.
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Divide both sides by two.

Rearrange and combine like terms in the Loop 2 equation.

Multiplying the Loop 1 equation by 3, and add it to the Loop 2 equation.

Solving for I1:

Solving for I2 using the Loop 1 equation:

The current flow through R1 (50Ω) is I1. The current flow through R2(100Ω) is I2, and through R3(200Ω) is I2 - I1:

Fifth, apply Ohms Law to obtain the voltage drops across Resistors R 1, R2, and R3:
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Sixth, check the calculations by applying Kirchhoff's Laws:

Check 1: Apply Kirchhoff's voltage law to the larger outer loop (Figure 18).

Figure 18 Applying Voltage Laws to Outer Loop

The sum of the voltage drops around the loop is essentially zero. (Not exactly zero due to rounding off.)

Therefore, the solution checks.

Check 2: Use Kirchhoff's current law at one of the junctions (Figure 19).
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Figure 19 Applying Current Law to Junction

The sum of the currents out of the junction is:

The current into the junction is 345.8 ma. he current into the junction is equal to the current out of the junction.
Therefore, the solution checks.

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Node Equations
Kirchhoff's current law, as previously stated, says that at any junction point in a circuit the current arriving is
equal to the current leaving. Let us consider five currents entering and leaving a junction shown as P (Figure
20). This junction is also considered a node.

Assume that all currents entering the node are positive, and all currents that leave the node are negative.
Therefore, I1, I3, and I4 are positive, and I2 and I5 are negative. Kirchhoff's Law also states that the sum of all the
currents meeting at the node is zero. For Figure 20, Equation (2-19) represents this law mathematically.
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Figure 20 Node Point

By solving node equations, we can calculate the unknown node voltages. To each node in a circuit we will
assign a letter or number. In Figure 21, A, B, C, and N are nodes, and N and C are principal nodes. Principal
nodes are those nodes with three or more connections. Node C will be our selected reference node. VAC is the
voltage between Nodes A and C; VBC is the voltage between Nodes B and C; and VNC is the voltage between
Nodes N and C. We have already determined that all node voltages have a reference node; therefore, we can
substitute VA for VAC, VB for VBC, and VN for VNC.
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Figure 21 Circuit for Node Analysis

Assume that loop currents I1 and I2 leave Node N, and that I3 enters Node N (Figure 21).

From Kirchhoffs current law:

Using Ohms Law and solving for the current through each resistor we obtain the following.

Substitute these equations for I1, I2, and I3 into Kirchhoffs current equation (2-20) and yields the following.

The circuit shown in Figure 22 can be solved for voltages and currents by using the node-voltage analysis.
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Figure 22 Node-Voltage Analysis

First, assume direction of current flow shown. Mark nodes A, B, C, and N, and mark the Analysis polarity across
each resistor.

Second, using Kirchhoff's current law at Node N, solve for VN.

Clear the fraction so that we have a common denominator:

Third, find all voltage drops and currents.

The negative value for V3 shows that the current flow through R3 is opposite that which was assumed and that
the polarity across R3 is reversed.

The negative value for I3 shows that the current flow through R3 is opposite that which was assumed.

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Series-Parallel Circuit Analysis

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When solving for voltage, current, and resistance in a series-parallel circuit, follow the rules that apply to the
series part of the circuit, and follow the rules that apply to the parallel part of the circuit. Solving these circuits
can be simplified by reducing the circuit to a single equivalent resistance circuit, and redrawing the circuit in
simplified form. The circuit is then called an equivalent circuit (Figure 23).

Figure 23 Redrawn Circuit Example

The easiest way to solve these types of circuits is to do it in steps.

Step 1: Find the equivalent resistance of the parallel branch:

Step 2: Find the resistance of the equivalent series circuit:

Step 3: Find total current (IT):

Step 4: Find I2 and I3. The voltage across R1 and R2 is equal to the applied voltage (V), minus the voltage drop
across R1.

Then, I2 and I3 are calculated.

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Y and Delta Network Calculation

Because of its shape, the network shown in Figure 24 is called a T (tee) or Y (wye) network. These are different
names for the same network.

Figure 24 T or Y Network

The network shown in Figure 25 is called π (pi) or Δ(delta) because the shapes resemble Greek letters π and Ω.
These are different names for the same network.
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Figure 25 π or Δ Network

In order to analyze the circuits, it may be helpful to convert Y to Δ, or Δ to Y, to simplify the solution. The
formulas that will be used for these conversions are derived from Kirchhoff's laws. The resistances in these
networks are shown in a three-terminal network. After we use the conversion formulas, one network is
equivalent to the other because they have equivalent resistances across any one pair of terminals (Figure 26).

Rule 1: The resistance of any branch of a Y network is equal to the product of the two adjacent sides of a Δ
network, divided by the sum of the three Δ resistances.

Figure 26 Y - Δ Equivalent
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Rule 2: The resistance of any side of a Δ network is equal to the sum of the Y network resistance, multiplied in
pairs, divided by the opposite branch of the Y network.

Let us consider a bridge circuit (Figure 27).

Figure 27 Bridge Circuit

Find RT at terminals a and d.

Step 1: Convert the Y network (b-e, e-c, e-d) to the equivalent Δ network.

 Using Rule 2:

Step 2: Now, we can redraw the Y circuit as a Δ circuit and reconnect it to the original circuit (Figure 28):
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Figure 28 Y- Δ Redrawn Circuit

Step 3: Reduce and simplify the circuit. Note that the 20Ω and 60 Ω branches are in parallel in Figure 28. Refer
to Figures 28 and 29 for redrawing the circuit in each step below.
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Figure 29 Steps to Simplify Redrawn Circuit

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DC Circuit Faults
Faults within a DC circuit will cause various effects, depending upon the nature of the fault. An understanding
of the effects of these faults is necessary to fully understand DC circuit operation.

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Resistivity
Resistivity is defined as the measure of the resistance a material imposes on current flow. The resistance of a
given length of conductor depends upon the resistivity of that material, the length of the conductor, and the
cross-sectional area of the conductor, according to Equation (2-1).

The resistivity ρ(rho) allows different materials to be compared for resistance, according to their nature, without
regard to length or area. The higher the value of ρ, the higher the resistance.

Table 1 gives resistivity values for metals having the standard wire size of one foot in length and a cross-
sectional area of 1 cm.
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Temperature Coefficient of Resistance

Temperature coefficient of resistance, α(alpha), is defined as the amount of change of the resistance of a
material for a given change in temperature. A positive value of α indicates that R increases with temperature; a
negative value of α indicates R decreases; and zero α indicates that R is constant. Typical values are listed in
Table 2.

For a given material, α may vary with temperature; therefore, charts are often used to describe how resistance
of a material varies with temperature.

An increase in resistance can be approximated from equation (2-2).

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Electric Circuit
Each electrical circuit has at least four basic parts: (1) a source of electromotive force, (2) conductors, (3) load
or loads, and (4) some means of control. In Figure 39, the source of EMF is the battery; the conductors are wires
which connect the various component parts; the resistor is the load; and a switch is used as the circuit control
device.

Figure 39 Closed Circuit

A closed circuit (Figure 39) is an uninterrupted, or unbroken, path for current from the source (EMF), through
the load, and back to the source.

An open circuit, or incomplete circuit, (Figure 40) exists if a break in the circuit occurs; this prevents a complete
path for current flow.

Figure 40 Open Circuit

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Thermocouples
A thermocouple is a device used to convert heat energy into a voltage output. The thermocouple consists of
two different types of metal joined at a junction (Figure 46).
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Figure 46 Production of a DC Voltage Using a Thermocouple

As the junction is heated, the electrons in one of the metals gain enough energy to become free electrons. The
free electrons will then migrate across the junction and into the other metal. This displacement of electrons
produces a voltage across the terminals of the thermocouple. The combinations used in the makeup of a
thermocouple include: iron and constantan; copper and constantan; antimony and bismuth; and chromel and
alumel.

Thermocouples are normally used to measure temperature. The voltage produced causes a current to flow
through a meter, which is calibrated to indicate temperature.

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Rectifiers
Most electrical power generating stations produce alternating current. The major reason for generating AC is
that it can be transferred over long distances with fewer losses than DC; however, many of the devices which
are used today operate only, or more efficiently, with DC. For example, transistors, electron tubes, and certain
electronic control devices require DC for operation. If we are to operate these devices from ordinary AC outlet
receptacles, they must be equipped with rectifier units to convert AC to DC. In order to accomplish this
conversion, we use diodes in rectifier circuits. The purpose of a rectifier circuit is to convert AC power to DC.

The most common type of solid state diode rectifier is made of silicon. The diode acts as a gate, which allows
current to pass in one direction and blocks current in the other direction. The polarity of the applied voltage
determines if the diode will conduct. The two polarities are known as forward bias and reverse bias.
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Forward Bias
A diode is forward biased when the positive terminal of a voltage source is connected to its anode, and the
negative terminal is connected to the cathode (Figure 47A). The power source's positive side will tend to repel
the holes in the p-type material toward the p-n junction by the negative side. A hole is a vacancy in the electron
structure of a material. Holes behave as positive charges. As the holes and the electrons reach the p-n junction,
some of them break through it (Figure 47B). Holes combine with electrons in the n-type material, and electrons
combine with holes in the p-type material.

Figure 47 Forward-Biased Diode

When a hole combines with an electron, or an electron combines with a hole near the p-n junction, an electron
from an electron-pair bond in the p-type material breaks its bond and enters the positive side of the source.
Simultaneously, an electron from the negative side of the source enters the n-type material (Figure 47C). This
produces a flow of electrons in the circuit.

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Reverse Bias
Reverse biasing occurs when the diodes anode is connected to the negative side of the source, and the cathode
is connected to the positive side of the source (Figure 48A). Holes within the p-type material are attracted
toward the negative terminal, and the electrons in the n-type material are attracted to the positive terminal
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(Figure 48B). This prevents the combination of electrons and holes near the p-n junction, and therefore causes
a high resistance to current flow. This resistance prevents current flow through the circuit.

Figure 48 Reverse-Biased Diode

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Half-Wave Rectifier Circuit

When a diode is connected to a source of alternating voltage, it will be alternately forward-biased, and then
reverse-biased, during each cycle of the AC sine-wave. When a single diode is used in a rectifier circuit, current
will flow through the circuit only during one-half of the input voltage cycle (Figure 50). For this reason, this
rectifier circuit is called a half-wave rectifier. The output of a half-wave rectifier circuit is pulsating DC.
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Figure 50 Half-Wave Rectifier

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Full-Wave Rectifier Circuit

A full-wave rectifier circuit is a circuit that rectifies the entire cycle of the AC sine-wave. A basic full-wave
rectifier uses two diodes. The action of these diodes during each half cycle is shown in Figure 51.

Figure 51 Full-Wave Rectifier

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Another type of full-wave rectifier circuit is the full-wave bridge rectifier. This circuit utilizes four diodes. These
diodes actions during each half cycle of the applied AC input voltage are shown in Figure 52. The output of this
circuit then becomes a pulsating DC, with all of the waves of the input AC being transferred. The output looks
identical to that obtained from a full-wave rectifier (Figure 52).

Figure 52 Full-Wave Rectifier

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Kirchhoff's Laws
Kirchhoff's two laws reveal a unique relationship between current, voltage, and resistance in electrical circuits
that is vital to performing and understanding electrical circuit analysis.

In all of the circuits examined so far, Ohm's Law described the relationship between current, voltage, and
resistance. These circuits have been relatively simple in nature. Many circuits are extremely complex and
cannot be solved with Ohm's Law. These circuits have many power sources and branches which would make
the use of Ohm's Law impractical or impossible.

Through experimentation in 1857 the German physicist Gustav Kirchhoff developed methods to solve complex
circuits. Kirchhoff developed two conclusions, known today as Kirchhoff's Laws.

Law 1: The sum of the voltage drops around a closed loop is equal to the sum of the voltage sources of that
loop (Kirchhoff's Voltage Law).

Law 2: The current arriving at any junction point in a circuit is equal to the current leaving that junction
(Kirchhoff's Current Law).

Kirchhoff's two laws may seem obvious based on what we already know about circuit theory. Even though they
may seem very simple, they are powerful tools in solving complex and difficult circuits.

Kirchhoff's laws can be related to conservation of energy and charge if we look at a circuit with one load and
source. Since all of the power provided from the source is consumed by the load, energy and charge are
conserved. Since voltage and current can be related to energy and charge, then Kirchhoff's laws are only
restating the laws governing energy and charge conservation.

The mathematics involved becomes more difficult as the circuits become more complex. Therefore, the
discussion here will be limited to solving only relatively simple circuits.

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Kirchhoff's Voltage Law

Kirchhoff's first law is also known as his "voltage law." The voltage law gives the relationship between the
"voltage drops" around any closed loop in a circuit, and the voltage sources in that loop. The total of these two
quantities is always equal. In equation form:
301 Page 103 of

where
the symbol Σ (the Greek letter sigma) means "the sum of."

Kirchhoff's voltage law can be applied only to closed loops (Figure 53). A closed loop must meet two conditions:

1. It must have one or more voltage sources.

2. It must have a complete path for current flow from any point, around the loop, and back to that point.

Figure 53 Closed Loop

You will remember that in a simple series circuit, the sum of the voltage drops around the circuit is equal to the
applied voltage. Actually, this is Kirchhoff's voltage law applied to the simplest case, that is, where there is only
one loop and one voltage source.

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Applying Kirchhoff's Voltage Law

For a simple series circuit, Kirchhoff's voltage law corresponds to Ohm's Law. To find the current in a circuit
(Figure 54) by using Kirchhoff's voltage law, use equation (2-15).
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Figure 54 Using Kirchhoff's Voltage Law to find Current with one Source

In the problem above, the direction of current flow was known before solving the problem. When there is more
than one voltage source, the direction of current flow may or may not be known. In such a case, a direction of
current flow must be assumed in the beginning of the problem. All the sources that would aid the current in the
assumed direction of current flow are then positive, and all that would oppose current flow are negative. If the
assumed direction is correct, the answer will be positive. The answer would be negative if the direction
assumed was wrong. In any case, the correct magnitude will be attained.

For example, what is the current flow in Figure 55? Assume that the current is flowing in the direction shown.

Figure 55 Using Kirchhoff's Voltage Law to find Current with Multiple Battery Sources
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The result is negative. The current is actually 0.5 ampere in the opposite direction to that of the assumed
direction.

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Kirchhoff's Current Law

Kirchhoff's second law is called his current law and states: "At any junction point in a circuit, the current arriving
is equal to the current leaving." Thus, if 15 amperes of current arrives at a junction that has two paths leading
away from it, 15 amperes will divide among the two branches, but a total of 15 amperes must leave the
junction. We are already familiar with Kirchhoff's current law from parallel circuits, that is, the sum of the
branch currents is equal to the total current entering the branches, as well as the total current leaving the
branches (Figure 56).

Figure 56 Illustration of Kirchhoff's Current Law

In equation form, Kirchhoff's current law may be expressed:

Normally, Kirchhoff's current law is not used by itself, but with the voltage law, in solving a problem.

Example: Find I2 in the circuit shown in Figure 57 using Kirchhoffs voltage and current laws.
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Figure 57 Using the Current Law

Solution:

First, apply Kirchhoff's voltage law to both loops.

Armature
The purpose of the armature is to provide the energy conversion in a DC machine (refer to Figure 1).

Figure 1 Basic DC Machine

In a DC generator, the armature is rotated by an external mechanical force, such as a steam turbine. This
rotation induces a voltage and current flow in the armature. Thus, the armature converts mechanical energy to
electrical energy.

In a DC motor, the armature receives voltage from an outside electrical source and converts electrical energy
into mechanical energy in the form of torque.

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Rotor
The purpose of the rotor is to provide the rotating element in a DC machine (refer to Figure 1). In a DC
generator, the rotor is the component that is rotated by an external force. In a DC motor, the rotor is the
component that turns a piece of equipment. In both types of DC machines, the rotor is the armature.

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Stator
The stator is the part of a motor or generator that is stationary (refer to Figure 1). In DC machines, the purpose
of the stator is to provide the magnetic field. The stator in Figure 1 is provided by a permanent magnet.

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Field
The purpose of the field in a DC machine is to provide a magnetic field for producing either a voltage
(generator) or a torque (motor) (refer to Figure 1). The field in a DC machine is produced by either a permanent
magnet or an electromagnet. Normally, electromagnets are used because they have an increased magnetic
strength, and the magnetic strength is more easily varied using external devices. In Figure 2, the field is
provided by the stator.

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DC Equipment Terminology
Direct current devices are used frequently in todays technology. Before the construction and operation of these
devices can be introduced, a few common terms must be understood.

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Terminal Voltage
Terminal voltage, as applied to DC generators, is defined as the voltage that can be measured at the output of
the generator.

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Counter-Electromotive Force
In a generator using a rotating armature, the conductors cut the magnetic lines of force in the magnetic field.
Voltage is induced in the armature conductors. This induced voltage opposes the applied voltage; it counteracts
some of the applied voltage, which reduces the current flow through the armature. This induced voltage acts
counter to applied voltage; therefore, it is called

counter-electromotive force (CEMF).

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Applied Voltage
Applied voltage is defined as the voltage that is delivered across the load. This voltage should be the same as
terminal voltage; however, various circuit faults and losses may reduce the terminal voltage.

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Commutation
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Commutation is the positioning of the DC generator brushes so that the commutator segments change brushes
at the same time the armature current changes direction. More simply stated, commutation is the mechanical
conversion from AC to DC at the brushes of a DC machine, as shown in Figure 2.

Figure 2 AC to DC Conversion with a Commutator

In a DC generator, commutation provides for the conversion of AC to a DC output that is generated in the
armature windings. Commutation will be discussed in greater detail in subsequent chapters.

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DC Generator Construction
A DC generator may be constructed in a variety of ways depending upon the relationship and location of each
of the fields. Each type of construction contains certain advantages.

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Shunt-Wound DC Generators
When the field winding of a generator is connected in parallel with the generator armature, the generator is
called a shunt-wound generator (Figure 3).

Figure 3 Shunt-Wound DC Generator

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The excitation current in a shunt-wound generator is dependent upon the output voltage and the field
resistance. Normally, field excitation is maintained between 0.5 and 5 percent of the total current output of the
generator.

The shunt-wound generator, running at a constant speed under varying load conditions, has a much more
stable voltage output than does a series-wound generator. Some change in output voltage does take place.
This change is caused by the fact that, as the load current increases, the voltage drop (IaRa) across the
armature coil increases, causing output voltage to decrease. As a result, the current through the field
decreases, reducing the magnetic field and causing voltage to decrease even more. If load current is much
higher than the design of the generator, the drop in output voltage is severe. For load current within the design
range of the generator, the drop in output voltage is minimal (Figure 4).

Figure 4 Output Voltage-vs-Load Current for Shunt-Wound DC Generator

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Series-Wound DC Generators
When the field winding of a DC generator is connected in series with the armature, the generator is called a
series-wound generator (Figure 5).

The excitation current in a series-wound generator is the same as the current the generator delivers to the
load. If the load has a high resistance and only draws a small amount of current, the excitation current is also
small. Therefore, the magnetic field of the series field winding is weak, making the generated voltage low.
Conversely, if the load draws a large current, the excitation current is also high. Therefore, the magnetic field of
the series field winding is very strong, and the generated voltage is high.

Figure 5 Series-Wound DC Generator

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As you can see in Figure 6, in a series generator, changes in load current drastically affect the generator output
voltage. A series generator has poor voltage regulation, and, as a result, series generators are not used for
fluctuating loads. As is the case for the shunt-wound generator, a series-wound generator also exhibits some
losses due to the resistance of the windings and armature reaction. These losses cause a lower terminal
voltage than that for an ideal magnetization curve.

Figure 6 Output Voltage-vs-Load Current for Series-Wound DC Generator

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Compound Generators
Series-wound and shunt-wound generators have a disadvantage in that changes in load current cause changes
in generator output voltage. Many applications in which generators are used require a more stable output
voltage than can be supplied by a series-wound or shunt-wound generator. One means of supplying a stable
output voltage is by using a compound generator.

The compound generator has a field winding in parallel with the generator armature (the same as a shunt-
wound generator) and a field winding in series with the generator armature (the same as a series-wound
generator) (Figure 7).

Figure 7 Compounded DC Generator

The two windings of the compounded generator are made such that their magnetic fields will either aid or
oppose one another.
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If the two fields are wound so that their flux fields oppose one another, the generator is said to be differentially-
compounded. Due to the nature of this type of generator, it is used only in special cases and will not be
discussed further in this text.

3 Types of DC Motors
3.1 DC Motor Connections
3.2 Shunt-Wound Motor
Operation
3.3 Shunt-Wound Motor
Applications
3.4 Series-Wound Motor
3.5 Series-Wound Motor
Applications
3.6 Compounded Motor
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Starting of DC Motors
At the moment a DC motor is started the armature is stationary and there is no counter EMF being generated.
The only component to limit starting current is the armature resistance, which, in most DC motors is a very low
value (approximately one ohm or less), as shown in Equation (6-9).

In order to reduce this very high starting current, an external resistance must be placed in series with the
armature during the starting period. To show why this is essential, let us consider a 10-hp motor with an
armature resistance of 0.4 ohms. If the motor were supplied by a 260 VDC source, the resulting current would
be as shown in Equation (6-9).

This large current is approximately twelve times greater than actual full-load current for this motor. This high
current would, in all probability, cause severe damage to the brushes, commutator, or windings. Starting
resistors are usually incorporated into the motor design to limit starting current to 125 to 200 percent of full
load current.

The amount of starting resistance necessary to limit starting current to a more desirable value is calculated
using Equation (6-10).

Example: If the full load current of the motor mentioned previously is 50 amps, and it is desired to limit starting
current to 125% of this value, find the required resistance that must be added in series with the armature.
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The starting resistors are used in a DC motor by placing them in the starting circuit of the motor controller that
is used to start the DC motor. Starting resistors are normally of variable resistances, with the value of
resistance in the circuit at any time being either manually or automatically controlled. The maximum amount of
resistance will always be inserted when the motor is first started. As the speed of the motor increases, counter
EMF will begin to increase, decreasing armature current. The starting resistors may then be cut out, in
successive steps, until the motor reaches full running speed.

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DC Motor Ratings
The nameplate ratings of a DC motor refer to the conditions of voltage, current, speed, and power at which the
motor is normally operated. The principal rating is known as the continuous rating, which is the rating described
on the nameplate of a motor. The continuous power rating is a thermal rating. At this power, the motor can be
operated for long periods of time without a large rise in temperature and beyond the limits of the conductor
insulating material, bearings and other components, which are greatly affected by temperature.

The speed rating of a DC motor is often given on the nameplate. This speed is the upper limit at which a motor
can be operated without mechanical damage occurring.

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DC Motor Theory
DC motors are widely used to drive various equipment. The speed and torque produced in a DC motor depends
on a variety of factors.

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Inducing a Force on a Conductor

There are two conditions which are necessary to produce a force on a conductor.

 The conductor must be carrying current.

 The conductor must be within a magnetic field.

When these two conditions exist, a force will be applied to the conductor, which will attempt to move the
conductor in a direction perpendicular to the magnetic field. This is the basic theory by which all DC motors
operate.

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Theory of Operation
Every current-carrying conductor has a magnetic field around it. The direction of this magnetic field may be
found by using the left-hand rule for current-carrying conductors. When the thumb points in the direction of
current flow, the fingers will point in the direction of the magnetic field produced, as shown in Figure 1. If a
current-carrying conductor is placed in a magnetic field, the combined fields will be similar to those shown in
Figure 2. The direction of current flow through the conductor is indicated with an "x" or a "". The "x" indicates
the current flow is away from the reader, or into the page. The "" indicates the current flow is towards the
reader, or out of the page.
301 Page 121 of

Figure 1 Left-Hand Rule for Current-Carrying Conductors

Figure 2 Current-Carrying Conductor in a Magnetic Field

Above the conductor on the left, the field caused by the conductor is in the opposite direction of the main field,
and therefore, opposes the main field. Below the conductor on the left, the field caused by the conductor is in
the same direction as the main field, and therefore, aids the main field. The net result is that above the
conductor the main field is weakened, or flux density is decreased; below the conductor the field is
strengthened, or flux density is increased. A force is developed on the conductor that moves the conductor in
the direction of the weakened field (upward).

Above the conductor on the right, the field caused by the conductor is in the same direction as the main field,
and therefore, aids the main field. Below the conductor on the right, the field caused by the conductor is in the
opposite direction of the main field, and therefore, opposes the main field. The net result is that above the
conductor the field is strengthened, or flux density is increased, and below the conductor, the field is
weakened, or flux density is decreased. A force is developed on the conductor that moves the conductor in the
direction of the weakened field (downward).

In a DC motor, the conductor will be formed in a loop such that two parts of the conductor are in the magnetic
field at the same time, as shown in Figure 3.

This combines the effects of both conductors to distort the main magnetic field and produce a force on each
part of the conductor. When the conductor is placed on a rotor, the force exerted on the conductors will cause
the rotor to rotate clockwise, as shown on Figure 3.
301 Page 122 of

Figure 3 Motor Action

You can think of these magnetic lines of force as rubber bands that are always trying to shorten themselves.
The lines of force above the conductor exert a downward force due to the magnetic lines of force trying to
straighten themselves.

The above explanation of how a force is developed is convenient; however, it is somewhat artificial. It is based
on a fundamental principle of physics which may be stated as follows:

"A current-carrying conductor in a magnetic field tends to move at right angles to that field."

Another important way to show the relationship between the current-carrying conductor, magnetic field, and
motion, is the right-hand rule for motors, as shown in Figure 4.

Figure 4 Right-Hand Rule for Motors

The right-hand rule for motors shows the direction in which a current-carrying conductor moves in a magnetic
field. When the forefinger is pointed in the direction of the magnetic field lines, and the center finger is pointed
in the direction of current flow, the thumb will point in the direction of force (motion).

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Torque
Torque is defined as that force which tends to produce and maintain rotation. The function of torque in a DC
motor is to provide the mechanical output or drive the piece of equipment that the DC motor is attached to.

When a voltage is applied to a motor, current will flow through the field winding, establishing a magnetic field.
Current will also flow through the armature winding, from the negative brush to the positive brush as shown in
301 Page 123 of

Figure 5.

Figure 5 Armature Current in a Basic DC Motor

Since the armature is a current-carrying conductor in a magnetic field, the conductor has a force exerted on it,
tending to move it at right angles to that field. Using the left-hand rule for current-carrying conductors, you will
see that the magnetic field on one side is strengthened at the bottom, while it is weakened on the other side.
Using the right-hand rule for motors, we can see that there is a force exerted on the armature which tends to
turn the armature in the counter-clockwise direction. The sum of the forces, in pounds, multiplied by the radius
of the armature, in feet, is equal to the torque developed by the motor in pound-feet (1b - ft).

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Series-Wound Motor Applications

The advantage of a series-wound motor is that it develops a large torque and can be operated at low speed. It
is a motor that is well-suited for starting heavy loads; it is often used for industrial cranes and winches where
very heavy loads must be moved slowly and lighter loads moved more rapidly.

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Compounded Motor
The compounded motor is desirable for a variety of applications because it combines the characteristics of a
series-wound motor and a shunt-wound motor. The compounded motor has a greater torque than a shunt
motor due to the series field; however, it has a fairly constant speed due to the shunt field winding. Loads such
as presses, shears, and reciprocating machines are often driven by compounded motors.

AC GENERATION
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AC Generation
A generator is a device that converts mechanical energy into electrical energy. AC generators use induction to
create an alternating electrical current. An understanding of how an AC generator develops an AC output will
help you understand the AC power generation process test.

1 AC Generation
1.1 Elementary AC Generators
1.2 Development of a Sine Wave
Output
1.3 AC Generation Analysis
301 Page 127 of

1.4 AC Generator Components

1.4.1 Field
1.4.2 Armature
1.4.3 Prime Mover
1.4.4 Rotor
1.4.5 Stator
1.4.6 Slip Rings
1.5 Three-Phase Circuits
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Elementary AC Generators
An elementary AC generator (Figure 1) consists of a conductor, or loop of wire, that rotates in a magnetic field.
In this example, the magnetic field is produced by an electromagnet connected to a DC power source. The two
ends of the loop are connected to slip rings, which are in contact with two brushes. When an outside
mechanical force rotates the loop, it cuts magnetic lines of force, first in one direction and then the other.

Figure 1: Simple AC Generator

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Development of a Sine Wave Output

At the instant the loop is in the vertical position (Figure 2, 0), the coil sides are moving parallel to the field and
do not cut magnetic lines of force. In this instant, there is no voltage induced in the loop. As the coil rotates in a
clockwise direction, the coil sides will cut the magnetic lines of force in opposite directions. The direction of the
induced voltages depends on the direction of movement of the coil.
301 Page 128 of

Figure 2: Developing a Sine Wave Voltage

The induced voltages add in series, making slip ring X (Figure 1) positive (+) and slip ring Y negative (-). The
potential across resistor R will cause a current to flow from Y to X through the resistor. This current will increase
until it reaches a maximum value when the coil is horizontal to the magnetic lines of force (Figure 2, 90°). The
horizontal coil is moving perpendicular to the field and is cutting the greatest number of magnetic lines of
force. As the coil continues to turn, the voltage and current induced decrease until each reach zero, where the
coil is again in the vertical position (Figure 2, 180°). In the other half revolution, an equal voltage is produced
except that the polarity is reversed (Figure 2, 270°, 360°). The current flow through R is now from X to Y
(Figure 1).

The periodic reversal of polarity results in the generation of a voltage as shown in Figure 2. The rotation of the
coil through 360 results in an AC sine wave output.

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AC Generation Analysis
Analysis of the AC power generation process and of the alternating current we use is necessary to better
understand how AC power is used in today's technology.
301 Page 129 of

The output voltage of an AC generator can be expressed in two ways. One is graphically by use of a sine wave
(Figure 3). The second way is algebraically by the equation e = Emax sin ωt, which is covered later in the text.

Figure 3: Voltage Sine Wave

When a voltage is produced by an AC generator, the resulting current varies in step with the voltage. As the
generator coil rotates 360, the output voltage goes through one complete cycle. In one cycle, the voltage
increases from zero to Emax in one direction, decreases to zero, increases to Emax in the opposite direction
(negative Emax), and then decreases to zero again. The value of Emax occurs at 90 and is referred to as peak
voltage. The time it takes for the generator to complete one cycle is called the period, and the number of cycles
per second is called the frequency (measured in hertz).

One way to refer to AC voltage or current is by peak voltage (Ep) or peak current (Ip). This is the maximum
voltage or current for an AC sine wave.

Another value, the peak-to-peak value (Ep-p or Ip-p) is the magnitude of voltage or current range, spanned by
the sine wave. However, the value most commonly used for AC is effective value. Effective value of AC is the
amount of AC that produces the same heating effect as an equal amount of DC. In simpler terms, one ampere
effective value of AC will produce the same amount of heat in a conductor in a given time as one ampere of DC.

The heating effect of a given AC current is proportional to the square of the current. Effective value of AC can
be calculated by squaring all the amplitudes of the sine wave over one period, taking the average of these
values and then taking the square root. The effective value, being the root of the mean (average) square of the
currents is known as the root-mean-square or RMS value. To understand the meaning of effective current
applied to a sine wave, refer to Figure 4.
301 Page 130 of

Figure 4: Effective Value of Current

The values of I are plotted on the upper curve and the corresponding values of I2 are plotted on the lower
curve. The I2 curve has twice the frequency of I and varies above and below a new axis. The new axis is the
average of the I2 values and the square root of that value is the RMS or effective value of current. The average
value is 2Imax2. The RMS value is then:

which is equal to 0.707 Imax.

The instantaneous value is the current or voltage at any particular instance in time. This value can be anywhere
from zero to the peak value, depending upon the time chosen to look at it.

There are six basic equations that are used to convert a value of AC voltage or current to another value as
listed below:

1. Average value = peak value x 0.637

2. Effective value (RMS) = peak value x 0.707
3. Peak value = average value x 1.57
4. Effective value (RMS) = average value x 1.11
5. Peak value = effective value (RMS) x 1.414
6. Average value = effective (RMS) x 0.9

The values of current (I) and voltage (E) that are normally encountered are assumed to be RMS values;
therefore, no subscript is used.
301 Page 131 of

Another useful value is the average value of the amplitude during the positive half of the cycle. The following
equation is the mathematical relationship between Iav, Imax, and I.

Iav = 0.6371max = 0.90I

The following equation is the mathematical relationship between Eav, Emax, and E.

Eav = 0.6371max = 0.90E

Example 1: The peak value of voltage in an AC circuit is 200 V. What is the RMS value of the voltage?

E = 0.707 Emax

E = 0.707 (200 V)

E = 141.4 V

Example 2: The peak current in an AC circuit is 10 amps. What is the average value of current in the circuit?

Iav = 0.637 Imax

Iav = 0.637 (10 amps)

Iav = 6.37 amps

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AC Generator Components
AC generators are widely used to produce AC voltage. To understand how these generators operate, the
function of each component of the generator must first be understood.

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Field
The field in an AC generator consists of coils of conductors within the generator that receive a voltage from a
source (called excitation) and produce a magnetic flux. The magnetic flux in the field cuts the armature to
produce a voltage. This voltage is ultimately the output voltage of the AC generator.

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Armature
The armature is the part of an AC generator in which voltage is produced. This component consists of many
coils of wire that are large enough to carry the full-load current of the generator.

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Prime Mover
The prime mover is the component that is used to drive the AC generator. The prime mover may be of any type
of rotating machine, such as a diesel engine, a steam turbine, or a motor.

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Rotor
301 Page 132 of

The rotor of an AC generator is the rotating component of the generator as shown in Figure 5. The rotor is
driven by the generator's prime mover, which may be a steam turbine, gas turbine, or diesel engine. Depending
on the type of generator, this component may be the armature or the field. The rotor will be the armature if the
voltage output is generated there; the rotor will be the field if the field excitation is applied there.

Figure 5: Basic AC Generator

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Stator
The stator of an AC generator is the part that is stationary (refer to Figure 5). Like the rotor, this component
may be the armature or the field, depending on the type of generator. The stator will be the armature if the
voltage output is generated there; the stator will be the field if the field excitation is applied there.

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Slip Rings
Slip rings are electrical connections that are used to transfer power to and from the rotor of an AC generator
(refer to Figure 5). The slip ring consists of a circular conducting material that is connected to the rotor
windings and insulated from the shaft. Brushes ride on the slip ring as the rotor rotates. The electrical
connection to the rotor is made by connections to the brushes.

Slip rings are used in AC generators because the desired output of the generator is a sine wave. In a DC
generator, a commutator was used to provide an output whose current always followed in the positive
direction, as shown in Figure 6. This was not necessary for an AC generator. Therefore, an AC generator may
use slip rings, which allow the output current and voltage to oscillate through positive and negative values. This
oscillation of voltage and current takes the shape of a sine wave.
301 Page 133 of

Figure 6: Comparison of DC and AC Generator Outputs

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Three-Phase Circuits
The design of three-phase AC circuits lends itself to a more efficient method of producing and using an AC
voltage. A three-phase (3φ) system is a combination of three single-phase systems. In a 3φ balanced system,
power comes from a 3φ AC generator that produces three separate and equal voltages, each of which is 120
out of phase with the other voltages (Figure 7).
301 Page 134 of

Figure 7: Three-Phase AC

Advantages of using three-phase equipment (motors, transformers, etc.) are:

 Less weight than single-phase equipment of the same power rating

 A wider range of voltages
 Can be used for single-phase loads
 Three-phase power transmission lines are comparatively less expensive for the maximum number of
lines needed for three single-phase systems.

BASIC AC THEORY
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AC Generation
An understanding of how an AC generator develops an AC output will help the student analyze the AC power
generation process.

The elementary AC generator (Figure 1) consists of a conductor, or loop of wire in a magnetic field that is
produced by an electromagnet. The two ends of the loop are connected to slip rings, and they are in contact
with two brushes. When the loop rotates it cuts magnetic lines of force, first in one direction and then the other.
301 Page 135 of

Figure 1 Simple AC Generator

1 AC Generation
1.1 Development of a Sine-Wave
Output
2 AC Generation Analysis
2.1 Effective Values
2.2 Phase Angle
2.3 Voltage Calculations
2.4 Current Calculations
2.5 Frequency Calculations
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Development of a Sine-Wave Output

At the instant the loop is in the vertical position (Figure 2, 0°), the coil sides are moving parallel to the field and
do not cut magnetic lines of force. In this instant, there is no voltage induced in the loop. As the coil rotates in a
counter-clockwise direction, the coil sides will cut the magnetic lines of force in opposite directions. The
direction of the induced voltages depends on the direction of movement of the coil.

The induced voltages add in series, making slip ring X (Figure 1) positive (+) and slip ring Y (Figure 1) negative
(-). The potential across resistor R will cause a current to flow from Y to X through the resistor. This current will
increase until it reaches a maximum value when the coil is horizontal to the magnetic lines of force (Figure 2,
90°). The horizontal coil is moving perpendicular to the field and is cutting the greatest number of magnetic
lines of force. As the coil continues to turn, the voltage and current induced decrease until they reach zero,
where the coil is again in the vertical position (Figure 2, 180°). In the other half revolution, an equal voltage is
produced except that the polarity is reversed (Figure 2, 270° 360°). The current flow through R is now from X to
Y (Figure 1).
301 Page 136 of

Figure 2 Developing a Sine-Wave Voltage

The periodic reversal of polarity results in the generation of a voltage, as shown in Figure 2. The rotation of the
coil through 360° results in an AC sine wave output.

Talk Page

AC Generation Analysis
Analysis of the AC power generation process and of the alternating current we use in almost every aspect of
our lives is necessary to better understand how AC power is used in todays technology.

Talk Page

Effective Values
The output voltage of an AC generator can be expressed in two ways. One is graphically by use of a sine wave
(Figure 3). The second way is algebraically by the equation e = E max sin ωt, which will be covered later in the
text.
301 Page 137 of

Figure 3 Voltage Sine Wave

When a voltage is produced by an AC generator, the resulting current varies in step with the voltage. As the
generator coil rotates 360°, the output voltage goes through one complete cycle. In one cycle, the voltage
increases from zero to Emax in one direction, decreases to zero, increases to E max in the opposite direction
(negative Emax), and then decreases to zero again. The value of E max occurs at 90° and is referred to as peak
voltage. The time it takes for the generator to complete one cycle is called the period, and the number of cycles
per second is called the frequency (measured in hertz).

One way to refer to AC voltage or current is by peak voltage (E p) or peak current (Ip). This is the maximum
voltage or current for an AC sine wave.

Another value, the peak-to-peak value (Ep-p or Ip-p), is the magnitude of voltage, or current range, spanned by
the sine wave. However, the value most commonly used for AC is effective value. Effective value of AC is the
amount of AC that produces the same heating effect as an equal amount of DC. In simpler terms, one ampere
effective value of AC will produce the same amount of heat in a conductor, in a given time, as one ampere of
DC. The heating effect of a given AC current is proportional to the square of the current. Effective value of AC
can be calculated by squaring all the amplitudes of the sine wave over one period, taking the average of these
values, and then taking the square root. The effective value, being the root of the mean (average) square of the
currents, is known as the root-mean-square, or RMS value. In order to understand the meaning of effective
current applied to a sine wave, refer to Figure 4.

The values of I are plotted on the upper curve, and the corresponding values of I 2 are plotted on the lower
curve. The I2 curve has twice the frequency of I and varies above and below a new axis. The new axis is the
average of the I2 values, and the square root of that value is the RMS, or effective value, of current. The
average value is I2max. The RMS value is then

There are six basic equations that are used to convert a value of AC voltage or current to another value, as
listed below.

The values of current (I) and voltage (E) that are normally encountered are assumed to be RMS values;
therefore, no subscript is used.
301 Page 138 of

Figure 4 Effective Value of Current

Another useful value is the average value of the amplitude during the positive half of the cycle. Equation (7-7)
is the mathematical relationship between Iav, Imax, and I.

Equation (7-8) is the mathematical relationship between E av, Emax, and E.

Example 1: The peak value of voltage in an AC circuit is 200 V. What is the RMS value of the voltage?

Example 2: The peak current in an AC circuit is 10 amps. What is the average value of current in the circuit?
301 Page 139 of

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Phase Angle
Phase angle is the fraction of a cycle, in degrees, that has gone by since a voltage or current has passed
through a given value. The given value is normally zero. Referring back to Figure 3, take point 1 as the starting
point or zero phase. The phase at Point 2 is 30°, Point 3 is 60°, Point 4 is 90°, and so on, until Point 13 where
the phase is 360°, or zero. A term more commonly used is phase difference. The phase difference can be used
to describe two different voltages that have the same frequency, which pass through zero values in the same
direction at different times. In Figure 5, the angles along the axis indicate the phases of voltages e 1 and e2 at
any point in time. At 120°, e1 passes through the zero value, which is 60° ahead of e 2 (e2 equals zero at

180°). The voltage e1 is said to lead e2 by 60 electrical degrees, or it can be said that e2 lags e1 by 60 electrical
degrees.

Figure 5 Phase Relationship

Phase difference is also used to compare two different currents or a current and a voltage. If the phase
difference between two currents, two voltages, or a voltage and a current is zero degrees, they are said to be
"in-phase." If the phase difference is an amount other than zero, they are said to be "out-of-phase."

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Voltage Calculations
Equation (7-9) is a mathematical representation of the voltage associated with any particular orientation of a
coil (inductor).
301 Page 140 of

Example 1: What is the induced EMF in a coil producing a maximum EMF of 120 V when the angle from
reference is 45°?

The maximum induced voltage can also be called peak voltage E p. If (t) is the time in which the coil turns
through the angle (Θ), then the angular velocity (ω) of the coil is equal to Θ/t and is expressed in units of
radians/sec. Equation (7-10) is the mathematical representation of the angular velocity.

Using substitution laws, a relationship between the voltage induced, the maximum induced voltage, and the
angular velocity can be expressed. Equation (7-11) is the mathematical representation of the relationship
between the voltage induced, the maximum voltage, and the angular velocity, and is equal to the output of an
AC Generator.

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Current Calculations
Maximum induced current is calculated in a similar fashion. Equation (7-12) is a mathematical representation of
the relationship between the maximum induced current and the angular velocity.
301 Page 141 of

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Frequency Calculations
The frequency of an alternating voltage or current can be related directly to the angular velocity of a rotating
coil. The units of angular velocity are radians per second, and 2π radians is a full revolution. A radian is an
angle that subtends an arc equal to the radius of a circle. One radian equals 57.3 degrees. One cycle of the sine
wave is generated when the coil rotates 2π radians. Equation (7-13) is the mathematical relationship between
frequency (f) and the angular velocity (ω) in an AC circuit.

Example 1: The frequency of a 120 V AC circuit is 60 Hz. Find the following:

1. Angular velocity
2. Angle from reference at 1 msec
3. Induced EMF at that point

Solution:

BASIC AC POWER
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301 Page 142 of

Power Triangle
While direct current has one form of power, alternating current has three different forms of power that are
related in a unique relationship. In this chapter, you will learn that power in AC circuits cannot be calculated in
the same manner as in DC circuits.

In AC circuits, current and voltage are normally out of phase and, as a result, not all the power produced by the
generator can be used to accomplish work. By the same token, power cannot be calculated in AC circuits in the
same manner as in DC circuits. The power triangle, shown in Figure 1, equates AC power to DC power by
showing the relationship between generator output (apparent power - S) in volt-amperes (VA), usable power
(true power - P) in watts, and wasted or stored power (reactive power - Q) in volt-amperes-reactive (VAR). The
phase angle (Θ) represents the inefficiency of the AC circuit and corresponds to the total reactive impedance
(Z) to the current flow in the circuit.

Figure 1 Power Triangle

The power triangle represents comparable values that can be used directly to find the efficiency level of
generated power to usable power, which is expressed as the power factor (discussed later). Apparent power,
reactive power, and true power can be calculated by using the DC equivalent (RMS value) of the AC voltage and
current components along with the power factor.

1 Power Triangle
1.1 Apparent Power
1.2 True Power
1.3 Reactive Power
1.4 Total Power
1.5 Power Factor
1.6 Power in Series R-L Circuit
1.7 Power in Parallel R-L
Circuit
1.8 Power in Series R-C Circuit
1.9 Power in Parallel R-C
Circuit
1.10 Power in Series R-C-L
301 Page 143 of

Circuit
1.11 Power in Parallel R-C-L
Circuits
2 Three-Phase Circuits
2.1 Three-Phase Systems
2.2 Power in Balanced 3φ
Loads
2.3 Unbalanced 3φ Loads
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Apparent Power
Apparent power (S) is the power delivered to an electrical circuit. Equation (9-1) is a mathematical
representation of apparent power. The measurement of apparent power is in volt-amperes (VA).

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True Power
True power (P) is the power consumed by the resistive loads in an electrical circuit. Equation(9-2) is a
mathematical representation of true power. The measurement of true power is in watts.

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Reactive Power
Reactive power (Q) is the power consumed in an AC circuit because of the expansion and collapse of magnetic
(inductive) and electrostatic (capacitive) fields. Reactive power is expressed in volt-amperes-reactive (VAR).
Equation (9-3) is a mathematical representation for reactive power.
301 Page 144 of

Unlike true power, reactive power is not useful power because it is stored in the circuit itself. This power is
stored by inductors, because they expand and collapse their magnetic fields in an attempt to keep current
constant, and by capacitors, because they charge and discharge in an attempt to keep voltage constant. Circuit
inductance and capacitance consume and give back reactive power. Reactive power is a function of a systems
amperage. The power delivered to the inductance is stored in the magnetic field when the field is expanding
and returned to the source when the field collapses. The power delivered to the capacitance is stored in the
electrostatic field when the capacitor is charging and returned to the source when the capacitor discharges.
None of the power delivered to the circuit by the source is consumed. It is all returned to the source. The true
power, which is the power consumed, is thus zero. We know that alternating current constantly changes; thus,
the cycle of expansion and collapse of the magnetic and electrostatic fields constantly occurs.

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Total Power
The total power delivered by the source is the apparent power. Part of this apparent power, called true power,
is dissipated by the circuit resistance in the form of heat. The rest of the apparent power is returned to the
source by the circuit inductance and capacitance.

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Power Factor
Power factor (pf) is the ratio between true power and apparent power. True power is the power consumed by an
AC circuit, and reactive power is the power that is stored in an AC circuit. CosΘ is called the power factor (pf) of
an AC circuit. It is the ratio of true power to apparent power, where Θ is the phase angle between the applied
voltage and current sine waves and also between P and S on a power triangle (Figure1). Equation (9-4) is a
mathematical representation of power factor.

Example: An 8 Ω resistance, a 40 Ω XL, and a 24 Ω XC are in series with a 60 Hz source with a current flow of 4
amps, as shown in Figure 8.

Find:

1. Z
2. VT
3. pf
4. P
5. Q
301 Page 154 of

6. S

Figure 8 Series R-C-L Circuit

301 Page 155 of

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Power in Parallel R-C-L Circuits

Example: An 800 Ω resistance, 100 Ω XL, and an 80 Ω XC are in parallel with a 120V, 60Hz source, as shown in
Figure 9.
301 Page 156 of

Figure 9 Parallel R-C-L Circuit

Solution:
301 Page 157 of

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Three-Phase Circuits
The design of three-phase AC circuits lends itself to a more efficient method of producing and utilizing an AC
voltage.

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Three-Phase Systems
301 Page 158 of

A three-phase (3φ) system is a combination of three single-phase systems. In a 3φ balanced system, power
comes from a 3φ AC generator that produces three separate and equal voltages, each of which is 120° out of
phase with the other voltages (Figure 10).

Figure 10 Three-Phase AC

Three-phase equipment (motors, transformers, etc.) weighs less than single-phase equipment of the same
power rating. They have a wide range of voltages and can be used for single-phase loads. Three-phase
equipment is smaller in size, weighs less, and is more efficient than single-phase equipment.

Three-phase systems can be connected in two different ways. If the three common ends of each phase are
connected at a common point and the other three ends are connected to a 3φ line, it is called a wye, or Y-,
connection (Figure 11). If the three phases are connected in series to form a closed loop, it is called a delta, or
Δ-, connection.

Figure 11 3φ AC Power Connections

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Power in Balanced 3φ Loads

Balanced loads, in a 3φ system, have identical impedance in each secondary winding (Figure 12). The
impedance of each winding in a delta load is shown as Z Δ(Figure 12a), and the impedence in a wye load is
shown as Zy (Figure 12b). For either the delta or wye connection, the lines A, B, and C supply a 3φ system of
voltages.
301 Page 159 of

Figure 12 3φ Balanced Loads

In a balanced delta load, the line voltage (VL) is equal to the phase voltage (Vφ), and the line current (IL) is equal
to the square root of three times the phase current (3φI). Equation (9-5) is a mathematical representation of V L
in a balanced delta load. Equation (9-6) is a mathematical representation of I L in a balanced delta load.

In a balanced wye load, the line voltage (VL) is equal to the square root of three times phase voltage (φ), and
line current (IL 3V) is equal to the phase current (Iφ). Equation (9-7) is a mathematical representation of VL in a
balanced wye load. Equation (9-8) is a mathematical representation of I L in a balanced wye load.

Because the impedance of each phase of a balanced delta or wye load has equal current, phase power is one
third of the total power. Equation (9-10) is the mathematical representation for phase power (P φ) in a balanced
delta or wye load.

Total power (PT) is equal to three times the single-phase power. Equation (9-11) is the mathematical
representation for total power in a balanced delta or wye load.
301 Page 160 of

As you can see, the total power formulas for delta- and wye-connected loads are identical.

Total apparent power (ST) in volt-amperes and total reactive power (QT) in volt-amperes-reactive are related to
total real power (PT) in watts(Figure 13).

Figure 13 3φ Power Triangle

A balanced three-phase load has the real, apparent, and reactive powers given by:

Example 1:

Each phase of a delta- connected 3φ AC generator supplies a full load current of 200 A at 440 volts with a 0.6
lagging power factor, as shown in Figure 14.

Find:

1. VL
2. IL
3. PT
4. QT
5. ST
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Figure 14 Three-Phase Delta Generator

Solution:

Example 2:

Each phase of a wye- connected 3φ AC generator supplies a 100 A current at a phase voltage of 240V and a
power factor of 0.9 lagging, as shown in Figure 15.

Find:

1. VL
2. PT
3. QT
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4. ST

Figure 15 Three-Phase Wye Generator

Solution:

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Unbalanced 3φ Loads
An important property of a three-phase balanced system is that the phasor sum of the three line or phase
voltages is zero, and the phasor sum of the three line or phase currents is zero. When the three load
impedances are not equal to one another, the phasor sums and the neutral current (In) are not zero, and the
load is, therefore, unbalanced. The imbalance occurs when an open or short circuit appears at the load.

If a three-phase system has an unbalanced load and an unbalanced power source, the methods of fixing the
system are complex. Therefore, we will only consider an unbalanced load with a balanced power source.
301 Page 163 of

Example: A 3φ balanced system, as shown in Figure 16a, contains a wye load. The line-to- line voltage is 240V,
and the resistance is 40Ω in each branch.

Figure 16 3φ Unbalanced Load

Find line current and neutral current for the following load conditions.

1. balanced load
2. open circuit phase A (Figure 16b)
3. short circuit in phase A (Figure 16c)
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In a fault condition, the neutral connection in a wye-connected load will carry more current than the phase
under a balanced load. Unbalanced three-phase circuits are indicated by abnormally high currents in one or
more of the phases. This may cause damage to equipment if the imbalance is allowed to continue.

AC AND DC MOTORS
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The electric motor is the workhorse of the modern industry. Its functions are almost unlimited. To control the
motors that drive machinery and equipment we must have electrical supply circuits that perform certain
functions. They must provide electrical current to cause the motor to operate in the manner needed to make it
perform its intended function. They must also provide protection for the motor from adverse mechanical and
electrical conditions. These functions are frequently combined within the electrical equipment that we classify
as motor control centers.
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A thorough understanding of the function of the various components of a motor control center is desirable from
both a maintenance and a troubleshooting standpoint. Properly maintained motor control centers ensure a
minimum of downtime for unscheduled repairs, increase productivity, and contribute to a safer working
environment.

1 Terms and Definitions

2 Motor Fundamentals
2.1 Motor Enclosures
2.1.1 Open
2.1.2 Totally Enclosed
2.2 Nameplate Data
2.2.1 Rated Voltage
2.2.1.1 Nominal Rated Voltage
2.2.1.2 Minimum Starting Voltage
2.2.2 Rated Amperage
2.2.3 Rated Speed
2.2.4 Rated Horsepower
2.2.5 Rated Current
2.2.6 Full-load Amperes
2.2.7 Frame Sizes
2.2.8 Duty
2.2.9 NEMA Design Letter
2.2.10 Insulation Class
2.2.11 Service Factor
2.2.12 KVA Code Letter
2.2.13 Power Factor
2.2.14 Temperature Rise
2.2.15 Frequency
2.2.16 Bearings
2.2.17 Locked-Rotor Current
3 Motor Protection
3.1 Short-Circuit Protection of Stator
Windings
3.1.1 Motors Other than Essential-Service
3.1.2 Essential-Service Motors
3.2 Stator-Overheating Protection
3.2.1 Motors Other than Essential Service
3.2.2 Essential-Service Motors
3.3 Rotor-Overheating Protection
3.3.1 Squirrel-Cage Induction Motors
3.3.2 Wound-Rotor Induction Motors
3.3.3 Synchronous Motors
3.4 Loss-of-Synchronism Protection
3.5 Undervoltage Protection
3.6 Loss-of-Excitation Protection
3.7 Branch Considerations
3.8 Thermal Protectors
4 Alternating Current Motors
4.1 AC Motor Theory
4.1.1 Rotating Fields
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4.1.2 Rotor Behavior in a Rotating Field

4.1.3 Induction
4.2 Induction Motors
4.2.1 Construction
4.2.1.1 Stator
4.2.1.2 Rotor
4.2.2 Torque
4.2.3 Starting Current
4.2.4 Power Factor
4.2.5 Speed Control
4.2.6 Reversing Rotation
4.3 Synchronous Motors
4.3.1 Construction
4.3.2 Synchronous Motor Operating
Principles
4.3.2.1 Rotor Field Excitation
4.3.2.2 Synchronous Motor Pullout
4.3.2.3 Synchronous Motor Torque Angle
4.4 Wound Rotor Motors
4.4.1 Wound Rotor Speed Control
5 Direct Current Motors
5.1 Operating Principles
5.1.1 Armature Construction
5.1.2 DC Motor Ratings
5.1.3 Types of DC Motors
5.1.4 Torque
5.1.5 Starting Current and Counter EMF
5.1.6 Starting Resistance
5.1.7 Armature Reaction
5.1.8 Interpoles
5.1.9 Direction of Rotation of DC Motors
5.2 DC Shunt Motors
5.2.1 Torque
5.2.2 Speed Regulation
5.3 DC Series Motors
5.3.1 Torque
5.3.2 Speed Control and Speed Regulation
5.3.3 Motor Ratings
5.4 DC Compound Motors
5.4.1 Torque
5.4.2 Speed
5.4.3 Speed Regulation
5.4.4 Industrial Applications
6 Connections and Terminal Markings for
AC Motors
6.1 Rotation
6.2 Double-Voltage Motors
6.2.1 Three-Phase Star Connection
6.2.2 Three-Phase Delta Connection
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6.2.3 Two-Phase Double-Voltage

Connection
6.3 Two-Speed Consequent-Pole Motors
6.3.1 Star Connection
6.3.2 Delta Connection
6.3.3 Delta Connection for Constant-
Horsepower
6.3.4 Open-Delta Connection Constant-
Torque
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Terms and Definitions

Before studying the aspects of electric motor control, it is necessary to first study motors. Understanding the
basic principles of operation, terms, definitions, and nameplate information is the cornerstone of motor control
fundamentals.

Ampacity: The current in amperes that a conductor can carry continuously under the conditions of use without
exceeding its temperature rating.

Branch Circuit: The circuit conductors between the final overcurrent device protecting the circuit and the
outlet(s).

Circuit Breaker: A device designed to open and close a circuit by non-automatic means, and to open the
circuit automatically on a predetermined overcurrent without damage to itself when properly applied within it
rating.

Controller: A device or group of devices that serves to govern, in some predetermined manner, the electric
power delivered to the apparatus to which it is connected.

Duty: Motor operational rating in terms of time.

Continuous Duty: Operation at a substantially constant load for an indefinite period of time.

Intermittent Duty: Operation for alternate intervals of (1) load and no-load; or (2) load and rest; or (3) load,
no-load, and rest.

Periodic Duty: Intermittent operation in which the load conditions are regularly recurrent.

Short-time Duty: Operation at a substantially constant load for a short and definite, specified time.

Varying Duty: Operation at loads and for intervals of time which both may be subject to wide variation.

Equipment: A general term including material, fittings, devices, appliances, luminaires (fixtures), apparatus,
and the like, used as a part of, or in connection with, an electrical installation.

Ground Fault Circuit Interrupter: A device intended for the protection of personnel that functions to de-
energize a circuit or portion of a circuit within an established period of time when a current to ground exceeds
the values established for a Class A device.

Ground Fault Protection of Equipment: A system intended to provide protection of equipment from
damaging line to ground fault currents by operating to cause a disconnecting means to open all ungrounded
conductors of the faulted circuit. This protection is provided at current levels less than those required to protect
conductors from damage through the operation of supply circuit overcurrent devices.

Interrupting Rating: The highest current at rated voltage that a device is intended to interrupt under
standard test conditions.

Motor Circuit Switch: A switch, rated in horsepower, capable of interrupting the maximum operating overload
current of a motor of the same horsepower rating as the switch at the rated voltage.
301 Page 168 of

Non-automatic: Action requiring personal intervention for its control. When applied to an electric controller,
non-automatic control does not imply a manual controller, but only that personal intervention is necessary.

Overcurrent: Any current in excess of the rated current of equipment or the ampacity of a conductor. It may
result from overload, short circuit, or ground fault.

Overload: Operation of equipment in excess of normal, full load rating, or of a conductor in excess of rated
ampacity that, when it persists for a sufficient length of time, will cause damage or dangerous overheating. A
fault, such as a short circuit or ground fault, is not an overload.

Remote Control Circuit: Any electric circuit that controls any other circuit through a relay or an equivalent
device.

Thermal Cutout: An overcurrent protective device that contains a heater element that operates a renewable
fusible member to open a circuit. It is not designed to interrupt short circuit currents.

Thermal Protector: (As applied to motors.) A protective device for assembly as an integral part of a motor or
motor compressor that, when properly applied, protects the motor against dangerous overheating due to
overload and failure to start.

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Motor Fundamentals
To inspect motors, it is important to know certain motor fundamentals such as nameplate data, construction,
motor theory, and the contributing factors to motor failures as studied and compiled by industry experts.

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Motor Enclosures
Motors are usually designed with covers over the moving parts. These covers, called enclosures, are classified
by NEMA (National Electrical Manufacturers Association) according to the degree of environmental protection
provided and the method of cooling. If the cover has openings, the motor is classified as an open motor; if the
enclosure is complete, the motor is classified as an enclosed motor. Each of these types of motors has many
modifications. Table 1 lists the various types possible for both open and totally enclosed motors.
301 Page 169 of

The different standard types as explained and defined by NEMA are described below.

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Open
The most common type of motor is the open motor. It has ventilating openings that permit the passage of
external cooling air over and around its windings. If these are limited in size and shape, the motor is called a
protected motor, since it is protected from any large pieces of material that may somehow enter the motor,
thus damaging its internal parts. A protected motor also prevents a person from touching the rotating or
electrically energized parts of the motor. Drip proof and splash proof motors are constructed such that drops of
liquid cannot enter the motor. The motors described below are all open motor types:

General purpose: Ventilating openings permit the passage of external cooling air over and around the
windings of the machine.

Drip-proof: Ventilating openings are constrcuted so that successful operation is not interfered with when drops
of liquid or solid particles strike, or enter, the enclosure at any angle from 0 to 15 downward from the vertical.

Splash-proof: Ventilating openings are constructed so that successful operation is not interfered with when
drops of liquid or solid particles strike, or enter, the enclosure at any angle not greater than 100 downward
from the vertical.

Guarded: Openings giving direct access to live or rotating parts (except smooth surfaces) are limited in size by
the structural parts or by screens, baffles, grills, expanded metal, or other means, to prevent accidental contact
with hazardous parts.

Semiguarded: Some of the ventilating openings, usually in the top half, are guarded as in the case of a
guarded machine, but the others are left open.

Drip-proof guarded: This type of drip-proof machine has ventilating openings as in a guarded machine.

Externally ventilated: Designates a machine that is ventilated by a separate motor driven blower mounted
on the machine enclosure. Mechanical protection may be as defined above. This machine is sometimes known
as a blower ventilated or force ventilated machine.
301 Page 170 of

Pipe ventilated: Openings for the admission of ventilating air are arranged so that inlet ducts or pipes can be
connected to them.

Weather protected:

Type I: Ventilation passages are designed to minimize the entrance of rain, snow, and airborne particles to the
electrical parts.

Type II: In addition to the enclosure described for a Type I machine, ventilating passages at both intake and
discharge are arranged so that high velocity air and airborne particles blown into the machine by storms or
high winds can be discharged without entering the internal ventilating passages leading directly to the electric
parts.

Encapsulated windings: An AC squirrel cage machine having random windings filled with an insulating resin,
which also forms a protective coating.

Sealed windings: An AC squirrel cage machine making use of form wound coils and an insulation system
which, using materials, processes, or a combination of materials and processes, seals the windings and
connections against contaminants.

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Totally Enclosed
A totally enclosed motor is designed to prevent the free exchange of air between the inside and outside of the
actual motor housing. It is used where hostile environmental conditions and the motor application require
maximum protection of the internal parts of the motor.

The motors described below are all open motor types:

Non ventilated: Not equipped for cooling by means external to the enclosing parts.

Fan cooled: Equipped for exterior cooling by means of a fan or fans, integral with the machine but external to
the enclosing parts.

Fan cooled guarded: All openings giving direct access to the fan are limited in size by design of the structural
parts or by screens, grills, expanded metal, etc., to prevent accidental contact with the fan.

Explosion-proof: Designed and constructed to withstand an explosion of a specified gas or vapor which may
occur within it and to prevent the ignition of the specified gas or vapor surrounding the machine by sparks,
flashes, or explosions of the specified gas or vapor which may occur within the machine casing.

Dust ignition proof: Designed and constructed in a manner that will exclude ignitable amounts of dust or
amounts which might affect performance or rating, and which will not permit arcs, sparks, or heat otherwise
generated or liberated inside the enclosure to cause ignition of exterior accumulations or atmospheric
suspensions of a specific dust on, or in the vicinity of, the enclosure.

Pipe ventilated: Openings arranged so that when inlet and outlet ducts or pipes are connected to them, there
is no free exchange of the internal air and the air outside the case.

Water cooled: Cooled by circulating water, the water, or water conductors, comes in direct contact with the
machine parts.

Water air cooled: Cooled by circulating air which, in turn, is cooled by circulating water.

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Rated Amperage
Rated amperage may be defined as "the full load current that is required to produce full rated horsepower at
the motors rated voltage and frequency."

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Rated Speed
The rated speed of a motor is the speed at which the shaft will turn at rated horsepower if the motor is also
running at rated voltage and frequency. This value is given in revolutions per minute (RPM). This value is not
the synchronous speed of the machine, unless of course, the motor is a synchronous motor.

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Rated Horsepower
An induction motor is really a torque generator. It delivers a needed torque to a driven machine at a certain
speed. Thus:

For induction motors built to NEMA® standards, the ratings range from 1/2 to 400 hp - 24 in all. If
horsepower requirements fall between any two ratings, the larger motor size should be selected.

Remember, an induction motor will try to deliver any amount of horsepower the load requires. If properly sized,
most motors operate at something less than the motor nameplate horsepower. Standard motors are designed
to operate at nameplate values from sea level up to an altitude of 3,300 feet if the ambient temperature does
not exceed 104F (40C). Above this altitude, the nameplate horsepower no longer applies.

NEMA standards provide a method for determining the proper temperature rise, or the new maximum ambient
temperature, at higher elevations. However, the standards do not provide a direct method for deriving the
horsepower. Several methods are available to estimate true motor horsepower output.

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Temperature Rise
This is the heat produced by the motor itself. It is the temperature rise above the ambient temperature in which
the motor is physically located. For example, a motor rated at 40C rise operating in a 20C environment should
not indicate over 60C when a direct contact temperature indicating device, or thermal probe, is used. As an
electrician, you may use thermal devices to determine motor temperatures and you should know the conditions
under which a motor develops temperature in excess of its temperature rise. You should know that the majority
of motor losses are caused by a breakdown of the insulation system, whether rapid or progressive. Heat-related
breakdowns are common, and must be monitored and corrected by the actions of inspectors. There will be
more information on temperature rise and the variables that affect it later in this article.

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Frequency
Frequency is given for AC motors in hertz. Standard frequencies for AC motors are 50 and 60 Hz (cycles per
second). Alternating current in the US has a standard frequency of 60 Hertz per second.

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Bearings
Polyphase induction motors require either anti-friction or sleeve bearings. Anti-friction bearings are standard in
medium (integral) horsepower motor sizes through 125 hp/1800 RPM. They are optional in 150 to 600 hp/1800
RPM sizes. Sleeve bearings are standard in 500 hp/3600 RPM and larger sizes.

Since radial loads are higher at the drive end of the motor, the drive-end bearing has a higher load rating than
the bearing at the opposite end. A typical nameplate might depict both bearing duties as:

 Drive shaft brg: 6309 (medium duty)

 Opp dr shaft brg: 6207 (light duty)

Bearing internal clearances are C1, C2 (smaller than normal clearance), standard clearance (normal), C3, C4,
and C5 (larger than normal clearance). Electric motors usually require a C3 internal clearance. Some bearing
manufacturers have a different designation for motor bearings that have a larger-than-normal internal
clearance.

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Locked-Rotor Current
Locked-rotor current is the steady state current of a motor with the rotor locked and with rated voltage applied
at rated frequency. NEMA has designated a set of code letters to define locked-rotor kilovolt-amperes-per-
horsepower (see Table 4). This code letter appears on the nameplate of all AC squirrel cage induction motors.
KVA (thousands of volts multiplied by amperes) is an indication of the current drawn and, indirectly, the
impedance of the locked-rotor.
301 Page 177 of

These nameplate code ratings give a good indication of the starting current the motor will draw if the motor
cannot turn. These code letters are sequenced so that a letter at the beginning of the alphabet indicates a
relatively low locked-rotor current, and a letter at the end of the alphabet indicates a high current per
horsepower rating of the motor.

Computation of the starting current can be accomplished using the formula:

Example:

What is the approximate starting current of a 7 hp, 220-volt motor with a nameplate code letter of G?

Solution:
301 Page 178 of

The kVA/hp for a code letter of G is 5.6 to 6.3. Taking a number approximately halfway in between and
substituting in the formula, we get:

Therefore, the locked-rotor current is approximately 118 amperes. This locked-rotor current characteristic is
important when purchasing a motor because the buyer must know what current-carrying capacity and overload
protection to provide. The buyer must install branch circuit lines large enough to carry the required currents
and put in fuses or circuit breakers of the proper size.

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Motor Protection
This section deals with the protection of attended synchronous motors, induction motors, synchronous
condensers, and the motors of frequency converters. Motors in unattended stations must be protected against
all harmful abnormal conditions. The protection of very small motors is not specifically described, although the
same basic principles apply; this subject is treated in detail in the National Electrical Code. The practices
described here for large motors are at least equal to those covered by the Code, and are generally more
comprehensive. However, it is recommended that the Code be consulted whenever it applies.

The starting energy requirements of AC motors are spread over seconds rather than milliseconds, and vary
considerably with the type of load and with the inertia of the load. However, the peak amplitude of the starting
current is generally within reasonable values.

The table below provides some typical figures as observed on motors selected at random. Note that single-
phase induction motors are the worst, usually having a starting winding that can draw 7 or 8 times the running
current for the better part of a second. A 750-millisecond surge duration was observed on several of the various
horsepower ratings.

Most magnetic breakers exhibit a reasonably flat frequency response - trip point versus frequency - in
applications between 20 and 200Hz. For any response beyond 200Hz, up to 440Hz, special design
considerations are required. Beyond 440Hz, the breaker supplier must be consulted.

A thermal device imbedded inside the motor usually protects induction motors. Most protectors that will handle
the starting surge will not trip out soon enough on lesser overloads to prevent damage to the motor. Here, you
are protecting the power wiring rather than the device. Magnetic protectors are available which offer a better
compromise. Figure 3 shows three delays for several different motors. The marginal position of single-phase
induction motors is obvious.
301 Page 179 of

Figure 3: Time Position of Various Motors on Start

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Short-Circuit Protection of Stator Windings

Overcurrent protection is the basic type that is used for short-circuit protection of stator windings. The
equipment for this type of protection ranges, from fuses for motor voltages of 600-volts and lower, through
direct-acting overcurrent tripping elements on circuit breakers, to separate overcurrent relays and circuit
breakers for voltages of 2200-volts and higher.

 For continuous-rated motors without service factor or short-time overload ratings, the protective relays
or devices should be adjusted to trip at not more than about 115% of rated motor current.
 For motors with 115% service factors, tripping should occur at not more than about 125% of rated
motor current.
 For motors with special short-time overload ratings, or with other service factors, the motor
characteristic will determine the required tripping characteristic, but the tripping current should not
exceed about 140% of rated motor current.

Obtain the manufacturers recommendations in each case.

The overload relays will also provide protection in the event of phase-to-phase short circuits, and in practice,
one set of such relays serves both purposes wherever possible.

A survey of the practice of a number of power companies (45) showed that a single set of long-time inverse-
time overcurrent relays, adjusted to pick up at 125 to 150% of rated motor current, is used for combined short-
circuit and overload protection of non-essential auxiliary motors; they are supplemented by instantaneous
overcurrent relays adjusted as already described. Such inverse-time overload relays must withstand short-
circuit currents without damage for as long as it takes to trip the breaker. In addition, the minimum
requirements as to the number of relays or devices for either function must be fulfilled.

Motors rated higher than about 1500 hp are generally provided with resistance temperature detectors
embedded in the stator slots between the windings. If such temperature detectors are provided, a single relay
301 Page 183 of

operating from these detectors is used instead of the replica-type or inverse-time overcurrent relays. In
addition, current-balance relays capable of operating on about 25% or less unbalance between the phase
currents should be supplied. If the motor does not have resistance temperature detectors, but is provided with
current-balance relays, a single replica-type thermal overload relay may be substituted for the resistance-
temperature-detector relay.

Specially cooled or ventilated motors may require other types of protective equipment than those
recommended here. For such motors, the manufacturers recommendations should be obtained.

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Essential-Service Motors
The protection recommended for some essential-service motors is based on minimizing the possibility of
unnecessarily tripping the motor, even though such practice may sometimes endanger the motor. In other
words, long-time inverse-time overcurrent-relays are provided for all motor ratings, but they merely control an
alarm and leave tripping in the control of an operator. Then, for motors that can suffer locked rotor,
supplementary instantaneous overcurrent relays adjusted to pick up at about 200 to 300% of rated motor
current are used, and their contacts are connected in series with the contacts of the inverse-time-overcurrent
relays to trip the motor breaker automatically. The instantaneous relays should be of the high-reset type to be
sure that they reset when the current returns to normal after the starting inrush has subsided. The protection
provided by this type of equipment is shown in Figure 6.

Figure 6: Protection Characteristic for Essential-Service Motors (A) Motor; (B) Inverse-Time Relay;
(C) Instantaneous Relay
301 Page 184 of

For essential-service motors for which automatic tripping is desired in addition to the alarm for overloads
between about 115% of rated current and the pickup of the instantaneous overcurrent relays, thermal relays of
either the replica type or the resistance-temperature detector type should be used, depending on the size of
the motor. Such relays permit operation for overloads as far as possible beyond the point where the alarm will
be sounded, but without damaging the motor to the extent that it must be repaired before it can be used again.

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Rotor-Overheating Protection
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Squirrel-Cage Induction Motors

The replica-type or the inverse-time overcurrent relays, recommended for protection against stator
overheating, will generally protect the rotor except where high-inertia load is involved; such applications should
be referred to the manufacturer for recommendations. Where resistance-temperature detector relaying is used,
a single replica-type or inverse-time overcurrent relay should be added for rotor protection during starting.

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Wound-Rotor Induction Motors

General recommendations for this type of motor cannot be given except that the stator-overheating protective
equipment that has been described may not protect the rotor. Each application should be referred to the
manufacturer for recommendations.

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Synchronous Motors
Amortisseur-overheating protection during starting or loss of synchronism should be provided for all "loaded-
start" motors. (A loaded-start motor is a motor other than a synchronous condenser or a motor driving a
generator; it includes any motor driving a mechanical load even though automatic unloading means may be
employed.) Such protection is best provided by a time-delay thermal overload relay connected in the field-
discharge circuit.

Amortisseur-overheating protection is not required for "unloaded-start" motors (synchronous condensers or

motors driving generators). An unloaded-start motor is not likely to fail to start on the application of normal
starting voltage. In addition, loss-of-synchronism protection that is provided either directly or indirectly will
provide the necessary protection. An exception to this is a condenser or a motor that has an oil-lift pump for
starting.

Where stator-overheating protection is provided by current-balance relaying equipment, the amortisseur is also
indirectly protected against unbalanced phase currents.

Protection against field winding overheating because of prolonged over-excitation should be provided for
synchronous motors or condensers with automatic voltage regulators without automatic field current-limiting
features. A thermal overload relay with time delay or a relay that responds to an increase in the field-winding
resistance with increasing temperature may be used. In an attended station, the relay would merely control an
alarm.

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Loss-of-Synchronism Protection
All loaded-start synchronous motors should have protection against loss of synchronism generally arranged to
remove the load and the excitation temporarily and to reapply them when permissible. Otherwise, the motor is
disconnected from its source.

For unloaded-start motors, except the synchronous motor of a frequency converter, the combination of
undervoltage protection, loss-of-excitation protection, and the DC generator overcurrent protection that is
301 Page 185 of

generally furnished will provide satisfactory loss-of-synchronism protection. Should additional protection be
required, it can be provided by an inverse-time overcurrent relay energized by the current in the running
connection and arranged to trip the main breaker. Usually, automatic resynchronizing is not required. All
frequency converters interconnecting two systems should have loss-of-synchronism protection on the
synchronous machine side. With synchronous-synchronous sets, protection may be required on both sides. The
protective relaying equipment should be arranged to trip the main breaker on its side.

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Undervoltage Protection
All AC motors, except essential-service motors, should have protection against undervoltage on at least one
phase during both starting and running. For polyphase motors larger than about 1,500 hp, polyphase
undervoltage protection is generally provided. Wherever possible, the protective equipment should have
inverse-time delay characteristics.

"Undervoltage release", which provides only temporary shutdown on voltage failure and which permits
automatic restart when voltage is re-established, should not be used with such equipment as machine tools,
etc., where automatic restart might be hazardous to personnel or detrimental to process or equipment.

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Loss-of-Excitation Protection
All unloaded-start synchronous motors that do not have loss-of-synchronism protection, as described
elsewhere, and that do not have automatic voltage regulators, should have loss-of-excitation protection in the
form of a low-set, time-delay-reset undercurrent relay whose coil is in series with the field winding.

If a motor has loss-of-synchronism protection, amortisseur-overheating protection, and stator-overheating

protection, this equipment indirectly provides loss-of-excitation protection.

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Branch Considerations
When a single motor is supplied from a branch circuit, the ampacity of the branch circuit must be ≤125 percent
of motor full-load current. Overcurrent protection must include up to a 20-second time delay forinduction
motors. If a multi-speed motor is used, the ampacity shall be based on the largest sized motor. Where motors
have unusual duty cycle requirements, use the requirements as listed in Table 5.
301 Page 186 of

Note: Any motor application shall be considered as continuous duty unless the nature of the apparatus it drives
is such that the motor will not operate continuously with load under any condition of use.

If there are several motors on one circuit, the ampacity shall be equivalent to the sum of the individual motor
ampacity plus 25 percent of the full-load current rating of the largest motor. Several motors or loads are
permitted to be provided for on one branch circuit if:

 System voltage is 600 volts.

 The branch protective device protects the smallest installed motor.
 All motors are ≤ 1HP, ≤ 20A (15A) on 120V (600V) circuits where each motor draws ≤ 6A, overloads
are installed on the motor, and short circuit current and ground fault current do not exceed the branch
circuit rating.
 It is part of a factory-listed assembly.

In instances where taps are used, short circuit current and ground fault current protection may not be required
for the taps used. This is true if the tap used has the same ampacity as the branch circuit it is connected to.
Additionally, the tap cannot be longer than 25 feet and it must be physically protected from damage.

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Thermal Protectors
Thermal protectors are used to protect the motor from overloads and starting failures. All motors with a voltage
rating greater than 600V must have a thermal protector, and their overload must not have an automatic reset
feature. They shall be set as follows:

 Motor full-load current not exceeding 9 amperes 170 percent

 Motor full-load current 9.1 to and including 20 amperes 156 percent
 Motor full-load current greater than 20 amperes 140 percent
 This requirement is based on the maximum full-load motor current as listed in tables provided in
Section 430 of the NEC.
 Motors that are rated ≤ 1500 HP include an RTD in their design which is set to de-energize the motor
once the actual temperature rise of the motor equals the rated temperature rise of the motors
insulation.

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Alternating Current Motors

Alternating current (AC) motors can be divided into two major types: single-phase and polyphase motors. A
single-phase motor is normally limited to fractional horsepower ratings up to five horsepower. They are
commonly used to power such things as fans, small pumps, appliances, and other devices not requiring a great
amount of power. Single-phase motors are not likely to be connected to complicated motor control circuitry,
and will not be discussed in this text.

Polyphase motors comprise the majority of motors needed to drive large machinery such as pumps, large fans,
and compressors found in industrial facilities. These motors have several advantages over single-phase motors
in that they do not require a separate winding or other device to start the motor; they have relatively high
starting torque and good speed regulation for most applications.

There are two classes of polyphase motors: induction and synchronous. The rotor of a synchronous motor
revolves at synchronous speed, or the speed of the revolving magnetic field in the stator. The rotor of an
induction motor revolves at a speed somewhat less than synchronous speed. The differences in rotor speed are
due to differences in construction and operation. Both are discussed in depth after a review of motor theory.

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AC Motor Theory
AC motors consist of two parts: the stator, or stationary part, and the rotor, or revolving part. The stator is
connected to the incoming three-phase AC power. The rotor in an induction motor is not connected to the
power supply, whereas the rotor of a synchronous motors is connected to external power. Both induction and
synchronous motors operate on the principle of a rotating magnetic field.

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Rotating Fields
This section shows how the stator windings can be connected to a three-phase AC input to create a magnetic
field that rotates. Another magnetic field in the rotor can be made to chase it by being attracted and repelled
by the stator field. Because the rotor is free to turn, it follows the rotating magnetic field in the stator.

Polyphase AC is brought into the stator and connected to windings that are physically displaced 120 degrees
apart. These windings are connected to form north and south magnetic poles, as shown in Figure 7. An
analysis of the electromagnetic polarity of the poles at points 1 through 7 in Figure 7 shows how the three
phase AC creates magnetic fields that rotate.
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Figure 7: AC Generation

At point 1, the magnetic field in phase 1 is at maximum. Negative voltages are shown in phases 2 and 3. The
negative voltages in these windings create smaller magnetic fields, which will tend to aid the field set-up in coil
1-1A.

At point 2, phase 3 creates a maximum negative flux in coil 3-3A. This strong negative field is aided by the
weaker magnetic fields developed by phases 1 and 2.

The three-phase AC input rises and falls with each cycle. Analyzing each point on the voltage graph shows that
the resultant magnetic field rotates clockwise. When the three-phase input completes a full cycle at point 7, the
magnetic field has completed an entire revolution of 360 degrees.

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Rotor Behavior in a Rotating Field

An oversimplification of rotor behavior shows how the magnetic field of the stator influences the rotor. First,
assume that a simple bar magnet were placed in the center of the stator diagrams shown in Figure 7. Also,
assume that the bar magnet is free to rotate. It has been aligned so that at point 1, its south pole is opposite
the large North of the stator field.
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Unlike poles attract and like poles repel. As the AC completes a cycle, going from point 1 to point 7, the stator
field rotates and pulls the bar magnet with it because of the attraction of unlike poles and the repulsion of like
poles. The bar magnet would be rotating at the same speed of the revolving flux of the stator. This speed is
known as synchronous speed. Synchronous speed of a motor is given by the equation:

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Induction
Current flowing through a conductor sets up a magnetic field around the length of the conductor. Conversely, a
conductor in a magnetic field will produce a current when the magnetic lines of flux cut across the conductor.
This action is called induction because there is no physical connection between the magnetic field and the
conductor. Current is induced in the conductor.

The rotor may also have fan blades to circulate cooling air through the motor frame, and the shaft of the rotor
contains the necessary keyway or splines to connect pulleys, gears, or other devices to transmit the motor
torque to its load.

Regardless of which type of rotor is used, the principle of operation is essentially the same. The AC applied to
the stator creates a revolving magnetic field, which induces an EMF and current in the copper bars of the rotor.
This, in turn, creates its own magnetic field. These two fields then interact to produce rotation and torque. The
air gap between the rotor and stator is small, in order to produce a maximum interaction between these two
fields.

Lenz's law states, "An induced EMF tries to oppose the changing field that induces it." In an induction motor,
the changing field is the motion of the resultant stator field. A force is exerted on the rotor by the induced EMF
and the resultant magnetic field. This force tends to cancel the relative motion between the rotor and stator
fields. The result is that the rotor moves in the same direction as the rotating stator field.

It is impossible for the rotor in an induction motor to rotate at synchronous speed (the speed of the revolving
field of the stator). If the speeds were the same, there would be no relative motion between the two and an
EMF would not be developed. This is because the rotating magnetic field of the stator must cut the rotor bars to
cause an EMF and create the rotor field.

In order for relative motion to remain between the two, the rotor will always revolve at a speed slightly less
than synchronous speed. The difference between the speed of the rotor and the synchronous speed is called
slip.

If a three phase induction motors rotor speed is subtracted from the motors synchronous speed, the difference
is the slip. Percent slip is then the ratio of slip to synchronous speed and is expressed by the formula:

The range of percent slip for induction motors is between 2 and 6 percent. As load is applied to a motor, slip
increases almost linearly up to the breakdown torque of the motor, at which time the slip increases non-linearly
with increases in torque beyond that point. If the motor is loaded beyond this point, there will be a
corresponding decrease in torque until the point is reached where the motor stalls.

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Torque
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As previously stated, torque in an induction motor is caused by the interaction of the rotor and stator fields. In
order that an EMF and corresponding currents are induced in the rotor, it rotates at a slip. At no-load, the rotor
will lag behind the stator flux by a small amount necessary to produce the minimum torque required to
overcome the rotor weight and motor losses. As load is added, the rotor speed will naturally increase. This
decrease in speed (increase in slip) allows the stator field to rotate past the rotor bars at a faster rate, inducing
larger rotor currents and a larger rotor field. The result is a larger torque at a slower speed.

Since the rotor impedance is low, a small decrease in rotor speed results in a large increase in rotor current and
a large increase in the strength of the rotor field. As the load increases, the larger rotor currents are in such a
direction as to decrease the stator flux. This results in a temporary decrease in counter EMF in the stator
windings. This, in turn, allows more current to flow into the stator and increases the power input to the motor.

The strength of the rotor and stator fields, as well as the phase relationships between them, governs torque.

The power factor of the rotor is dependent on the phase relationship, since power factor is the cosine of the
phase angle.

During normal operations, K, ÃƒÅ½Ã‚Â², and pf are nearly constant. The torque will increase directly with the
rotor current. The rotor current increases almost directly with slip. Increases in slip cause an increase in rotor
frequency and rotor reactance.

To understand this, consider a two-pole induction motor. Synchronous speed is calculated at 3,600 rpm. If this
motor operates at a 5 percent slip, then the slip in rpm is:

 3,600 x .05 = 180 rpm

Physically, this means that a pair of stator poles will pass a certain rotor conductor 180 times a minute, or three
times a second. Each time a pair of poles moves across a certain conductor, one cycle of EMF will be induced,
resulting in a frequency of three cycles per second. If the slip were to increase to ten percent, or 360 rpm, the
frequency of the rotor voltage and current is increased to six cycles per second. If the slip were to increase to
100 percent, the rotor frequency would be 60 Hz.

From this, you can see how rotor frequency is dependent on slip.

The frequency of the rotor is important insofar as its affect on rotor reactance. Rotor reactance will be almost
directly proportional to rotor impedance, thus:

From this, we see how increases in slip cause an increase in rotor frequency and rotor reactance. The rotor
resistance will be constant, so an increase in rotor reactance means a decrease in rotor power factor since:

During normal operations, the change in slip is very small as load is added from an unloaded to a fully loaded
condition. This means that changes in rotor impedance and reactance are tactically negligible. However, as the
load is increased beyond rated and full-load values, the slip increases appreciably. This increase will lower the
rate that rotor current increases in such a manner as to result in a torque that does not increase directly with
slip.

The decreasing power factor and the lowered rate of current increase will result in torque increases that
become less rapid and will finally reach a maximum value. This is usually about 20 percent slip in squirrel cage
induction motors. This maximum value of torque is known as pullout torque. If the load increases even further,
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the rotor power factor will decrease faster than the rotor current increases, resulting in a decreasing torque and
stalling the motor. Figure 10 shows the relationship between torque and slip.

Figure 10: Torque vs. Slip

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Starting Current
At the moment a three-phase induction motor is started, the current supplied to the motor stator terminals may
be as high as six times the motor full-load current. This is because at starting, the rotor is at rest; therefore, the
rotating magnetic field of the stator cuts the squirrel cage rotor at the maximum rate, inducing large amounts
of EMF in the rotor. This results in proportionally high currents at the input terminals of the motor, as previously
discussed. Because of this high inrush, current starting protection as high as 300 percent of full-load current
must be provided to allow the motor to start and come up to speed.

Since there exists 100 percent slip at the instant the motor is energized, the rotor current lags the rotor EMF by
a large angle. This means that the maximum current flow occurs in a rotor conductor at a time after the
maximum amount of stator flux has passed by. This results in a high starting current at a low power factor,
which results in a low value of starting torque.

As the rotor speeds up, the rotor frequency and rotor reactance decrease, causing the torque to increase up to
its maximum value, then decrease to the value needed to carry its load.

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Power Factor
The power factor of a squirrel cage induction motor is poor at no-load and low load conditions. At no-load, the
power factor can be as low as 15 percent lagging. However, as load is increased, the power factor increases. At
high rated load, the power factor may be as high as 85 to 90 percent lagging.

The power factor at no-load is low because the magnetizing component of input current is a large part of the
total input current of the motor. When the load on the motor is increased, the in-phase current supplied to the
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motor increases, but the magnetizing component of current remains practically the same. This means that the
resultant line current is more nearly in-phase with the voltage and the power factor is improved when the
motor is loaded, compared with an unloaded motor, which mainly draws magnetizing current.

Figure 11 shows the increase in power factor from a no-load condition to full-load. In the no-load diagram, the
in-phase current (IENERGY) is small when compared to the magnetizing current (IM); thus, the power factor is
poor at no-load. In the full-load diagram, the in-phase current has increased while the magnetizing current
remains the same. As a result, the angle of lag of the line current decreases and the power factor increases.

Figure 11: PF vs. Load for an Induction Motor

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Speed Control
The speed of a three-phase squirrel cage induction motor depends on the synchronous speed of the applied
voltage and the number of poles in the motor, therefore this type of motor has virtually no speed control. As a
result, these motors are used in applications where speed remains constant and where it can be controlled by
other means such as variable speed drives.

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Reversing Rotation
The direction of rotation of a three-phase induction motor can be readily reversed. The motor will rotate in the
opposite direction if any two of the three incoming leads are reversed, as shown in Figure 12.
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Figure 12: Three-Phase Induction Motor Rotational Direction Change

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Synchronous Motors
The synchronous motor is a three-phase motor that operates at synchronous speed from no-load to full-load.

This type of motor has a revolving field that is energized from a separate source than the stator winding. The
rotor is excited by a direct current source. The magnetic field set up by the direct current on the rotor then
locks in with the rotating magnetic field of the stator and causes the rotor to revolve at synchronous speed. By
changing the magnitude of DC excitation, the power factor of the motor can be changed and can, in fact, be
changed over a wide variety of power factors from leading to lagging. Because of the unique ability to change
power factors, synchronous motors are often used as power factor correctors. They are most often used in
applications that require precise speed regulation from no-load to full-load.

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Construction
The construction of synchronous motors is essentially the same as the construction of three-phase generators.
It has three stator windings that are 120 electrical degrees apart and a wound rotor that is connected to slip
rings where the rotor excitation current is applied.

When three-phase AC is applied to the stator, a revolving magnetic field is created just as it is in induction
motors. The rotor is energized with DC, which creates a magnetic field around the rotor. The strong rotating
magnetic field of the stator attracts the rotor field. This results in a strong turning force on the rotor shaft.

This is how the synchronous motor works once it is started. However, one of the disadvantages of this type of
motor is that applying only DC to the stator cannot start it. When AC is applied to the stator, the high-speed
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rotating magnetic field rushes past the rotor poles so quickly that the rotor does not have a chance to get
started. The rotor is locked; it is repelled in one direction and then in another direction. In its purest form, the
synchronous motor has no starting torque.

This is easier to understand using Figure 13. When the stator and rotor fields are energized, the poles of the
rotating field approach the poles of the rotor poles of opposite polarity. The attracting force will tend to turn the
rotor in a direction opposite that of the rotating field. As the rotor starts to move in that direction, the rotating
field moves past the rotor poles and tends to pull the rotor in the same direction as the rotating field. The result
is no starting torque.

Figure 13: Three-Phase Induction Motor Rotational Direction Change

To allow this type of motor to start, a squirrel cage winding is added to the rotor to cause it to start like an
induction motor. This winding is called an amortisseur winding. The rotor windings are constructed such that
definite north and south poles are created so that these poles, when excited by DC, will lock in with the
revolving field. The rotor windings are wound about the salient field poles, which are connected in series for
opposite polarity. The number of field poles must equal the number of stator poles. The rotor field windings are
brought out to slip rings that are mounted on the rotor shaft. The field current is supplied through carbon
brushes to the field windings.

Figure 14 shows a simplification of a synchronous motor. Figure 15 shows the construction of the rotor pole
assembly.
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Figure 14: Simplification of a Synchronous Motor

301 Page 198 of

Figure 15: Pole Assembly

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Synchronous Motor Operating Principles

When a synchronous motor is started, current is first applied to the stator windings. Current is induced in the
amortisseur winding and the motor starts as an induction motor. The motor then comes up to near synchronous
speed to about 5-10 percent slip. At that point, the field is excited and the motor, turning at high speed, pulls
into synchronism. When this occurs, the rotor is turning at synchronous speed and the squirrel cage winding
will not be generating any current and, therefore, not affecting the synchronous motors operation. The
amortisseur windings serve an additional purpose. When the load changes frequently, the motors speed is not
as steady, as the torque angle (discussed later) oscillates (or hunts) back and forth, trying to settle at its
required value. This momentary change in speed creates a current due to induction, and there will be torque in
the amortisseur winding. This momentary torque serves to dampen or stabilize the oscillating torque angle.
That is why amortisseur windings are sometimes referred to as damper windings.

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Rotor Field Excitation

The rotor must be excited from an external DC source. Figure 16 shows a simplified synchronous motor
excitation circuit. Notice that the rheostat can vary the DC field current. However this does not change the
speed of the motor. It only changes the power factor of the motor stator circuit. If full resistance is applied to
the rotor field circuit, then the field strength of the rotor is at minimum and the power factor is extremely
lagging. As the DC field strength is increased, the power factor improves and, if current is increased sufficiently,
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the power factor can be increased to near unity or 100 percent. This value of field current is referred to as
normal excitation. By increasing the rotor field strength further, the power factor decreases but in a leading
direction; that is, the stator circuit becomes capacitive and the motor is said to be overexcited. The
synchronous motor can be used to counteract the lagging power factor in circuits by adding capacitive
reactance to the circuit, thereby bringing the overall power factor closer to unity.

Figure 16: Simplified Synchronous Motor Excitation Circuit

If the rotor DC field windings of a synchronous motor are open when the stator is energized, a high AC voltage
will be induced in it because the rotating field sweeps through the large number of turns at synchronous speed.

It is therefore necessary to connect a resistor of low resistance across the rotor DC field winding during the
starting period. During the starting period, the DC field winding is disconnected from the source and the
resistor is connected across the field terminals. This permits alternating current to flow in the DC field winding.
Because the impedance of the winding is high compared with the inserted external resistance, the internal
voltage drop limits the terminal voltage to a safe value.

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Synchronous Motor Pullout

When a synchronous motor loses synchronism with the system to which it is connected, it is said to be out-of-
step. This occurs when the following takes place singly or in combination:

 Excessive load is applied to the shaft.

 The supply voltage is reduced excessively.
 The motor excitation is lost or too low.

Torque pulsations applied to the shaft of a synchronous motor are also a possible cause of loss of synchronism
if the pulsations occur at an unfavorable period relative to the natural frequency of the rotor with respect to the
power system.

A prevalent cause of loss of synchronism is a fault occurring on the supply system. Underexcitation of the rotor
is also a distinct possibility.

Synchronous motor pullout is significant in that the squirrel cage or amortisseur winding is designed for starting
only. It is not as hardy as those found in induction motors. The amortisseur winding will not overheat if the
motor starts, accelerates, and reaches synchronous speed within a time interval determined to be normal for
the motor. The motor must continue to operate at synchronous speed. If the motor were to operate at a speed
less than synchronous, the amortisseur winding may overheat and suffer damage.
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Protection against a synchronous motor losing synchronism can be provided by polarized field frequency relays
and out of step relays as well as various digital methods. These will be discussed in the motor control center
section.

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Synchronous Motor Torque Angle

Once the rotor speed is close to synchronous speed at about 90-95 percent of maximum running speed, it will
lock on to the rotating magnetic field. Under these conditions, a running torque will be developed. The rotor will
rotate at synchronous speed in a direction and at a speed determined by synchronous speed.

While the motor is running, the two rotating fields may not line up perfectly. The rotor pole will always lag
behind the stator pole by some angle. This angle is called the torque angle and is shown in Figure 17.

Figure 17: Torque Angle

As the load on the shaft increases, the torque angle increases even though the rotor continues to turn at
synchronous speed. This behavior continues until the torque angle is approximately 90 degrees. At that point,
the motor is developing a maximum torque. Any further increase in load will cause either of the following to
occur:

If the increase in load is momentary or very little, the rotor will slip a pole. In other words, the stator field will
lose hold of the rotor and grab onto it again the next time around.

If the increase in load is large enough and not momentary, the motor will lose synchronism and will either stall
or cause the rotor to suffer thermal damage.

In both cases, a noticeable straining sound will be heard.

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Wound Rotor Motors

The rotor of a wound rotor motor is wound with insulated windings similar to the stator windings. This three-
phase winding is wye-connected, with the ends of each phase winding being connected to three slip rings.
Connected to the rotor circuit through the slip rings is a wye-connected variable resistance. Figure 18 shows
the circuits of a wound rotor motor.

Figure 18: Wound Rotor Motor Circuits

The stator windings of a wound rotor motor are three sets of windings connected 120 electrical degrees apart.
These may be connected either wye or delta. The rotor is a laminated steel cylinder that is slotted to contain
the rotor field windings. There are three-phase windings on the rotor which are also 120 electrical degrees
apart and can be connected either wye or delta. The ends of the phase windings terminate at three slip rings
mounted on the rotor shaft. These slip rings are connected through carbon brushes to speed control equipment
external to the rotor. These brushes are held in brush holders that are rigidly attached to the motor end bell
assembly, or end cover.

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Wound Rotor Speed Control

The insertion of resistance in the rotor circuit not only limits the starting surge of current, but also produces a
high starting torque and provides a means of adjusting the speed. If the full resistance of the speed controller is
cut into the rotor circuit when the motor is running, the rotor current decreases, and the motor slows down. As
the rotor speed decreases, more voltage is induced in the rotor windings and an increase in rotor current is
developed to create the necessary torque at the reduced rotor speed.

If all the resistance is removed from the rotor circuit, the current and the motor speed will increase. However,
the rotor speed will always be less than the synchronous speed of the field developed by the stator windings.
Recall that this fact is also true of the squirrel cage induction motor. The speed of a wound rotor motor can be
controlled manually or automatically with timing relays, contactors, and pushbutton speed selection. Figure 19
shows a cutaway view of a wound rotor induction motor.
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Figure 19: Cutaway View of Wound Rotor Induction Motor

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Direct Current Motors

The operation of DC motors is based on the same principles as AC motors. A current-carrying conductor placed
in a magnetic field perpendicular to the lines of flux will tend to move in a direction perpendicular to the
magnetic lines of flux.

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Operating Principles
Stated simply, DC motors rotate because of the two magnetic fields interacting with each other. The DC motor
armature acts like an electromagnet when current flows through its coils. Since the armature (rotor) is located
within the magnetic field of the field poles (stator poles), these two fluxes will interact. Like poles will repel
each other and unlike poles will attract one another. The armature of a DC motor has windings on it that are
connected to commutator segments. Figure 20 shows a DC motor field structure and armature assembly.
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Figure 20: DC Motor Field Structure and Armature Assembly

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Armature Construction
The armature is a cylindrical iron structure mounted directly on the motor shaft. The armature windings are
imbedded in slots in the surface of the armature, and the ends of the conductors that make up the windings
terminate on copper segments on one end of the armature shaft. Current is applied to these windings through
carbon brushes that press against the commutator segments. The commutator segments change the direction
of current in the armature windings as they pass across the poles of opposite polarity. This results in continuous
torque in one direction, which causes the armature to rotate.

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DC Motor Ratings
DC motors are rated according to their voltage, current, speed, and horsepower output.

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Types of DC Motors
There are three types of standard DC motors: series, shunt, and compound. Figure 21 shows the schematic
diagrams of these types. The selection of the proper type of motor is based on the type of load that the motor
is intended to operate. Note that a series motor has the field winding in series with the armature, and a shunt
motor has the field winding in parallel with the armature. A compound motor has both a series and a shunt
connected field winding.
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Figure 21: Standard DC Motor Schematic Diagrams

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Torque
Torque of the motor is the twisting force applied to the shaft of the motor by the magnetic field interaction
between the field and the armature. The magnitude of torque depends on the magnetic strengths of those two
fields, which is then dependent on the current flowing through them.

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Starting Current and Counter EMF

When a DC motor is in operation, it acts much like a DC generator. The stator produces a magnetic field (field
poles), and a loop of wire in the rotor (armature) turns and cuts this magnetic field. To understand counter EMF,
first disregard the fact that external current is being applied to the rotor via the carbon brushes on the
commutator segments. As the rotor wires rotate and cut the magnetic field of the field poles, a voltage is
induced in them similar to that discussed in induction motors. This induced voltage (EMF) causes a current to
flow in them, and a resulting magnetic field is created.

Before analyzing the relative direction between the current induced in the armature windings and the current
that caused it in the field poles, first remember the left-hand rule. Using your left hand, hold it so that your
index finger points in the direction of the magnetic field (north to south) and your thumb points in the direction
of rotational force on a given conductor. Your middle finger will now point in the direction of current flow for
that conductor. This current would be in opposition to the current that is flowing from the battery. Since this
induced voltage and induced current is opposite to that of the battery, it is called counter EMF. The two
currents are flowing in opposite directions. This would mean that the battery voltage and the counter EMF are
opposite in polarity.

When first discussing counter EMF, we began by disregarding the fact that external DC was being applied to the
armature via the brushes. The induced voltage and resulting current flow was then shown to flow opposite to
the externally applied current. This was an oversimplification, because only one current flows at a time. Since
the counter EMF can never become as large as the external applied voltage, and since they are opposite in
polarity, the counter EMF works to cancel only a part of the applied voltage. The single current that flows is
smaller due to the counter EMF.
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Since counter EMF of a motor is generated by the action of the armature windings cutting the lines of force set
up by the field poles, the value of it will depend on the field strength and the armature speed.

The effective voltage acting in the armature is the applied voltage minus the counter EMF. Ohms law gives the
value of a current by:

Example: Find the value of counter EMF of a DC motor when it is known that the terminal voltage is 240 V and
the armature current is 60-amps. The armature resistance has been measured at .08 ohms.

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Starting Resistance
Large DC motors require that starting resistance be inserted in series with the motor armature. As seen by the
previous equation, the current drawn by the motor reactance was high as was the case in AC induction motors.
This means that the starting current will be abnormally high unless limited by external starting resistance.

Figure 22 shows a shunt coil that is connected directly across a 250-volt line. The armature resistance is
known to be 0.5 ohms. The full-load current of the motor is known to be 25 amps, and the shunt field current is
1 amp. The resulting armature current under full-load conditions would, therefore, be 24-amps.
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Figure 22: Shunt Motor

If starting resistance is not used, the value of armature current can be found using the following equation:

This amount of starting current is too high and may result in excessive torque and heat, which may cause
damage to the motor. When starting resistance is added in series with the armature, the starting current can be
limited to 1.5 times the full-load current value. After starting, this external resistance can be removed from
service.

If we desire to limit starting current to 1.5 times the full-load value, we can solve for the size of resistance that
would be required using the previous equations.

Rstarting = (Vterminal - VCEMF) - IARA

At the moment of motor start, when the rotor is at standstill and the CEMF is zero, the series resistance will be:

To find the wattage required in the starting resistance watts loss is calculated by the I2R method: [(362) (6.44
Ω) = 8,346].

Example: Find the power developed in both watts and horsepower in a DC motor that has a terminal voltage of
240 volts and an armature current of 60 amps. The armature resistance is known to be 0.08 ohms.

Answer:

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Armature Reaction
When there is no current flowing through the armature of a DC motor, the magnetic line of flux created by the
field poles is undistorted, as shown in Figure 23. The lines of flux run parallel from north to south.
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Figure 23: Magnetic Flux

DC motors have excellent speed control. To operate the motor above rated speed, a field rheostat is used to
reduce the field current and field flux. To operate below rated speed, resistors are used to reduce the armature
voltage.

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Torque
A DC shunt motor has high torque at any rated speed. At startup, a DC shunt motor can develop up to 150
percent of its normal running torque as long as the resistors in the starting circuit can withstand the heating
effect of the current.

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Speed Regulation
The speed regulation of a shunt motor drops from 5 to 10 percent from no-load to full-load. As a result, a shunt
motor is superior to the series DC motor.

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DC Series Motors
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Torque
A DC series motor develops 500 percent of its full-load torque at starting. Therefore, this type of motor is used
in applications where large amounts of starting torque are needed such as in cranes, railway applications, and
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other high starting torque demands. With a series motor, any increase in load causes an increase in both the
armature current and the field current. Since torque depends on the interaction of these two flux fields, the
torque increases as the square of the value of the current increases. Therefore, series motors produce greater
torque than shunt motors for the same increase in current. The series motor shows a greater reduction in speed
for an equal change in load.

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Speed Control and Speed Regulation

The speed control of a series motor is poorer than that of a shunt motor because if the load is reduced, a
simultaneous reduction of current occurs in both the armature and field windings, and therefore there is a
greater increase in speed than would be in a shunt wound motor.

If the mechanical load were to be disconnected completely from a series motor, the motor would continue to
accelerate until the motor armature self-destructed. For this reason, series wound motors are always
permanently connected to their loads.

Varying the applied voltage controls the speed of a series DC motor. A series motor controller usually is
designed to start, stop, reverse, and regulate speed. By reversing either the armature or the field winding
current flow, you change the direction of rotation of a series motor.

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Motor Ratings
Series DC motors are rated for voltage, current, horsepower, and maximum speed.

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DC Compound Motors
Compound DC motors are used whenever it is necessary to obtain speed regulation characteristics not
obtainable with either the shunt of series wound motor. Since many applications require high starting torque
and constant speed under load, a compound motor is used. Some industrial applications include drives for
elevators, stamping presses, rolling mills, and metal shears.

The compound motor has a normal shunt winding and a series winding on each field pole. They may be
connected long shunt (Figure 27A) or short shunt (Figure 27B). When the series winding is connected to aid
the shunt winding, the machine is a cumulative compound motor. When the series field opposes the shunt field,
the machine is a differential compound motor. Based on practical experience, all compound DC motors are
cumulatively compounded.
301 Page 211 of

Figure 27: Long and Short Shunt Connections

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Torque
The operating characteristics of a cumulative compound wound motor are a combination of the series motor
and the shunt motor. A cumulative compound wound motor develops high torque for sudden increases in load.

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Speed
Unlike the series motor, a cumulative compound wound motor has definite no-load speeds. It will not build up
self-destructive speeds if the load is removed. Inserting resistors in the armature circuit to reduce the applied
voltage can control speed control of a cumulative compound wound motor.

When the motor is reversed frequently, such as for installations in elevators, hoists, and railways, the controller
should have voltage dropping resistors and switching arrangements to reverse the motor direction.

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Speed Regulation
The speed regulation of a cumulative compound wound motor is inferior to that of a shunt motor and superior
to a series motor.

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Industrial Applications
Synchronous motors rated at 20 hp or more are used for constant speed applications. They are used to drive
large air and gas compressors that must be operated at fixed speeds to maintain a constant output at the
maximum efficiency. Synchronous motors are used to drive DC generators, fans, blowers, and large pumps in
water pumping stations.

Some industrial applications use three-phase synchronous motors to drive mechanical loads and correct power
factor values. Figure 28 shows a typical industrial feeder. The feeder has a lagging power factor condition due
to two induction motors. A synchronous motor is connected to this same feeder and is operated with an
overexcited field. The synchronous motor supplies leading reactive kilovars to compensate for the lagging
kilovars due to the induction motors or other inductive load on the same three-phase distribution system. The
DC field of the synchronous motor can be over-excited enough to supply a value of leading kilovars equal to the
lagging kilovars. As a result, the power factor of the distribution system is corrected to unity.
301 Page 212 of

Figure 28: Synchronous Motor used to Correct Power Factor

The synchronous motor may be used only to correct the power factor and not for driving any mechanical load.
It then has the same function as a bank of capacitors. When used to correct the power factor only, the
synchronous motor is called a synchronous capacitor or a synchronous condenser.

The following example shows how a synchronous motor is used to overcome the lagging kilovars due to
induction motors on a three-phase distribution system.

Example: A three-phase, 220-volt feeder supplies two motors. One motor is a three-phase, wound rotor
induction motor. It takes 40 amperes at 81 percent lag power factor. The other motor is a three-phase,
synchronous motor that takes 30 amperes at 65 percent lead power factor. Determine the:

# Watts, volt-amperes, and lagging vars of the wound-rotor induction motor.

# Watts, volt-amperes, and leading vars of the synchronous motor.

# Total load, in kilowatts, supplied to the two motors.

# Power factor of the three-phase feeder circuit.

Solution:

#The apparent power in volt amperes taken by the wound rotor induction motor is:

*The input in watts to the induction motor is:

301 Page 213 of

*The vars taken by the motor is:

2. The apparent power, in volt amperes, taken by the synchronous motor is:

*The input in watts to the synchronous motor is:

*The vars for the synchronous motor is:

3. The total true power, in kilowatts, taken by the two motors in the arithmetic sum of the individual power
values for the two motors:

4. The reactive power for the entire three-phase feeder is the difference between the lagging and leading vars:

Thus, 254 vars of lagging quadrature power are not overcome by the synchronous motor. This value of lagging
vars, combined with the total power in watts, gives the apparent power in volt-amperes:
301 Page 214 of

The power factor of the entire system is the ratio of the total true power, in kilowatts, to the total apparent
power, in kilovolt-amperes:

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Connections and Terminal Markings for AC Motors

The markings on the external leads of an induction motor are sometimes removed or defaced. Proper
identification must be made before the motor can be connected to the line. This identification requires only a
lighting or ringing circuit, a voltmeter with a range covering the motor operating voltage, and a means of
measuring approximate resistance.

Take care to prevent short-circuits between leads of the same group, as these leads are all live.
Failure to heed this warning can cause severe personal injury or death, and damage to property!
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Rotation
A three-phase motor with three leads brought out can be connected to the line in any convenient way, and then
if it rotates in the wrong direction, any two leads can be interchanged to correct the rotation. If the motor is
connected to a gearbox or other mechanical load that might be damaged by improper rotation, the correct lead
sequences should be determined by use of a phase rotation meter.

Referring to Figure 32A, it can be seen that regardless of between which two leads the resistance is
measured, a relative value of either 1, 2, 3, or 4 must be obtained. For example, if the resistance between T1
and T4 is 1, then between T4 and T6, the resistance will be 2; between T1 and T6, it will be 3, and between T1
and T2, it will be 4. Hence, the three leads having the highest resistance (relative value of 4) between them
should be located and permanently marked T1, T2, and T3. Then, the resistance between T1 and each of the
remaining three unmarked leads should be measured, and the lead that gives lowest resistance (relative value
of 1) should be marked T4. Similarly, the resistance between lead T2 and each of the two remaining unmarked
leads should be measured, and the lead that gives a relative resistance of 1 should be marked T6. The final
remaining lead should be marked T5.

With the lead marking determined, it should then be checked by running the motor at normal voltage, with T1,
T2, and T3 connected to the line and leads T4, T5, and T6 left open. The motor should run at its normal slow
speed, this being the series star connection shown in Figure 32A. The direction of rotation should be noted.

Finally, leads T1, T2, and T3 should be connected together and leads T4, T5, and T6 connected to the line, with
T4 to the same line lead previously used for T1, T5, the line lead previously used for T2, and T6 to the lead used
for T3. The motor should run at its normal high speed and have the same direction of rotation as before, this
being the parallel-star connection shown in Figure 32B.

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Delta Connection
The delta-connected motor shown in Figure 33 for constant torque ratings has a high speed horsepower rating
twice the low-speed horsepower rating. It can be distinguished from the star-connected motor by measuring
the resistances. Referring to Figure 33A, it can be seen that regardless of between which two leads the
resistance is measured, a relative value of either 1, 1.6, or 1.8 must be obtained. For example, if the resistance
between T1 and T6 is 1, then between T1 and T5 it must be 1.8. The lowest value of resistance obtainable
(relative value of 1) between any two leads should be found, and if the motor is delta-connected, it will be
possible to go through all the leads measuring the lowest value of resistance from lead to lead, and ending up
at the lead at which the start was made.
301 Page 219 of

Figure 33: Two-Speed Constant-Torque Delta-Connected Motor

Start with the first pair of leads that give the lowest resistance (relative value of 1) between terminals, mark
them temporarily T1 and T6. The lead should then be found which will give a resistance to T6 equal to that
between T6 and T1. When this lead is found, it should be marked T2. The lead should then be found which will
give the same resistance to T2 as that between T2 and T6, and this lead should be marked T5. This procedure
should be followed until all the leads have been used. They should be marked from the beginning and in the
order in which they are found T1, T6, T2, T5, T3, and T4. When all leads have been marked as described, the
motor should be started and run single phase, applying 110 volts across T1 and T6. The voltage should then be
measured between T1 and T2, between T2 and T3, and between T3 and T1. If each of these readings is 220
volts, then the leads are correctly marked and the markings should be permanently affixed. If these readings
are 110 volts, then permanently re-mark all leads, changing T6 to T1, T2 to T6, T5 to T2, T3 to T5, T4 to T3, and
T1 to T4. Start up again and with 110 volts single-phase impressed on T1 and T6, check the voltage from T1 to
T2, from T2 to T3, and from T3 to T1, each of which should equal 220 volts.

To operate the motor at slow speed, use T1, T2, and T3 as line leads with leads T4, T5, and T6 disconnected,
giving a series delta connection as shown in Figure 33A. Note the direction of rotation.

To operate at high speed, connect leads T1, T2, and T3 together and connect T4, T5, and T6 to the line, using
the same line lead for T4 as previously used for T1, similarly for T5 and T2 and for T6 and T3. This should give
the same direction of rotation as on previous slow speed operation and is the parallel star connection shown in
Figure 33B.

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Delta Connection for Constant-Horsepower

The delta-connected motor for constant horsepower has the same relative resistances between leads as its
constant-torque counterpart; hence, it can be distinguished from the latter only by observing the nameplate
rating. The determination of proper lead marking for the two types of connections is essentially the same.

Referring to Figure 34, first locate any pair of leads that give the lowest resistance between terminals and
temporarily mark them T4 and T1. The lead should then be found which gives a resistance to T1 equal to that
between T4 and T1, and this lead should be marked T6. The lead should then be found that gives a resistance
to T6 equal to that between T6 and T1, this lead being marked T2. This procedure should be followed until all
the leads are used, and they should be temporarily marked from the beginning and in the order in which they
are found as T4, T1, T6, T2, T5, and T3.
301 Page 220 of

Figure 34: Delta-Connected Motor for Constant-Horsepower

When all leads have been marked as described, the motor should be started and run single phase with 110
volts impressed across T4 and T1. The voltage should then be measured between T4 and T6, between T6 and
T5, and between T5 and T4. If each of these readings is 220 volts, then the leads are correctly marked and the
markers should be permanently affixed. If these readings are 110 volts, then permanently re mark all leads,
changing T1 to T4, T6 to T1, T2 to T6, T5 to T2, T3 to T5, and T4 to T3. Start up again, and with 110 volts single
phase applied across leads T4 and T1, check the voltage between T4 and T6, between T6 and T5, and between
T5 and T4. Each reading should now be 220 volts.

To operate the motor at high speeds, connect leads T4, T5, and T6 to the line with leads T1, T2, and T3
disconnected, giving the series-delta connection shown in Figure 34A. Note the direction of rotation.

To operate the motor at slow speed, connect leads T4, T5, and T6 together and T1, T2, and T3 to the line, using
the same line lead for T1 as previously used to T4, and similarly for T2 and T5 and for T3 and T6. This should
give the same direction of rotation as obtained in previous high-speed operation and is the parallel-star
connection shown in Figure 34B.

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Open-Delta Connection Constant-Torque

The open-delta connection is frequently used for consequent-pole motors, particularly for four-speed, two-
winding motors to avoid the possibility of harmful circulating currents being induced in the idle winding while
the other is energized. The connections are identical to the previously discussed closed-delta connections,
except that one corner of the delta is opened and an extra lead, T7, is provided.

Figure 35 shows the lead markings for the open-delta constant-torque connection. There are six relative
values of resistance between leads, these being 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, or 6, depending upon which pair of leads is used.
First, locate the pair of leads that give the highest resistance (value of 6) and mark these leads T3 and T7.
Then, the lead should be located that gives the lowest resistance (relative value of 1) to T3, and this lead
should be marked T4. Then the unmarked lead should be located that gives the lowest resistance (relative
value of 1) to T4, and this lead should be marked T1. This procedure should be followed until all leads are used,
and they should be marked from the beginning and in the order in which they are found as T3, T4, T1, T6, T2,
T5, and ending with T7. The connections for a two-speed motor are shown in Figure 35.
301 Page 221 of

Figure 35: Open-Delta Constant-Torque Connection

ELECTRICAL TOOLS AND TEST EQUIPMENT

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Common Electrician’s Tools

This section describes the following common tools used in performing electrical maintenance:

 Wire cutters and pliers

 Wire strippers
 Fish tapes

1 Common Electrician’s Tools

1.1 Wire Cutters and Pliers
1.1.1 Combination Cutting Pliers
1.1.2 Lineman’s Cutting Pliers
1.1.3 Diagonal Cutting Pliers
1.2 Wire Strippers
1.3 Fish Tapes
2 Standard Test Equipment
2.1 Voltmeters
2.1.1 Voltage Tester
2.2 Clamp-On Ammeter
2.3 Digital Multimeters
2.3.0.1 Input Alert™ Feature
2.3.0.2 Power-Up Options
2.3.0.3 Automatic Power-Off
2.3.0.4 Making Measurements
2.3.0.4.1 Measuring AC and DC Voltage
2.3.0.4.2 Testing for Continuity
2.3.0.4.3 Measuring Resistance
2.3.0.4.4 Using Conductance for High Resistance or
Leakage Tests
2.3.0.4.5 Measuring Capacitance
2.3.0.5 Testing Electronic Components
2.3.0.5.1 Checking Diodes
2.3.0.5.2 Checking Transistors
2.4 Megohmmeters
2.5 Circuit Tracers
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Wire Cutters and Pliers

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301 Page 222 of

Combination Cutting Pliers

Combination cutting pliers are slip joint pliers that have a cutting notch at the back of each of their serrated
jaws (see Figure 1).

Figure 1: Combination Cutting Pliers

Use combination cutting pliers to grip work and to cut small nails, cotter pins, and stiff wire. To use, open the
jaws far enough for the cutting edges to line up. Insert the work through both cutting notches, then squeeze the
handles together to cut the work. Sharpen the cutting edges with a file when necessary.

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Lineman’s Cutting Pliers

Lineman’s cutting pliers are cutting and gripping pliers which have serrated grippers at the tips of the jaws and
knife-like cutting edges which extend from the rear of the grippers to the hinge on the pliers (Figure 2).

Figure 2: Lineman’s Cutting Pliers

To cut heavy wire and metal strips of medium thickness, set the work between the cutting edges, as far back in
the jaws as possible, then squeeze the handles. The proper care of lineman’s cutting pliers is the same as for
combination cutting pliers.

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Diagonal Cutting Pliers

Diagonal cutting pliers are smaller than either combination or lineman’s cutting pliers. They have slightly
curved jaws that allow the work to be cut at a variety of angles. Diagonal cutting pliers do not have any teeth or
gripping surfaces. The jaws have cutting edges only. Refer to Figure 3.

Figure 3: Diagonal Cutting Pliers

Use diagonal cutting pliers to cut wire, cotter pins, small nails, and lightweight strips of metal. Place the work as
far back in the jaws as possible and squeeze the handle to cut the work.

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Wire Strippers
Wire strippers are cutting pliers that are slightly larger than diagonal cutting pliers. They have two sets of
cutting notches in the cutting edges of their slightly curved jaws. Refer to Figure 4.
301 Page 223 of

Figure 4: Wire Strippers

Select the stripping notch that is slightly larger than the diameter of the metal core of the wire. Center the wire
in the notch and squeeze the handles of the pliers. Next, turn the wire in the notch to make a second cut. This
ensures that the insulation is severed completely. Finally, push the wire strippers toward the end of the wire to
strip the insulation off.

The procedure for stripping wire with a hand wire stripper is as follows (refer to Figure 5):

1. Insert the wire into the center of the correct cutting slot for the wire size to be stripped. The wire sizes
are listed on the cutting jaws of the hand wire strippers beneath each slot.
2. After inserting the wire into the proper slot, close the handles together as far as they will go.
3. Slowly release the pressure on the handles so as not to allow the cutting blades to make contact with
the stripped conductor. On some of the newer style hand wire strippers, the cutting jaws have a safety
lock that helps prevent this from happening. Continue to release pressure until the gripper jaws
release the stripped wire, and then remove.

Figure 5: Stripping Wire with a Hand Stripper

A sharp knife may be used to strip the insulation from a conductor. The procedure is much the same as for
sharpening a pencil. The knife should be held at approximately a 60 angle to the conductor. Use extreme care
when cutting through the insulation to avoid nicking or cutting the conductor. This procedure produces a taper
on the cut insulation as shown in Figure 6.
301 Page 224 of

Figure 6: Taper Cut Insulation

When stripping wire with any of the tools mentioned, observe the following precautions:

1. Do not attempt to use a hot-blade stripper on wiring with glass braid or asbestos insulation. These
insulators are highly heat resistant.
2. When using the hot-blade stripper, make sure the blades are clean. Clean the blades with a brass wire
brush as necessary.
3. Make sure all stripping blades are sharp and free from nicks, dents, and so forth.
4. When using any type of wire stripper, hold the wire perpendicular to the cutting blades.
5. Make sure the insulation is clean-cut with no frayed or ragged edges; trim if necessary.
6. Make sure all insulation is removed from the stripped area. Some types of wire are supplied with a
transparent layer between the conductor and the primary insulation. If this is present, remove it.
7. When the hand strippers are used to remove lengths of insulation longer than 3/4 inch, the stripping
procedure must be done in two or more operations. The strippers will only strip about 3/4 inch at one
time.
8. Re-twist strands by hand, if necessary, to restore the natural lay and tightness of the strands.
9. Strip aluminum wires with a knife as described earlier. Aluminum wire should be stripped very
carefully. Care should be taken not to nick the aluminum wire as the strands break very easily when
nicked.

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Fish Tapes
After boxes are installed and conduit connected to them, the conductors (wire) can be pulled. On very short
runs, small wires can be pushed through from one box to another. However, a fish tape is much faster. The
tape is available in various lengths usually 50, 100, and 200 ft. of tempered flexible steel in several thickness
and widths. Rigid plastic tapes and pull ropes are also suitable. The tape may have a hook or a ball on the end,
Figure 7. If it has neither, you can fashion a hook with the aid of a pair of pliers. The tempered steel can be
brittle, so make the bend carefully or reduce the temper by heating the end with a torch.
301 Page 225 of

Figure 7: Fish Tape

Wires are difficult to push through conduit. The fish tape, being somewhat stiff, will snake through bends much
easier and can be pushed considerable distances through several bends. Push the tape through the run and
attach the wires being pulled, Figure 8. Be sure to wrap the wires securely so they do not become detached
from the stress of pulling. It is better to work from the top down so the weight of the wires works with the
pulling rather than against it. Wires being pulled should be kept straight. Twisted, crossed, or tangled wire will
bind at bends, saddles, or offsets. Wires insulation can become abraded or torn. On long runs it may help to
coat the wire with pulling lubricants such as those containing talc, soapstone, or liquid soap. Special wire
pulling lubricants are manufactured for this purpose.

Figure 8: Methods of Attaching Wire Conductors to Fish Tape

Right: Stagger Larger Wires to Keep Down Bulk Left: Small Wire
for Easier Pulling Wrap
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Standard Test Equipment

This section describes the following types of standard electrical test equipment:

 Voltmeters
 Voltage detectors
 Clamp-on ammeters
 Digital multimeters
 Megohmmeters
 Circuit tracers

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Voltmeters
A voltage meter, usually called a voltmeter, will measure voltage by using the same meter movement as an
ammeter. A simple voltmeter consists of the meter movement in series with the internal resistance of the
voltmeter itself. For example, a meter with a 50 microampere meter movement and a 1,000-ohm internal
resistance can be used to directly measure voltages up to 0.05 volts, as shown in Figure 9. When the meter is
placed across the voltage source, a current determined by the internal resistance of the meter, flows through
the meter movement.
301 Page 226 of

Figure 9: Schematic Diagram for a Simple Voltmeter

To measure larger voltages a multiplier resistor is used. This increased series resistance serves to limit the
current which can flow through the meter movement, thus extending the range of the meter. For example,
using the same meter movement of 50A, the value of the multiplier resistor required to indicate a full-scale
deflection of 1.0 volt can be determined. Using Ohm’s Law, the total resistance required is:

R = E/I = 1.0V/50A =20,000

ohms
RT = RS+ RM
RS = RT+ RM
RS = 20,000 Ω - 1,000 Ω =
19,000 Ω

A single voltmeter can be made to measure several different ranges by including different multiplier resistors
and a switch. Figure 10 illustrates how this is done. Table 1 lists the switch positions with the corresponding
resistance.
301 Page 227 of

Figure 10: Series Resistors

Table 1: Switch Positions and Series Resistors

SERIES FULL SCALE SWITCH

RESISTANCE VOLTAGE POSITION
19KΩ 1V 1

199KΩ 10V 2

399KΩ 20V 3

A voltmeter can also alter the circuit parameters. The example shown in Figure 11 illustrates this principle.

Figure 11: Effects of Placing a Voltmeter in a Circuit

In this circuit, it is the voltage drop across the 40,000 ohm resistor which is to be determined. In the first circuit,
the current flowing through the two resistors is given by:

I = E/R
I = 10V/50
kΩ
I = 200 µA

Connecting the voltmeter in parallel with the 40,000 ohm resistor, as shown, significantly changes the total
resistance in the circuit. The parallel combination of 40,000 ohms and 200,000 ohms is:

Thus, with the voltmeter in the circuit, the current is:

I = E/R
I = 10V/(33,333 Ω +
10,000 Ω)
I = 231 µA

This current causes a voltage drop across the combination of the meter and the 40,000 ohm resistor of:
301 Page 228 of

V = I/R
V = 231 µA x
33,333 Ω
V = 7.7 volts

The voltmeter will read 7.7 volts, whereas, the voltage drop across the resistor without the voltmeter is 8 volts.

In most cases, the current flowing through the voltmeter movement is negligible compared to the current
flowing through the element whose voltage is being measured. When this is the case, the voltmeter has a
negligible affect on the circuit.

The following precautions should be observed when using a voltmeter to avoid damage to the meter
movement:

 Always set the full-scale voltage of the meter to be larger than the expected voltage to be measured.
 Always connectthe voltmeter in parallel with the circuit element whose voltage is being measured.
Never connect the voltmeter in series.
 Always ensure that the internal resistance of the voltmeter is much greater than the resistance of the
component to be measured. This means that the current it takes to drive the voltmeter (about 50A)
should be a negligible fraction of the current flowing through the circuit element being measured.

In most commercial voltmeters, the internal resistance is expressed by the "ohms-per-volt" of the meter. A
typical value is 20,000 Ω/V for a voltmeter using a 50A movement. This quantity tells what the internal
resistance of the meter is on any particular full-scale setting. In general, the meter internal resistance is the
"ohms per volt" times the full-scale voltage. The higher the ohms per volt rating, the higher the internal
resistance of the meter, and the smaller the affect of the meter on the circuit.

A low sensitivity meter may give a correct reading when measuring circuits having low resistance values, but
may give very inaccurate indications when used to measure voltages in high resistance circuits such as
electrical systems.

For example, if a voltmeter rated at 20,000 ohms/volt is set on 10 volts full scale, the total internal resistance
will be:

RM = 20,000Ω/V x
(10V)
RM = 200,000Ω

If the meter were set to 0.5 volts full scale, the internal resistance would be 10,000 ohms and, if set to 50V full
scale, it would be 1,000,000 ohms.

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Voltage Tester
A voltage tester is a simple piece of electrical testing equipment used to determine the availability of voltage at
the power source. The voltage tester is also used to ensure that the power source has been de-energized
before work begins. A tester may indicate alternating current, direct current, or both. Some typical voltage
testers are shown in Figure 12.
301 Page 229 of

Figure 12: Typical Voltage Testers

The VOL-CON Model 61-076 voltage/continuity tester (Figure 13) can be used to test continuity, locate blown
fuses, and find the grounded side of line (neutral). It is also used for testing the grounded side of a motor or
appliance, testing for 25 to 60 Hertz frequency, checking the continuity of power cords, and locating excessive
leakage to ground.

Figure 13: VOL-CON 61-076 Voltage/Continuity Tester

This device requires the use of four 1 -volt watch/calculator batteries

 Review the manufacturer's instruction sheet prior to use.

301 Page 230 of

This unit uses a pair of LED indicators to indicate the presence of AC voltage. If the LED on the left does not
come on when checked against a known good AC source, check the left side of the battery pack. If the LED on
the right does not come on when checked against a known good AC source, check the right side of the battery
pack.

DON'Ts DOs
 Use circuits expected to be
 Check before each use
above the scale on the tester
 Use good safety practices
 Use if damage is indicated to the
when operating tester
tester

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Clamp-On Ammeter
A clamp-on ammeter (Figure 16), in many cases, is also a multi-function meter. It can measure voltage,
current, and, sometimes, resistance. The main difference being how it measures current. With a volt-ohm meter
(VOM), the circuit has to be de-energized, wires separated and, set up as an ammeter, connected between the
two ends of the cable. The clamp-on ammeter needs only to be wrapped around one wire to determine the
current flowing in the circuit (Figure 17).

Figure 16: Clamp-On Ammeters

301 Page 231 of

Figure 17: Using a Clamp-On Ammeter

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Digital Multimeters
Digital meters have revolutionized the test equipment world. Better accuracy is now easily attainable, more
functions can be incorporated with one meter, and auto-ranging as well as automatic polarity indication is used.
Technically, digital multimeters are classified as electronic multimeters. However, digital multimeters do not
use a meter movement. Instead, a digital meter's input circuit converts a current into a digital signal, which is
processed by electronic circuits and displayed numerically on the meter face.

A major limitation with analog meters that use electro-magnetic meter movements is that the scale reading
must be estimated if the meter pointer falls between scale divisions. Digital multimeters eliminate the need to
estimate these readings by displaying the reading as a numerical display.

With digital meters, personnel must revise the way the indications are viewed. If a technician were reading the
AC voltage on a normal wall outlet with an analog voltmeter, any indication within the range of 120VAC would
be considered acceptable. However, when read with a digital meter, you may think something was wrong if you
got an indication of 114.53VAC. The thing to bear in mind is that the digital meter is very precise in its reading,
sometimes more precise than is called for, or is usable. Also, be aware that the indicated parameter may
change with the range used. This is primarily due to the change in accuracy and where the meter "rounds off."

There are many types of digital multimeters. Some are bench-type multimeters; some are designed to be hand-
held. Most types of digital multimeters have input impedance of 10 megohms and above. They are very
sensitive to small changes in current and are, therefore, more accurate.

Digital multimeters all operate on the same basic principles. This section discusses the features and uses of a
typical Fluke model 80 series, which is a very common multimeter and with basic functions that can be applied
to any digital multimeter. Figure 18 shows a Model 87 meter.
301 Page 232 of

Figure 18: Fluke Model 80 Series Multimeters (Model 87)

Table 2 shows the meter's inputs.

Table 2: Fluke Model 80 Multimeter Inputs

Table 3 shows the meter's switch positions and functions.

301 Page 233 of

Table 3: Fluke Model 80 Multimeter Switch Positions and Functions

DESCRIPTION TERMINAL
Input for 0 A to 10.00 A current measurements A
mA Input for 0 :A to 400 mA current measurements mA, :A
Return terminal for all measurements COM
Input for voltage, continuity, resistance, diode,capacitance,
frequency, and duty cycle measurements
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Input Alert™ Feature

If a test lead is plugged into the mA/:A or A terminal, but the rotary switch is not correctly set to the mA/:A or A
position, the beeper warns you by making a chirping sound. This warning is intended to stop you from
attempting to measure voltage, continuity, resistance, capacitance, or diode values when the leads are plugged
into a current terminal. Placing the probes across (in parallel with) a powered circuit when a lead is plugged
into a current terminal can damage the circuit you are testing and blow the meter’s fuse. This can happen
because the resistance through the meter’s current terminals is very low, so the meter acts like a short circuit.

Talk Page

Power-Up Options
Holding a button down while turning the meter on activates a power-up option. These options are listed on the
back of the meter.

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Automatic Power-Off
The meter automatically turns off if you do not turn the rotary switch or press a button for 30 minutes. To
disable automatic power-off, hold down the blue button while turning the meter on. Automatic power-off is
always disabled in MIN MAX recording mode.

Talk Page

Making Measurements
This section describes how to take measurements with a Fluke Model 80 meter.

Talk Page

Measuring AC and DC Voltage

Voltage is the difference in electrical potential between two points. The polarity of ac (alternating current)
voltage varies over time, while the polarity of dc (direct current) voltage is constant over time. The meter
presents ac voltage values as rms (root mean square) readings. The rms value is the equivalent dc voltage that
would produce the same amount of heat in a resistance as the measured sinewave voltage. Models 85 and 87
feature true rms readings, which are accurate for other wave forms (with no dc offset) such as square waves,
triangle waves, and staircase waves. The meterÃƒÂ¢Ã¢â€šÂ¬Ã¢â€žÂ¢s voltage ranges are 400 mV, 4 V, 40 V,
400 V, and 1,000 V. To select the 400 mV dc range, turn the rotary switch to mV. To measure ac or dc voltage,
set up and connect the meter as shown in Figure 19.
301 Page 234 of

Figure 19: Measuring AC and DC Voltage

The following are some tips for measuring voltage:

 When you measure voltage, the meter acts approximately like a 10 MÃƒÂ¢Ã‹â€ Ã¢â‚¬Ëœ(10,000,000
ÃƒÂ¢Ã‹â€ Ã¢â‚¬Ëœ) impedance in parallel with the circuit. This loading effect can cause measurement
errors in high impedance circuits. In most cases, the error is negligible (0.1% or less) if the circuit
impedance is 10 kÃƒÂ¢Ã‹â€ Ã¢â‚¬Ëœ (10,000 ÃƒÂ¢Ã‹â€ Ã¢â‚¬Ëœ) or less.
 For better accuracy when measuring the dc offset of an ac voltage, measure the ac voltage first. Note
the ac voltage range, then manually select a dc voltage range equal to or higher than the ac range.
This procedure improves the accuracy of the dc measurement by ensuring that the input protection
circuits are not activated.

Talk Page

Testing for Continuity

Continuity is the presence of a complete path for current flow. The continuity test features a beeper that
sounds if a circuit is complete. The beeper allows you to perform quick continuity tests without having to watch
the display. To test for continuity, set up the meter as shown in Figure 20.

Press to turn the continuity beeper on or off.

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The continuity function detects intermittent opens and shorts lasting as little as 1 millisecond (0.001 second).
These brief contacts cause the meter to emit a short beep.

Figure 20: Testing for Continuity

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Measuring Resistance

CAUTION!

To avoid possible damage to the meter or to the equipment

under test, disconnect circuit power and discharge all high-
voltage capacitors before testing for continuity.

''Resistance'' is an opposition to current flow. The unit of resistance is the ohm (∑). The meter measures
resistance by sending a small current through the circuit. Because this current flows through all possible paths
between the probes, the resistance reading represents the total resistance of all paths between the probes.

The meter’s resistance ranges are 400∑, 4 k∑, 40 k∑, 400 k∑, 4 M∑, and 40 M∑.

To measure resistance, set up the meter as shown in '''Figure 21'''.

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'''Figure 21: Measuring Resistance'''

The following are some tips for measuring resistance:

 Because the meter’s test current flows through all possible paths between the probe tips, the
measured value of a resistor in a circuit is often different from the resistor’s rated value.
 The test leads can add 0.1 ∑ to 0.2 ∑ of error to resistance measurements. To test the leads, touch the
probe tips together and read the resistance of the leads. If necessary, you can use the relative (REL)
mode to automatically subtract this value.
 The resistance function can produce enough voltage to forward-bias silicon diode or transistor
junctions, causing them to conduct. To avoid this, do not use the 40 MΩ range for in-circuit resistance
measurements.

Talk Page

Using Conductance for High Resistance or Leakage Tests

Conductance, the inverse of resistance, is "the ability of a circuit to pass current." High values of conductance
correspond to low values of resistance.

The unit of conductance is the Siemen (S). The meter’s 40 nS range measures conductance in nanosiemens (1
nS = 0.000000001 Siemens). Because such small amounts of conductance correspond to extremely high
resistance, the nS range lets you determine the resistance of components up to 100,000 M∑, or
100,000,000,000 ∑ (1/1 nS = 1,000 M∑).

To measure conductance, set up the meter as shown for measuring resistance (Figure 21); then press ∑ until
the nS indicator appears on the display.

The following are some tips for measuring conductance:

 High-resistance readings are susceptible to electrical noise. To smooth out most noisy readings, enter
the MIN MAX recording mode; then scroll to the average (AVG) reading.
 There is normally a residual conductance reading with the test leads open. To ensure accurate
readings, use the relative (REL) mode to subtract the residual value.

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Measuring Capacitance

:F/second of Charge Suggested Expected

Time Range* Capacitance
0.3 4 MÅ Up to 10:F
3 400 kÅ 11:F to 100:F
30 40 kÅ 101:F to 1000:F
1001:F to
300 4 kÅ
10,000:F
10,000:F to
3,000 400 Å
100,000:F

 These ranges keep the full-charge time between 3.7 seconds and 33.3 seconds for the expected
capacitance values. If the capacitor charges too quickly for you to time, select the next higher
resistance range.

Talk Page

Testing Electronic Components

A digital multimeter can be used for testing electronic components as discussed below.

Talk Page

Checking Diodes
The first step is to disconnect the diode from the circuit. Then, insert the meter leads into the proper jacks on
the front panel and press the appropriate function and range buttons. The function and range buttons chosen
for a diode or transistor check depend on the meter that is used. While a high resistance range should be
selected to protect the diodes from high meter current, the range should still be low enough to yield a usable
resistance reading.

Checks are made on diodes and transistors with the meter set for resistance. The meter’s internal battery can
then forward bias or reverse bias the junctions of the diode or transistor. Some digital multimeters have
symbols that indicate what resistance range should be used. Most diodes are checked with the KΩ function
button and the 2 range button pressed.

To check a diode, connect the meter’s positive lead to the anode of the diode and the negative lead to the
cathode. With this arrangement, the meter forward biases the diode; the resistance reading indicated by the
meter should be relatively low value. Next, reverse the meter leads so that the meter reverse-biases the diode;
the resistance reading should be relatively high. As a rule, a diode is considered good if the reverse reading is
at least 10 times the forward reading.

A diode is usually open if an infinite resistance reading is obtained for both measurements. A zero resistance
reading for both measurements means that the diode is probably shorted. If the resistance readings are low
when the diode is forward biased and when it is reverse biased, the meter may be indicating the proper
resistance value when the diode is forward biased, but the meter’s internal battery may be causing the diode’s
junction to break down when the diode is reverse biased. In many of these cases, the diode should probably be
replaced.

Since the reverse resistance reading of a good diode is expected to be 10 times the forward reading, if the
forward resistance reading multiplied by ten exceeds the selected range, go to the next highest range and start
again. For example, if you obtain a .22 kilohm reading as the forward resistance reading, and you have selected
the 2 kilohm range, you should use the next highest range for the meter; .22 kilohms times 10 is greater than 2
kilohms.

Talk Page
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Checking Transistors
A digital multimeter can also be used to check a transistor for shorted or open junctions. The meter’s internal
battery is used to bias each of the transistor junctions in the same manner as in a diode check. After the
transistor to be checked is disconnected from its circuit, the meter is set up as described for the diode check.

The emitter-base junction of the transistor is checked first, with the junction forward biased and then reverse
biased. If the junction is good, the reverse reading will be at least 10 times the forward reading. Then, the same
procedure is repeated for the collector-base junction.

When testing the emitter-to-collector junction, both readings should indicate very high resistance. Since current
is not supposed to flow from the collector to the emitter, a low resistance reading would indicate that the
transistor might be shorted.

Talk Page

Megohmmeters
An ordinary ohmmeter cannot be used for measuring resistance of multimillions of ohms, such as in conductor
insulation. To adequately test for insulation break down, it is necessary to use a much higher potential than is
furnished by the battery of an ohmmeter. This potential is placed between the conductor and the outside
surface of the insulation.

An instrument called a megohmmeter (megger) is used for these tests. The megger (Figure 23) is a portable
instrument consisting of two primary elements: (1) a hand-driven dc generator, G, which supplies the high
voltage for making the measurement, and (2) the instrument portion, which indicates the value of the
resistance being measured. The instrument portion is of the opposed-coil type, as shown in figure 1-36(A). Coils
a and b are mounted on the movable member c with a fixed relationship to each other, and are free to turn as a
unit in a magnetic field. Coil b tends to move the pointer counterclockwise, and coil a tends to move the pointer
clockwise.

Figure 23: A Megger Internal Circuit

Coil A is connected in series with R3 and the unknown resistance, Rx, to be measured. The combination of coil,
R3, and Rx forms a direct series path between the positive (+) brushes of the dc generator. Coil b is connected
in series with R2 and this combination is also connected across the generator. There are no restraining springs
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on the movable member of the instrument portion of the megger. Therefore, when the generator is not
operated, the pointer floats freely and may come to rest at any position on the scale.-) and negative (

The guard ring intercepts leakage current. Any leakage currents intercepted are shunted to the negative side of
the generator. They do not flow through coil "A"; therefore, they do not affect the meter reading.

If the test leads are open-circuited, no current flows in coil "A." However, current flows internally through coil
"B," and deflects the pointer to infinity, which indicates a resistance too large to measure. When a resistance
such as Rxis connected between the test leads, current also flows in coil A, tending to move the pointer
clockwise. At the same time, coil B still tends to move the pointer counter-clockwise. Therefore, the moving
element, composed of both coils and the pointer, comes to rest in a position at which the two forces are
balanced. This position depends upon the value of the external resistance, which controls the relative amount
of current in coil A. Because changes in voltage affect both coil A and coil B in the same proportion, the position
of the moving system is independent of the voltage. If the test leads are short-circuited, the pointer rests at
zero because the current in coil A is relatively large. The instrument is not damaged under these circumstances
because the current is limited by R3. The external view of one type of megger is shown in Figure 163(B).

Most meggers are usually rated at 500 volts. To avoid excessive test voltages, most meggers are equipped with
friction clutches. When the generator is cranked faster than its rated speed, the clutch slips and the generator
speed and output voltage are not permitted to exceed their rated values. When extremely high resistances –
for example, 10,000 megohms or more – are to be measured, a high voltage is needed to cause sufficient
current flow to actuate the meter movement. For extended ranges, a 1,000-volt generator is available. When a
megger is used, the generator voltage is present on the test leads. This voltage could be hazardous to you or to
the equipment you are checking.

To use a megger to check wiring insulation, connect one test lead to the insulation and the other test lead to
the conductor, after isolating the wiring from the equipment. Turn the hand crank until the slip clutch just
begins to slip and note the meter reading. Normal insulations should read infinity. Any small resistance reading
indicates the insulation is breaking down.

When you use a megger, you could be injured or damage equipment you are working on if the following
MINIMUM safety precautions are not observed.

 Use meggers on high-resistance measurements only (such as insulation measurements or to check

two separate conductors on a cable).
 Never touch the test leads while the handle is being cranked.
 De-energize and discharge the circuit completely before connecting a megger.
 Disconnect the item being checked from other circuitry, if possible, before using a megger.

Talk Page

Circuit Tracers
Have you ever wasted frustrating minutes trying to find the right fuse or breaker With a handy new gadget
called a circuit tracer, you can pinpoint the right circuit in just a few seconds.

The tracer works by sending signals through the electrical wires in your home. Just plug the small transmitter
into the outlet you’re working on. Then take the receiver unit to the service panel and run it slowly up and down
the row of fuses or breakers (see Figure 24).
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Figure 24: Using a Circuit Tracer

When the receiver nears the correct circuit, you’ll hear a beeping noise – the louder it gets, the closer you are.
When you locate the circuit, remove the fuse or flip the breaker and try the receiver again. If you have located
the right one, the beeping will stop. Before starting on any electrical project, be sure to test the outlet or
switch with a circuit tester first.

Basic House Wiring:

Multiway Switching – A must in modern electrical systems
June 13th, 2014 | Posted in Electrical distribution
Tags: multiway switching, way switch, way switches

This week, we received this article in our mailbox. It is from Andrei, an Electronics
Engineer who used to read our newsletters where we always remind you that you can
send us your own articles.

What do you think of his 1st attempt?

Introduction

Multiway switching can be found in almost any electrical system blueprint today. The
amount of comfort it provides defeats the small increase in price by offering the user to
turn on and off any electrical equipment from more than one location.

The most common application of multiway switching is for lighting systems and it is
usually put into practice in common areas of a building. Switching the lights in
hallways, reception areas, kitchens, living room areas from many points in the building
is a nice feature.
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In the image to the left we can identify a hallway that goes into a larger common area
and two double door exits. What multiway switching does, is to allow us to control the 4
lights in this area from either one of these exits by connecting a 3 way switch near the
doors.

The 3 way switch is basically a SPDT switch (Single Pole Double Throw) although in
practice you can have a Double Pole Double Throw switch to control two independent
lights or groups of lights.

Figure 1 shows the basic connection diagram of such system that allows control from
two locations. As you can see the 3 way switches sw1 and sw2 do not have an on or off
position.

As depicted in figure 1 the light is off and in figure 2 we turn on the light with sw1 in 2.a
and with sw2 in 2.b.

Depending on your switch brand and type you will have to identify the connections. If it
is not marked you can use a multimeter set on wire continuity test to indentify it.
301 Page 242 of

To control lights from more than 2 locations we need another type of switch called a 4
way switch, a crossover switch or simply a cross switch. It will always be installed
between the two 3 way switches.

The connections done with a 4 way switch are depicted in figure 3.a below. Just like in
previous case this switch does not have an on or off position. In figure 3.b the light is off
and in figure 3.c the light is turned on from the 4 way switch.

You can add as many 4 way switches in between sw1 and sw2 as you need to control
lights from many locations.
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On the market you will also find double 3 way and 4 way switching to independently
control 2 groups of lights.

There is a certain increase in cost and complexity of the circuit that is why it is
imperative to use junction boxes for any of the switches. With double 4 way switches
you will have up to 9 wires that will go down from the junction box so it can give a lot of
headache on maintenance jobs.

Thank you for reading!

Andrei.

Electric Charge

ALWAYS check the "Summary" and "Key Terms"

at the end of the chapters.

KEY TERMS: electric charge, electrostatics, electron, proton, neutron, positive

and negative ions, principle of conservation of electric charge, conductor and
insulator, induced charge, point charge, Coulomb's law, coulomb, principle of
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superposition of forces, electric field, test charge, vector field, source point,
field point.

Before we can discuss DC circuits we need to understand the concept of

ELECTRIC CHARGE (Chapter 21)

For a clear picture of electric charge go to an informative website with

interactive pictures that will quickly show you pictures that will help give you a
better idea of what an electric charge is:

http://230nsc1.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/hframe.html

then click on "Electricity and Magnetism" button,

then "electric charge" button and scroll down to a description of conventional
electric current that we will discuss later.

You can then click anyplace on the interactive page to get an explanations of
the many new ideas in this chapter. You will find this very helpful to have a
picture of some of these abstract and complicated concepts.

The electrons found "orbiting" the atoms in the universe have various physical
properties. Last semester we studied the property of mass and the
(gravitational) forces between all masses. This semester we will study the
electron's property called "electric charge" and the (electrical) forces between
all electric charges. Unfortunately we cannot see electric charge the way we
can see masses. There are two kinds of charge, negative and positive. The
electric charge on an electron is very small and it is NEGATIVE: -1.6(10)-19
Coulombs. The protons found at the center of atoms have the same amount of
charge as the electron except it is a POSITIVE electric charge: +1.6(10)-19
Coulombs. We will find later that two charges of opposite sign attract each
other and two charges of similar sign repel each other.

If an object has the same amount of positive and negative charge the NET
CHARGE on the object is the sum of the two kinds of charge and adds to zero,
and we say the object is electrically neutral. So if an object has a number of
protons equal to the number of electrons its net charge is zero. (All atoms
have a net charge of zero, but ions can have a positive or negative charge
depending on whether they have more protons or electrons.) Since the
electrons are more mobile than the protons (which are buried in the nucleus of
the atom) we transfer elections to a neutral object to make it have a net
negative charge. When we do that the neutral object from which we transferred
the electrons becomes negatively charged. Note that the total electric charge
of the two bodies together does not change - this is known as the
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conservation of charge. We cannot create or destroy electric charge, we

simply transfer charges (electrons) from one object to another to change the
NET charge of objects.

The ancient Greeks discovered that electric charge could be transferred

between two objects by rubbing them together. In the diagram below, rubbing
plastic and fur together results in electrons from the fur being rubbed off onto
the plastic, leaving the fur positively charged and the plastic negatively
charged. When glass and silk are rubbed together which one has the electrons
rubbed off?

Fig. 21.1 Plastic rubbed with fur becomes negatively charged,

glass rubbed with silk becomes positively charged.

The diagram below shows a lithium atom with its 3 electrons and 3 protons
(and three uncharged neutrons). Also shown is a positive lithium ion,
positively charged because it is missing one of its electrons, and a negative
lithium ion, negatively charged because it has an extra electron.
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Fig. 21.4 The element Lithium and its ions.

The diagram below shows a process called "charging by induction" in which a

neutral metal sphere is supported on an insulating stand. Materials which are
called electrical "INSULATORS" have electrons strongly attached to the
nucleus of the atoms in the material so that no flow of electrons (or current)
can take place in the material.

Materials which are called electrical "CONDUCTORS" have electrons which

can leave the atoms and migrate freely through the material. Most metals are
good electrical conductors because they only have a few electrons in the outer
shell of the atom which can be easily detached and moved through the
material,becoming an electric current.

When a negatively charged rod is placed close to the neutral metal sphere the
(negatively) charged electrons in the sphere are repelled to the far side of the
sphere, leaving the atoms on the near side positively charged owing to their
missing electrons. If we then connect a copper wire to the negative side of the
sphere and an electrical ground some of the free electrons will flow into the
ground. When we then remove the copper wire and the negatively charged rod
what remains is a metal sphere with a uniform distributed positively charge.
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Fig. 21.7 Charging a metal sphere by the process of induction.

Although the charges (on the

electrons) are tightly bound to the
atoms in an insulator they are free to
move slightly within the atom. This is
called polarization. If a plastic comb is
rubbed on fur (or your dry hair)
electrons will be rubbed off the hair
onto the plastic comb. The plastic
comb becomes charged negatively. If
the comb is brought close to a neutral
insulator, like a piece of dry paper, it
will repel the negatively charged
electrons in the atoms causing them to
moving away slightly, leaving the
protons without an electron closer to
the comb. Since opposite charges
attract and the positive charges are
closer to the comb than the negative
charges, the piece of paper is attracted
to the comb. This effect is used to
remove soot and ashes from smoke
going up industrial chimneys. The
inventor became rich as a result of his
patent!

Part (b) of the diagram shows the same

result (attraction of the paper) even if
301 Page 248 of

we had a positively charged comb.

Fig. 21.8 A charged comb
attracts a piece of paper.

Coulomb's Law enables us to calculate the magnitude of NOTE:

the force vector between charges. This is covered in
Sections 21.3 and 21.4 in the text. We will skip these
sections for now and return to them after we cover DC
circuits.

In the first laboratory experiment (Lab #1) you will measure

and plot the electric field lines caused by various electric
charge configurations. So let's cover some of that material
now from section 21.6 and from sections 23.4 and 23.5 of
the text.

ELECTRIC FIELD
(PREVIEW - See Sections 21.4, 23.4 and 23.5 of text)

In the first laboratory session this semester you will measure the magnitude
and direction of the electric field, a vector quantity. The electric field (E, a
vector) is an abstract quantity which we can not touch, feel, or see; we can
only experience the effects of the field. Although this sounds complicated, it's
very similar to the gravitational field most of us have been living in for the past
few decades, and even though no one has ever seen the gravitational field, no
one will ever deny the existence of the field (sometimes we simply call it
gravity).

Last semester you measured the value of the gravitational field near the
surface of the Earth. We called it g= 9.8 m/sec2. It has the same units of an
acceleration, so sometimes we called it the acceleration due to gravity. If the
magnitude of the gravitational field vector is 9.8 m/sec2, what is the direction
of the field vector? You know how to determine the direction - just place a
mass in the field and see which direction it is forced to move. The direction is
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always "down" or toward the center of the Earth. Newton's second law gives
us the vector equation
F = mg.

In a similar way, an electric field will exert a force on an electric charge

according to
F = qE,
where q is the electric charge. If we place an electric charge in an electric field,
the direction of the force on the charge can indicate the direction of the field.
Just as the gravitational field lines start at a mass, the Earth in this case, the
electric field lines start at the electric charges.

It gets more complicated...

We will find that the electric field points in a direction away from a positive
electric charge and toward a negative charge. As we know there are two kinds
of electric charge: positive and negative. Protons have the positive charge the
electrons have the negative charge. If a positive charge is placed in an electric
field the force on it is in the same direction as the electric field vector (F =
+QE), and if a negative charge is placed in an electric field the force on it is in
the opposite direction as the electric field (F = QE). This is consistent with the
fact that like charges repel and opposites attract each other. Although all of
this is true it is impossible to see electric charges. So you will have to resort to
more complicated methods to measure the electric field vectors in the lab.
Consider the following:
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Using our gravitational field analogy, the contour lines on a

topographic map are lines of constant elevation above sea
level and hence of constant gravitational potential energy. If
we let a ball roll down a mountain we would see that the ball
would roll down a path perpendicular to the contour lines,
i.e., down the steepest path or gradient. Sop if we could first
measure the contour lines we could then predict the path of
a ball rolling down the mountain. In the lab we do something
analogous. We (you) will measure the lines of equipotential
(potential energy per unit charge - a whole chapter on this
later in Chapter 23 Electric Potential) and from a plot of the
equipotential lines you can determine the direction and
magnitude of the electric field. The field lies along the path of
steepest (negative) slope or gradient.
Go to top of Fig. 23.22 Contour lines on a topographic map.
page

Equipotential lines (in blue) for various voltages (0, 30, 50, and 70 Volts) and
electric field lines (in red) which are always perpendicular to the equipotential
lines and lie along the
steepest (negative) gradient. (a) a single positive charge, (b) an electric dipole,
i.e., two equal charges of opposite sign, (c) two equal positive charges.
301 Page 251 of

Fig. 23.24 Equipotential lines (blue) and electric field lines (red) for
various charges.

Go to top of page
301 Page 252 of

Equipotential
lines (blue) for
various voltages
and electric field
lines (red) which
are always
perpendicular to
the equipotential
lines and lie
along the steep-
est (negative)
gradient. The
electric field
lines are always
perpendicular to
the surface of a
conductor.
Why? Draw the
equipotential
line at the
surface of the
conductor.

Go to top of page Fig. 23.25 Equipotential lines and electric field lines for a
charge near a conductor.

Basic elements of a cathode-ray tube used in a TV set or computer monitor.

The electron beam (in green) is deflected horizontally and then vertically so
that it hits a specific spot on the phosphor coating on the inside of the screen
where a bright spot will appear (either
red, green, or blue in a color CRT tube).
301 Page 253 of

See Fig. 23.34 for the basic elements of a cathode ray (or TV) tube.

Vertical deflection of an electron beam in a cathode-ray tube, F = QE

Similar to Fig. 21.21 Electrostatic deflection of an electron beam

in a TV tube.
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Faraday’s Law
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Faraday’s Law of Induction

Motional emf
Lenz’s Law
Maxwell’s Equations

Induced EMF

A current flows through the loop when a magnet is moved near it, without any batteries!
301 Page 280 of

The needle deflects momentarily when the switch is closed

Faraday’s Law of Induction

Φ B=∫ B . dA

dΦ B
E=−N
dt
301 Page 281 of

Changing Flux due to moving permanent

Gen
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• AC Generator

Water turns wheel

à rotates magnet

à changes flux

à induces emf

à drives current
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Faraday's law states that the absolute value or magnitude of the circulation of the
electric field E around a closed loop is equal to the rate of change of the magnetic flux
through the area enclosed by the loop. The equation below expresses Faraday's law in
mathematical form.
301 Page 286 of

ΔΦB/∆t (through a fixed area) = -Σaround loop E·∆r (at a fixed time)

The minus sign in this equation tells us about the direction of the circulation. (See
below.)

When the magnetic flux through the area enclosed by the loop changes, Σaround loop E·∆r is
not zero, the electric field E circulates. E·∆r is the work done per unit charge by the
electric field in moving the charge a distance ∆r. If the loop is an actual wire loop, then
there is actual work done by the induced field on free charges. Σaround loop E·∆r is the
work per unit charge by the field in moving the charge once around the loop. This is an
induced emf, and it is measured in Volts. The induced emf causes a current to flow
without a potential difference due to separated charges.

ΔΦB/∆t (through a fixed area) = induced emf

The induced electric field is not a conservative field. When you move a charge against
the induced field once around the loop, you have to do work. But your work is not
stored as potential energy. You cannot let the electric field do work to recover the
energy you expended in moving the charge. The induced electric field disappears as
soon as the magnetic flux is no longer changing. The work you do on a charge against
the induced field is not locally stored. The energy may be transported away in the form
of an electromagnetic wave. Electromagnetic waves carry energy through free space.

What is the direction of the dynamic field?

The minus sign in this equation expression Faraday's law tells us about the direction of
the induced field. There is an easy way to remember this direction. The circulation of
the induced field is equal to an emf. Any current flowing as the result of that emf
produces a magnetic field that opposes the flux changes that produce it. This is called
Lenz's law. An induced emf acts as to oppose the change in flux that produce it.

Example:

A magnet is moved quickly towards a wire loop as shown.

301 Page 287 of

The flux through the wire loop is increasing. A current starts flowing in the loop. The
magnetic field produced by this current opposes the flux changes that produce it.

Problem:

Consider a flat square coil with N = 5 loops. The coil is 20 cm on each side, and has a
magnetic field of 0.3 T passing through it. The plane of the coil is perpendicular to the
magnetic field: the field points out of the page.

(a) If nothing is changed, what is the induced emf?

(b) The magnetic field increases uniformly from 0.3 T to 0.8 T in 1 s. While the change
is taking place, what is the induced emf in the coil?
(c) While the magnetic field is changing, the emf induced in the coil causes a current to
flow. Does the current flow clockwise or counter-clockwise around the coil?

 Solution:
(a) An emf is induced by a changing magnetic flux. If nothing changes, the
induced emf is zero.
(b) The coil has 5 turns. Each turn has area A = (0.2 m)2. The initial magnetic
flux through each turn of the the coil is Φ0 = B0A = 0.3*(0.2)2 Tm2 = 0.012 Tm2 .
The final magnetic flux through each turn of the coil is Φf = BfA = 0.8*(0.2)2 Tm2
= 0.032 Tm2.
The total change of the flux through the coil N(Φf - Φ0), with N = 5. The induced
emf is
emf = -N∆Φ/∆t = -N(Φf - Φ0)/∆t = [-5*(0.032 -0.012)/1.0] V = -0.1 V
(c) While the magnetic field is changing, the magnetic flux increased out of the
page. According to Lenz's law, the emf induced in the loop by this changing flux
produces a current that sets up a field opposing the change. The field set up by
the current in the coil, points into the page, opposite to the direction of the
increase in flux. To produce a field into the page, the current must flow
clockwise around the loop according to the right hand rule.

Self induction

If a long coil of wire of cross sectional area A and length ℓ with N turns is connected or
disconnected from a battery, the changing magnetic flux through the coil produces an
induced emf. The induced current produces a magnetic field, which opposes the change
in the magnetic flux. The magnitude of the induced emf can be calculated using
Faraday's law.

 The magnetic field inside the long coil is B = µ0(N/ℓ)I.

 The flux through the coil is NBA = µ0(N2/ℓ)IA.
301 Page 288 of

 The change in flux per unit time is µ0(N2/ℓ)A ∆I/∆t = L*∆I/∆t, since I is the only
quantity changing with time.
L = µ0(N2/ℓ)A is called the self inductance of the coil. The units of inductance are
Henry (H). 1 H = 1 Vs/A.
 The induced emf is emf = -L*∆I/∆t, where the minus sign is a consequence of
Lenz's law.

The induced emf is proportional to the rate of change of the current in the coil. It can
be several times the power supply voltage. When a switch in a circuit carrying a large
current is opened, reducing the current to zero in a very short time interval, this can
result in a spark. All circuits have self inductance, and we always have emf = -L*∆I/∆t.
The self inductance L depends only on the geometry of the circuit.

Problem:

A coil has an inductance of 2 mH, and a current through it changes from 0.2 A to 1.5 A
in a time of 0.2 s. Find the magnitude of the average induced emf in the coil during this
time.

 Solution:
L = 3 mH, ∆I/∆t = (1.5 A - 0.2 A)/0.2 s = 6.5 A/s.
emf = -L*∆I/∆t = -(0.3 Vs/A)(6.5 A/s) = -0.0195 V.
The minus sign indicates that the induced emf opposes the flux changes that
produced it.

Problem:

A 25 turn circular coil of wire has a diameter of 1 m. It is placed with its axis along the
direction of the Earth's magnetic field (magnitude 50 microT), and then, in 0.2 s, it is
flipped 180o. What is the average emf generated?

 Solution:
emf = -∆ΦB/∆t. ΦB = NAB = 25*π*(0.5 m)250*10-6 T = 9.82*10-4 Tm2.
∆ΦB/∆t = 2*(9.82*10-4 Tm2)/(0.2 s) = 9.82*10-3 V.
301 Page 289 of
301 Page 290 of
301 Page 291 of

Faraday’s Law
Faraday’s Law of Induction
Motional emf
Lenz’s Law
Maxwell’s Equations

Induced EMF
301 Page 292 of

A current flows through the loop when a magnet is moved near it, without any batteries!

The needle deflects momentarily when the switch is closed

Faraday’s Law of Induction

301 Page 293 of

Φ B=∫ B . dA

dΦ B
E=−N
dt

Changing Flux due to moving permanent

301 Page 294 of

Gen
301 Page 295 of
301 Page 296 of

• AC Generator

Water turns wheel

à rotates magnet

à changes flux

à induces emf

à drives current
301 Page 297 of
301 Page 298 of

ΔΦB/∆t (through a fixed area) = -Σaround loop E·∆r (at a fixed time)

The minus sign in this equation tells us about the direction of the circulation. (See
below.)

ΔΦB/∆t (through a fixed area) = induced emf

What is the direction of the dynamic field?

Example:

A magnet is moved quickly towards a wire loop as shown.

301 Page 300 of

The flux through the wire loop is increasing. A current starts flowing in the loop. The
magnetic field produced by this current opposes the flux changes that produce it.

Problem:

(a) If nothing is changed, what is the induced emf?

Self induction

 The magnetic field inside the long coil is B = µ0(N/ℓ)I.

 The flux through the coil is NBA = µ0(N2/ℓ)IA.
301 Page 301 of

Problem:

A coil has an inductance of 2 mH, and a current through it changes from 0.2 A to 1.5 A
in a time of 0.2 s. Find the magnitude of the average induced emf in the coil during this
time.

Problem:

 Solution:
emf = -∆ΦB/∆t. ΦB = NAB = 25*π*(0.5 m)250*10-6 T = 9.82*10-4 Tm2.
∆ΦB/∆t = 2*(9.82*10-4 Tm2)/(0.2 s) = 9.82*10-3 V.

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