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 Advanced Computational Methods in

Heat Transfer IX

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 NINTH INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON
ADVANCED COMPUTATIONAL METHODS IN HEAT
TRANSFER

HEAT TRANSFER IX

CONFERENCE CHAIRMEN

B. Sundén
Lund Institute of Technology, Sweden

C. A. Brebbia
Wessex Institute of Technology, UK

INTERNATIONAL SCIENTIFIC ADVISORY COMMITTEE

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Advanced Computational Methods in

Heat Transfer IX

Editors

B. Sundén
Lund University of Technology, Sweden

C. A. Brebbia
Wessex Institute of Technology, UK
B. Sundén
Lund Institute of Technology, Sweden

C. A. Brebbia
Wessex Institute of Technology, UK

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from the British Library

ISBN: 1-84564-176-0
ISSN: 1746-4471 (print)
ISSN: 1743-3533 (online)

The texts of the papers in this volume were set individually

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 Preface

Research and developments of computational methods for solving and

understanding heat transfer problems continue to be important because heat transfer
topics are commonly of a complex nature and different mechanisms like heat
conduction, convection, turbulence, thermal radiation and phase change may occur
simultaneously. Although heat transfer might be regarded as an established and
mature scientific discipline, its role and relevance in sustainable development and
reduction of greenhouse gases as well as for micro- and nanoscale structures and
bio-engineering have been identified recently. Non-linear phenomena may, besides
the momentum transfer, appear due to temperature-dependent thermophysical
properties. In engineering design and development works, reliable and accurate
computational methods are requested to replace or complement expensive and time
comsuming experimental trial and error work. Tremendous advancements have been
achieved during recent years due to improved numerical solution approaches of
non-linear partial differential equations and computer developments to achieve
efficient and rapid calculations by parallelised computations on, e.g., PC-clusters.
Nevertheless, to further progress computational methods in heat transfer,
developments in theoretical and predictive procedures, both basic and innovative,
and applied research are needed. To validate the numerical calculations accurate
experimental investigations are needed.
This book contains the edited versions of the papers presented at the Ninth
International Conference on Advanced Computational Methods and Experimental
Measurements in Heat Transfer and Mass Transfer held in the New Forest, Ashurst
Lodge, Ashurst, UK in July 2006. The objective of this conference series is to
provide a forum for presentation and discussion of advanced topics, new approaches
and application of advanced computational methods and experimental measurements
to heat and mass transfer problems. All papers have been reproduced directly from
material submitted by the authors but an attempt has been made to use a unified
outline and methods of presentation for each paper. The contributed papers are
grouped in appropriate sections to provide better access for readers. The selected
sections show the wide range of applied and fundamental problems in the heat and
mass transfer field.
The editors would like to thank all the distinguished and wellknown scientists
who supported our efforts by serving in the International Scientific Advisory
Committee, reviewing the submitted abstracts and papers. The excellent administrative
work of the conference secretariat at WIT is greatly appreciated and the efficient co-
operation and encouragement by the staff at WIT Press contributed significantly in
producing the conference proceedings.

The Editors,
May 2006
 Contents

Section 1: Natural and forced convection

A discussion on finite-difference schemes for low Prandtl number

Rayleigh-Bénard convection
X. Luo & W.-K. Chen ............................................................................................3

A numerical study of the convective heat transfer between a room and

a window covered by a partially open plane blind with a gap at the top
P. H. Oosthuizen .................................................................................................13

An analytical solution to the Graetz problem with viscous dissipation

for non-Newtonian fluids
R. Chiba, M. Izumi & Y. Sugano .........................................................................23

Heat transfer by unsteady laminar mixed convection in 2-D ventilated

enclosures using the vorticity-stream function formulation
S. Boudebous & Z. Nemouchi .............................................................................33

Effect of roughness shape on heat transfer and flow friction characteristics

of solar air heater with roughened absorber plate
A. Chaube, P. K. Sahoo & S. C. Solanki .............................................................43

Study of conjugate heat transfer accompanying mixed convection in

a vertical tube submitted to a step of entry temperature
O. Kholai, M. Kadja & T. H. Mai .......................................................................53

Section 2: Advances in computational methods

An interaction of a sonic injection jet with a supersonic turbulent flow

approaching a re-entry vehicle to atmosphere
D. Sun & R. S. Amano .........................................................................................65
Simulation of coupled nonlinear electromagnetic heating with
the Green element method
A. E. Taigbenu.....................................................................................................77

Lattice Boltzmann simulation of vortices merging in

a two-phase mixing layer
Y. Y. Yan & Y. Q. Zu............................................................................................87

A numerical solution of the NS equations based on

the mean value theorem with applications to aerothermodynamics
F. Ferguson & G. Elamin ...................................................................................97

Solution of the radiative transfer problems in two-dimensional

participating cylindrical medium with isotropic scattering using the
SKN approximation
N. Döner & Z. Altaç ..........................................................................................109

Presentation of the hemisphere method

P. Vueghs & P. Beckers ....................................................................................121

Temperature identification based on pointwise transient measurements

A. Nassiopoulos & F. Bourquin ........................................................................131

Section 3: Heat and mass transfer

Heat transfer in 3D water and ice basins

S. Ceci, L. De Biase & G. Fossati.....................................................................143

Coupled heat and moisture transport in a building envelope on

cast gypsum basis
J. Maděra, P. Tesárek & R. Černý....................................................................153

Spray water cooling heat transfer under oxide scale formation conditions
R. Viscorova, R. Scholz, K.-H. Spitzer & J. Wendelstorf ..................................163

How to design compact mass transfer packing for maximum efficiency

H. Goshayshi .....................................................................................................173

Autowave regimes of heat and mass transfer in the non-isothermal

through-reactors
A. M. Brener & L. M. Musabekova ...................................................................181
Experimental studies of heat transfer between crystal, crucible elements,
and surrounding media when growing large-size alkali halide ingots
with melt feeding
V. I. Goriletsky, B. V. Grinyov, O. Ts. Sidletskiy, V. V. Vasilyev,
M. M. Tymoshenko & V. I. Sumin .....................................................................191

Modelling of heat and mass transfer in water pool type storages for
spent nuclear fuel
E. Fedorovich, A. Pletnev & V. Talalov............................................................199

Section 4: Modelling and experiments

Experimental study of in-line tube bundle heat transfer in

vertical foam flow
J. Gylys, S. Sinkunas, V. Giedraitis & T. Zdankus............................................213

Use of graphics software in radiative heat transfer simulation

K. Domke...........................................................................................................221

On heat transfer variation in film flow related with surface cross curvature
S. Sinkunas, J. Gylys & A. Kiela .......................................................................231

Experimental investigation of enhanced heat transfer of self-exciting mode

oscillating flow heat pipe with non-uniform profile under laser heating
F. Shang, H. Xian, D. Liu, X. Du & Y. Yang.....................................................241

Investigation of heat transfer in the cup-cast method by experiment,

and analytical method
F. Pahlevani, J. Yaokawa & K. Anzai...............................................................249

Atwood number effects in buoyancy driven flows

M. J. Andrews & F. F. Jebrail ..........................................................................259

Testing of the vapour chamber used in electronics cooling

A. Haddad, R. Boukhanouf & C. Buffone .........................................................269

Modeling a real backdraft incident fire

A. Tinaburri & M. Mazzaro ..............................................................................279

Numerical and experimental studies in the development of

new clothing materials
E. L. Correia, S. F. C. F. Teixeira & M. M. Neves ...........................................289

Sensitivity analysis of a computer code for modelling confined fires

P. Ciambelli, M. G. Meo, P. Russo & S. Vaccaro.............................................299
Conservative averaging as an approximate method for solution of
some direct and inverse heat transfer problems
A. Buikis ............................................................................................................311

Section 5: Heat exchangers and equipment

Estimating number of shells and determining the log mean temperature

difference correction factor of shell and tube heat exchangers
S. K. Bhatti, Ch. M. Krishna, Ch. Vundru, M. L. Neelapu
& I. N. Niranjan Kumar ....................................................................................323

The re-commissioned thermosyphon reboiler research facility in

the Morton Laboratory
A. Alane & P. J. Heggs .....................................................................................337

Analysis of water condensation and two-phase flow in a channel relevant

for plate heat exchangers
J. Yuan, C. Wilhelmsson & B. Sundén ..............................................................351

Numerical heat transfer modelling of staggered array impinging jets

A. Ramezanpour, I. Mirzaee, R. Rahmani & H. Shirvani .................................361

The re-commissioning of a vent and reflux condensation research facility

for vacuum and atmospheric operation
J. C. Sacramento Rivero & P. J. Heggs ............................................................371

Heat transfer modelling in double pipes for domestic hot water systems
I. Gabrielaitiene, B. Sunden & J. Wollerstrand................................................381

Convective heat transfer investigations at parts of a generator circuit breaker

T. Magier, H. Löbl, S. Großmann, M. Lakner & T. Schoenemann ...................391

Simplified 3-D FE model of thermal conditions inside a shoe

H. Raval, Z. W. Guan, M. Bailey & D. G. Covill..............................................401

Section 6: Energy systems

Radiative heat transfer in a model gas turbine combustor

M. C. Paul & W. P. Jones .................................................................................413

Thermo-economics of an irreversible solar driven heat engine

K. M. Pandey & R. Deb ....................................................................................423
Analysis of a new solar chimney plant design for mountainous regions
M. A. Serag-Eldin..............................................................................................437

Section 7: Micro and nano scale heat and mass transfer

Sinusoidal regime analysis of heat transfer in microelectronic systems

B. Vermeersch & G. De Mey.............................................................................449

Viscous dissipation and temperature dependent viscosity effects in

simultaneously developing flows in flat microchannels with
convective boundary conditions
S. Del Giudice, S. Savino & C. Nonino.............................................................457

Experimental study of water evaporation from nanoporous cylinder surface

in natural convective airflow
S. Hara ..............................................................................................................467

Author index ....................................................................................................477

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 Section 1
Natural and forced convection
This page intentionally left blank
 Advanced Computational Methods in Heat Transfer IX 3

A discussion on finite-difference schemes

for low Prandtl number Rayleigh-Bénard
convection
X. Luo & W.-K. Chen
Institute of Thermal Engineering, University of Shanghai for Science and
Technology, People’s Republic of China

Dedicated to Prof. Dr.-Ing. Wilfried Roetzel on the occasion of his 70th birthday

Abstract
The natural convection in a horizontal fluid layer heated from below has
complex dynamic behaviour. For the Rayleigh-Bénard convection of low Prandtl
number fluids, the calculated flow and temperature fields are very sensitive to
the truncation error of numerical algorithms. Different kinds of finite-difference
schemes might yield different numerical results. In the present work the error
analysis of the upwind scheme and QUICK scheme for the Rayleigh-Bénard
convection of low Prandtl number fluid was conducted. It shows that the upwind
scheme will introduce numerical dispersion. This effect enlarges the viscosity
term of the momentum equations and therefore no oscillation could be predicted.
The QUICK scheme has higher calculation accuracy. However, it introduces an
additional third-order differential term which might overestimate the oscillation
effect.
Keywords: Rayleigh-Bénard convection, low Prandtl number fluid,
two-dimensional roll, finite-difference scheme, QUICK scheme.

1 Introduction
The natural convection in a horizontal layer confined by two rigid boundaries
and heated from below is well known as Rayleigh-Bénard convection. This
phenomenon reveals series non-linear characteristics and complex dynamic
behaviour and has been well investigated [1−2]. The studies of low Prandtl

WIT Transactions on Engineering Sciences, Vol 53, © 2006 WIT Press

www.witpress.com, ISSN 1743-3533 (on-line)
doi:10.2495/HT060011
4 Advanced Computational Methods in Heat Transfer IX

number Rayleigh-Bénard convection have been motivated not only by its

astrophysical applications but also by its special flow and heat transfer
characteristics because in this case the non-linear inertial terms become
significant. Clever and Busse [3] used the Galerkin technique to obtain the
Nusselt number for low Prandtl number convection at various Rayleigh numbers.
According to the linear stability analysis, the critical Rayleigh number Rac and
critical wave number kc for two rigid boundaries are given as Rac = 1707.762 and
kc = 3.117, respectively [1]. Bertin and Ozoe [4] calculated the problem with a
finite-element method and found that Rac increases with the decrease of Pr. The
computed critical Rayleigh number for Pr = 0.01 and k = 3.14 is given as
Rac = 2095.0. Later Ozoe et al. [5] used a more accurate second-order central
difference scheme to solve the problem and the calculated Nusselt number
agreed closely with those of Clever and Busse [3]. The computed value of Rac
for all values of Pr also agreed well with the theoretical value. Their results show
that the Rayleigh-Bénard convection of low Prandtl number fluid is very
sensitive to the numerical algorithm.
As the Rayleigh number is larger than its critical value, the fluid begins to
move and forms a steady flow pattern of two-dimensional rolls parallel to each
other. For higher Rayleigh number the rolls become unsteady and the bending of
the rolls propagates along the roll axis in time. By means of stability analysis for
steady convection rolls Clever and Busse [6] discussed the oscillation instability
and the critical Rayleigh number Rat for the onset of oscillation. Later they found
that the transition from thermal convection in the form of rolls in a fluid layer
heated from below to travelling-wave convection occurs at Rat = 1854 in the
limit of low Prandtl numbers and in the presence of rigid boundaries [7]. Ozoe
and Hara [8] carried out numerical computations with a second-order central
difference approximation to predict Rat. The computing region is 4 times as large
as the height, i.e., the aspect ratio A = 4. For the grid size of 0.02, the oscillation
occurs at Rat ≈ 4500 for 4-roll pattern and Pr = 0.01. By extrapolation to zero
grid size they inferred that the critical oscillatory Rayleigh number Rat was less
than 2000. Yang et al. [9] and Wang et al. [10] used the SIMPLE algorithm with
QUICK (quadratic upwind interpolation of convective kinematics) scheme to
solve the same problem as that of Ozoe and Hara [8] with A = 4 and Pr = 0.01
and found that the fluid flow and heat transfer is steady and stable for Ra ≤ 2200.
Their numerical calculation showed that the oscillation occurs at Ra = 2500. As
has been mentioned by Yang et al. [11], for low Prandtl number fluid the
calculated Nusselt numbers with different numerical schemes are quite different.
They suggested a possible explanation that the problem might have bifurcations
and the results from different numerical schemes might lie at different branches
of the solution.
In the present work, this problem was solved numerically with the upwind
scheme, power law scheme and QUICK scheme. The Taylor series expansion
was used to analyse the truncation errors of the schemes. It was found that the
upwind scheme would introduce fictitious viscosity and underestimate the value
of Nusselt number. The QUICK scheme was more suitable for the low Prandtl

WIT Transactions on Engineering Sciences, Vol 53, © 2006 WIT Press

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 Advanced Computational Methods in Heat Transfer IX 5

number natural convection. However, it introduces a third-order differential term

which might affect the oscillation characteristics of the physical model.

Figure 1: Schematic diagram of the horizontal fluid layer heated from below.

2 Mathematical model
Let us consider a horizontal fluid layer with two rigid boundaries at its upper and
lower surfaces, as shown in fig. 1. The fluid layer is heated from below and
cooled from above. The temperatures at the upper and lower rigid boundaries are
Th and Tc, respectively, and Th > Tc. The fluid expands when it is heated,
therefore it suffers an upward buoyancy force. The problem is simplified with
the following assumptions: (1) The flow pattern is assumed to be
two-dimensional; (2) All properties of the fluid are constant except the density in
the buoyancy term of the momentum equation which is a linear function of the
fluid temperature; (3) The left and right boundaries are two symmetric
boundaries, that means that the wave number in this model is fixed.
The following dimensionless variables and parameters are used for the
modeling:

X = x H , Y = y H , τ = UR t H , U = u UR , V = v UR , A = L H ,

a Pr 1 ν gβ (Th − Tc )H 3
UR = RaPr , DV = , DT = , Pr = , Ra = .
H Ra RaPr a νa

We assume that at first there is no motion in the fluid, and the temperature
distribution is in a steady state. The steady-state temperature and reduced
pressure distributions can be expressed as

Tτ =0 = Tc + (Th − Tc )(1 − Y ) (1)

and

pτ =0 = ρU R2Y (1 − Y 2) . (2)

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6 Advanced Computational Methods in Heat Transfer IX

It is convenient to introduce the dimensionless temperature and pressure

perturbations,

T − Tτ =0 T − Tc
θ= = − (1 − Y ) , (3)
Th − Tc Th − Tc

p − pτ =0 p  Y
P= = − Y 1 −  . (4)
ρU R2 ρU R2  2

The dimensionless governing equation system can then be written as:

∂U ∂U ∂U ∂P  ∂ 2U ∂ 2U 
+U +V =− + DV  +  , (5)
∂τ ∂X ∂Y ∂X  ∂X
2
∂Y 2 

∂V ∂V ∂V ∂P  ∂ 2V ∂ 2V 
+U +V =− + DV  +  + θ , (6)
∂τ ∂X ∂Y ∂Y  ∂X
2
∂Y 2 

∂θ ∂θ ∂θ  ∂ 2θ ∂ 2θ 
+U +V = DT  +  + V , (7)
∂τ ∂X ∂Y  ∂X
2
∂Y 2 

∂U ∂V
+ = 0, (8)
∂X ∂Y

with the initial and boundary conditions

τ = 0: θ =P=0; (9)

∂V ∂θ
X = 0 and X = A : U= = =0; (10)
∂X ∂X

Y = 0 and Y = 1 : U =V =θ = 0. (11)

The average Nusselt number is calculated at the lower plate,

1 ∂θ
A

A ∫0 ∂Y
Nu = 1 − dX (12)
Y =0

The zero solution of the governing equation system (5)−(11) corresponds to

the motionless state which is stable for Ra < Rac. Even the fluid is stirred before,
the disturbance will gradually vanish and finally the fluid approaches the steady
state again. However, If Ra > Rac, this zero solution becomes unstable. Any

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 Advanced Computational Methods in Heat Transfer IX 7

small disturbance will be enlarged gradually and finally the Rayleigh-Bénard

convection will be set up. For small value of Ra − Rac, the motion is two-
dimensional. With the increase of the Rayleigh number, the flow becomes steady
three-dimensional flow, unsteady flow, and finally, turbulent flow [12].
In this paper eqns. (5)−(11) for Ra > Rac were solved with finite-difference
methods. The research was emphasised on the oscillatory characteristics of the
two-dimensional rolls, which reflects some special features of the upwind
scheme and QUICK scheme.

3 Comparison of finite-different schemes

Ozoe et al. [5] used the vorticity and stream function to eliminate the pressure
gradient terms in eqns. (5)−(11) and solved the problem by central differences
for the derivatives in space and alternating-direction implicit differences for the
derivatives in time. They calculated the Nusselt number for Ra ≤ 3000 with the
aspect ratio A = 1. They found that the grid size had significant effect on the
calculated Nusselt number and had to extrapolate their results to the case of (∆X,
∆Y) → 0. As shown in table 1, their results agree well with those of Clever and
Busse [3] obtained by Galerkin method. No oscillation is found in their
calculation.

Table 1: The calculated Nusselt numbers from different sources.

Nu
(Pr = 0.01)
Clever and Ozoe and Ozoe and Yang et al. [9] and
Ra
Busse [3] Ukeba [5] Hara [8] Wang et al. [10]
k = 3.11 k = 3.14 k = 3.14 k = 3.14 k = 3.93
(1 roll) (4 rolls) (4 rolls) (5 rolls)
2000 1.01955 1.018 
2300 1.105 ** 1.094 1.104
2500 1.17335 1.18 ** 1.167 * 1.176 *
3000 1.33978 1.35 ** 1.269 * 1.355 *
*
4000 1.59614 1.511 1.609 *
5000 1.259 1.651 * 1.793 *
6000 1.89397 1.289 * 1.764 *
1.933 *
10000 2.22264 1.502 * 2.052 * 2.316 *
(*: The solution is oscillating; **: Data are extrapolated to zero grid size.)

Ozoe and Hara [8] further calculated the Nusselt number for higher Rayleigh
numbers, 4000 ≤ Ra ≤ 2.8×105. The data listed in table 1 are taken from
fig. 2 of [8]. These data are calculated under the grid size of 0.02. Their

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8 Advanced Computational Methods in Heat Transfer IX

calculation shows that the oscillation appears when Ra ≥ 6000. However, their
predicted values of Nu are much lower than those of Clever and Busse [3].
We calculated the problem by the SIMPLE algorithm [13] and upwind
scheme with Ra = 5000, Pr = 0.01, A = 4 and found that the grid size of 0.02
would yield Nu = 1.29 which is a little higher than that of Ozoe and Hara [8].
This value is not correct because the grid size of 0.01 would yield another value
of Nu = 1.46. No oscillation can be found in the numerical solutions. The power
law scheme yields the same results as the upwind scheme. Applying the Taylor
series expansion to the upwind scheme, we can find that the upwind scheme
introduces an additional dimensionless viscosity U∆X/2. In the above example,
because of the low Prandtl number, we have DV = 1.414×10−3. The maximum
dimensionless velocity Umax = 0.7776. Thus, for ∆X = 0.02, this fictitious
viscosity could be 5.5 times as large as the real viscosity and therefore leads to a
lower value of Nu.
Yang et al. [11] compared the QUICK scheme with the power law scheme
and found that for natural convection of low Prandtl number fluids the QUICK
scheme provides higher accuracy. Therefore, the QUICK scheme was used in the
calculations of Yang et al. [9] and Wang et al. [10]. Some results for Pr = 0.01,
A = 4 and ∆X = ∆Y = 0.02 are shown in table 1. The calculated values of Nu for 4
rolls are close to those of Clever and Busse [3].
Applying the Taylor series expansion to the QUICK scheme,

φ ( X ,τ ) − φ ( X ,τ − ∆τ ) U  3 3 7
+ φ ( X ,τ ) + φ ( X + ∆X ,τ ) − φ ( X − ∆X ,τ )
∆τ ∆X  8 8 8

1  φ ( X + ∆X ,τ ) + φ ( X − ∆X ,τ ) − 2φ ( X ,τ )
+ φ ( X − 2∆X ,τ ) = D , (13)
8  ∆X 2

we have,

∂φ ∂φ ∂ 2φ
+ O(∆τ ) + U =D + R ( ∆X 2 ) , (14)
∂τ ∂X ∂X 2

in which

∆X 2  ∂ 4φ ∂ 3φ 
R (∆X 2 ) =  D − U  + O(∆X 3 ) . (15)
24  ∂X 4 ∂X 3 

It shows that the QUICK scheme does not introduce the fictitious viscosity term
and has the truncation error of O(∆X 2), therefore the predicted Nu values are
more accurate.
Wang et al. [10] also used the QUICK scheme to predict the roll oscillation.
They found that for Pr = 0.01, A = 4 and ∆X = ∆Y = 0.02 the oscillation occurs at
Ra = 2500, which is much higher than the theoretical value of the critical

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 Advanced Computational Methods in Heat Transfer IX 9

oscillatory Rayleigh number, Rat =1854. However, they neither tested the effect
of the grid size on the oscillation characteristics nor analysed the stability
characteristics of the QUICK scheme.
For low Prandtl number fluid, we have D/U ~ 10−2. Thus, eqn. (15) is
simplified as,

U∆X 2 ∂ 3φ
R (∆X 2 ) = − + O(∆X 3 ) . (16)
24 ∂X 3

In such a case, the QUICK scheme will introduce an additional term into the
governing equations which affects the oscillation characteristics of the Rayleigh-
Bénard convection. In fact, the stability of the QUICK scheme is conditional.
The stability condition is given as [14],

U∆X 8
P∆ = ≤ . (17)
D 3

For Ra = 2500, Pr = 0.01 and ∆X = 0.02, the maximum dimensionless velocity

Umax = 0.867, which yields P∆ = 8.67 and the condition (17) can no longer be
valid. Although an oscillation solution can be obtained with the QUICK scheme,
but it is not sure whether this oscillation is caused by the instability of the
numerical scheme or by the characteristics of the physical problem or by both of
them.
To verify the numerical schemes, two critical values should be considered.
One is the critical oscillatory Rayleigh number Rat, which is difficult to be
determined with direct numerical simulation. By extrapolation to zero grid size,
Ozoe and Hara [8] estimated that Rat < 2000, which is near to the theoretical
value, Rat = 1854. We tested a calculation with QUICK scheme for Ra = 2000,
Pr = 0.01 and ∆X = 0.005. And contrary to our expectation, after several
thousand hours of computing time of a PC with a 2.8 GHz CPU, we obtained a
steady convection (The relative velocity disturbance ∆U/Umax was
less than 10−9). When we added a small disturbance in Rayleigh number, an
oscillatory disturbance was set up. The disturbance of the maximum vertical
velocity component is shown in fig. 2. At τ = 30, there is some change in the
frequency. After that point the oscillation becomes violent. Then, at about τ = 55,
we increased the iteration accuracy and set the minimum iteration times to 3.
And the oscillation gradually vanished. The solution reached the steady
convection again.
The other criterion is the oscillation frequency. According to fig. 12 of Clever
and Busse [6], the theoretical frequency of the oscillatory disturbance for
Pr = 0.01 and Ra = 2500 is about 0.01 (after the conversion between different
definitions of dimensionless time). But the QUICK scheme of Yang et al. [11]
with the grid size of 0.02 resulted a frequency of 0.3125 (see fig. 2 of [11]). Our
calculation with the QUICK scheme gave a frequency of 0.3344. Both of them
are much larger than the theoretical value given by Clever and Busse [6].

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10 Advanced Computational Methods in Heat Transfer IX

Figure 2: Velocity disturbance due to a disturbance in Rayleigh number

(Ra = 2000, Pr = 0.01, A = 4 and ∆X = 0.005).

These examples show that the Rayleigh-Bénard convection of low Prandtl

number fluid is very sensitive to the oscillation characteristics of the finite-
difference schemes. Therefore, more accurate schemes should be developed for
the direct simulation of such a problem.

4 Conclusions
The Rayleigh-Bénard convection of low Prandtl number fluid is difficult to be
solved because of its nonlinear properties and special dynamic characteristics.
The two-dimensional transient numerical calculations with SIMPLE algorithm
were carried out to simulate such a problem. Different numerical schemes such
as upwind scheme, power law scheme and QUICK scheme were used in the
calculation. We find that the upwind scheme and power law scheme are not
suitable for the direct simulation of low Prandtl number Rayleigh-Bénard
convection because they will introduce a fictitious dispersion term. The QUICK
scheme provides an accuracy of the second order and will not introduce the
numerical dispersion into the problem to be solved. The predicted values of
Nusselt number are reasonably accurate. However, it fails to predict the critical
oscillatory Rayleigh number and the oscillation frequency because of the
stability and oscillation characteristics of the QUICK scheme itself. New
numerical schemes should be developed to simulate the low Prandtl number
Rayleigh-Bénard convection.
In the present work we have restricted our calculation with a fixed aspect ratio
A = 4, i.e., the wave number k = 3.14. In fact, the critical Rayleigh numbers also
depend on the wave number k and the number of rolls to be considered.

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 Advanced Computational Methods in Heat Transfer IX 11

Therefore, there remains a lot of unsolved problems in the numerical simulation

of the Rayleigh-Bénard convection.

Acknowledgements
The present research was sponsored by the National Natural Science Foundation
of China (No. 50478113), Shanghai Leading Academic Discipline Project
(No. T0503) and Shanghai Pujiang Program (No. 05PJ14078).
Nomenclature
a thermal diffusivity, m2/s
A Aspect ratio, A = L/H
DT dimensionless thermal diffusivity, DT = 1 / RaPr
DV dimensionless viscosity, DV = Pr / Ra
g acceleration constant due to gravity, m/s2
H height of the fluid layer, m
k wave number;
heat conductivity, W/m2K
L width of the computing region, m
Nu Nusselt number, Nu = qH/[(Th − Tc)k]
p reduced pressure, N/m2
P dimensionless pressure perturbation, eqn. (4)
Pr Prandtl number, Pr = ν /a
q heat flux, W/m2
Ra Rayleigh number, Ra = gβ (Th − Tc)H 3/(νa)
Rat the critical oscillatory Rayleigh number
t time, s
Tc temperature of the upper plate, K
Th temperature of the lower plate, K
u velocity component in the x direction, m/s
U dimensionless velocity component in the x direction, U = u/UR
UR reference velocity, U R = a RaPr / H , m/s
v velocity component in the y direction, m/s
V dimensionless velocity component in the y direction, V = v/UR
x horizontal spatial coordinates, m
X dimensionless horizontal spatial coordinates, X = x/H
y vertical spatial coordinates, m
Y dimensionless vertical spatial coordinates, Y = y/H
Greek symbols
β volumetric coefficient of expansion, 1/K
ν kinematic viscosity, m2/s
θ dimensionless temperature perturbation, eqn. (3)
τ dimensionless time, τ = URt/H
Subscript
c critical value

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12 Advanced Computational Methods in Heat Transfer IX

References
[1] Getling, A.V., Rayleigh-Benard Convection—Structures and Dynamics,
World Scientific: Singapore, 1998.
[2] Koschmieder, E.L., Benard Cells and Taylor Vortices, Cambridge
University Press, 1993.
[3] Clever, R.M. & Busse, F.H., Low-Prandtl-number convection in a layer
heated from below, Journal of Fluid Mechanics, 102, 61−74, 1981.
[4] Bertin, H. & Ozoe, H., Numerical study of two-dimensional natural
convection in a horizontal fluid layer heated from below, by finite-element
method: influence of Prandtl number, International Journal of Heat and
Mass Transfer, 29(3), 439−449, 1986.
[5] Ozoe, H., Ukeba, H. & Churchill, S.W., Numerical analysis of natural
convection of low Prandtl number fluids heated from below, Numerical
Heat Transfer, Part A, 26, 363−374, 1994.
[6] Clever, R.M. & Busse, F.H., Transition to time-dependent convection,
Journal of Fluid Mechanics, 65, part 4, 625−645, 1974.
[7] Clever, R.M. & Busse, F.H., Convection at very low Prandtl numbers,
Physics of Fluids, Series A, 2(3), 334−339, 1990.
[8] Ozoe, H. & Hara, T., Numerical analysis for oscillatory natural convection
of low Prandtl number fluid heated from below, Numerical Heat Transfer,
Part A, 27, 307−317, 1995.
[9] Yang, M., Chui, X.-Y., Tao, W.-Q. & Ozoe, H., Bifurcation and oscillation
of natural convection in a horizontal layer of low Prandtl number fluid,
Journal of Engineering Thermophysics, 21(4), 461−465, 2000 (in Chinese).
[10] Wang, J.-G., Yang, M., Zhao, M., Cui, X.-Y. & Zhang, L.-X., Bifurcation
of natural convection for low Prandtl number fluid heated from below,
Journal of Engineering Thermophysics, 24(1), 76−78, 2003 (in Chinese).
[11] Yang, M., Li, X.-H., Tao, W.-Q. & Ozoe, H., Computation and Comparison
for heat and flow using a QUICK and other difference schemes, Journal of
Engineering Thermophysics, 20(5), 593−597, 1999 (in Chinese).
[12] Krishnamurti, R., Some further studies on the transition to turbulent
convection, Journal of Fluid Mechanics, 60(3), 285-303, 1973.
[13] Patankar, S.V., Numerical Heat Transfer and Fluid Flow, Hemisphere:
New York, 1980.
[14] Tao, W.-Q., Numerical Heat Transfer, Xi’an Jiaotong University Press:
Xi’an, pp. 220−231, 1988 (in Chinese).

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 Advanced Computational Methods in Heat Transfer IX 13

A numerical study of the convective heat

transfer between a room and a window
covered by a partially open plane blind
with a gap at the top
P. H. Oosthuizen
Department of Mechanical and Materials Engineering,
Queen’s University, Canada

Abstract
An approximate model of a window covered by a partially open plane blind has
been considered. The window is represented by a vertical isothermal wall section
which is exposed to a large surrounding room in which the mean temperature is
lower than the window temperature. The blind is represented by a thin straight
vertical wall which offers no resistance to heat transfer across it. The top of this
thin section is aligned with the top of the heated wall section. There is a thin
horizontal wall section at the top of the “blind”. This horizontal section does not
fully reach to the vertical wall with the result that there is a small gap between
the blind system and the vertical wall. The main purpose of this study was to
determine the effect of the size of this gap on the heat transfer rate from the
“window” to the room. The length of the thin vertical wall section is, in general,
less than the height of the window and thus represents a partially open blind.
Attention has only been given to the convective heat transfer from the window.
The governing equations, written in dimensionless form, have been solved using
a commercial finite-element based code. The solution has the following
parameters: Rayleigh number, Prandtl number, dimensionless horizontal distance
between the window and the blind, dimensionless distance of the bottom of the
blind above the bottom of the window and dimensionless size of the gap at the
top of the window. Results have only been obtained for a Prandtl number of 0.7.
Keywords: heat transfer, convection, windows, shading, blinds, numerical.

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doi:10.2495/HT060021
14 Advanced Computational Methods in Heat Transfer IX

1 Introduction
Blinds and other forms of covering can be used to reduce building energy use
and improved models for the effects of blinds on window heat transfer are
needed to assist in the development of systems that make the maximum use of
blinds for this purpose. The situation considered in the present study is an
approximate model of a window covered by a partially open plane blind. The
present work was undertaken as part of a wider study of the effect of window
coverings on the heat transfer rate from windows, particularly for the case where
the window is hotter than the room air, i.e., for the case where air-conditioning is
being used. The situation considered is shown in fig. 1. In this situation, the
window is represented by a vertical isothermal wall section with parallel
adiabatic wall sections above and below the heated section. This heated wall
section (the “window”) is exposed to a large surrounding room in which the
mean temperature is assumed to be known and lower than the window
temperature. The plane blind is represented by a thin straight vertical wall which
offers no resistance to heat transfer across it and in which conductive heat
transfer is negligible. The top of this thin wall section (i.e., of the “blind”) is
aligned with the top of the heated wall section (i.e., with the top of the “window.
There is a thin horizontal wall section at the top of the “blind” which is thus
normal to the “blind”. This horizontal section does not fully reach to the vertical
wall with the result that there is a small gap between the blind system and the
vertical wall.

Figure 1: Situation considered. The two limiting cases of a fully open (H=1)
and a fully closed (H=0) “blind” are shown on the right.

The main purpose of this study was to determine the effect of the
dimensionless size of this gap on the heat transfer rate from the “window” to the
room. The length of the thin vertical wall section (i.e., of the “blind”) is, in

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 Advanced Computational Methods in Heat Transfer IX 15

general, less than the height of the window and thus represents a partially open
plane or roller blind. Attention has only been given to the convective heat
transfer from the window, i.e., radiative heat transfer and the effects of solar
radiation have not been considered. Although the model used here is only an
approximation of the real situation, the results obtained with this model will give
an indication of the effect of the governing parameters on the convective heat
transfer rate from an actual window.
The present work was undertaken as part of a wider study of the effect of
window coverings on the heat transfer rate from windows particularly for the
case where the window is hotter than the room air, i.e. where air-conditioning is
being used, see for example Collins et al. [1–3], Machin et al. [4], Shahid et
al. [5]. These studies and those described by Duarte et al. [6] and Phillips et
al. [7] have concentrated on Venetian blinds. Some studies involving vertical
blinds have also been undertaken, e.g., see Oosthuizen et al. [8–10]. Some
studies of situations involving plane blinds have been undertaken, e.g., see
Oosthuizen [11–13]. However these studies have not considered the effect of a
gap between the wall and the top of the window-blind system. The present
study, as is the case in many of the previous studies mentioned above, considers
only the convective heat transfer. In window heat transfer situations the radiant
heat transfer can however be very important and can interact with the convective
flow, e.g. see Collins et al. [1] and Phillips et al. [14].

2 Solution procedure
The flow has been assumed to be laminar and two-dimensional. Fluid properties
have been assumed constant except for the density change with temperature that
gives rise to the buoyancy forces, this being treated by means of the Boussinesq
type approximation. The covering over the heated wall section (the “blind”) has
been assumed to offer no resistance to heat transfer and to have negligible
thickness so that conduction along it is negligible. The effects of radiative heat
transfer have been neglected. The governing equations have been written in
terms of dimensionless variables using the height, L’, of the heated wall section
(the “window”) as the length scale and the overall temperature difference (Tw –
Ta) as the temperature scale, Ta being the air temperature in the “room” to which
the window is exposed. It has been assumed that the “window” temperature, Tw,
is higher than the temperature of the air in the “room”. The resultant
dimensionless equations have been solved using a commercial finite-element
based code, FIDAP. Only the mean heat transfer rate from the isothermal surface
(the “blind”) will be considered here. This has been expressed in terms of a mean
Nusselt number, Nu, based on the window height, L’, and on the overall
temperature difference (Tw – Ta).

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16 Advanced Computational Methods in Heat Transfer IX

3 Results
The dimensionless governing equations have the following parameters:

1. the Rayleigh number based on the window height, L’, and on (Tw – Ta),
Ra
2. the Prandtl number, Pr
3. the dimensionless horizontal distance between the window and the
blind, W = W’ / L’
4. the dimensionless distance of the bottom of the blind above the bottom
of the window, H = H’ / L’.
5. the dimensionless gap between the horizontal top section of the blind
system and the top of the window, G =G’ / L’.

Here, as shown in fig. 1, G’ is the size of gap between the top of “blind system”
and “wall”, H’ is the height of bottom of thin wall section (i.e., of the “blind”)
above bottom of heated wall section (i.e., of the “window”) and W’ is the
distance of thin vertical wall section (i.e., the “blind”) from the heated wall
section (i.e., the “window”).
Because of the application being considered, results have only been obtained
for a Prandtl number of 0.7. Rayleigh numbers of between 10 3 and 10 8, H values
of between 0 and 1, W values of between 0.02 and 0.12, and G values of
between 0 and W have been considered. An H value of 0 corresponds to a “fully-
closed blind” while an H value of 1 corresponds to a “fully-open blind”, these
two cases being shown in fig. 1. Results were also obtained for the no-blind case
and the mean Nusselt numbers given for this case were found to be in excellent
agreement with values given by empirical equations for the mean natural
convective heat transfer rate from an isothermal vertical flat plate.
The effect of the dimensionless gap G on the mean Nusselt number for
various values of H and for Rayleigh numbers of 105, 106 and 107 is shown in
figs. 1, 2 and 3 respectively. These results are all for W = 0.1. It will be seen
from these figures that the gap size has the biggest effect on the heat transfer rate
when the Rayleigh number is low and the gap size is small. For example, it will
be seen from fig. 2 that for a Rayleigh number of 105 the value of G has quite a
significant effect on the Nusselt number at all values of G whereas it will be seen
from fig. 4 that for a Rayleigh number of 107 the value of G only has a
significant effect on the Nusselt number when G is less than greater than about
0.03. This is because at low Rayleigh numbers the thickness of the boundary
layer on the “window” is relatively large and significantly greater than the gap
size whereas at high Rayleigh numbers the thickness of the boundary layer on
the “window” is relatively small and can be significantly less than G with the
result that the gap size has only a small effect on the flow and therefore on the
heat transfer rate. This is illustrated by the typical streamline patterns shown in
fig. 5.

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 Advanced Computational Methods in Heat Transfer IX 17

Figure 2: Variation of mean Nusselt number with dimensionless gap size G

for various values of H for W = 0.1 and Ra =105.

Figure 3: Variation of mean Nusselt number with dimensionless gap size G

for various values of H for W = 0.1 and Ra =106.

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18 Advanced Computational Methods in Heat Transfer IX

Figure 4: Variation of mean Nusselt number with dimensionless gap size G

for various values of H for W = 0.1 and Ra =107.

Figure 5: Streamline patterns for W = 0.1, H = 0.8 and Ra =107 for G values
of from left to right of 0.02, 0.04, 0.06, and 0.08.

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 Advanced Computational Methods in Heat Transfer IX 19

The effect of the dimensionless “blind – window” spacing W on the mean

Nusselt number is illustrated by the results given in figs. 6 and 7. It will be seen
from these results that as W increases the mean Nusselt decreases but it then
passes through a minimum and then increases with increasing W. This form of
behaviour arises because when W is small then is very little convective motion in
the air between the blind and the window and the heat transfer is mainly by
conduction and heat transfer rate decreases as the thickness of the air layer
increases. However as W increases further, convective motion begins between
the blind and the window and this tends to increase the heat transfer rate and thus
leading the minimum in the Nu – W variation. It will also be seen from the
results given in figs. 6 and 7 that the value of W at which the minimum heat
transfer rate occurs increases with H at the smaller value of H considered. The
form of the variation of the Nusselt number with dimensionless blind opening,
H, is illustrated by the results given in fig. 8. It will be seen that as the result of
the presence of the top gap, the mean Nusselt number does vary linearly with H
as is sometimes assumed.

Figure 6: Variation of mean Nusselt number with dimensionless

window-blind spacing, W, for a Rayleigh number of 107 and
H = 0.4 for two values of G.

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20 Advanced Computational Methods in Heat Transfer IX

Figure 7: Variation of mean Nusselt number with dimensionless

window-blind spacing, W, for a Rayleigh number of 107 and
H = 0.8 for two values of G.

Figure 8: Variation of mean Nusselt number with dimensionless blind

opening H for a Rayleigh number of 107 and W = 0.1 for two
values of G.

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Title: The Young Pilgrim: A Tale Illustrative of "The Pilgrim's

Progress"

Author: A. L. O. E.

Release date: January 31, 2020 [eBook #61280]

Most recently updated: October 17, 2024

Language: English

Credits: Produced by Richard Hulse and the Online Distributed

Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This file
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Internet Archive)

*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE YOUNG

PILGRIM: A TALE ILLUSTRATIVE OF "THE PILGRIM'S PROGRESS"
***
MR. EWART AND MARK.

Page 22.
 THE
Young Pilgrim.

A Tale
ILLUSTRATIVE OF “THE PILGRIM’S PROGRESS.”

BY
A. L. O. E.,
AUTHOR OF “THE SHEPHERD OF BETHLEHEM,”
“THE SILVER CASKET,” ETC.

With Illustrations.

London:
T. NELSON AND SONS, PATERNOSTER ROW.
EDINBURGH; AND NEW YORK.
1887.
 Preface.
t may perhaps be necessary to give a brief explanation of
the object of this little work. It has been written as a
Child’s Companion to the Pilgrim’s Progress. That invaluable
work is frequently put into youthful hands long before the
mind can unravel the deep allegory which it contains;
and thus its precious lessons are lost, and it is only
perused as an amusing tale.
I would offer my humble work as a kind of translation, the term
which was applied to it by a little boy to whom I was reading it in
manuscript—a translation of ideas beyond youthful comprehension
into the common language of daily life. I would tell the child,
through the medium of a simple tale, that Bunyan’s dream is a
solemn reality, that the feet of the young may tread the pilgrim’s
path, and press on to the pilgrim’s reward.
I earnestly wish that I had been able more completely to carry out
the object set before me; but difficulties have arisen from the very
nature of my work. I have been obliged to make mine a very free
translation, full both of imperfections and omissions. This is more
especially the case where subjects are treated of in the Pilgrim’s
Progress which concern the deeper experience of the soul. Of fearful
inward struggles and temptations, such as befell the author of that
work, the gloom and horrors of the Valley of the Shadow of Death,
the little ones who early set out on pilgrimage usually know but
little. They find the stepping-stones across the Slough of Despond,
and are rarely seized by Giant Despair. It would be worse than
useless to represent the Christian pilgrimage as more gloomy and
painful than children are likely to find it.
There are other valuable parts of the Pilgrim’s Progress, such as
the sojourn in the House Beautiful, which is believed by many to
represent Christian communion, which could hardly be enlarged
upon in a design like mine; while the present altered appearance of
Vanity Fair has compelled me to wander still further from my
original, if I would draw a picture that could be recognized at the
present day, and be useful to the rising generation.
Such as it is, I earnestly pray the Lord of pilgrims to vouchsafe his
blessing on my little work. To point out to His dear children the holy
guiding light which marks the strait gate and the narrow path of life,
and bid them God speed on their way, is an office which I most
earnestly desire, yet of which I feel myself unworthy. I may at least
hope to lead my young readers to a nobler instructor, to induce them
to peruse with greater interest and deeper profit the pages of the
Pilgrim’s Progress, and to apply to their own characters and their
own lives the precious truths conveyed in that allegory.
A. L. O. E.
 Contents.
I. THE PILGRIM’S CALL, 13
II. DIFFICULTIES ON SETTING OUT, 25
III. MAN’S WAY OF WORKS, 33
IV. GOD’S GIFT OF GRACE, 44
V. A GLIMPSE OF THE CROSS, 52
VI. THE PILGRIM IN HIS HOME, 62
VII. THE ARBOUR ON THE HILL, 68
VIII. DANGERS, DIFFICULTIES, AND DOUBTS, 79
IX. THE ARMOUR AND THE BATTLE, 90
X. SHADOW AND SUNSHINE, 102
XI. THE TOUCHSTONE OF TRIAL, 111
XII. PILGRIMS CONVERSE BY THE WAY, 122
XIII. DISTANT GLIMPSE OF VANITY FAIR, 132
XIV. VEXATIONS OF VANITY FAIR, 143
XV. CITIZENS OF VANITY FAIR, 151
XVI. NEW AND OLD COMPANIONS, 159
XVII. LIFE IN THE GREAT CITY, 167
XVIII. FOGS AND MISTS, 181
XIX. DISAPPOINTMENT, 189
XX. THE PERILOUS MINE, 197
XXI. GREEN PASTURES AND STILL WATERS, 206
XXII. A FEW STEPS ASIDE, 215
XXIII. REGRETS, BUT NOT DESPAIR, 230
XXIV. A NEW DANGER, 239
XXV. THE LAKE AMONG THE ROCKS, 253
XXVI. COMING TO THE RIVER, 264
XXVII. THE CLOSE OF THE PILGRIMAGE, 271
XXVIII. CONCLUSION, 280
 List of Illustrations.
MR. EWART AND MARK, Frontispiece
AT THE GATE, 14
MARK AND HIS MOTHER, 29
HERDING SHEEP, 39
AT THE CHURCH, 57
MARK’S KINDNESS, 67
MARK’S INDIGNATION AT DECEIT, 76
MARK RESTORING THE LOST BIBLE, 86
MARK DISCOVERED BY LORD FONTONORE, 105
CHARLES’S STRUGGLE, 117
CHARLES AND HIS MOTHER’S PORTRAIT, 140
CLEMENTINA AT THE PIANO, 149
RETURNING FROM CHURCH, 162
THE PARTING WITH MR. EWART, 169
THE CONVERSATION IN THE PARK, 179
DRESSED FOR THE BALL, 188
CLEMENTINA AND ERNEST, 192
CHARLES AND FITZWIGRAM, 204
MR. STAINES AND THE TUTOR, 218
THE DISMISSAL, 228
THE CONFESSION AND ENTREATY, 233
THE NEW TUTOR, 242
THE APOLOGY, 251
THE RESCUE, 260
JACK RECEIVING THE BIBLE, 276
THE WELCOME BOX, 284
THE NEW BOOK, 285
THE YOUNG PILGRIM.
 CHAPTER I.
THE PILGRIM’S CALL.
 “I dreamed, and, behold, I saw a man clothed with rags standing
in a certain place, with his face from his own house, a book
in his hand, and a great burden upon his back.”—Pilgrim’s
Progress.

s this the way to the ruins of St. Frediswed’s shrine?” said

a clergyman to a boy of about twelve years of age, who
stood leaning against the gate of a field.
“They are just here, sir,” replied the peasant,
proceeding to open the gate.
“Just wait a moment,” cried a bright-haired boy who
accompanied the clergyman; “that is your way, this is mine,” and he
vaulted lightly over the gate.
“So these are the famous ruins!” he exclaimed as he alighted on
the opposite side; “I don’t think much of them, Mr. Ewart. A few
yards of stone wall, half covered with moss, and an abundance of
nettles is all I can see.”

AT THE GATE.
 “And yet this once was a famous resort for pilgrims.”
“Pilgrims,—what were they?” inquired the boy.
“In olden times, when the Romanist religion prevailed in England,
it was thought an act of piety to visit certain places that were
considered particularly holy; and those who undertook journeys for
this purpose received the name of pilgrims. Many travelled
thousands of miles to kneel at the tomb of our Lord in Jerusalem,
and those who could not go so far believed that by visiting certain
famous shrines here, they could win the pardon of their sins.
Hundreds of misguided people, in this strange, superstitious hope,
visited the abbey by whose ruins we now stand; and I have heard
that a knight, who had committed some great crime, walked hither
barefoot, with a cross in his hand, a distance of several leagues.”
“A knight barefoot! how strange!” cried young Lord Fontonore;
“but then he believed that it would save him from his sins.”
“Save him from his sins!” thought the peasant boy, who, with his
full earnest eyes fixed upon Mr. Ewart, had been drinking in every
word that he uttered; “save him from his sins! I should not have
thought it strange had he crawled the whole way on his knees!”
“Are there any pilgrims now?” inquired Fontonore.
“In Romanist countries there are still many pilgrimages made by
those who know not, as we do, the one only way by which sinners
can be accounted righteous before a pure God. But in one sense,
Charles, we all should be pilgrims, travellers in the narrow path that
leads to salvation, passing on in our journey from earth to heaven,
with the cross not in our hands but in our hearts; pilgrims, not to the
tomb of a crucified Saviour, but to the throne of that Saviour in
glory!”
Charles listened with reverence, as he always did when his tutor
spoke of religion, but his attention was nothing compared to that of
the peasant, who for the first time listened to conversation on a
subject which had lately been filling all his thoughts. He longed to
speak, to ask questions of the clergyman, but a feeling of awe kept
him back; he only hoped that the gentleman would continue to talk,
and felt vexed when he was interrupted by three children who ran
up to the stranger to ask for alms.
“Begging is a bad trade, my friends,” said Mr. Ewart gravely, “I
never like to encourage it in the young.”
“We’re so hungry,” said the youngest of the party.
“Mother’s dead, and father’s broke his leg!” cried another.
“We want to get him a little food,” whined the third.
“Do you live near?” asked Mr. Ewart.
“Yes sir, very near.”
“I will go and see your father,” said the clergyman.
The little rogues, who were accustomed to idle about the ruin to
gain pence from visitors by a tale of pretended woe, looked at each
other in some perplexity at the offer, for though they liked money
well enough, they were by no means prepared for a visit. At last
Jack, the eldest, said with impudent assurance, “Father’s not there,
he’s taken to the hospital, there’s only mother at home.”
“Mother! you said just now that your mother was dead.”
“I meant—” stammered the boy, quite taken by surprise; but the
clergyman would not suffer him to proceed.
“Do not add another untruth, poor child, to those which you have
just uttered. Do you not know that there is One above the heavens
who hears the words of your lips, reads the thoughts of your hearts
—One who will judge, and can punish?”
Ashamed and abashed, the three children made a hasty retreat.
As soon as they were beyond sight and hearing of the strangers,
Jack turned round and made a mocking face in their direction, and
Madge exclaimed in an insolent tone, “We weren’t going to stop for
his sermon.”
 “There’s Mark there that would take it in every word, and thank
him for it at the end,” said Jack.
“Oh, Mark’s so odd!” cried Ben; “he’s never like anybody else. No
one would guess him for our brother!”
These words were more true than Ben’s usually were, for the
bright-haired young noble himself scarcely offered a greater contrast
to the ragged, dirty children, than they with their round rustic faces,
marked by little expression but stupidity on that of Ben, sullen
obstinacy on Madge’s, and forward impudence on Jack’s, did to the
expansive brow and deep thoughtful eye of the boy whom they had
spoken of as Mark.
“Yes,” said Jack, “he could never even pluck a wild-flower, but he
must be pulling it to bits to look at all its parts. It was not enough to
him that the stars shine to give us light, he must prick out their
places on an old bit of paper, as if it mattered to him which way they
were stuck. But of all his fancies he’s got the worst one now; I think
he’s going quite crazed.”
“What’s he taken into his head?” said Madge.
“You remember the bag which the lady dropped at the stile, when
she was going to the church by the wood?”
Madge nodded assent, and her brother continued: “What fun we
had in carrying off and opening that bag, and dividing the things
that were in it! Father had the best of the fun of it though, for he
took the purse with the money.”
“I know,” cried Ben, “and mother had the handkerchief with lace
round the edge, and E. S. marked in the corner. We—more’s the
shame!—had nothing but some pence, and the keys; and Mark, as
the biggest, had the book.”
“Ah! the book!” cried Jack; “that’s what has put him out of his
wits!”
“No one grudged it him, I’m sure,” said Ben, “precious little any of
us would have made out of it. But Mark takes so to reading, it’s so
odd; and it sets him a thinking, a thinking: well, I can’t tell what folk
like us have to do with reading and thinking!”
“Nor I!” cried both Madge and Jack.
“I shouldn’t wonder,” said the latter, as stretched on the grass he
amused himself with shying stones at the sparrows, “I shouldn’t
wonder if his odd ways had something to do with that red mark on
his shoulder!”
“What, that strange mark, like a cross, which made us call him the
Red-cross Knight, after the ballad which mother used to sing us?”
“Yes; I never saw a mark like that afore, either from blow or
burn.”
“Mother don’t like to hear it talked of,” said Madge.
“Well, whatever has put all this nonsense into his head, father will
soon knock it out of him when he comes back!” cried Jack. “He’s left
off begging,—he won’t ask for a penny, and he used to get more
than we three together, ’cause ladies said he looked so interesting;
and he’ll not so much as take an egg from a nest,—he’s turned quite
good for nothing!”
Leaving the three children to pursue their conversation, we will
return to him who was the subject of it. That which had made them
scoff had made him reflect,—he could not get rid of those solemn
words, “There is One above the heavens who hears the words of
your lips, reads the thoughts of your hearts—One who will judge,
and can punish!” They reminded him of what he had read in his
book, The soul that sinneth it shall die; he knew himself to be a
sinner, and he trembled.
Little dreaming what was passing in the mind of the peasant, Mr.
Ewart examined the ruin without noticing him further, and Mark still
leant on the gate, a silent, attentive listener.
“I think, Charles,” said the tutor, “that I should like to make a
sketch of this spot, I have brought my paint-box and drawing block
with me, and if I could only procure a little water—”
 “Please may I bring you some, sir?” said Mark.
The offer was accepted, and the boy went off at once, still turning
in his mind the conversation that had passed.
“‘Pilgrims in the narrow path that leadeth to salvation,’—I wish
that I knew what he meant. Is that a path only for holy men like
him, or can it be that it is open to me? Salvation! that is safety,
safety from punishment, safety from the anger of the terrible God.
Oh, what can I do to be saved!”
In a few minutes Mark returned with some fresh water which he
brought in an old broken jar. He set it down by the spot where Mr.
Ewart was seated.
“Thanks, my good lad,” said the clergyman, placing a silver piece
in his hand.
“Good,” repeated Mark to himself; “he little knows to whom he is
speaking.”
“It would be tedious to you, Charles, to remain beside me while I
am sketching,” said Mr. Ewart; “you will enjoy a little rambling about;
only return to me in an hour.”
“I will explore!” replied the young lord gaily; “there is no saying
what curiosities I may find to remind me of the pilgrims of former
days.”
And now the clergyman sat alone, engaged with his paper and
brush, while Mark watched him from a little distance, and
communed with his own heart.
“He said that he knew the one, only way by which sinners could
be accounted righteous—righteous! that must mean good—before a
holy God! He knows the way; oh, that he would tell it to me! I have
half a mind to go up to him now; it would be a good time when he is
all by himself.” Mark made one step forward, then paused. “I dare
not, he would think it so strange. He could not understand what I
feel. He has never stolen, nor told lies, nor sworn; he would despise
a poor sinner like me. And yet,” added the youth with a sigh, “he
would hardly sit there, looking so quiet and happy, if he knew how
anxious a poor boy is to hear of the way of salvation, which he says
that he knows. I will go nearer; perhaps he may speak first.”
Mr. Ewart had begun a bold, clever sketch,—stones and moss,
trees and grass were rapidly appearing on the paper, but he wanted
some living object to give interest to the picture. Naturally his eye
fell upon Mark, in his tattered jacket and straw hat, but he forgot his
sketch as he looked closer at the boy, and met his sad, anxious
gaze.
“You are unhappy, I fear,” he said, laying down his pencil.
Mark cast down his eyes, and said nothing.
“You are in need, or you are ill, or you are in want of a friend,”
said the clergyman with kind sympathy in his manner.
“Oh, sir, it is not that—” began Mark, and stopped.
“Come nearer to me, and tell me frankly, my boy, what is weighing
on your heart. It is the duty, it is the privilege of the minister of
Christ to speak comfort to those who require comfort.”
“Can you tell me,” cried Mark, with a great effort, “the way for
sinners—to be saved?”
“The Saviour is the Way, the Truth, and the Life, the Gate by
which alone we enter into salvation. Believe on the Lord Jesus Christ
and thou shalt be saved. The just shall live by faith.”
“What is faith?” said Mark, gathering courage from the gentleness
with which he was addressed.
“Faith is to believe all that the Bible tells us of the Lord, His glory,
His goodness, His death for our sins, to believe all the promises
made in His Word, to rest in them, hope in them, make them our
stay, and love Him who first loved us. Have you a Bible, my friend?”
“I have.”
“And do you read it?”
 “Very often,” replied Mark.
“Search the Scriptures, for they are the surest guide; search them
with faith and prayer, and the Lord will not leave you in darkness,
but guide you by his counsel here, and afterward receive you to
glory.”
Mr. Ewart did not touch his pencil again that day, his sketch lay
forgotten upon the grass. He was giving his hour to a nobler
employment, the employment worthy of angels, the employment
which the Son of God Himself undertook upon earth. He was seeking
the sheep lost in the wilderness, he was guiding a sinner to the
truth.
“I hope that I have not kept you waiting,” exclaimed Charles, as
he came bounding back to his tutor; “the carriage has come for us
from the inn; it looks as if we should have rain, we must make haste
home.”
Mr. Ewart, who felt strongly interested in Mark, now asked him for
his name and address, and noted down both in his pocket-book. He
promised that, if possible, he would come soon and see him again.
“Keep to your good resolutions,” said the clergyman, as he walked
towards the carriage, accompanied by Charles; “and remember that
though the just shall live by faith, it is such faith as must necessarily
produce repentance, love, and a holy life.”
Mr. Ewart stepped into the carriage, the young lord sprang in after
him, the servant closed the door and they drove off. Mark stood
watching the splendid equipage as it rolled along the road, till it was
at last lost to his sight.
“I am glad that I have seen him—I am so glad that he spoke to
me—I will never forget what he said! Yes, I will keep to my good
resolutions; from this hour I will be a pilgrim to heaven, I will enter
at once by the strait gate, and walk in the narrow way that leadeth
unto life!”
 CHAPTER II.
DIFFICULTIES ON SETTING OUT.
 “They drew nigh to a very miry slough, that was in the midst of
the plain; and they being heedless, did both fall suddenly into
the bog. The name of the slough was Despond.”—Pilgrim’s
Progress.

vening had closed in with rain and storm, and all the
children had returned to the cottage of their mother. A
dirty, uncomfortable abode it looked, most unlike those
beautiful little homes of the peasant which we see so
often in dear old England, with the ivy-covered porch,
and the clean-washed floor, the kettle singing merrily
above the cheerful fire, the neat rows of plates ranged on
the shelf, the prints upon the wall, and the large Bible in the corner.
No; this was a cheerless-looking place, quite as much from
idleness and neglect as from poverty. The holes in the window were
stuffed with rags, the little garden in front held nothing but weeds,
the brick floor appeared as though it had never been clean, and
everything lay about in confusion. An untidy-looking woman, with
her shoes down at heel, and her hair hanging loose about her ears,
had placed the evening meal on the table; and round it now sat the
four children, busy with their supper, but not so busy as to prevent a
constant buzz of talking from going on all the time that they ate.
“I say, Mark,” cried Jack, “what did the parson pay you for
listening to him for an hour?”
“How much did you get out of him?” said Madge.
“Any money?” asked Ann Dowley, looking up eagerly.
Mark laid sixpence on the table.
“I daresay that you might have got more,” said Ben.
“I did get more—but not money.”
“What, food, or clothes, or—”
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