Chapter 2

Measurements
Opening Essay
Data suggest that a m ale child will weigh 50 % of his adult weight at about 11 years of age.
However, he will reach 50 % of his adult height at only 2 years of age. It is obvious, then, that
people eventually stop growing up but continue to grow out. Data also suggest that the average
hum an height has been increasing over tim e. In industrialized countries, the average height of
people increased 5.5 inches from 1810 to 1984. Most scientists attribute this sim ple, basic
m easurem ent of the human body to better health and nutrition.

Saylor URL: http://www.saylor.org/books Saylor.org

28
Source: Chart courtesy of Centers for Disease Control and
Prevention,http:/ / w w w .cdc.gov/ nchs/ nhanes.htm # Set%20 1.
In 1983, an Air Canada airplane had to m ake an em ergency landing because it unexpectedly ran
out of fuel; ground personnel had filled the fuel tanks with a certain number of pounds of fuel,
not kilogram s of fuel. In 1999, the Mars Clim ate Orbiter spacecraft was lost attempting to orbit
Mars because the thrusters were programm ed in term s of English units, even though the
engineers built the spacecraft using m etric units. In 1993, a nurse m istakenly adm inistered 23

Saylor URL: http://www.saylor.org/books Saylor.org

29
units of m orphine to a patient rather than the “2– 3” units prescribed. (The patient ultim ately
survived.) These incidents occurred because people weren’t paying attention to quantities.

Chem istry, like all sciences, is quantitative. It deals with quantities, things that have am ounts
and units. Dealing with quantities is very important in chem istry, as is relating quantities to
each other. In this chapter, we will discuss how we deal with numbers and units, including how
they are combined and m anipulated.

2.1 Expressing Numbers

LEARNING OBJECTIVE

1. Learn to express numbers properly.

Quantities have two parts: the num ber and the unit. The num ber tells “how m any.” It is im portant to be

able to express num bers properly so that the quantities can be com m un icated properly.

St a n d a r d n o t a t io n is the straightforward expression of a num ber. Num bers such as 17, 10 1.5, and

0 .0 0 446 are expressed in standard notation. For relatively sm all num bers, standard notation is fine.

However, for very large num bers, such as 30 6,0 0 0 ,0 0 0 , or for very sm all num bers, such as 0 .0 0 0 0 0 0 419,

standard notation can be cum bersom e because of the n um ber of zeros n eeded to place nonzero num bers

in the proper position.

Scie n t ific n o t a t io n is an expression of a num ber using powers of 10 . Powers of 10 are used to express

num bers that have m any zeros:

100 = 1

101 = 10

102 = 100 = 10 × 10

103 = 1,000 = 10 × 10 × 10

Saylor URL: http://www.saylor.org/books Saylor.org

30
 104 = 10,000 = 10 × 10 × 10 × 10

and so forth. The raised num ber to the right of the 10 indicating the num ber of factors of 10 in the original

num ber is the e xp o n e n t . (Scientific notation is som etim es called exponential notation .) The

exponent’s value is equal to the num ber of zeros in the num ber expressed in standard notation.

Sm all num bers can also be expressed in scientific notation but with negative expon ents:

10−1 = 0.1 = 1/10

10−2 = 0.01 = 1/100

10−3 = 0.001 = 1/1,000

10−4 = 0.0001 = 1/10,000

and so forth. Again , the value of the expon ent is equal to the num ber of zeros in the denom inator of the

associated fraction. A n egative expon ent im plies a decim al num ber less than one.

A num ber is expressed in scientific notation by writin g the first nonzero digit, then a decim al point, and

then the rest of the digits. The part of a num ber in scientific notation that is m ultiplied by a power of 10 is

called the co e fficie n t . Then determ ine the power of 10 needed to m ake that num ber into the original

num ber and m ultiply the written num ber by the proper power of 10 . For exam ple, to write 79,345 in

scientific notation,

79,345 = 7.9345 × 10,000 = 7.9345 × 104

Thus, the num ber in scientific notation is 7.9345 × 10 4 . For sm all num bers, the sam e process is used, but

the exponent for the power of 10 is negative:

0.000411 = 4.11 × 1/10,000 = 4.11 × 10−4

Typically, the extra zero digits at the end or the beginn ing of a num ber are not included. (See Figure 2.1

"Using Scientific Notation".)

Figure 2.1 Using Scientific Notation

The earth is about 93,0 0 0 ,0 0 0 m iles from the sun. In scientific notation, this is 9.3 × 10 7 m iles.

Saylor URL: http://www.saylor.org/books Saylor.org

31
 E XA M P L E 1

Express these numbers in scientific notation.

1. 306,000
2. 0.00884
3. 2,760,000
4. 0.000000559

Solution

1. The number 306,000 is 3.06 times 100,000, or 3.06 times 105. In scientific notation, the
number is 3.06 × 105.
2. The number 0.00884 is 8.84 times 1/1,000, which is 8.84 times 10−3. In scientific notation, the
number is 8.84 × 10−3.
3. The number 2,760,000 is 2.76 times 1,000,000, which is the same as 2.76 times 106. In
scientific notation, the number is written as 2.76 × 106. Note that we omit the zeros at the
end of the original number.
4. The number 0.000000559 is 5.59 times 1/10,000,000, which is 5.59 times 10−7. In scientific
notation, the number is written as 5.59 × 10−7.

Test Yourself

Express these numbers in scientific notation.

1. 23,070
2. 0.0009706

Saylor URL: http://www.saylor.org/books Saylor.org

32
Answers

1. 2.307 × 104
2. 9.706 × 10−4

Another way to determ ine the power of 10 in scientific notation is to count the num ber of places you need

to m ove the decim al point to get a num erical value between 1 and 10 . The num ber of places equals the

power of 10 . This num ber is positive if you m ove the decim al point to the right and negative if you m ove

the decim al point to the left:

56
↖

Many quantities in chem istry are expressed in scientific notation. When perform ing calculations, you m ay

have to enter a num ber in scientific notation into a calculator. Be sure you know how to correctly enter a

num ber in scientific notation into your calculator. Different m odels of calculators require different actions

for properly enterin g scientific notation . If in doubt, consult your instructor im m ediately.

KEY TAKEAWAYS
 Standard notation expresses a number normally.
 Scientific notation expresses a number as a coefficient times a power of 10.
 The power of 10 is positive for numbers greater than 1 and negative for numbers between 0 and
1.

EXERCISES

1. Express these numbers in scientific notation.

a. 56.9
b. 563,100
c. 0.0804
d. 0.00000667

Saylor URL: http://www.saylor.org/books Saylor.org

33
 2. Express these numbers in scientific notation.

a. −890,000
b. 602,000,000,000
c. 0.0000004099
d. 0.000000000000011

3. Express these numbers in scientific notation.

a. 0.00656
b. 65,600
c. 4,567,000
d. 0.000005507

4. Express these numbers in scientific notation.

a. 65
b. −321.09
c. 0.000077099
d. 0.000000000218

5. Express these numbers in standard notation.

a. 1.381 × 105
b. 5.22 × 10−7
c. 9.998 × 104

6. Express these numbers in standard notation.

Saylor URL: http://www.saylor.org/books Saylor.org

34
 a. 7.11 × 10−2
b. 9.18 × 102
c. 3.09 × 10−10

7. Express these numbers in standard notation.

a. 8.09 × 100
b. 3.088 × 10−5
c. −4.239 × 102

8. Express these numbers in standard notation.

a. 2.87 × 10−8
b. 1.78 × 1011
c. 1.381 × 10−23

9. These numbers are not written in proper scientific notation. Rewrite them so that they are in
proper scientific notation.

a. 72.44 × 103
b. 9,943 × 10−5
c. 588,399 × 102

10. These numbers are not written in proper scientific notation. Rewrite them so that they are in
proper scientific notation.

a. 0.000077 × 10−7
b. 0.000111 × 108
c. 602,000 × 1018

Saylor URL: http://www.saylor.org/books Saylor.org

35
 11. These numbers are not written in proper scientific notation. Rewrite them so that they are in
proper scientific notation.

a. 345.1 × 102
b. 0.234 × 10−3
c. 1,800 × 10−2

12. These numbers are not written in proper scientific notation. Rewrite them so that they are in
proper scientific notation.

a. 8,099 × 10−8
b. 34.5 × 100
c. 0.000332 × 104

13. Write these numbers in scientific notation by counting the number of places the decimal point is
moved.

a. 123,456.78
b. 98,490
c. 0.000000445

14. Write these numbers in scientific notation by counting the number of places the decimal point is
moved.

a. 0.000552
b. 1,987
c. 0.00000000887

Saylor URL: http://www.saylor.org/books Saylor.org

36
 15. Use your calculator to evaluate these expressions. Express the final answer in proper scientific
notation.

a. 456 × (7.4 × 108) = ?

b. (3.02 × 105) ÷ (9.04 × 1015) = ?
c. 0.0044 × 0.000833 = ?

16. Use your calculator to evaluate these expressions. Express the final answer in proper scientific
notation.

a. 98,000 × 23,000 = ?
b. 98,000 ÷ 23,000 = ?
c. (4.6 × 10−5) × (2.09 × 103) = ?

17. Use your calculator to evaluate these expressions. Express the final answer in proper scientific
notation.

a. 45 × 132 ÷ 882 = ?
b. [(6.37 × 104) × (8.44 × 10−4)] ÷ (3.2209 × 1015) = ?

18. Use your calculator to evaluate these expressions. Express the final answer in proper scientific
notation.

a. (9.09 × 108) ÷ [(6.33 × 109) × (4.066 × 10−7)] = ?

b. 9,345 × 34.866 ÷ 0.00665 = ?

A N SW E R S

1. a. 5.69 × 101

Saylor URL: http://www.saylor.org/books Saylor.org

37
 b. 5.631 × 105
c. 8.04 × 10−2
d. 6.67 × 10−6

3. a. 6.56 × 10−3
b. 6.56 × 104
c. 4.567 × 106
d. 5.507 × 10−6

5. a. 138,100
b. 0.000000522
c. 99,980

7. a. 8.09
b. 0.00003088
c. −423.9

9. a. 7.244 × 104
b. 9.943 × 10−2
c. 5.88399 × 107

11. a. 3.451 × 104

b. 2.34 × 10−4
c. 1.8 × 101

13. a. 1.2345678 × 105

b. 9.849 × 104
c. 4.45 × 10−7

Saylor URL: http://www.saylor.org/books Saylor.org

38
 15. a. 3.3744 × 1011
b. 3.3407 × 10−11
c. 3.665 × 10−6

17. a. 6.7346 × 100

b. 1.6691 × 10−14

2.2 Expressing Units

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

1. Learn the units that go with various quantities.

2. Express units using their abbreviations.
3. Make new units by combining numerical prefixes with units.

A num ber indicates “how m uch,” but the unit indicates “of what.” The “of what” is important
when com m unicating a quantity. For exam ple, if you were to ask a friend how close you are to
Lake Erie and your friend says “six,” then your friend isn’t giving you complete inform ation.
Six w hat? Six m iles? Six inches? Six city blocks? The actual distance to the lake depends on what
units you use.

Chem istry, like m ost sciences, uses the International System of Units, or SI for short. (The
letters SI stand for the French “le Systèm e International d’unités.”) SI specifies certain units for
various types of quantities, based on seven fu n d a m e n t a l u n it s for various quantities. We will
use m ost of the fundam ental units in chem istry. Initially, we will deal with three fundam ental
units. The m eter (m ) is the SI unit of length. It is a little longer than a yard. The SI unit of m ass
is the kilogram (kg), which is about 2.2 pounds (lb). The SI unit of tim e is the second (s).

Saylor URL: http://www.saylor.org/books Saylor.org

39
Figure 2.3 The Meter

The SI standard unit of length, the m eter, is a little longer than a y ard.

To express a quantity, you need to com bine a number with a unit. If you have a length that is 2.4
m , then you express that length as simply 2.4 m . A tim e of 15,0 0 0 s can be expressed as 1.5 ×
10 4 s in scientific notation.

Som etim es, a given unit is not an appropriate size to easily express a quantity. For exam ple, the
width of a hum an hair is very sm all, and it doesn’t m ake m uch sense to express it in m eters. SI
also defines a series of n u m e r ica l p r e fixe s that refer to multiples or fractions of a
fundam ental unit to m ake a unit m ore conveniently sized for a specific quantity. The chart lists
the prefixes, their abbreviations, and their m ultiplicative factors. Som e of the prefixes, such as
kilo-, m ega-, and giga-, represent m ore than one of the fundam ental unit, while other prefixes,
such as centi-, m illi-, and m icro-, represent fractions of the original unit. Note, too, that once
again we are using powers of 10 . Each prefix is a m ultiple of or fraction of a power of 10 .

Table 2.1 Multiplicative Prefixes for SI Units

Prefix Abbreviation Multiplicative Amount

giga- G 1,000,000,000 ×

Saylor URL: http://www.saylor.org/books Saylor.org

40
 Prefix Abbreviation Multiplicative Amount

mega- M 1,000,000 ×

kilo- k 1,000 ×

deci- d 1/10 ×

centi- c 1/100 ×

milli- m 1/1,000 ×

micro- μ* 1/1,000,000 ×

nano- n 1/1,000,000,000 ×

pico- p 1/1,000,000,000,000 ×

* The letter μ is the Greek letter lowercase equivalent to an m and is called “mu” (pronounced
“myoo”).

To use the fractions to generate new units, simply combine the prefix with the unit itself; the
abbreviation for the new unit is the com bination of the abbreviation for the prefix and the
abbreviation of the unit. For exam ple, the kilom eter (km ) is 1,0 0 0 × m eter, or 1,0 0 0 m . Thus, 5
kilom eters (5 km) is equal to 5,0 0 0 m . Sim ilarly, a m illisecond (m s) is 1/ 1,0 0 0 × second, or one-
thousandth of a second. Thus, 25 ms is 25 thousandths of a second. You will need to becom e
proficient in combining prefixes and units. (You m ay recognize that one of our fundam ental
units, the kilogram , autom atically has a prefix-unit com bination, the kilogram . The
word kilogram m eans 1,0 0 0 g.)

In addition to the fundam ental units, SI also allows for d e r ive d u n it s based on a fundam ental
unit or units. There are m any derived units used in science. For exam ple, the derived unit for
area com es from the idea that area is defined as width tim es height. Because both width and
height are lengths, they both have the fundam ental unit of m eter, so the unit of area is m eter ×
m eter, or m eter 2 (m 2). This is som etim es spoken as “square m eters.” A unit with a prefix can also
be used to derive a unit for area, so we can also have cm 2 , m m 2 , or km 2 as acceptable units for
area.

Saylor URL: http://www.saylor.org/books Saylor.org

41
Volum e is defined as length tim es width tim es height, so it has units of m eter × m eter × m eter or
m eter 3 (m 3), som etim es spoken as “cubic m eters.” The cubic m eter is a rather large unit,
however, so another unit is defined that is som ewhat more m anageable: the liter (L). A liter is
1/ 1,0 0 0 th of a cubic m eter and is a little m ore than 1 quart in volum e (see - ball-ch02_s02_f02).
Prefixes can also be used with the liter unit, so we can speak of m illiliters (1/ 1,0 0 0 th of a liter;
m L) and kiloliters (1,0 0 0 L; kL).
Figure 2.4 The Liter
Another definition of a liter is one-tenth of a m eter cubed.
Because one-tenth of a meter is 10 cm, then a liter is equal
to 1,0 0 0 cm 3 ( - ball-ch02_s02_f03). Because 1 L equals
1,0 0 0 m L, we conclude that 1 mL equals 1 cm 3 ; thus, these
units are interchangeable.

Figure 2.5 The Size of 1 Liter

One liter equals 1,0 0 0 cm 3 , so 1 cm 3 is the sam e as 1 m L. The SI unit of volum e, the liter, is
slightly larger than 1 quart.

Saylor URL: http://www.saylor.org/books Saylor.org

42
Units not only are m ultiplied together but also can be divided. For exam ple, if you are traveling
at one m eter for every second of tim e elapsed, your velocity is 1 m eter per second, or 1 m / s. The
word per im plies division, so velocity is determ ined by dividing a distance quantity by a tim e
quantity. Other units for velocity include kilom eters per hour (km / h) or even m icrom eters per
nanosecond (μm / ns). Later, we will see other derived units that can be expressed as fractions.

E XA M P L E 2

1. A human hair has a diameter of about 6.0 × 10−5 m. Suggest an appropriate unit for this
measurement and write the diameter of a human hair in terms of that unit.
2. What is the velocity of a car if it goes 25 m in 5.0 s?

Solution

1. The scientific notation 10−5 is close to 10−6, which defines the micro- prefix. Let us use
micrometers as the unit for hair diameter. The number 6.0 × 10−5 can be written as 60 × 10−6,
and a micrometer is 10−6 m, so the diameter of a human hair is about 60 μm.
2. If velocity is defined as a distance quantity divided by a time quantity, then velocity is 25
meters/5.0 seconds. Dividing the numbers gives us 25/5.0 = 5.0, and dividing the units gives
us meters/second, or m/s. The velocity is 5.0 m/s.

Test Yourself

1. Express the volume of an Olympic-sized swimming pool, 2,500,000 L, in more appropriate

units.
2. A common garden snail moves about 6.1 m in 30 min. What is its velocity in meters per
minute (m/min)?

Answers

Saylor URL: http://www.saylor.org/books Saylor.org

43
 1. 2.5 ML
2. 0.203 m/min

KEY TAKEAWAYS

 Numbers tell “how much,” and units tell “of what.”

 Chemistry uses a set of fundamental units and derived units from SI units.
 Chemistry uses a set of prefixes that represent multiples or fractions of units.
 Units can be multiplied and divided to generate new units for quantities.

EXERCISES

1. Identify the unit in each quantity.

a. 2 boxes of crayons
b. 3.5 grams of gold

2. Identify the unit in each quantity.

a. 32 oz of cheddar cheese
b. 0.045 cm3 of water

3. Identify the unit in each quantity.

a. 9.58 s (the current world record in the 100 m dash)

b. 6.14 m (the current world record in the pole vault)

4. Identify the unit in each quantity.

Saylor URL: http://www.saylor.org/books Saylor.org

44
 a. 2 dozen eggs
b. 2.4 km/s (the escape velocity of the moon, which is the velocity you need at the surface to
escape the moon’s gravity)

5. Indicate what multiplier each prefix represents.

a. k
b. m
c. M

6. Indicate what multiplier each prefix represents.

a. c
b. G
c. μ

7. Give the prefix that represents each multiplier.

a. 1/1,000th ×
b. 1,000 ×
c. 1,000,000,000 ×

8. Give the prefix that represents each multiplier.

a. 1/1,000,000,000th ×
b. 1/100th ×
c. 1,000,000 ×

Saylor URL: http://www.saylor.org/books Saylor.org

45
 9. Complete the following table with the missing information.

10. Complete the following table with the missing information.

11. Express each quantity in a more appropriate unit. There may be more than one acceptable
answer.

a. 3.44 × 10−6 s
b. 3,500 L
c. 0.045 m

Saylor URL: http://www.saylor.org/books Saylor.org

46
 12. Express each quantity in a more appropriate unit. There may be more than one acceptable
answer.

a. 0.000066 m/s (Hint: you need consider only the unit in the numerator.)
b. 4.66 × 106 s
c. 7,654 L

13. Express each quantity in a more appropriate unit. There may be more than one acceptable
answer.

a. 43,600 mL
b. 0.0000044 m
c. 1,438 ms

14. Express each quantity in a more appropriate unit. There may be more than one acceptable
answer.

a. 0.000000345 m3
b. 47,000,000 mm3
c. 0.00665 L

15. Multiplicative prefixes are used for other units as well, such as computer memory. The basic unit
of computer memory is the byte (b). What is the unit for one million bytes?

16. You may have heard the terms microscale or nanoscale to represent the sizes of small objects.
What units of length do you think are useful at these scales? What fractions of the fundamental
unit of length are these units?

Saylor URL: http://www.saylor.org/books Saylor.org

47
 17. Acceleration is defined as a change in velocity per time. Propose a unit for acceleration in terms
of the fundamental SI units.

18. Density is defined as the mass of an object divided by its volume. Propose a unit of density in
terms of the fundamental SI units.

A N SW E R S

1. a. boxes of crayons
b. grams of gold

3. a. seconds
b. meters

5. a. 1,000 ×
b. 1/1,000 ×
c. 1,000,000 ×

7. a. milli-
b. kilo-
c. giga-

9.

Saylor URL: http://www.saylor.org/books Saylor.org

48
 11. a. 3.44 μs
b. 3.5 kL
c. 4.5 cm

13. a. 43.6 L
b. 4.4 µm
c. 1.438 s

15. megabytes (Mb)

17. meters/second2

2.3 Significant Figures

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

1. Apply the concept of significant figures to limit a measurement to the proper number of digits.
2. Recognize the number of significant figures in a given quantity.
3. Limit mathematical results to the proper number of significant figures.

Saylor URL: http://www.saylor.org/books Saylor.org

49
If you use a calculator to evaluate the expression 337/ 217, you will get the followin g:

337

and so on for m any m ore digits. Although this answer is correct, it is som ewhat presum ptuous. You start

with two values that each have three digits, and the an swer has tw elve digits? That does not m ake m uch

sense from a strict num erical point of view.

Consider usin g a ruler to m easure the width of an object, as shown in - ball-ch02_s03_f01. The object is

definitely m ore than 1 cm long, so we know that the first digit in our m easurem ent is 1. We see by

counting the tick m arks on the ruler that the object is at least three ticks after the 1. If each tick represents

0 .1 cm , then we know the object is at least 1.3 cm wide. But our ruler does not have any m ore ticks

between the 0 .3 and the 0 .4 m arks, so we can’t know exactly how m uch the n ext decim al place is. But with

a practiced eye we can estim ate it. Let us estim ate it as about six-tenths of the way between the third and

fourth tick m arks, which estim ates our hundredths place as 6, so we identify a m easurem ent of 1.36 cm

for the width of the object.

Figure 2.6 Expressing W idth

W hat is the proper w ay to express the w idth of this object?

Does it m ake any sense to try to report a thousandths place for the m easurem ent? No, it doesn’t; we are

not exactly sure of the hundredths place (after all, it was an estim ate only), so it would be fruitless to

estim ate a thousandths place. Our best m easurem ent, then, stops at the hundredths place, and we report

1.36 cm as proper m easurem ent.

Saylor URL: http://www.saylor.org/books Saylor.org

50
This concept of reporting the proper num ber of digits in a m easurem ent or a calculation is

called significant figures . Significant figures (som etim es called significant digits) represent the lim its of

what values of a m easurem ent or a calculation we are sure of. The convention for a m easurem ent is that

the quantity reported should be all known values and the first estim ated value. The conventions for

calculations are discussed as follows.

E XA M P L E 3
Use each diagram to report a measurement to the proper number of significant figures.

1.

2.

Solution

1. The arrow is between 4.0 and 5.0, so the measurement is at least 4.0. The arrow is between the
third and fourth small tick marks, so it’s at least 0.3. We will have to estimate the last place. It
looks like about one-third of the way across the space, so let us estimate the hundredths place as

Saylor URL: http://www.saylor.org/books Saylor.org

51
 3. Combining the digits, we have a measurement of 4.33 psi (psi stands for “pounds per square
inch” and is a unit of pressure, like air in a tire). We say that the measurement is reported to
three significant figures.
2. The rectangle is at least 1.0 cm wide but certainly not 2.0 cm wide, so the first significant digit is 1.
The rectangle’s width is past the second tick mark but not the third; if each tick mark represents
0.1, then the rectangle is at least 0.2 in the next significant digit. We have to estimate the next
place because there are no markings to guide us. It appears to be about halfway between 0.2 and
0.3, so we will estimate the next place to be a 5. Thus, the measured width of the rectangle is
1.25 cm. Again, the measurement is reported to three significant figures.

Test Yourself

What would be the reported width of this rectangle?

Answer

0.63 cm

In m any cases, you will be given a m easurem ent. How can you tell by looking what digits are significant?

For exam ple, the reported population of the Un ited States is 30 6,0 0 0 ,0 0 0 . Does that m ean that it

is exactly three hundred six m illion or is som e estim ation occurrin g?

Saylor URL: http://www.saylor.org/books Saylor.org

52
The followin g conventions dictate which num bers in a reported m easurem ent are sign ificant and which

are not significant:

1. Any nonzero digit is significant.

2. Any zeros between nonzero digits (i.e., em bedded zeros) are significant.

3. Zeros at the end of a num ber without a decim al point (i.e., trailing zeros) are not significant; they

serve only to put the sign ificant digits in the correct positions. However, zeros at the end of any

num ber with a decim al point are significant.

4. Zeros at the beginn in g of a decim al num ber (i.e., leading zeros) are not sign ificant; again , they

serve only to put the sign ificant digits in the correct positions.

So, by these rules, the population figure of the United States has only three significant figures: the 3, the 6,

and the zero between them . The rem aining six zeros sim ply put the 30 6 in the m illions position. (See -

ball-ch02_s03_f05for another exam ple.)

E XA M P L E 4
Give the number of significant figures in each measurement.

a, 36.7 m
b. 0.006606 s
c. 2,002 kg
d. 306,490,000 people

Solution
a. By rule 1, all nonzero digits are significant, so this measurement has three significant figures.
b. By rule 4, the first three zeros are not significant, but by rule 2 the zero between the sixes is;
therefore, this number has four significant figures.
c. By rule 2, the two zeros between the twos are significant, so this measurement has four
significant figures.

Saylor URL: http://www.saylor.org/books Saylor.org

53
 d. The four trailing zeros in the number are not significant, but the other five numbers are, so
this number has five significant figures.

Test Yourself

Give the number of significant figures in each measurement.

1. 0.000601 m
2. 65.080 kg

Answers

1. three significant figures

2. five significant figures

How are significant figures handled in calculations? It depends on what type of calculation is bein g

perform ed. If the calculation is an addition or a subtraction, the rule is as follows: lim it the reported

answer to the rightm ost colum n that all num bers have sign ificant figures in com m on. For exam ple, if you

were to add 1.2 and 4.71, we note that the first num ber stops its significant figures in the tenths colum n ,

while the second num ber stops its significant figures in the hundredths colum n . We therefore lim it our

answer to the tenths colum n.

We drop the last digit—the 1—because it is not sign ificant to the final answer.

Saylor URL: http://www.saylor.org/books Saylor.org

54
The droppin g of positions in sum s and differences brin gs up the topic of roundin g. Although there are

several conventions, in this text we will adopt the followin g rule: the final answer should be rounded up if

the first dropped digit is 5 or greater and rounded down if the first dropped digit is less than 5.

E XA M P L E 5
1. Express the final answer to the proper number of significant figures.

a. 101.2 + 18.702 = ?
b. 202.88 − 1.013 = ?

Solution

a. If we use a calculator to add these two numbers, we would get 119.902. However, most
calculators do not understand significant figures, and we need to limit the final answer to the
tenths place. Thus, we drop the 02 and report a final answer of 119.9 (rounding down).
b. A calculator would answer 201.867. However, we have to limit our final answer to the
hundredths place. Because the first number being dropped is 7, which is greater than 7, we
round up and report a final answer of 201.87.

Test Yourself

Express the answer for 3.445 + 90.83 − 72.4 to the proper number of significant figures.

Answer

Saylor URL: http://www.saylor.org/books Saylor.org

55
 21.9

If the operations bein g perform ed are m ultiplication or division, the rule is as follows: lim it the answer to

the num ber of significant figures that the data value with the least num ber of sign ificant figures has. So if

we are dividing 23 by 448, which have two and three significant figures each, we should lim it the final

reported answer to two sign ificant figures (the lesser of two and three significant figures):

23

The sam e rounding rules apply in m ultiplication and division as they do in addition and subtraction .

E XA M P L E 6
Express the final answer to the proper number of significant figures.

1. 76.4 × 180.4 = ?
2. 934.9 ÷ 0.00455 = ?

Solution

1. The first number has three significant figures, while the second number has four significant
figures. Therefore, we limit our final answer to three significant figures: 76.4 × 180.4 =
13,782.56 = 13,800.
2. The first number has four significant figures, while the second number has three significant
figures. Therefore we limit our final answer to three significant figures: 934.9 ÷ 0.00455 =
205,472.5275… = 205,000.

Test Yourself

Express the final answer to the proper number of significant figures.

Saylor URL: http://www.saylor.org/books Saylor.org

56
 1. 22.4 × 8.314 = ?
2. 1.381 ÷ 6.02 = ?

Answers

1. 186
2. 0.229

As you have probably realized by now, the biggest issue in determ in ing the num ber of sign ificant figures

in a value is the zero. Is the zero significant or not? One way to unam biguously determ in e whether a zero

is significant or not is to write a num ber in scientific notation. Scientific notation will include zeros in the

coefficient of the num ber only if they are significant. Thus, the num ber 8.666 × 10 6 has four significant

figures. However, the num ber 8 .6660 × 10 6 has five significant figures. That last zero is significant; if it

were not, it would not be written in the coefficient. So when in doubt about expressing the num ber of

sign ificant figures in a quan tity, use scientific notation and include the num ber of zeros that are truly

sign ificant.
KEY TAKEAWAYS

 Significant figures in a quantity indicate the number of known values plus one place that is
estimated.
 There are rules for which numbers in a quantity are significant and which are not significant.
 In calculations involving addition and subtraction, limit significant figures based on the rightmost
place that all values have in common.
 In calculations involving multiplication and division, limit significant figures to the least number
of significant figures in all the data values.

EXERCISES
1. Express each measurement to the correct number of significant figures.

Saylor URL: http://www.saylor.org/books Saylor.org

57
 a.

b.

2. Express each measurement to the correct number of significant figures.

Saylor URL: http://www.saylor.org/books Saylor.org

58
 a.

3. How many significant figures do these numbers have?

a. 23
b. 23.0
c. 0.00023
d. 0.0002302

Saylor URL: http://www.saylor.org/books Saylor.org

59
 4. How many significant figures do these numbers have?

a. 5.44 × 108
b. 1.008 × 10−5
c. 43.09
d. 0.0000001381

5. How many significant figures do these numbers have?

a. 765,890
b. 765,890.0
c. 1.2000 × 105
d. 0.0005060

6. How many significant figures do these numbers have?

a. 0.009
b. 0.0000009
c. 65,444
d. 65,040
7. Compute and express each answer with the proper number of significant figures, rounding as
necessary.

a. 56.0 + 3.44 = ?
b. 0.00665 + 1.004 = ?
c. 45.99 − 32.8 = ?
d. 45.99 − 32.8 + 75.02 = ?
8. Compute and express each answer with the proper number of significant figures, rounding as
necessary.

Saylor URL: http://www.saylor.org/books Saylor.org

60
 a. 1.005 + 17.88 = ?
b. 56,700 − 324 = ?
c. 405,007 − 123.3 = ?
d. 55.5 + 66.66 − 77.777 = ?

9. Compute and express each answer with the proper number of significant figures, rounding as
necessary.

a. 56.7 × 66.99 = ?
b. 1.000 ÷ 77 = ?
c. 1.000 ÷ 77.0 = ?
d. 6.022 × 1.89 = ?

10. Compute and express each answer with the proper number of significant figures, rounding as
necessary.

a. 0.000440 × 17.22 = ?
b. 203,000 ÷ 0.044 = ?
c. 67 × 85.0 × 0.0028 = ?
d. 999,999 ÷ 3,310 = ?

11. Write the number 87,449 in scientific notation with four significant figures.

12. Write the number 0.000066600 in scientific notation with five significant figures.

13. Write the number 306,000,000 in scientific notation to the proper number of significant figures.

14. Write the number 0.0000558 in scientific notation with two significant figures.

Saylor URL: http://www.saylor.org/books Saylor.org

61
 15. Perform each calculation and limit each answer to three significant figures.

a. 67,883 × 0.004321 = ?
b. (9.67 × 103) × 0.0055087 = ?

16. Perform each calculation and limit each answer to four significant figures.

a. 18,900 × 76.33 ÷ 0.00336 = ?

b. 0.77604 ÷ 76,003 × 8.888 = ?

A N SW E R S

1. a. 375 psi
b. 1.30 cm

3. a. two
b. three
c. two
d. four

5. a. five
b. seven
c. five
d. four

7. a. 59.4
b. 1.011
c. 13.2

Saylor URL: http://www.saylor.org/books Saylor.org

62
 d. 88.2

9. a. 3.80 × 103
b. 0.013
c. 0.0130
d. 11.4

11. a. 8.745 × 104

b. 6.6600 × 10−5

13. a. 293
b. 53.3

2.4 Converting Units

LEARNING OBJECTIVE

1. Convert from one unit to another unit of the same type.

In Section 2.2 "Expressing Units", we showed some exam ples of how to replace initial units
with other units of the sam e type to get a num erical value that is easier to com prehend. In this
section, we will form alize the process.

Consider a simple exam ple: how m any feet are there in 4 yards? Most people will alm ost
autom atically answer that there are 12 feet in 4 yards. How did you m ake this determ ination?
Well, if there are 3 feet in 1 yard and there are 4 yards, then there are 4 × 3 = 12 feet in 4 yards.

This is correct, of course, but it is inform al. Let us form alize it in a way that can be applied more
generally. We know that 1 yard (yd) equals 3 feet (ft):

1 yd = 3 ft

Saylor URL: http://www.saylor.org/books Saylor.org

63
In m ath, this expression is called an equality . The rules of algebra say that you can change (i.e.,
m ultiply or divide or add or subtract) the equality (as long as you don’t divide by zero) and the
new expression will still be an equality. For exam ple, if we divide both sides by 2, we get

12 yd=32 ft

We see that one-half of a yard equals 3/ 2, or one and a half, feet—som ething we also know to be
true, so the above equation is still an equality. Going back to the original equality, suppose we
divide both sides of the equation by 1 yard (number and unit):

1 yd

The expression is still an equality, by the rules of algebra. The left fraction equals 1. It has the
sam e quantity in the num erator and the denom inator, so it m ust equal 1. The quantities in the
num erator and denom inator cancel, both the num ber and the unit:

1 yd

When everything cancels in a fraction, the fraction reduces to 1:

1=3 ft

We have an expression, 3 ft, that equals 1. This is a strange way to write 1, but it m akes sense: 3 ft
equal 1 yd, so the quantities in the num erator and denom inator are the same quantity, just
expressed with different units. The expression 3 ft is called aconversion factor, and it is used to
form ally change the unit of a quantity into another unit. (The process of converting units in
such a form al fashion is som etim es called dim ensional analy sis or the factor label m ethod.)

To see how this happens, let us start with the original quantity:

4 yd

Now let us m ultiply this quantity by 1. When you m ultiply anything by 1, you don’t change the
value of the quantity. Rather than m ultiplying by just 1, let us write 1 as 3 ft:

4 yd × 3 ft

The 4 yd term can be thought of as 4 yd; that is, it can be thought of as a fraction with 1 in the
denom inator. We are essentially m ultiplying fractions. If the sam e thing appears in the

Saylor URL: http://www.saylor.org/books Saylor.org

64
num erator and denom inator of a fraction, they cancel. In this case, what cancels is the
unit y ard:

4 yd

That is all that we can cancel. Now, m ultiply and divide all the numbers to get the final answer:

4 × 3 ft

Again, we get an answer of 12 ft, just as we did originally. But in this case, we used a m ore
form al procedure that is applicable to a variety of problem s.

How m any m illim eters are in 14.66 m? To answer this, we need to construct a conversion factor
between m illim eters and m eters and apply it correctly to the original quantity. We start with
the definition of a m illimeter, which is

1 mm = 1/1,000 m

The 1/ 1,0 0 0 is what the prefix m illi- m eans. Most people are m ore com fortable working without
fractions, so we will rewrite this equation by bringing the 1,0 0 0 into the num erator of the other
side of the equation:

1,000 mm = 1 m

Now we construct a conversion factor by dividing one quantity into both sides. But now a
question arises: which quantity do we divide by? It turns out that we have two choices, and the
two choices will give us different conversion factors, both of which equal 1:

1,000 mm

1=1 m

Which conversion factor do we use? The answer is based on w hat unit y ou w ant to get rid of in
y our initial quantity . The original unit of our quantity is m eters, which we want to convert to
m illim eters. Because the original unit is assum ed to be in the num erator, to get rid of it, we
want the m eter unit in the denom inator; then they will cancel. Therefore, we will use the
second conversion factor. Canceling units and performing the m athem atics, we get

14.66 m × 1,000 mm

Saylor URL: http://www.saylor.org/books Saylor.org

65
Note how m cancels, leaving m m , which is the unit of interest.

The ability to construct and apply proper conversion factors is a very powerful m athem atical
technique in chemistry. You need to m aster this technique if you are going to be successful in
this and future courses.

E XA M P L E 7

1. Convert 35.9 kL to liters.

2. Convert 555 nm to meters.

Solution

1. We will use the fact that 1 kL = 1,000 L. Of the two conversion factors that can be defined, the
one that will work is 1,000 L. Applying this conversion factor, we get

35.9 kL

2. We will use the fact that 1 nm = 1/1,000,000,000 m, which we will rewrite as 1,000,000,000 nm
= 1 m, or 109 nm = 1 m. Of the two possible conversion factors, the appropriate one has the nm
unit in the denominator: 1 m. Applying this conversion factor, we get

555 nm

In the final step, we expressed the answer in scientific notation.

Test Yourself

1. Convert 67.08 μL to liters.

2. Convert 56.8 m to kilometers.

Answers

Saylor URL: http://www.saylor.org/books Saylor.org

66
 1. 6.708 × 10−5 L
2. 5.68 × 10−2 km

What if we have a derived unit that is the product of m ore than one unit, such as m 2 ? Suppose
we want to convert square m eters to square centim eters? The key is to rem em ber that m 2 m eans
m × m , which m eans we have tw o m eter units in our derived unit. That means we have to
include tw o conversion factors, one for each unit. For exam ple, to convert 17.6 m 2 to square
centim eters, we perform the conversion as follows:
17.6 m

E XA M P L E 8

How many cubic centimeters are in 0.883 m3?

Solution

With an exponent of 3, we have three length units, so by extension we need to use three conversion
factors between meters and centimeters. Thus, we have
0.883 m3

You should demonstrate to yourself that the three meter units do indeed cancel.

Test Yourself

How many cubic millimeters are present in 0.0923 m3?

Answer

9.23 × 107 mm3

Saylor URL: http://www.saylor.org/books Saylor.org

67
Suppose the unit you want to convert is in the denom inator of a derived unit; what then? Then,
in the conversion factor, the unit you want to remove m ust be in the num erator. This will cancel
with the original unit in the denom inator and introduce a new unit in the denom inator. The
following exam ple illustrates this situation.
E XA M P L E 9

Convert 88.4 m/min to meters/second.

Solution

We want to change the unit in the denominator from minutes to seconds. Because there are 60
seconds in 1 minute (60 s = 1 min), we construct a conversion factor so that the unit we want to
remove, minutes, is in the numerator: 1 min. Apply and perform the math:

88.4 m

Notice how the 88.4 automatically goes in the numerator. That’s because any number can be thought
of as being in the numerator of a fraction divided by 1.

Test Yourself

Convert 0.203 m/min to meters/second.

Answer

0.00338 m/s or 3.38 × 10−3 m/s

Saylor URL: http://www.saylor.org/books Saylor.org

68
Som etim es there will be a n eed to convert from one un it with on e num erical prefix to another unit with a

different num erical prefix. How do we handle those conversions? Well, you could m em orize the

conversion factors that interrelate all num erical prefixes. Or you can go the easier route: first convert the

quantity to the base unit, the unit with no num erical prefix, using the defin ition of the original prefix.

Then convert the quantity in the base un it to the desired unit using the defin ition of the second prefix. You

can do the conversion in two separate steps or as on e long algebraic step. For exam ple, to convert 2.77 kg

to m illigram s:

2.77 kg × 1,000 g

2,770 g × 1,000 mg1 g

Alternatively, it can be don e in a single m ultistep process:

2.77 kg

You get the sam e answer either way.

E XA M P L E 1 0

How many nanoseconds are in 368.09 μs?

Solution

You can either do this as a one-step conversion from microseconds to nanoseconds or convert to the
base unit first and then to the final desired unit. We will use the second method here, showing the
two steps in a single line. Using the definitions of the prefixes micro- and nano-,
368.09 μs

Test Yourself

How many milliliters are in 607.8 kL?

Saylor URL: http://www.saylor.org/books Saylor.org

69
 Answer

6.078 × 108 mL

When considering the sign ificant figures of a final num erical answer in a conversion, there is one

im portant case where a num ber does not im pact the n um ber of significant figures in a final answer—the

so-called exact num ber. An exact num ber is a num ber from a defined relationship, not a m easured on e.

For exam ple, the prefix kilo- m eans 1,0 0 0 —exactly 1,0 0 0 , no m ore or no less. Thus, in constructin g the

conversion factor

1,000 g

neither the 1,0 0 0 nor the 1 enter into our consideration of significant figures. The num bers in the

num erator and denom inator are defined exactly by what the prefix kilo-m eans. An other way of thin king

about it is that these num bers can be thought of as having an infinite num ber of significant figures, such

as

1,000.0000000000… g

The other num bers in the calculation will determ ine the num ber of sign ificant figures in the final answer.

E XA M P L E 1 1

A rectangular plot in a garden has the dimensions 36.7 cm by 128.8 cm. What is the area of the
garden plot in square meters? Express your answer in the proper number of significant figures.

Solution

Area is defined as the product of the two dimensions, which we then have to convert to square
meters and express our final answer to the correct number of significant figures, which in this case
will be three.

Saylor URL: http://www.saylor.org/books Saylor.org

70
 36.7 cm

The 1 and 100 in the conversion factors do not affect the determination of significant figures because
they are exact numbers, defined by the centi- prefix.

Test Yourself

What is the volume of a block in cubic meters whose dimensions are 2.1 cm × 34.0 cm × 118 cm?

Answer

0.0084 m3

Chemistry Is Everywhere: The Gimli Glider

On J uly 23, 1983, an Air Canada Boeing 767 jet had to glide to an em ergency landing at Gim li
Industrial Park Airport in Gim li, Manitoba, because it unexpectedly ran out of fuel during flight.
There was no loss of life in the course of the em ergency landing, only som e m inor injuries
associated in part with the evacuation of the craft after landing. For the rem ainder of its
operational life (the plane was retired in 20 0 8), the aircraft was nicknam ed “the Gim li Glider.”

Saylor URL: http://www.saylor.org/books Saylor.org

71
The Gim li Glider is the Boeing 767 that ran out of fuel and glided to safety at Gim li Airport.
The aircraft ran out of fuel because of confusion over the units used to express the am ount of
fuel.

Source: Photo courtesy of W ill

F.,http:/ / com m ons.w ikim edia.org/ w iki/ File:Gim li_ Glider_ today .jpg.

The 767 took off from Montreal on its way to Ottawa, ultim ately heading for Edmonton, Canada.
About halfway through the flight, all the engines on the plane began to shut down because of a
lack of fuel. When the final engine cut off, all electricity (which was generated by the engines)
was lost; the plane becam e, essentially, a powerless glider. Captain Robert Pearson was an
experienced glider pilot, although he had never flown a glider the size of a 767. First Officer
Maurice Quintal quickly determ ined that the aircraft would not be able m ake it to Winnipeg, the
next large airport. He suggested his old Royal Air Force base at Gim li Station, one of whose
runways was still being used as a comm unity airport. Between the efforts of the pilots and the
flight crew, they m anaged to get the airplane safely on the ground (although with buckled
landing gear) and all passengers off safely.

What happened? At the tim e, Canada was transitioning from the older English system to the
m etric system . The Boeing 767s were the first aircraft whose gauges were calibrated in the
m etric system of units (liters and kilogram s) rather than the English system of units (gallons
and pounds). Thus, when the fuel gauge read 22,30 0 , the gauge m eant kilograms, but the
ground crew m istakenly fueled the plane with 22,30 0 pounds of fuel. This ended up being just
less than half of the fuel needed to m ake the trip, causing the engines to quit about halfway to
Ottawa. Quick thinking and extraordinary skill saved the lives of 61 passengers and 8 crew
m em bers—an incident that would not have occurred if people were watching their units.

KEY TAKEAWAYS

 Units can be converted to other units using the proper conversion factors.
 Conversion factors are constructed from equalities that relate two different units.

Saylor URL: http://www.saylor.org/books Saylor.org

72
  Conversions can be a single step or multistep.
 Unit conversion is a powerful mathematical technique in chemistry that must be mastered.
 Exact numbers do not affect the determination of significant figures.

EXERCISES

1. Write the two conversion factors that exist between the two given units.

a. milliliters and liters

b. microseconds and seconds
c. kilometers and meters

2. Write the two conversion factors that exist between the two given units.

a. kilograms and grams

b. milliseconds and seconds
c. centimeters and meters

3. Perform the following conversions.

a. 5.4 km to meters
b. 0.665 m to millimeters
c. 0.665 m to kilometers

4. Perform the following conversions.

a. 90.6 mL to liters
b. 0.00066 ML to liters
c. 750 L to kiloliters

Saylor URL: http://www.saylor.org/books Saylor.org

73
 5. Perform the following conversions.

a. 17.8 μg to grams
b. 7.22 × 102 kg to grams
c. 0.00118 g to nanograms

6. Perform the following conversions.

a. 833 ns to seconds
b. 5.809 s to milliseconds
c. 2.77 × 106 s to megaseconds

7. Perform the following conversions.

a. 9.44 m2 to square centimeters

b. 3.44 × 108 mm3 to cubic meters

8. Perform the following conversions.

a. 0.00444 cm3 to cubic meters

b. 8.11 × 102 m2 to square nanometers

9. Why would it be inappropriate to convert square centimeters to cubic meters?

10. Why would it be inappropriate to convert from cubic meters to cubic seconds?

11. Perform the following conversions.

a. 45.0 m/min to meters/second

Saylor URL: http://www.saylor.org/books Saylor.org

74
 b. 0.000444 m/s to micrometers/second
c. 60.0 km/h to kilometers/second

`12. Perform the following conversions.

a. 3.4 × 102 cm/s to centimeters/minute

b. 26.6 mm/s to millimeters/hour
c. 13.7 kg/L to kilograms/milliliters

13. Perform the following conversions.

a. 0.674 kL to milliliters
b. 2.81 × 1012 mm to kilometers
c. 94.5 kg to milligrams

14. Perform the following conversions.

a. 6.79 × 10−6 kg to micrograms

b. 1.22 mL to kiloliters
c. 9.508 × 10−9 ks to milliseconds

15. Perform the following conversions.

a. 6.77 × 1014 ms to kiloseconds

b. 34,550,000 cm to kilometers

16. Perform the following conversions.

a. 4.701 × 1015 mL to kiloliters

Saylor URL: http://www.saylor.org/books Saylor.org

75
 b. 8.022 × 10−11 ks to microseconds

17. Perform the following conversions. Note that you will have to convert units in both the
numerator and the denominator.

a. 88 ft/s to miles/hour (Hint: use 5,280 ft = 1 mi.)

b. 0.00667 km/h to meters/second

18. Perform the following conversions. Note that you will have to convert units in both the
numerator and the denominator.

a. 3.88 × 102 mm/s to kilometers/hour

b. 1.004 kg/L to grams/milliliter

19. What is the area in square millimeters of a rectangle whose sides are 2.44 cm × 6.077 cm?
Express the answer to the proper number of significant figures.

20. What is the volume in cubic centimeters of a cube with sides of 0.774 m? Express the answer to
the proper number of significant figures.

21. The formula for the area of a triangle is 1/2 × base × height. What is the area of a triangle in
square centimeters if its base is 1.007 m and its height is 0.665 m? Express the answer to the
proper number of significant figures.

22. The formula for the area of a triangle is 1/2 × base × height. What is the area of a triangle in
square meters if its base is 166 mm and its height is 930.0 mm? Express the answer to the
proper number of significant figures.

A N SW E R S

Saylor URL: http://www.saylor.org/books Saylor.org

76
 1. a. 1,000 mL and 1 L
b. 1,000,000 μs and 1 s
c. 1,000 m and 1 km

d. 5,400 m
e. 665 mm
f. 6.65 × 10−4 km

3. a. 1.78 × 10−5 g
b. 7.22 × 105 g
c. 1.18 × 106 ng

5. a. 94,400 cm2
b. 0.344 m3

7. One is a unit of area, and the other is a unit of volume.

9. a. 0.75 m/s
b. 444 µm/s
c. 1.666 × 10−2 km/s

11. a. 674,000 mL
b. 2.81 × 106 km
c. 9.45 × 107 mg

13. a. 6.77 × 108 ks

b. 345.5 km

Saylor URL: http://www.saylor.org/books Saylor.org

77
 15. a. 6.0 × 101 mi/h
b. 0.00185 m/s

17. a. 1.48 × 103 mm2

b. 3.35 × 103 cm2

2.5 Other Units: Temperature and Density

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

1. Learn about the various temperature scales that are commonly used in chemistry.
2.Define density and use it as a conversion factor.

There are other units in chem istry that are important, and we will cover others in the course of
the entire book. One of the fundam ental quantities in science is temperature. Te m p e r a t u r e is
a m easure of the average am ount of energy of motion, or kinetic energy , a system contains.
Tem peratures are expressed using scales that use units called d e gr e e s , and there are several
tem perature scales in use. In the United States, the comm only used tem perature scale is
the Fahrenheit scale (sym bolized by °F and spoken as “degrees Fahrenheit”). On this scale, the
freezing point of liquid water (the tem perature at which liquid water turns to solid ice) is 32°F,
and the boiling point of water (the temperature at which liquid water turns to steam ) is 212°F.

Science also uses other scales to express tem perature. The Celsius scale (sym bolized by °C and
spoken as “degrees Celsius”) is a temperature scale where 0 °C is the freezing point of water and
10 0 °C is the boiling point of water; the scale is divided into 10 0 divisions between these two
landm arks and extended higher and lower. By com paring the Fahrenheit and Celsius scales, a
conversion between the two scales can be determ ined:

°C=(°F–32) × 59°

Saylor URL: http://www.saylor.org/books Saylor.org

78
 F=(°C × 95)+32

Using these formulas, we can convert from one tem perature scale to another. The number 32 in
the form ulas is exact and does not count in significant figure determ ination.

E XA M P L E 1 2

1. What is 98.6°F in degrees Celsius?

2. What is 25.0°C in degrees Fahrenheit?

Solution

1. Using the first formula from above, we have

°C=(98.6–32)

2. Using the second formula from above, we have

°F=(25.0 × 95)

Test Yourself

1. Convert 0°F to degrees Celsius.

2. Convert 212°C to degrees Fahrenheit.

Answers

1. −17.8°C
2. 414°F

Saylor URL: http://www.saylor.org/books Saylor.org

79
The fundam ental unit of tem perature (another fundam ental unit of science, bringing us to four)
in SI is the k e lvin (K). The Kelvin tem perature scale (note that the nam e of the scale capitalizes
the word Kelvin, but the unit itself is lowercase) uses degrees that are the sam e size as the
Celsius degree, but the num erical scale is shifted up by 273.15 units. That is, the conversion
between the Kelvin and Celsius scales is as follows:

K = °C + 273.15°

C = K − 273.15

For most purposes, it is acceptable to use 273 instead of 273.15. Note that the Kelvin scale does
not use the word degrees; a tem perature of 295 K is spoken of as “two hundred ninety-five
kelvins” and not “two hundred ninety-five degrees Kelvin.”

The reason that the Kelvin scale is defined this way is because there exists a m inim um possible
tem perature called absolute zero. The Kelvin temperature scale is set so that 0 K is absolute
zero, and temperature is counted upward from there. Norm al room tem perature is about 295 K,
as seen in the following exam ple.

E XA M P L E 1 3

If normal room temperature is 72.0°F, what is room temperature in degrees Celsius and kelvins?

Solution

First, we use the formula to determine the temperature in degrees Celsius:

°C=(72.0–32)

Then we use the appropriate formula above to determine the temperature in the Kelvin scale:

K = 22.2°C + 273.15 = 295.4 K

Saylor URL: http://www.saylor.org/books Saylor.org

80
 So, room temperature is about 295 K.

Test Yourself

What is 98.6°F on the Kelvin scale?

Answer

310.2 K

Figure 2.9 "Fahrenheit, Celsius, and Kelvin Temperatures" compares the three temperature
scales. Note that science uses the Celsius and Kelvin scales alm ost exclusively; virtually no
practicing chem ist expresses laboratory-m easured tem peratures with the Fahrenheit scale. (In
fact, the United States is one of the few countries in the world that still uses the Fahrenheit scale
on a daily basis. The other two countries are Liberia and Myanm ar [form erly Burm a]. People
driving near the borders of Canada or Mexico m ay pick up local radio stations on the other side
of the border that express the daily weather in degrees Celsius, so don’t get confused by their
weather reports.)

Figure 2.9 Fahrenheit, Celsius, and Kelvin Tem peratures

Saylor URL: http://www.saylor.org/books Saylor.org

81
A com parison of the three tem perature scales.

Density is a physical property that is defined as a substance’s m ass divided by its volum e:

density= mass

Density is usually a m easured property of a substance, so its num erical value affects the
significant figures in a calculation. Notice that density is defined in term s of two dissim ilar units,
m ass and volum e. That m eans that density overall has derived units, just like velocity. Com mon
units for density include g/ m L, g/ cm 3 , g/ L, kg/ L, and even kg/ m 3 . Densities for som e comm on
substances are listed in Table 2.2 "Densities of Som e Com mon Substances".

Table 2.2 Densities of Som e Com mon Substances

Saylor URL: http://www.saylor.org/books Saylor.org

82
Substance Density (g/mL or g/cm3)

water 1.0

gold 19.3

mercury 13.6

air 0.0012

cork 0.22–0.26

aluminum 2.7

iron 7.87

Because of how it is defined, density can act as a conversion factor for switching between units
of m ass and volum e. For exam ple, suppose you have a sam ple of alum inum that has a volum e of
7.88 cm 3 . How can you determ ine what m ass of alum inum you have without m easuring it? You
can use the volum e to calculate it. If you m ultiply the given volum e by the known density
(from Table 2.2 "Densities of Som e Com m on Substances"), the volum e units will cancel and
leave you with m ass units, telling you the m ass of the sample:

where we have lim ited our answer to two significant figures.

E XA M P L E 1 4

What is the mass of 44.6 mL of mercury?

Solution

Use the density from Table 2.2 "Densities of Some Common Substances" as a conversion factor to go
from volume to mass:

The mass of the mercury is 607 g.

Saylor URL: http://www.saylor.org/books Saylor.org

83
 Test Yourself

What is the mass of 25.0 cm3 of iron?

Answer

197 g

Density can also be used as a conversion factor to convert m ass to volum e—but care m ust be
taken. We have already dem onstrated that the num ber that goes with density norm ally goes in
the num erator when density is written as a fraction. Take the density of gold, for exam ple:

d=19.3 g/mL=19.3 g

Although this was not previously pointed out, it can be assum ed that there is a 1 in the
denom inator:

d=19.3 g/mL=19.3 g

That is, the density value tells us that we have 19.3 grams for every 1 m illiliter of volum e, and the
1 is an exact num ber. When we want to use density to convert from m ass to volum e, the
num erator and denom inator of density need to be switched—that is, we must take
the reciprocal of the density. In so doing, we m ove not only the units but also the num bers:

1d=1 mL

This reciprocal density is still a useful conversion factor, but now the m ass unit will cancel and
the volum e unit will be introduced. Thus, if we want to know the volum e of 45.9 g of gold, we
would set up the conversion as follows:

45.9 g × 1 mL

Note how the m ass units cancel, leaving the volume unit, which is what we’re looking for.

E XA M P L E 1 5

Saylor URL: http://www.saylor.org/books Saylor.org

84
 A cork stopper from a bottle of wine has a mass of 3.78 g. If the density of cork is 0.22 g/cm3, what is
the volume of the cork?

Solution

To use density as a conversion factor, we need to take the reciprocal so that the mass unit of density
is in the denominator. Taking the reciprocal, we find

1d=1 cm3

We can use this expression as the conversion factor. So

Test Yourself

What is the volume of 3.78 g of gold?

Answer

0.196 cm3

Care m ust be used with density as a conversion factor. Make sure the m ass units are the sam e,
or the volum e units are the sam e, before using density to convert to a different unit. Often, the
unit of the given quantity m ust be first converted to the appropriate unit before applying density
as a conversion factor.

Saylor URL: http://www.saylor.org/books Saylor.org

85
Food and Drink App: Cooking Temperatures
Because degrees Fahrenheit is the com mon tem perature scale in the United States, kitchen
appliances, such as ovens, are calibrated in that scale. A cool oven m ay be only 150 °F, while a
cake m ay be baked at 350 °F and a chicken roasted at 40 0 °F. The broil setting on m any ovens is
50 0 °F, which is typically the highest temperature setting on a household oven.

People who live at high altitudes, typically 2,0 0 0 ft above sea level or higher, are som etim es
urged to use slightly different cooking instructions on som e products, such as cakes and bread,
because water boils at a lower temperature the higher in altitude you go, m eaning that foods
cook slower. For exam ple, in Cleveland water typically boils at 212°F (10 0 °C), but in Denver, the
Mile-High City, water boils at about 20 0 °F (93.3°C), which can significantly lengthen cooking
tim es. Good cooks need to be aware of this.

At the other end is pressure cooking. A pressure cooker is a closed vessel that allows steam to
build up additional pressure, which increases the tem perature at which water boils. A good
pressure cooker can get to tem peratures as high as 252°F (122°C); at these tem peratures, food
cooks m uch faster than it norm ally would. Great care m ust be used with pressure cookers
because of the high pressure and high temperature. (When a pressure cooker is used to sterilize
m edical instrum ents, it is called an autoclave.)

Other countries use the Celsius scale for everyday purposes. Therefore, oven dials in their
kitchens are m arked in degrees Celsius. It can be confusing for US cooks to use ovens abroad—a
425°F oven in the United States is equivalent to a 220 °C oven in other countries. These days,
m any oven thermom eters are m arked with both tem perature scales.

KEY TAKEAWAYS

 Chemistry uses the Celsius and Kelvin scales to express temperatures.

 A temperature on the Kelvin scale is the Celsius temperature plus 273.15.
 The minimum possible temperature is absolute zero and is assigned 0 K on the Kelvin scale.
 Density relates a substance’s mass and volume.

Saylor URL: http://www.saylor.org/books Saylor.org

86
  Density can be used to calculate volume from a given mass or mass from a given volume.

EXERCISES

1. Perform the following conversions.

a. 255°F to degrees Celsius

b. −255°F to degrees Celsius
c. 50.0°C to degrees Fahrenheit
d. −50.0°C to degrees Fahrenheit

2. Perform the following conversions.

a. 1,065°C to degrees Fahrenheit

b. −222°C to degrees Fahrenheit
c. 400.0°F to degrees Celsius
d. 200.0°F to degrees Celsius

3. Perform the following conversions.

a. 100.0°C to kelvins
b. −100.0°C to kelvins
c. 100 K to degrees Celsius
d. 300 K to degrees Celsius

4. Perform the following conversions.

a. 1,000.0 K to degrees Celsius

b. 50.0 K to degrees Celsius

Saylor URL: http://www.saylor.org/books Saylor.org

87
 c. 37.0°C to kelvins
d. −37.0°C to kelvins

5. Convert 0 K to degrees Celsius. What is the significance of the temperature in degrees Celsius?

6. Convert 0 K to degrees Fahrenheit. What is the significance of the temperature in degrees

Fahrenheit?

7. The hottest temperature ever recorded on the surface of the earth was 136°F in Libya in 1922.
What is the temperature in degrees Celsius and in kelvins?

8. The coldest temperature ever recorded on the surface of the earth was −128.6°F in Vostok,
Antarctica, in 1983. What is the temperature in degrees Celsius and in kelvins?

9. Give at least three possible units for density.

10. What are the units when density is inverted? Give three examples.

11. A sample of iron has a volume of 48.2 cm3. What is its mass?

12. A sample of air has a volume of 1,015 mL. What is its mass?

13. The volume of hydrogen used by the Hindenburg, the German airship that exploded in New
Jersey in 1937, was 2.000 × 108 L. If hydrogen gas has a density of 0.0899 g/L, what mass of
hydrogen was used by the airship?

14. The volume of an Olympic-sized swimming pool is 2.50 × 109 cm3. If the pool is filled with alcohol
(d = 0.789 g/cm3), what mass of alcohol is in the pool?

Saylor URL: http://www.saylor.org/books Saylor.org

88
 15. A typical engagement ring has 0.77 cm3 of gold. What mass of gold is present?

16. A typical mercury thermometer has 0.039 mL of mercury in it. What mass of mercury is in the
thermometer?

17. What is the volume of 100.0 g of lead if lead has a density of 11.34 g/cm3?

18. What is the volume of 255.0 g of uranium if uranium has a density of 19.05 g/cm3?

19. What is the volume in liters of 222 g of neon if neon has a density of 0.900 g/L?

20. What is the volume in liters of 20.5 g of sulfur hexafluoride if sulfur hexafluoride has a density of
6.164 g/L?

21. Which has the greater volume, 100.0 g of iron (d = 7.87 g/cm3) or 75.0 g of gold (d = 19.3
g/cm3)?

22. Which has the greater volume, 100.0 g of hydrogen gas (d = 0.0000899 g/cm3) or 25.0 g of argon
gas (d = 0.00178 g/cm3)?

A N SW E R S

1. a. 124°C
b.−159°C
c. 122°F
d. −58°F

3. a. 373 K
b. 173 K

Saylor URL: http://www.saylor.org/books Saylor.org

89
 c. −173°C
d. 27°C

5. −273°C. This is the lowest possible temperature in degrees Celsius.

7. 57.8°C; 331 K

9. g/mL, g/L, and kg/L (answers will vary)

11. 379 g

13. 1.80 × 107 g

15. 15 g

17. 8.818 cm3

19. 247 L

20. The 100.0 g of iron has the greater volume.

2.6 End-of-Chapter Material

A D D I T I O N A L E XE R C I SE S

1. Evaluate 0.00000000552 × 0.0000000006188 and express the answer in scientific notation. You
may have to rewrite the original numbers in scientific notation first.

3. Evaluate 333,999,500,000 ÷ 0.00000000003396 and express the answer in scientific notation.

You may need to rewrite the original numbers in scientific notation first.

Saylor URL: http://www.saylor.org/books Saylor.org

90
 4. Express the number 6.022 × 1023 in standard notation.

5. Express the number 6.626 × 10−34 in standard notation.

6. When powers of 10 are multiplied together, the powers are added together. For example, 102 ×
103 = 102+3 = 105. With this in mind, can you evaluate (4.506 × 104) × (1.003 × 102) without
entering scientific notation into your calculator?

6. When powers of 10 are divided into each other, the bottom exponent is subtracted from the top
exponent. For example, 105/103 = 105−3 = 102. With this in mind, can you evaluate (8.552 × 106) ÷
(3.129 × 103) without entering scientific notation into your calculator?

7. Consider the quantity two dozen eggs. Is the number in this quantity “two” or “two dozen”?
Justify your choice.

8. Consider the quantity two dozen eggs. Is the unit in this quantity “eggs” or “dozen eggs”? Justify
your choice.

9. Fill in the blank: 1 km = ______________ μm.

10. Fill in the blank: 1 Ms = ______________ ns.

11. Fill in the blank: 1 cL = ______________ ML.

12. Fill in the blank: 1 mg = ______________ kg.

13. Express 67.3 km/h in meters/second.

Saylor URL: http://www.saylor.org/books Saylor.org

91
 14. Express 0.00444 m/s in kilometers/hour.

15. Using the idea that 1.602 km = 1.000 mi, convert a speed of 60.0 mi/h into kilometers/hour.

16. Using the idea that 1.602 km = 1.000 mi, convert a speed of 60.0 km/h into miles/hour.

17. Convert 52.09 km/h into meters/second.

18. Convert 2.155 m/s into kilometers/hour.

19. Use the formulas for converting degrees Fahrenheit into degrees Celsius to determine the
relative size of the Fahrenheit degree over the Celsius degree.

20. Use the formulas for converting degrees Celsius into kelvins to determine the relative size of the
Celsius degree over kelvins.

21. What is the mass of 12.67 L of mercury?

22. What is the mass of 0.663 m3 of air?

23. What is the volume of 2.884 kg of gold?

24. What is the volume of 40.99 kg of cork? Assume a density of 0.22 g/cm3.

A N SW E R S

1. 3.42 × 10−18

3. 602,200,000,000,000,000,000,000

Saylor URL: http://www.saylor.org/books Saylor.org

92
 5. 4.520 × 106

7. The quantity is two; dozen is the unit.

9. 1,000,000,000

11. 1/100,000,000

13. 18.7 m/s

15. 96.1 km/h

17. 14.47 m/s

19. One Fahrenheit degree is nine-fifths the size of a Celsius degree.

21. 1.72 × 105 g

23. 149 mL

Saylor URL: http://www.saylor.org/books Saylor.org

93