DSA – Problem-Solving

DP topics:
- strings
- distinct ways
- decision-making
- merging intervals

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the core concepts that matter.

1️⃣Arrays
- Arrays are everywhere in coding interviews.
- Master sorting, binary search, two-pointers, sliding window, and prefix sums.
- Get so good at these that solving them feels as easy as writing a `for` loop.

2️⃣Decision Trees & Recursion

- If you understand recursive decision trees, you can solve:
✅ Binary Trees
✅ Backtracking Problems
✅ Combinatorics
✅ Dynamic Programming
✅ Some Graph Problems
- Many tough problems break down into decision trees, train yourself to see them.

3️⃣Graphs
- Graphs seem complex, but most problems rely on DFS & BFS.
- Learn how to apply them to matrix graphs and adjacency lists, the implementation is
different.
- Understand the edge cases: infinite loops, cycle detection, shortest path problems.

4️⃣Hashmaps
- If your solution is too slow, ask: Can a hashmap make this faster?
- Use it for:
✅ Counting frequencies (strings, arrays)
✅ Quick lookups (O(1) time)
✅ Graph adjacency lists

5️⃣Heaps
- Use min-heaps and max-heaps when you need to find the top K elements efficiently.
- Insertion & deletion: O(log N)
- Heapify (building a heap at once): O(N) (more efficient than inserting one by one).

6️⃣Dynamic Programming:
- DP is hard, but it’s not as common in interviews as people think.
- Focus on:
✅ Longest Common Subsequence
✅ Coin Change
✅ Classic DP patterns (knapsack, LIS, partitioning)
- Ignore ultra-complex DP problems—you likely won’t get them.

1. Sliding Window
= When you need to find subarrays or substrings in a linear DS (like arrays or strings) that
meet a certain condition
_ Used in problems like: longest subarray, max sum of k-length window, etc.

2. Two Pointers
= For sorted arrays/strings where you move 2 pointers to meet a condition
_ Used in: pair sums, palindrome checks, merging sorted arrays

3. Modified Binary Search

= Classic binary search but adapted for rotated arrays, infinite search space, or conditions
beyond equality
_ Used in: search in rotated array, peak element, kth element in sorted matrix

4. Subset/Backtracking
= When you need to generate all combinations or permutations
_ Used in: subsets, combinations, permutations, N-Queens

5. Top-K Elements
= When you need to find the k smallest/largest items efficiently
_ Always think heaps/priority queues here

6. DFS/BFS on Trees
= To explore all nodes in a tree—depth-first (recursion) or level-by-level (queues)
_ Used in: max depth, level order traversal, path sums

7. Topological Sort
= Used in Directed Acyclic Graphs when there's dependency (prerequisite) between nodes
_ Common in: course scheduling, task ordering

8. Dynamic Programming
= The final boss. For overlapping subproblems with optimal substructure
_ Used in: knapsack, DP on strings, grid paths, longest subsequences

Strong Engineering Fundamentals:

Advanced degree in Computer Science, Engineering, or a related field.

Demonstrable experience in distributed systems design and implementation.
Proven track record of delivering early-stage projects under tight deadlines.
Expertise in using cloud-based services, such as, elastic compute, object
storage, virtual private networks, managed database, etc.
AI/ML Expertise:
Experience in Generative AI (Large Language Models, Multimodal).
Familiarity with AI infrastructure, including training, inference, and ETL
pipelines.
Software Engineering Skills:
Experience with container runtimes (e.g., Kubernetes) and microservices
architectures.
Experience using REST APIs and common communication protocols, such as
gRPC.
Demonstrated experience in the software development cycle and familiarity
with CI/CD tools.
Preferred Qualifications:
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Contributions to open-source AI projects such as VLLM or similar frameworks.
Performance optimizations on GPU systems and inference frameworks.
Personal Attributes:
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Strong communication and interpersonal skills.
Passion for building cutting-edge AI products and solving challenging technical
problems.

10 essential techniques

1. Use a Heap for K Elements

⇢ When dealing with “top K” problems (largest, smallest, most frequent), heaps shine with
O(log K) insertions and deletions.

⇢ Example: Find the K largest numbers in an array.

2. Binary Search & Two Pointers for Sorted Inputs

⇢ Sorted data often signals Binary Search (O(log n)) or Two Pointers (O(n)) for optimal
solutions.

⇢ Example: Find two numbers in a sorted array that sum to a target.

3. Backtracking for Combinations & Permutations
⇢ Need to generate all possibilities? Backtracking is your go-to approach.

⇢ Example: Generate all subsets of a given set.

4. BFS & DFS for Graphs & Trees

⇢ BFS is best for shortest paths and level-order traversal.
⇢ DFS is useful for exploring paths and detecting cycles.

⇢ Example: Find the shortest path in a graph.

5. Convert Recursion to Iteration with a Stack

⇢ Recursive functions can lead to stack overflow—convert them to iterative solutions using a
stack.

⇢ Example: Iterative in-order traversal of a binary tree.

6. Optimize Arrays with HashMaps or Sorting

⇢ HashMaps reduce lookups to O(1) instead of O(n).
⇢ Sorting simplifies comparisons to O(n log n).

⇢ Example: Find duplicates in an array.

7. Dynamic Programming (DP) for Optimization Problems

⇢ Break problems into overlapping subproblems and store results to avoid redundant
calculations.

⇢ Example: Solve the 0/1 knapsack problem.

8. HashMap or Trie for Substring Problems

⇢ HashMaps handle lookups efficiently.
⇢ Tries enable fast prefix searching.

⇢ Example: Find the longest common prefix among words.

9. Tries for String Search & Autocomplete

⇢ Tries store words efficiently for fast retrieval.

⇢ Example: Implement an autocomplete system.

10. Fast & Slow Pointers for Linked Lists

⇢ Two-pointer techniques help in cycle detection and finding midpoints in O(n) time.

Here's a DSA Pattern Cheatsheet :

🔹 Graph Questions (BFS & DFS)

When to use:
If you're dealing with connections like social networks (e.g., "Find the shortest path to a friend
on LinkedIn").

Example:
• BFS → Shortest path in a maze or social network.
• DFS → Finding all possible routes from a starting point in a map.

🔹 Sliding Window Problems

When to use:
• If the problem involves finding max/sum/average of a subarray or substring.
• If you're given a continuous dataset and need to track values dynamically (e.g., "Find the
max temperature in the last 7 days").

Example:
Track Sums/Counts within Window → "Find the maximum sum of any subarray of length k.

🔹 Linked Lists (Two Pointers & In-Place Reversal)

When to use:
• If you need to detect loops, find the middle, or reverse elements efficiently.
• When dealing with continuous data streams where inserting/removing elements is frequent.

Example:
• Two Pointers for Cycles → Detecting a loop in a train route.
• Reverse In-Place → Reversing a playlist of songs.

🔹 Max/Min Subarrays
When to use:
• If you need to find the largest/smallest sum within a range.
• If the problem can be broken into overlapping subproblems (Dynamic Programming).

Example:
• Kadane’s Algorithm → Finding the period with max profit in stock prices.
• Running Sum Comparison → Track cumulative expenses in a budget.

🔹 Top/Least K Elements (Heaps & QuickSelect)

When to use:
When you need to find the largest or smallest elements in a dataset (e.g., "Find the top 3
trending hashtags").

Example:
QuickSelect → Find the median salary of employees.

🔹 Permutations (Backtracking)
When to use:
When generating all possible combinations (e.g., "Find all valid team selections").

Example:
Backtracking → Generating all possible passwords of a certain length.

🔹 Common String Problems (Maps & Tries)

When to use:
When dealing with word breakdowns and searches (e.g., "Auto-suggest words in a search
bar").

Example:
Use Map/Trie → Detecting spam words in emails.

🔹 Recursion-Banned Problems (Using Stacks)

When to use:
If recursion is too slow or uses too much memory (e.g., "Simulate undo/redo functionality in
an editor").

Example:
Use Stack to Simulate Recursion → browser back/forward navigation.

🔹 Sorted Arrays (Binary Search & Two Pointers)

When to use:
If the dataset is already sorted and you need to find efficiently.

Example:
• Binary Search → Finding a movie in a sorted list by rating.
• Two Pointers → Pairing students with closest skill levels.

🔹 Tree Problems (BFS & DFS)

When to use:
When dealing with hierarchical structures like file systems, or decision trees.

Example:
• BFS → Shortest path in a company’s reporting hierarchy.
• DFS → Searching for a file deep in nested folders.

DSA patterns guide

1. Graph Problems:
✅ Use DFS/BFS for traversal.
✅ Adjacency lists = More efficient memory usage.
✅ For weighted graphs, Dijkstra’s algorithm helps find the shortest path.
✅ Union-Find is useful for detecting cycles in disjoint sets.

2. Sliding Window:
✅ Expand/shrink the window based on constraints (fixed vs. variable size).
✅ Two pointers efficiently track window boundaries.
✅ Maintain running sum, count, or frequency for optimization.
✅ Sliding Window + HashMap helps handle substring problems efficiently.

3. Linked Lists:
✅ Two Pointers → Detect cycles, find the middle node.
✅ Reverse a list in-place using pointer swaps.
✅ Slow & fast pointers help solve problems in O(n) time.
✅ Merge Sort is a great way to sort linked lists efficiently.

4. Maximum/Minimum Subarrays:
✅ Kadane’s Algorithm for maximum subarray sum in O(n).
✅ Dynamic Programming to track optimal subarrays.
✅ Maintain a running sum and update min/max dynamically.
✅ Divide & Conquer works well for finding subarrays efficiently.

5. In-Place Operations:
✅ Swap values instead of using extra space.
✅ Modify arrays without additional memory by using pointers cleverly.
✅ Rearrange arrays efficiently using constant space techniques.

5. Top K / Least K Elements:

✅ Heaps (Min/Max Heap) efficiently track top/least K elements.
✅ QuickSelect is useful if full sorting isn't needed.
✅ Priority Queues are great for streaming top K problems.

6. Permutations & Subsets:

✅ Backtracking helps explore all combinations.
✅ Prune unnecessary paths early to optimize.
✅ Use bitwise operations for subset generation.
✅ Always revert changes after each recursive call.

7. String Problems:
✅ Tries & HashMaps efficiently store/search words & prefixes.
✅ Count character frequencies for pattern matching.
✅ Two pointers help in palindrome and substring problems.
✅ KMP Algorithm speeds up pattern searching in strings.

8. No Recursion Allowed?
✅ Use Stacks to simulate recursive behavior.
✅ Convert recursive solutions into iterative ones.
✅ State tracking manually ensures iterative correctness.

9. Sorted Arrays:
✅ Binary Search for quick lookups.
✅ Two Pointers simplify sum & pair problems.
✅ Prefix sums & differences help with range queries efficiently.

10. Tree Problems:

✅ DFS for deep exploration, BFS for level-order traversal.
✅ Track visited nodes to avoid infinite loops.
✅ Binary Search Trees (BSTs) → Use inorder traversal for sorted order.
✅ Handle edge cases like unbalanced or missing nodes.

11. Dynamic Programming (DP):

✅ Use overlapping subproblems to optimize recursion.
✅ State transition formulas help define DP problems clearly.
✅ Bitmask DP is useful for subset problems.

DSA patterns

Graph Problems:
✅ Use DFS/BFS for traversal.
✅ Adjacency lists = More efficient memory usage.
✅ Need shortest paths? Think BFS. Need cycle detection? Look for back edges.
✅ For weighted graphs, Dijkstra’s algorithm helps find the shortest path.
✅ Union-Find is useful for detecting cycles in disjoint sets.

Sliding Window:
✅ Expand/shrink the window based on constraints (fixed vs. variable size).
✅ Two pointers efficiently track window boundaries.
✅ Maintain running sum, count, or frequency for optimization.
✅ Sliding Window + HashMap helps handle substring problems efficiently.

Linked Lists:
✅ Two Pointers → Detect cycles, find the middle node.
✅ Reverse a list in-place using pointer swaps.
✅ Slow & fast pointers help solve problems in O(n) time.
✅ Merge Sort is a great way to sort linked lists efficiently.

Maximum/Minimum Subarrays:
✅ Kadane’s Algorithm for maximum subarray sum in O(n).
✅ Dynamic Programming to track optimal subarrays.
✅ Maintain a running sum and update min/max dynamically.
✅ Divide & Conquer works well for finding subarrays efficiently.

In-Place Operations:
✅ Swap values instead of using extra space.
✅ Modify arrays without additional memory by using pointers cleverly.
✅ Rearrange arrays efficiently using constant space techniques.

Top K / Least K Elements:

✅ Heaps (Min/Max Heap) efficiently track top/least K elements.
✅ QuickSelect is useful if full sorting isn't needed.
✅ Priority Queues are great for streaming top K problems.

Permutations & Subsets:

✅ Backtracking helps explore all combinations.
✅ Prune unnecessary paths early to optimize.
✅ Use bitwise operations for subset generation.
✅ Always revert changes after each recursive call.

String Problems:
✅ Tries & HashMaps efficiently store/search words & prefixes.
✅ Count character frequencies for pattern matching.
✅ Two pointers help in palindrome and substring problems.
✅ KMP Algorithm speeds up pattern searching in strings.

No Recursion Allowed?
✅ Use Stacks to simulate recursive behavior.
✅ Convert recursive solutions into iterative ones.
✅ State tracking manually ensures iterative correctness.

Sorted Arrays:
✅ Binary Search for quick lookups.
✅ Two Pointers simplify sum & pair problems.

Tree Problems:
✅ DFS for deep exploration, BFS for level-order traversal.
✅ Track visited nodes to avoid infinite loops.
✅ Binary Search Trees (BSTs) → Use inorder traversal for sorted order.
✅ Segment Trees help solve range queries in logarithmic time.
✅ Handle edge cases like unbalanced or missing nodes.

Dynamic Programming (DP):

✅ Top-Down (Recursion + Memoization) vs Bottom-Up (Tabulation).
✅ State transition formulas help define DP problems clearly.
✅ Bitmask DP is useful for subset problems.

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1️⃣Arrays
- Arrays are everywhere in coding interviews.
- Master sorting, binary search, two-pointers, sliding window, and prefix sums.
- Get so good at these that solving them feels as easy as writing a `for` loop.

2️⃣Decision Trees & Recursion

- If you understand recursive decision trees, you can solve:
✅ Binary Trees
✅ Backtracking Problems
✅ Combinatorics
✅ Dynamic Programming
✅ Some Graph Problems
- Many tough problems break down into decision trees, train yourself to see them.

3️⃣Graphs
- Graphs seem complex, but most problems rely on DFS & BFS.
- Learn how to apply them to matrix graphs and adjacency lists, the implementation is
different.
- Understand the edge cases: infinite loops, cycle detection, shortest path problems.

4️⃣Hashmaps
- If your solution is too slow, ask: Can a hashmap make this faster?
- Use it for:
✅ Counting frequencies (strings, arrays)
✅ Quick lookups (O(1) time)
✅ Graph adjacency lists

5️⃣Heaps
- Use min-heaps and max-heaps when you need to find the top K elements efficiently.
- Insertion & deletion: O(log N)
- Heapify (building a heap at once): O(N) (more efficient than inserting one by one).

6️⃣Dynamic Programming:
- DP is hard, but it’s not as common in interviews as people think.
- Focus on:
✅ Longest Common Subsequence
✅ Coin Change
✅ Classic DP patterns (knapsack, LIS, partitioning)
- Ignore ultra-complex DP problems—you likely won’t get them.

1. Sliding Window
= When you need to find subarrays or substrings in a linear DS (like arrays or strings) that
meet a certain condition
_ Used in problems like: longest subarray, max sum of k-length window, etc.

2. Two Pointers
= For sorted arrays/strings where you move 2 pointers to meet a condition
_ Used in: pair sums, palindrome checks, merging sorted arrays

3. Modified Binary Search

= Classic binary search but adapted for rotated arrays, infinite search space, or conditions
beyond equality
_ Used in: search in rotated array, peak element, kth element in sorted matrix

4. Subset/Backtracking
= When you need to generate all combinations or permutations
_ Used in: subsets, combinations, permutations, N-Queens

5. Top-K Elements
= When you need to find the k smallest/largest items efficiently
_ Always think heaps/priority queues here

6. DFS/BFS on Trees
= To explore all nodes in a tree—depth-first (recursion) or level-by-level (queues)
_ Used in: max depth, level order traversal, path sums

7. Topological Sort
= Used in Directed Acyclic Graphs when there's dependency (prerequisite) between nodes
_ Common in: course scheduling, task ordering

8. Dynamic Programming
= The final boss. For overlapping subproblems with optimal substructure
_ Used in: knapsack, DP on strings, grid paths, longest subsequences

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