WEEK 2

CE427- Foundation Engineering

Review on:
a. Index classification of soil
b. Soil classification

WHAT IS SOIL?
SOIL is defined as the uncemented aggregate of mineral grains and decayed organic matter (solid particles) along with the
liquid and gas that occupy the empty spaces between the solid particles.
WHAT IS FOUNDTION ENGINEERING?
Foundation engineering is the application and practice of the fundamental principles of soil mechanics and rock
mechanics (i.e., geotechnical engineering) in the design of foundations of various structures. These foundations include
those of columns and walls of buildings, bridge abutments, embankments, and others. It also involves the analysis and
design of earth-retaining structures such as retaining walls, sheet-pile walls, and braced cuts.
Foundation engineering is a clever combination of soil mechanics, engineering geology, and proper judgment derived
from past experience. To a certain extent, it may be called an art.

The design of foundations of structures such as buildings, bridges, and dams generally requires a knowledge of such
factors as:
(a) the load that will be transmitted by the superstructure to the foundation system,
(b) the requirements of the local building code,
(c) the behavior and stress-related deformability of soils that will support the foundation system, and
(d) the geological conditions of the soil under consideration.
The geotechnical properties of a soil can be assessed through:
Proper laboratory testing
 grain-size distribution,
 plasticity,
 compressibility,
 shear strength, etc..
Proper field testing
 Field density test,
 Borehole test,
 Plate load test, etc..
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REVIEW:
 GEOTECHNICAL PROPERTIES OF SOIL

INDEX PROPERTIES OF SOILS

The various properties of soil which would be considered as index properties are:
1. The specific gravity
2. The size and shape of particles
3. The relative density or consistency of soil
 Grain-Size Distribution
The grain-size distribution of coarse-grained soil is generally determined by means of sieve analysis. For a fine-grained
soil, the grain-size distribution can be obtained by means of hydrometer analysis.
 sieve analysis
Sieve analysis is conducted by taking a measured amount of dry, well-pulverized soil and passing it through a
stack of progressively finer sieves with a pan at the bottom. The amount of soil retained on each sieve is
measured, and the cumulative percentage of soil passing through each is determined. This percentage is generally
referred to as percent finer.
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 hydrometer analysis
Hydrometer analysis is based on the principle of sedimentation of soil particles in water. This test involves the use
of 50 grams of dry, pulverized soil. A deflocculating agent is always added to the soil.

Atterberg Limits or Consistency Limits

If the water content of a thick soil-water mixture is gradually reduced, the mixture passes from a liquid state to a plastic
state, then to a semi-solid state and finally to a solid state. The water contents at which the soil changes from one state to
the other are called Atterberg Limits or Consistency Limits.

Atterberg Limits Tests

1. Liquid Limit Test
A soil is placed in the grooving tool which consists of a brass cup and a hard rubber base. A groove is cut at the
center of the soil pat using a standard grooving tool. The cup is then repeatedly dropped from a height of 10mm
until a groove closure of 12.7mm. The soil is then removed and its moisture content is determined. This test is
repeated at various moisture contents with the corresponding number of drops. The soil is said to be at its liquid
limit when exactly 25 drops are required to close the groove for a distance of 12.7mm (one half of an inch).

2. Plastic Limit Test

A soil sample is rolled into threads until it becomes thinner and eventually breaks at 3mm. It is defined as the
moisture content in percent at which the soil crumbles when rolled into threads of 3.0mm. If it is wet, it breaks at
a smaller diameter, if it is dry it breaks at a larger diameter.
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3. Shrinkage Limit Test
It is performed in the laboratory with a porcelain dish approximately 45mm in diameter and about 12.7mm high. The dish
is completely filled with wet soil. The mass and volume of the soil is then recorded. The dish is then oven dried, then the
mass and volume of the oven dried soil is also recorded.
The soil sinks during the drying process, so moisture is gradually lost from it. During the drying process it will reach a
stage at which more loss of moisture will result in no further volume change. The moisture content at which the soil mass
ceases to change is known as the shrinkage limit.
Definition of Terms

Plastic Limit ( PL) - water content below which the soil stops behaving as a plastic material.

Liquid Limit ( LL) - the water content at which the soil changes from the liquid state to the plastic state.
Shrinkage Limit ( SL) - smallest water content at which the oil is saturated or the maximum water content at which a
reduction of water content will not cause a decrease in the volume of soil mass

Plastic Index ( PI) - difference between liquid limit and plastic limit. It is a measure of the range of moisture content that
encompasses the plastic state.

Shrinkage ratio ( SR)- the ratio of a given volume change expressed as a percentage of dry volume, to the corresponding
change in water content.

Shrinkage Index ( SI) - the numerical difference between the plastic limit and the shrinkage limit.

Volumetric Shrinkage - change in volume expressed as a percentage of the dry volume when the water content is reduced
from a given value of the shrinkage limit.

Liquidity Index ( LI) - a ratio which signifies the relative consistency of a cohesive soil in the natural state. It is the ratio
of the difference between the in situ moisture content of soil and its plastic limit to the difference the liquid limit and the
plasticity index.

Flow Index ( If ) - the slope of the flow curve obtained when results from a percussion cup method or the cone penetration
method are graphed.

Toughness Index ( TI) - a measure of shear strength of a soil at a plastic limit.

Sensitivity - the ratio of the undisturbed strength to the remolded strength of clay soil at the same water content.

Activity of soil - the ratio of the plasticity index to the percentage of clay fraction finer than 0.002 mm.

Linear Shrinkage ( LS) - the decrease in one dimension, expressed as a percentage of the original dimension of the soil
mass, when the moisture content is reduced from the liquid limit to an oven-dry state
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Plasticity Index Consistency Index Liquidity Index
𝑷𝑰 = 𝑳𝑳 − 𝑷𝑳 𝑳𝑳 − 𝝎 𝝎 − 𝑷𝑳
CI = LI =
𝑳𝑳 − 𝑷𝑳 𝑳𝑳 − 𝑷𝑳
P.I. = Plasticity Index C.I. = Consistency Index 𝝎= in situ moisture content
L.L. = Liquid Limit P.I. = Plasticity Index L.I. = Liquidity Index
P.L. = Plastic Limit L.L. = Liquid Limit L.L. = Liquid Limit
P.L. = Plastic Limit P.L. = Plastic Limit
𝝎= moisture content
Shrinkage Index Flow Index Characteristics of Soil
𝑺𝑰 = 𝑷𝑳 − 𝑺𝑳 𝑰𝒇 = 𝝎𝟏 − 𝝎𝟐 When L.I. < 0 = brittle solid
S.I. = Shrinkage Index log (𝑁2/𝑁1) When L.I. < 1 = plastic
S.L. = Shrinkage Limit If = flow index When L.I. > 1 = liquid
P.L. = Plastic Limit ω1 = moisture content
Toughness Index corresponding to N1 blows
𝑷𝑰 ω2 = moisture content St = sensitivity of soil
TI =
𝑰𝒇 corresponding to N2 blows qu = unconfined compressive
TI = toughness index Sensitivity of Soil strength of soil
PI = plasticity index St = qu of disturbed clay
If = flow index qu of remolded clay
Shrinkage Limit M1 = mass of wet soil in the dish in grams
M2 = mass of dry soil in the dish in grams

V1 = initial volume of wet soil in the dish in cc

V2 = final volume of dry soil in the dish in cc
𝒎𝟐
ρW = density of water (1 gr/cm3)
Geotechnical Properties of SOIL
 Distribution Curve
A particle-size distribution curve can be used to determine the following four parameters for a given soil:
1. Effective size (D10): This parameter is the diameter in the particle-size distribution curve corresponding to 10% finer.
The effective size of a granular soil is a good measure to estimate the hydraulic conductivity and drainage through soil.
2. Uniformity coefficient (Cu): This parameter is defined as:

where D60 = diameter corresponding to 60% finer.

3. Coefficient of gradation (Cc):
This parameter is defined as:
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4. Sorting coefficient (S0): This parameter is another measure of uniformity and is generally encountered in geologic
works and expressed as:

Curve I represents a type of soil in which most of the soil grains are the same size. This is called poorly graded soil.
Curve II represents a soil in which the particle sizes are distributed over a wide range, termed well graded. A well-graded
soil has a uniformity coefficient greater than about 4 for gravels and 6 for sands, and a coefficient of gradation between 1
and 3 (for gravels and sands). A flat S-curve represents a soil which contains the particles of different sizes in good
proportion.
Curve III represents a soil might have a combination of two or more uniformly graded fractions. This type of soil is
termed gap graded. A curve with a hump in which some of the intermediate size particles are missing.
2. Size Limits for Soil
Several organizations have attempted to develop the size limits for gravel, sand, silt, and clay on the basis of the grain
sizes present in soils.
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 Activity
Skempton (1953) observed that the plasticity index of a soil increases linearly with the percentage of clay-size fraction (%
finer than 2 mm by weight) present. The correlations of PI with the clay-size fractions for different clays plot separate
lines. This difference is due to the diverse plasticity characteristics of the various types of clay minerals. On the basis of
these results, Skempton defined a quantity called activity, which is the slope of the line correlating PI and % finer than 2
mm. This activity may be expressed as:

 Volume-weight Relationship
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(a) Soil element in natural state; (b) three phases of the soil element

 SOIL CLASSIFICATION SYSTEMS

The two major classification systems presently in use are:
(1) American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials (AASHTO) System
- Originally proposed by the Highway Research Board’s Committee on Classification of Materials for Subgrades and
Granular Type Roads (1945)
- Soils can be classified according to eight major groups, A-1 through A-8, based on their grain-size distribution,
liquid limit, and plasticity indices.
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Soils listed in groups A-1, A-2, and A-3 are coarse-grained materials, and those in groups A-4, A-5, A-6, and A-7 are
fine-grained materials.
- Peat, muck, and other highly organic soils are classified under A-8. They are identified by visual inspection
For qualitative evaluation of the desirability of a soil as a highway subgrade material, a number referred to as the
group index has also been developed. The higher the value of the group index for a given soil, the weaker will be the
soil’s performance as a subgrade. A group index of 20 or more indicates a very poor subgrade material.
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(2) Unified Soil Classification System (also ASTM).
- Originally proposed by A. Casagrande in 1942 and was later revised and adopted by the United States Bureau of
Reclamation and the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers
- The system is currently used in practically all geotechnical work.

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