INTRODUCTION

! The term mutation refers to a heritable change in

the genetic material

! Mutations provide allelic variations

– On the positive side, mutations are the foundation for
evolutionary change
– On the negative side, mutations are the cause of many
diseases

! Since mutations can be quite harmful, organisms

have developed ways to repair damaged DNA
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 Mutations are the ultimate source of
all genetic change
" Gene mutation:
" mutational events (changes in the DNA sequence) that take
place within individual genes.
" These changes may or may not result in altering the spatial
or functional state of the protein or the level of activity or
specificity of the protein.

" Chromosome mutation:

" mutational events that affect the entire chromosome or large
pieces of the chromosome.
" These affects will mainly result in gene dosage defects.

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 Random vs Adaptive Mutation
! Does mutation cause random variation leading to
adaptation, or does the environment induces heritable
adaptations?????
– Lamarckism is the doctrine of inheritance of acquired characteristics.

– The random mutation doctrine says that sometimes chance changes

happen to be adaptive, thus altering phenotype by changing a
protein (Figure 15.1).

– The observation that phage T1–resistant E. coli arise could be

interpreted to support either of these theories.

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 Random vs Adaptive Mutation
! An E. coli population that started from one cell would
show different patterns of T1 resistance depending on
which model is correct.
– The adaptive theory says that cells are induced to
become resistant to T1 when it is added.
" Therefore, the proportion of resistant cells would be the
same for all cultures with the same genetic background.
– The mutation theory says that random events confer
resistance to T1, whether the phage is present or not.
" Cultures will therefore show different numbers of
T1–resistant cells, depending on when the resistance
mutation(s) occurred.

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 Fig. 15.1
Representation of a dividing population of T1 phage-sensitive wild-
type E. coli

Adaptive

Random

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 Mutation vs. Adaptation

! Results:
Luria and Delbrück observed fluctuating numbers of
resistant bacteria from E. coli cultures

– indicating that the random mutation model is correct.

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 Mutations Defined
! A mutation is a change in a DNA base pair or a
chromosome.
1. Somatic mutations affect only the individual in which
they arise.
2. Germ-line mutations alter gametes, affecting the next
generation.

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 The size of the patch
will depend on the
timing of the mutation
The earlier the mutation,
the larger the patch

An individual who has

somatic regions that are
genotypically different
from each other is
called a genetic mosaic
Therefore, the
mutation can be
passed on to Therefore, the mutation cannot be
future generations passed on to future generations

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 Mutations Defined
! Mutations are quantified in two different ways:
! Mutation rate is the probability of a particular kind of
mutation as a function of time
(e.g., number per gene per generation).

! Mutation frequency is the number of times a

particular mutation occurs in proportion to the
number of cells or individuals in a population
(e.g., number per 100,000 organisms).

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Not All Nucleotide Changes Result in Changes in
Protein Activity

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 Mutations : Substitution
! one base is replaced by one of the other three bases

– Transition -
" purine-purine and pyrimidine-pyrimidine
" Only one choice
" C to T or G to A and vice versa
– Transversion -
" purine-pyrimidine
" Two choices
" C or T to G or A; and vice versa

! Also known as a Point Mutation (single base pair change)

! Which occurs more often?
– Transition
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 Fig. 15.3a-d Types of base-pair substitution mutations

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12
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 What Point Mutations/Base
Substitutions Do to the Protein
! Mutations in the coding sequence of a structural gene can
have various effects on the polypeptide
– Silent mutations are those base substitutions that do not alter the
amino acid sequence of the polypeptide
" Due to the degeneracy of the genetic code

– Missense mutations are those base substitutions in which an amino

acid change does occur
" Example: Hemoglobin in sickle-cell anemia
" NOTE: If the substituted amino acids have similar chemistry, the
mutation is said to be neutral

– Nonsense mutations are those base substitutions that change a

normal codon to a termination codon
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Fig. 14.3 Types of base-pair substitution mutations

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 Fig. 15.4 A nonsense mutation and its effect on translation

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 Fig. 7.3e-g Types of base-pair substitution mutations

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 Point Mutations: Deletions & Insertions

! Deletions and insertions can change the reading

frame of the mRNA downstream of the
mutation, resulting in a frameshift mutation.
– When the reading frame is shifted, incorrect amino
acids are usually incorporated.
– Frameshifts may bring stop codons into the reading
frame, creating a shortened protein.
– Frameshifts may also result in read-through of stop
codons, resulting in a longer protein.
– Frameshift mutations result from insertions or
deletions when the number of affected base pairs is
not divisible by three.
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 The Reading Frame & Shifts
! The reading frame (ORF) of a gene is similar to the reading
frame of a sentence, there is only one correct way to read it!
– The sun was hot but the old man was not

! If we insert a new letter (base) into the sentence, we shift

the reading frame:
– ATh esu nwa sho tbu tth eol dma nwa sno t

! As you can see, this results in a nonsensical sentence, and

will result in the formation of a nonsensical RNA message in
cells.

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The Reading Frame & Shifts

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 Point Mutations: Phenotypic Effect
! Point mutations are divided into two classes based
on their effect on phenotype:
1. Forward mutations change the genotype from wild type
to mutant.
2. Reverse mutations (reversions or back mutations)
change the genotype from mutant to wild type or
partially wild type.
" A reversion to the wild-type amino acid in the affected
protein is a true reversion.
" A reversion to some other amino acid that fully or partly
restores protein function is a partial reversion.

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 Spontaneous and Induced Mutations
! Spontaneous are more frequent than induced mutations

! Spontaneous
– DNA Replication Errors
– Spontaneous chemical changes

! Induced
– Physical Mutagens
" X-ray Irradiation
" UV Irradiation

– Chemical Mutagens

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 DNA Replication Errors
! can be either point mutations
! or small insertions or deletions.
! bases can form incorrect base pairs when the bases
undergo a spontaneous chemical mutatin within the
cell.
– This can allow a G to base pair with a T, and a C to pair
with an A.
– GT base pairs are targets for correction by proofreading
during replication, and by other repair systems.
– Only mismatches uncorrected before the next round of
replication lead to mutations
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 DNA Replication Errors
! Additions and deletions can occur spontaneously
during replication (Figure 15.8).
– DNA loops out from the template strand
" generally in a run of the same base.
– DNA polymerase skips the looped-out bases
" creating a deletion mutation.
– If DNA polymerase adds untemplated base(s)
" new DNA looping occurs, resulting in additional mutation.
– Insertions and deletions in structural genes generate
frameshift mutations
" if they are not in multiples of three.

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Fig. 15.8 Spontaneous generation of addition and deletion
mutants by DNA looping-out errors during replication

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 Spontaneous Chemical Changes
! can lead to incorrect base pairing during replication,
or worse, an interruption of replication.
! include depurination and deamination of particular
bases

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 Fig. 15.9

Deamination of
cytosine to uracil

Deamination of
5-methylcytosine
to thymin3-

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 X-ray Radiation
! X-rays are an example of ionizing radiation
! penetrates tissue and collides with molecules
– knocking electrons out of orbits and creating ions.
" Ions can break covalent bonds, including those in the DNA sugar-
phosphate backbone.
" Ionizing radiation is the leading cause of human gross
chromosomal mutations.
" Ionizing radiation has a cumulative effect.

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 UV Radiation
! Ultraviolet (UV) causes photochemical changes in the DNA.
– UV is not energetic enough to induce ionization.
! UV has lower-energy wavelengths than do X-rays
– has limited penetrating power to skin only
! A common effect of UV radiation is the formation of dimers
between adjacent pyrimidines, commonly thymines
– designated T^T) (Figure 15.10).
– Any pyrimidine dimer can cause problems during DNA replication.
– Most pyrimidine dimers are repaired because they produce a bulge in
the DNA helix.
– If enough are unrepaired, cell death may result.

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 Fig. 15.10
Production of thymine dimers by ultraviolet light irradiation

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 Chemical Mutagens
! A wide variety of chemicals exist in our
environment, and many can have mutagenic effects
that can lead to genetic diseases and cancer.
Examples include:
– Drugs
– Cosmetics
– Food additives
– Pesticides
– Industrial compounds
– Chemical warfare agents such as mustard gas

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 Chemical Mutagens:
! Base modifiers covalently modify the structure of a nucleotide
– For example, nitrous acid, replaces amino groups with keto groups
(–NH2 to =O)
" Examples: Nitrogen mustards and ethyl methanesulfonate (EMS)

! Intercalating agents contain flat planar structures that

intercalate themselves into the double helix
– This distorts the helical structure
– At replication, a template that contains an intercalated agent will cause
insertion of a random extra base.
– The base-pair addition is complete after another round of replication, during
which the intercalating agent is lost.
" Examples:
– Ethidium Bromide
– SYBR Safe

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 Homework Problems
! Chapter 15

! #1, 2, 3, 5, 9, 11, 14,

! DON’T forget to take the online QUIZ A

! DON’T forget to submit the online iActivity
– “Overview A”

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