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 Advances of DNA
Computing in Cryptography
 Advances of DNA
Computing in Cryptography

Edited by
Suyel Namasudra and Ganesh Chandra Deka
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Library of Congress Cataloging‑ in‑ Publication Data

Names: Namasudra, Suyel, editor. | Deka, Ganesh Chandra, 1969- editor.

Title: Advances of DNA computing in cryptography / edited by Suyel Namasudra,
Ganesh Chandra Deka.
Description: Boca Raton : CRC Press, 2019. | Includes bibliographical
references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2018018628| ISBN 9780815385325 (hardback) | ISBN
9781351011419 (ebook)
Subjects: LCSH: Computer security. | Data encryption (Computer science) |
Cryptography--Data processing. | Molecular computers.
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Contents

Preface............................................................................................................................................. vii
Editors...............................................................................................................................................ix
Authors.............................................................................................................................................xi
Contributors....................................................................................................................................xv

1 Introduction of DNA Computing in Cryptography............................................... 1

Suyel Namasudra and Ganesh Chandra Deka

2 Implementation of Public Key Cryptography in DNA Cryptography............... 19

Alo Sen, Rahul Roy, and Satya Ranjan Dash

3 Taxonomy of DNA-Based Security Models........................................................... 37

Suyel Namasudra

4 Novel Data Encryption Scheme Using DNA Computing.................................... 53

Kintaali Abhimanyu Kumar Patro and Bibhudendra Acharya

5 Application of DNA Computing in the Cloud Computing Environment......... 95

Debashree Devi

6 Taxonomy of Security Attacks in DNA Computing............................................117

Selvaraj Karthikeyan, Patan Rizwan, and Balusamy Balamurugan

7 Security, Privacy, Trust, and Anonymity...............................................................137

Suyel Namasudra, Debashree Devi, Sandeep Choudhary, Rizwan Patan,
and Suresh Kallam

8 DNA Computing Algorithm..................................................................................151

Awanish Kumar

9 Applications and Future Trends of DNA Computing.........................................165

Suyel Namasudra, Ganesh Chandra Deka, and Rohan Bali

Index................................................................................................................................177

v
Preface

Secure data communication is a big challenge for information technology (IT) companies
due to the increasing number of attackers and malicious users. The exponential increases
in users or customers on the Internet makes the situation more critical. Cryptography is
the technique of transmitting data or messages (files) between a sender and receiver over
an untrusted medium in such a manner that an attacker or malicious user is unable to read
the original data. It can also be used for the authentication of customers or users.
DNA can be used to store large chunks of data since large amounts of data can be stored
inside the condensed volume of DNA. One gram of DNA can hold approximately 1021
bases (A, T, G, and C) of DNA, representing approximately 700 TB of data storage capac-
ity. Therefore, a few grams of DNA can store all the data in the world. The processing
speed of write and read operations in DNA computing is comparatively very high, which
has already attracted many researchers to use DNA in computing, also known as DNA
computing.
Many researchers have proposed many schemes for data security using DNA comput-
ing. This book starts with a discussion on the technology used in DNA computing in
Chapter 1 and gradually introduces the application of various aspects of DNA computing.
Chapter 2 is about the applications of DNA computing in cryptography for data protec-
tion, while Chapter 3 deliberates upon the taxonomy of DNA based encryption models.
Chapter 4 is a case study on a data encryption scheme using DNA computing, which rep-
resents a data encryption scheme for improving data security.
Nowadays, cloud computing is being used in many organizations. Chapter 5 of this
book deliberates upon the prospects of DNA computing in the cloud computing environ-
ment. Chapter 6 is an analytical study of the taxonomy of security attacks, which is further
deliberated upon in Chapter 7. Chapter 8 is a comparative study on various DNA comput-
ing algorithms, while Chapter 9 concludes the book by discussing future research trends
in DNA computing.

Suyel Namasudra
Ganesh Chandra Deka

MATLAB® is a registered trademark of The MathWorks, Inc. For product information,

please contact:

The MathWorks, Inc.

3 Apple Hill Drive
Natick, MA 01760-2098 USA
Tel: 508 647 7000
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Web: www.mathworks.com

vii
Editors

Suyel Namasudra earned his BTech degree in Computer Science and Engineering from
the Institute of Engineering and Technology, Uttar Pradesh, India, in 2012. He earned
his MTech degree in Computer Science and Engineering from Tripura University
(A Central University), Tripura, India, in 2014. Currently, he works as an assistant professor
at Galgotias University, Uttar Pradesh, India. His research interests include DNA comput-
ing, information security, cloud computing, Big Data, and distributed computing.

Ganesh Chandra Deka is the deputy director (training) in the Directorate General
of Training, Ministry of Skill Development and Entrepreneurship (formerly DGE&T,
Ministry of Labor & Employment), Government of India. He is a member of the IEEE and
IETE, an associate member of the Institution of Engineers (India), and the editor-in-chief of
the International Journal of Computing, Communications, and Networking . His research inter-
ests include information and communications technology (ICT) in rural development,
e-governance, cloud computing, data mining, NoSQL databases, and vocational education
and training. He has edited three books on cloud computing and published more than
40 research papers. He earned his PhD in computer science from Ballsbridge University,
Dominica.

ix
Authors

Bibhudendra Acharya is an assistant professor in the Department of Electronics and

Telecommunication Engineering, National Institute of Technology, Raipur, Chhattisgarh,
India. His research areas of interest are cryptography and network security, microcon-
trollers and embedded systems, signal processing, and soft computing. He has authored
more than 50 research publications in national/international journals and conferences. He
is a member of the editorial board and reviewer for various journals of repute, including
those of IEEE and international conferences.

Balusamy Balamurugan is a professor in the School of Computing Science and

Engineering, Galgotias University, Uttar Pradesh, India. His main research areas are Big
Data, network security, and cloud computing.

Rohan Bali is pursuing a BTech degree in computer science and engineering from
Galgotias University, Uttar Pradesh, India. His research interests include DNA comput-
ing, information security, and cloud computing.

Sandeep Choudhary earned his BTech degree in Computer Science and Engineering
from Guru Gobind Singh Indraprastha University, Delhi, India, in 2008. He earned his MS
degree in Cyber Law and Cyber Security from National Law University, Jodhpur, India, in
2012. Currently, he is pursuing a PhD in Computer Science and Engineering from the Birla
Institute of Technology, Mesra, Ranchi, India. His research interests include DNA comput-
ing, cloud computing, cyber security, web technologies, and Big Data.

Satya Ranjan Dash is an associate professor in the School of Computer Applications,

KIIT University, Bhubaneswar, India. He earned his MCA degree from Jorhat Engineering
College, Dibrugarh University, Assam, and his MTech degree in Computer Science from
Utkal University, Odisha. He earned his PhD in Computer Science from Utkal University,
Bhubaneswar, Odisha. His research interests include machine learning, bioinformatics,
and cloud computing.

Debashree Devi is a research scholar in the Computer Science and Engineering

Department of the National Institute of Technology, Silchar, Assam, India. She earned her
BTech degree from Gandhi Institute of Engineering and Technology, Orissa, India, and
her MTech degree from Assam Don Bosco University, Assam, India. She has published
five research papers in international journals and conferences, including three SCI/SCIE
indexing journals. Her areas of interest include DNA computing, Big Data, cloud comput-
ing, information security, data mining, artificial intelligence, and pattern recognition.

Suresh Kallam earned his bachelor’s and master’s degrees from Jawaharlal Nehru
Technological University, Hyderabad, and his PhD from VIT University, Vellore,
Tamilnadu. He is currently working as a professor, division head, and program chair for
MTech, the School of Computing Science and Engineering, Galgotias University, India.
Previously, he worked as foreign faculty in East China University of Technology, ECIT
Nanchang Campus, Jiangxi, China, and visiting faculty for Jiangxi Normal University,

xi
xii Authors 

China. He has published more than 35 national and international conference papers and
25 international journals. He received the Young Scientist Award, Best Faculty Award, and
Best Paper Award in 2005 and got first prize in the National Paper Presentation, 2008. His
field of interest is the Internet of Things, Big Data, and high performance computing.

Selvaraj Karthikeyan was born in Salem, Tamil Nadu, India, in 1990. He earned his BE
(CSE) in 2012 from Anna University, Coimbatore, India, and his ME degree in Computer
Science and Engineering in 2013 from Anna University, Coimbatore, India. In 2015, he
joined the Department of Computer Science and Engineering at the Knowledge Institute of
Technology as an Assistant Professor, and he has been Assistant Professor – G1 at Galgotias
University since September 2017. His research interests are cloud computing and security.

Awanish Kumar is an assistant professor at the Department of Biotechnology, National

Institute of Technology (NIT), Raipur (CG), India. He completed his PhD at the Central
Drug Research Institute (CSIR-CDRI), Lucknow, India, and Jawaharlal Nehru University,
New Delhi, India. After the completion of his PhD and before joining NIT Raipur, he
served as a post-doctoral fellow at McGill University, Canada, and as UGC Young Research
Investigator at Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi, India. Dr. Kumar’ s main research
area is disease biology and health care. His research is focused on molecular/cell biol-
ogy, computational biology, proteomics, and therapeutic aspects of disease. Dr. Kumar
has served in various national and international organizations with different academic/
research capacities. He has published more than 75 research papers in Science Citation
Indexed (SCI) journals. He is the author of several books/chapters. Currently, he serves on
various international/national committees, scientific societies, and advisory panels. He is
a member of many international/national professional research societies and reviewer/
editorial board member of reputed and refereed international journals. He is regularly
invited by top-notch journals to review research papers, and he has reviewed more than
50 research papers.

Rizwan Patan is from Andhra Pradesh, India. He is currently an assistant professor in

the School of Computing Science and Engineering, Galgotias University, Uttar Pradesh,
India. He completed his PhD in 2017 at the School of Computer Science and Engineering,
VIT University, Tamil Nadu, India, and a BTech and MTech in 2012 and 2014, respectively,
at Jawaharlal Nehru Technological University Anantapur, India. His publications include
four articles in SCI journals and 20 free Scopus indexed journals, conferences, book chap-
ters, and books. He is a guest editor for the International Journal of Grid and Utility Computing ,
Recent Patents on Computer Science , and Recent Patents on Engineering .

Kintaali Abhimanyu Kumar Patro is a full-time PhD research scholar at the National
Institute of Technology Raipur, Chhattisgarh, India. His PhD research area is cryptogra-
phy and network security. He has six research publications in international journals and
conferences. He is a reviewer of the IEEE Access journal.

Rahul Roy is co-founder and technical head of ei2 Classes and Technologies, Durgapur,
West Bengal, under the approval of MSME and Skill India. His previous assignments have
included GATE Faculty, The Gate Academy, Kolkata and Durgapur, India (2012– 2015);
Technical Assistant, Bengal College of Engineering and Technology, Durgapur (2011– 2012);
and Service Engineer at Spinco Biotech Pvt Ltd, Kolkata, India (2008– 2011). His research
interests include medical electronics, embedded systems, digital image processing, speech
Authors  xiii

recognition, networking tools and IoT. He has published many research papers in various
national and international conferences and international journals. He is a member of the
Indian Science Congress and VIPNET Club, Government of India.

Alo Sen is founder and director of ei2 Classes and Technologies, Durgapur, West Bengal,
India, under the approval of MSME and Skill India. She earned an MTech in Computer
Science and Technology and an MCA from KIIT University in 2015 and 2013, respectively.
Her research interests include cryptography, steganography, grid computing, cloud com-
puting, and IoT. She has published many research papers in various international confer-
ences and international journals of repute, including IEEE. She is a member of the Indian
Science Congress and VIPNET Club, Government of India.
Contributors

Bibhudendra Acharya Suresh Kallam

Department of Electronics and School of Computing Science and
Telecommunication Engineering
Engineering Galgotias University
National Institute of Technology Greater Noida, Uttar Pradesh, India
Raipur, Chhattisgarh, India
Selvaraj Karthikeyan
Balusamy Balamurugan School of Computing Science and
School of Computing Science and Engineering
Engineering Galgotias University
Galgotias University Greater Noida, Uttar Pradesh, India
Greater Noida, Uttar Pradesh, India
Awanish Kumar
Rohan Bali Department of Biotechnology
School of Computing Science and National Institute of Technology
Engineering GE Road, Raipur, Chhattisgarh, India
Galgotias University
Greater Noida, Uttar Pradesh,
Suyel Namasudra
India
School of Computing Science and
Engineering
Sandeep Choudhary
Galgotias University
Department of Computer Science and
Greater Noida, Uttar Pradesh, India
Engineering
Birla Institute of Technology
Rizwan Patan
Mesra, Jharkhand, India
School of Computing Science and
Engineering
Satya Ranjan Dash
Galgotias University
School of Computer Applications
Greater Noida, Uttar Pradesh, India
Kalinga Institute of Industrial
Technology
Bhubaneswar, Odisha, India Kintaali Abhimanyu Kumar Patro
Department of Electronics and
Ganesh Chandra Deka Telecommunication Engineering
Directorate General of Training National Institute of Technology
Ministry of Skill Development and Raipur, Chhattisgarh, India
Entrepreneurship
Rafi Marg, New Delhi, India Rahul Roy
ei2 Classes and Technologies
Debashree Devi Durgapur, West Bengal, India
Department of Computer Science and
Engineering Alo Sen
National Institute of Technology Silchar ei2 Classes and Technologies
Assam, India Durgapur, West Bengal, India

xv
1
Introduction of DNA Computing in Cryptography

Suyel Namasudra and Ganesh Chandra Deka

CONTENTS
1.1 Introduction............................................................................................................................. 1
1.1.1 Key Management in Cryptography......................................................................... 3
1.2 Steganography.........................................................................................................................4
1.3 Background Studies of DNA.................................................................................................5
1.4 DNA Computing.....................................................................................................................7
1.4.1 Why DNA Computing?............................................................................................. 8
1.5 DNA Computing in Cryptography......................................................................................9
1.5.1 Polymerase Chain Reaction..................................................................................... 10
1.5.2 DNA-Based Steganography..................................................................................... 11
1.5.3 DNA-Based Chip Technology................................................................................. 12
1.6 Future Research Work Directions...................................................................................... 13
1.7 Conclusions............................................................................................................................ 15
Key Terms and Definitions........................................................................................................... 15
References........................................................................................................................................ 16
References for Advanced/Further Reading............................................................................... 18

1.1 Introduction
The security of data has become more and more important as data are shared through the
cloud in heterogeneous devices (Deka and Das, 2014; Namasudra, 2017, 2018; Namasudra
et al., 2017a; Namasudra et al., 2014). Cryptography is the technique of secret writing
(Willett, 1982; Lin, 1998). The main goal of cryptography is to transmit data or messages
(files) between the sender and receiver over an untrusted medium in such a manner that an
attacker or malicious user is unable to read the original data content. It can also be used for
the authentication of customers and users.
In cryptography, the plaintext refers to an ordinary readable data or message. The encryp-
tion process takes plaintext as input and generates ciphertext as output by using a secret key
and encryption algorithm. The process of recovering the plaintext from the ciphertext by
using the secret key is known as decryption. Fundamentally, there are two types of crypto-
systems, based on how the encryption and decryption processes are carried out:

1. Symmetric key encryption

2. Asymmetric key encryption

The main dissimilarity between these two cryptographic systems is the use of the decryp-
tion and encryption keys. Both these keys are strongly associated in any cryptosystem.
1
2 Advances of DNA Computing in Cryptography

In symmetric key encryption, the secret key is shared between the sender and receiver,
and the encryption and decryption processes are executed by using the same key (Kumar
and Wollinger, 2006; Schneier, 1996). Here, the length of the key is small, so the encryp-
tion and decryption processes are fast and use less computer processing power. In the
1970s, all cryptosystems used symmetric key encryption. Nowadays, it is still used in
many cryptosystems. Some examples of symmetric key encryption are Digital Encryption
Standard (DES), IDEA, BLOWFISH and Triple-DES (3DES). There are two main types of
symmetric key encryption:

1. Stream cipher, where the bytes or digits of a message are encrypted one at a time.
2. Block cipher, where a number of bits are taken as a single unit, and then this unit is
encrypted. Here, plaintext is padded to make it multiple block size. In block cipher,
64-bit blocks are commonly used.

However, symmetric encryption requires establishing a secure key-exchange mecha-

nism, and the sender and receiver have to trust each other. Otherwise, they may lose their
secret information, and there is always a chance that the key will be given to others. Thus,
data may face security issues. Figure 1.1 shows the symmetric key encryption process.
Asymmetric key encryption is also known as public key cryptography. Here, different
keys or values are used to encrypt and decrypt data or a message, and the process does not
require sharing keys between the sender and receiver. The keys are usually large numeric
numbers and are mathematically correlated to each other even if they are different. The
asymmetric key encryption process was invented in the 20th century because it was nec-
essary to pre-share the secret key between two parties. In this process, every party has a
pair of keys:

1. A private key
2. A public key, where one key is utilized at the time of encryption, and the other is
utilized at the time of decryption (Katayangi and Murakami, 2001).

Computationally, it is unfeasible that one key could be determined based on another key
even though both keys are mathematically correlated, which is the strength of asymmetric

FIGURE 1.1
Symmetric key encryption.
Introduction of DNA Computing in Cryptography 3

FIGURE 1.2
Asymmetric key encryption.

key encryption. In addition, the strength of the encryption is associated with the key
size, and doubling the key length supports an exponential enhancement of its strength.
However, users need to trust the third party for key management, which is one of the
challenging issues of asymmetric key encryption. Figure 1.2 shows a block diagram of
asymmetric key encryption.
Some examples of asymmetric key encryption are Secure Shell (SSH), OpenPGP and dig-
ital signature. It is also utilized in many online services, such as browsers that require the
establishment of a secure or trusted connection over an unsecured or untrusted network.
To create a better cryptosystem, it is preferable to use symmetric algorithms, since they
are fast and secure compared to asymmetric algorithms (Knudsen, 1994; de Cannière
et al., 2006).

1.1.1 Key Management in Cryptography

Key management is one of the important aspects of any cryptosystem. There are three
main steps in key management:

1. Key generation: Key is generated for encryption and decryption.

2. Key revocation: Key is revoked from a user or customer, when s/he is not an autho-
rized user.
3. Key distribution: Key is distributed in a secure way (Chaeikar et al., 2010). This is the
most vital step for key management, since in this step, attackers or malicious users
try to get the secret key by using an attack.

So, if a strong algorithm is used for key generation, but the key distribution process lacks
security, then the security of the whole cryptosystem might be at risk. An algorithm has
been proposed to distribute the key in an unsecured medium (Diffie and Hellman, 1976).
The main contributions of this chapter are to present an overview of cryptography and
DNA computing. Here, all the basics of cryptography are presented. Background studies
of DNA and the applications of DNA computing in the field of cryptography are also dis-
cussed in this chapter.
4 Advances of DNA Computing in Cryptography

The rest of the chapter is organized into different parts. Section 1.2 discusses stegan-
ography. Background studies of DNA are presented in Section 1.3. DNA computing is
discussed in Section 1.4. Applications of DNA computing in cryptography are presented
in Section 1.5. Future work directions are discussed in Section 1.6. Finally, Section 1.7 con-
cludes the whole chapter.

1.2 Steganography
Steganography is a technique for hiding data. Both steganography and cryptography have
common aim but use different approaches. Table 1.1 summarizes the differences between
cryptography and steganography.
Simmons’ prisoner’s problem is one of the popular illustrations of steganography.
According to this example, two criminals want to escape from jail, and they want to dis-
cuss their plan without attracting the attention of the police or guards. The only possible
way is to communicate with each other by transferring the message or information in a
hidden way (Lenti, 2000).
Each method involved in steganography contains an algorithm, which embeds the data
or information into a carrier and develops an identifier function that returns the embed-
ded data or information. The function uses a secret key, and this is only shared with or
known to the authorized user or customer. The function recovers and identifies the exis-
tence of the data or information by using the secret key. Equation 1.1 shows a generic detail
of the steganography technique.

Covermedium + hidden data + key stego = stegomedium (1.1)

Here, Covermedium is a carrier medium in which data ( hidden data ) is hidden, key stego is the
secret key and stegomedium is the final output of the steganography process.
The most difficult part of steganography is to embed the data or information in such
a manner that the attacker or malicious users or the users of the carriers are unable to
get it, and most importantly, that the detection of the embedded message or informa-
tion is also very difficult to recover. Some important factors of steganography are imper-
ceptibility, capacity and robustness. Each factor is responsible for how the data can be
embedded into the carrier, how identification of the embedded information or data can be
avoided and the strength of the algorithm that protects the data against damage during
the embedding process.

TABLE 1.1
Steganography and Cryptography
Sl. No. Steganography Cryptography
1 Hides existence of data or information Changes the content of data
2 Refers to covering a data or information (Johnson Data or information may not be
and Jajodia, 1998) covered
3 Embeds data in a carrier Data are not embedded
4 A function is used to identify the existence of data Data are only encrypted by a secret key
Introduction of DNA Computing in Cryptography 5

1.3 Background Studies of DNA

Biologically, deoxyribonucleic acid is a lengthy molecule that contains most of the
genetic information used for the growth, functioning and reproduction of all organisms
(Wikipedia, 2018). All the cells in the human body hold the same Wikipedia, and every
characteristic of the cells are dependent on it.
Cells can be described as the basic building blocks of all living beings. The human body
is made up of trillions of cells, which provide the structure for our bodies. The body takes
nutrients from food and converts the nutrients into energy for doing specialized work.
Cells also contain genetic material and make copies of it.
Human cells have many parts, which are responsible for different functions. The major
parts of human cells are mentioned below:

1. Cytoplasm: The cytoplasm is made up of a jelly-like fluid known as cytosol along

with the other structures that surround the nucleus.
2. Cytoskeleton: The cytoskeleton is a long fibrous network that makes up the struc-
ture of the cell’s framework. It has many functions, such as cell shape, cell division
and cell movement.
3. Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER): The endoplasmic reticulum transports process mol-
ecules to their destinations, that is, inside the cell or outside the cell.
4. Golgi apparatus: Golgi apparatus packages the processed molecules, which are trans-
ferred to the other cell by the endoplasmic reticulum.
5. Lysosomes and peroxisomes: These organelles are the main center for recycling in
the cell; they digest bacteria that invade the cell, rid the cell of them and recycle
components of the worn-out cell.
6. Mitochondria: Mitochondria are among the complex organelles that convert energy
into a form that the cell can use. They contain the genetic material that separates
the mitochondria from the DNA in the nucleus.
7. Plasma membrane: The outer lining layer of any cell is the plasma membrane. It
separates any cell from its own environment and supports materials as they leave
and enter the cell.
8. Ribosomes: Ribosomes are the organelles that process the genetic instructions of
the cell for creating proteins. Ribosomes can drift freely within the cytoplasm.

The DNA molecule contains two main biopolymer strands that twist around each other
to form a double helix. Two DNA strands are composed of nucleotides. Nucleotides are the
building block of each DNA molecule and are made up of nucleic acids. The molecules of
the nucleic acid are very complex, holding the code that guarantees the exact ordering of
20 amino acids. Interestingly, DNA is comprised of only four units of nucleotide, and each
of those nucleotides contains three units:

1. Sugar molecule: Sugar molecules are made up of five carbon sugars known as deoxyribose.
2. Phosphate group: In phosphate groups, one phosphate atom is generally surrounded
by four oxygen atoms.
3. Nitrogen base: Nitrogen bases are basically the ring compounds made by the nitro-
gen and carbon atoms, which are structured like a single or double ring. Not all
6 Advances of DNA Computing in Cryptography

the nitrogen bases can pair together to form the base pairs. There are four types of
nitrogen bases:
a. Adenine (A)
b. Guanine (G)
c. Cytosine (C)
d. Thymine (T)

When covalent bonds are created among the sugars and phosphates of subsequent nucle-
otides, chains are formed, and nucleotides can join with other nucleotides, which results in
the backbone of sugar-phosphate. The outer edges of DNA are formed by alternating the
sugar molecules and phosphate groups. DNA molecules are formulated with two single
strands, as shown in Figure 1.3. Here, the two strands turn in opposite directions, form-
ing the structure of the double helix. Inside the helix structure, the nitrogenous bases are
positioned like “rungs on a ladder” because of a hydrophobic effect and are stabilized by
hydrogen bonding. DNA strands are kept together because of the hydrophobic interactions
and hydrogen bonds. The hydrogen bonds are created between the base pairs. The base
of the first strand only creates a hydrogen bond with a specific base of the second strand.
These two bases form a base pair. A is paired with T and C is paired with G according to
the rules of base pairing. Large numbers of DNA sequences can be generated by using the
combinations of random DNA bases. The National Center for Biotechnology Information
(NCBI) database gives a huge number of sequences of DNA bases (NCBI, 2018).
In DNA, codons can be defined as a group of three neighboring nucleotides that corre-
sponds to any amino acid or stop signal at the time of protein synthesis. DNA sequences
or molecules are written by using four nucleotides, and a protein involves 20 amino acids.
Codons support the key that allows DNA and protein to translate into each other. Each
codon usually corresponds to a single amino acid. The full set of codons is known as
the genetic code. Table 1.2 shows the genetic code (DNA). Here, the genetic code involves
64 possible combinations or permutations of the sequence of the three-letter nucleotide,
which can be taken from the four nucleotides. Here, 61 out of 64 codons represent amino
acids, and the other three represent stop signals. For example, the codon TAA represents a
stop codon, and the codon CAG represents the amino acid, namely Glutamine (Gln). The
genetic code can be referred to as redundant or degenerate because one single amino acid can
be used at the time of coding for more than one codon.

FIGURE 1.3
DNA structure.
Introduction of DNA Computing in Cryptography 7

TABLE 1.2
The Genetic Code (DNA)
Codon Amino Acid Codon Amino Acid Codon Amino Acid Codon Amino Acid
TTT Phe TCT Ser TAT Tyr TGT Cys
TTC Phe TCC Ser TAC Tyr TGC Cys
TTA Leu TCA Ser TAA STOP TGA STOP
TTG Leu TCG Ser TAG STOP TGG Trp
CTT Leu CCT Pro CAT His CGT Arg
CTC Leu CCC Pro CAC His CGC Arg
CTA Leu CCA Pro CAA Gln CGA Arg
CTG Leu CCG Pro CAG Gln CGG Arg
ATT Ile ACT Thr AAT Asn AGT Ser
ATC Ile ACC Thr AAC Asn AGC Ser
ATA Ile ACA Thr AAA Lys AGA Arg
ATG Met (Start) ACG Thr AAG Lys AGG Arg
GTT Val GCT Ala GAT Asp GGT Gly
GTC Val GCC Ala GAC Asp GGC Gly
GTA Val GCA Ala GAA Glu GGA Gly
GTG Val GCG Ala GAG Glu GGG Gly

A primer can be defined as ten sequence pairs of DNA sequences. It is a short length of
nucleic acid sequence, which provides the starting point of the DNA synthesis. A primer
is usually synthesized by the enzyme called primase before the DNA replication. The
enzymes that synthesize DNA are called DNA polymerases. DNA polymerases are only
able to connect the existing strand of the nucleotides with the new nucleotides. Therefore,
the primer must undergo a synthesis process, and the primer serves as the key and foun-
dation of DNA synthesis. Before the completion of DNA replication, primers are removed,
and DNA polymerases are used to fill the gaps in the sequence. In the laboratory, DNA
primers can be designed and synthesized with the specific sequences that can bind the
DNA sequences into a single strand. These designed DNA primers are generally used for
performing the Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR). PCR is a method or process for creating
many copies of the DNA sequences, which involve continual reactions by a polymerase.

1.4 DNA Computing
DNA computing is a computing area wherein DNA, molecular biology, hardware and
biochemistry are used to encode genetic details in computers. Research and development
of DNA computing involves experiments, theory and application.
In 1994, DNA was first proposed in the field of computation by Adleman (1994) of the
University of Southern California. Adleman demonstrated a proof-of-concept by using
DNA in the form of computation that solved the seven-point “Hamiltonian Path Problem.”
Initially, this novel approach was used to solve NP-hard problems. However, very soon it
was realized that DNA computing may not be the best solution for this type of problem.
Computer scientist Mitsunori Ogihara and biologist Animesh Ray described an implemen-
tation of Boolean circuits by using DNA computing in 1997 (Ogihara and Ray, 1999). Since
8 Advances of DNA Computing in Cryptography

then, many techniques have been developed by using DNA to solve many problems, such
as the SAT problem, the 0-1 planning problem, the integer planning problem, graph theory,
the optimal problem, database and cryptography, and many Turing machines are proved by
using DNA computing. Currently, DNA computing is one of the trending fields in biology
and computer science. A significant background in both computer engineering and DNA
molecules are essential for developing an efficient algorithm by using DNA computing.
A computation can be defined as the implementation of an algorithm, that is, a list of
step-by-step instructions, which takes inputs, processes those inputs and gives a result. In
DNA computing, rather than the traditional binary digit (1 and 0), data (or information)
are mainly represented by using four genetic alphabets:

1. A
2. T
3. C
4. G

It is achievable since the short molecules of DNA of any random sequence can be syn-
thesized. The input of an algorithm is therefore represented by using the DNA molecules
with particular sequences, and on the molecules, the instructions are used by the labora-
tory operations to get the result of the final set of molecules.
DNA computing is one of the forms of parallel computing, and it takes advantage of
numerous different DNA molecules (Lewin, 2002). The complexity and organization
of all human beings is mainly based on the coding system of the four components of
DNA molecule. One strand of DNA consists of four bases (A, T, C and G). After attaching
themselves to the deoxyribose, those nucleotides form a string for generating the long
sequences (Boneh and Lipton, 1996). By using processes drawn from chemistry and phys-
ics, the strands can be separated (Paun et al., 1998). Different DNA structures are used by
researchers for solving different problems (Lipton, 1995). Most of the DNA molecules used
in DNA computing are double strand and single strand. Some DNA strands used in DNA
computing can be hairpin and plasmid DNA molecules. There are many operations in
DNA computing models, namely adjoining, cut, insertion, paste and deletion.

1.4.1 Why DNA Computing?

DNA computing can be used to deal with scientific problems and calculations that cannot
be easily solved by using existing techniques of data sharing and storage. DNA computing
is popular for three main reasons:

1. Speed: Conventional or traditional computers are able to perform approximately

100 Million Instructions Per Second (MIPS). However, combinations of DNA
strands have a computational power equivalent to 109 or more. In comparison to
the fastest computer, DNA is also considered to be 100 times faster.
2. Minimal storage requirements: DNA stores memory space at the density of approxi-
mately 1 bit per cubic nanometer. Conventional storage systems, on the other
hand, need 1012 cubic nanometers for storing 1 bit.
3. Minimal power requirements: In DNA computing, power is not required at the time
of computation. The chemical bonds that are responsible for the construction of
DNA do not require a power source.
Discovering Diverse Content Through
Random Scribd Documents
 “This old house wasn’t worth saving,” he said. “If only I could
induce my sister to move in with me, all would be for the best. I’m
afraid though, she’ll never have anything to do with me.”

“Why not?” demanded Veve, who had joined the group. “Is it
because she thinks you are a thief?”

“Veve, hush!” commanded Connie in a shocked voice.

Miss Gordon and the other Brownies were sorry Veve had spoken
so carelessly. No one had intended to mention to Mr. Vincent what
his sister had said about him.

The carpenter remained silent a moment. Then he replied:

“You have a right to know the true story of what occurred so

many years ago. I’ll tell you my version, and then you may decide
for yourselves whether or not I am a thief or an honest man.”
 CHAPTER 19

“Flying Up”
LOWERING his voice so that others would not hear, Mr. Vincent
related to the Brownies what had happened many years before.

“As a boy I lived in the city with my father and sister,” he began
the story. “That was before either of us married. We did not have
very much money in those days.

“For some reason my father did not entirely trust the banks. So he
kept some of his savings in the house. To make the story short, five
hundred dollars disappeared.”

“And you were accused?” interposed Connie.

All of the Brownies and Miss Gordon were listening attentively to

the story.

“Yes, I never could understand why my father had so little faith in

me that he would make such an accusation. Perhaps it was because
I was a heavy spender of my earnings in those days. Easy come—
easy go, was my motto then. I’ve since reformed.”

“You say five hundred dollars vanished?” Miss Cordon asked

thoughtfully. “Was it never recovered.”

“Never. My father was sure I had taken it because no one except

my sister and myself had been in the house.”
 “Maybe someone broke in,” suggested Rosemary.

Mr. Vincent smiled and shook his head. “My father almost never
left the house in those days. He was old and ailing. In fact, the
feeling that I had taken his money was an obsession with him.”

“He died without learning that you were honest?” asked Veve,
deeply troubled.

“Yes,” the carpenter replied. “I should have told you that my father
ordered me out of the house. Instead of trying to reason with him, I
packed up and left.”

“Your sister didn’t take your part?” Miss Gordon questioned.

“Far from it. Minnie sided with my father. After he died, she
married and moved to this house. Her husband never was well-to-
do, and he also passed on a few years ago. About all Minnie had was
this house and the furniture—most of that came from the old
homestead.”

“How long ago was it that your father died?” the Brownie leader
inquired.

“Twenty-nine years ago.” The carpenter drew a deep sigh. “How

fast time passes! It hardly seems possible.

“In those twenty-nine years I’ve tried repeatedly to make Minnie

come to her senses. She’s as stubborn as a mule! She took the
attitude that disappointment over me hastened my father’s death.
Minnie just hasn’t been rational on the subject.”

“It seems funny that five hundred dollars could just disappear,”
Connie offered her opinion. “Maybe it was spent.”

“I rather doubt that.”

 “What do you think did become of it?” Veve asked.

“I wish I knew, little girl. Your guess is as good as mine. I’ve

thought, though, that my father might have hidden the money
somewhere and forgotten about it.”

“From what you say, he could have done exactly that!” declared
Miss Gordon.

“Unfortunately, the money never came to light. And it never will.”

“I don’t suppose so,” Miss Gordon regretfully admitted. “Thirty

years, or twenty-nine, to be exact, is a very long time.”

“A great deal of water has gone over the dam,” the carpenter
murmured. “Our old family homestead has been sold, and now the
last of the furniture is gone. Poor Minnie! If only I could help her!”

“Don’t worry, Mr. Vincent,” Miss Gordon said to cheer him. “Right
now she is very much upset to see her home sold. However, after
she has had a few days to reflect upon matters, she may view
everything in a different light.”

“You don’t know my sister Minnie if you think she will ever change
her mind about me! She never will accept a penny from me—she’d
go to the Poorhouse first.”

“Those were her very words!” Connie recalled.

“Minnie is convinced I stole the money and nothing ever will make
her change her mind.”

“Not even if the money were found?” asked Veve.

“That is an impossibility now,” Mr. Vincent answered. “I’m sorry to

have bored you with my story. I only told you what happened so you
would understand.”
 “We’re sure you never took the money!” cried Veve.

“I should say not!” added Connie.

“Thank you, for having confidence in me,” Mr. Vincent said,

smiling. “Well, I’ll move along, or my sister will think it odd that I am
talking with you.”

He turned and gripped Miss Gordon’s hand. “Thank you mightily

for looking after Minnie,” he said. “I can’t give you money now for
her keep, or she would refuse to go with you. Later, I’ll see that
you’re repaid.”

The teacher assured him that pay for an act of kindness had not
entered her mind. Promising to let him know how matters went with
Mrs. Myles, she escorted her Brownie charges to the parked car.

“What was Sam saying to you?” the widow demanded as they

squeezed into the sedan beside her.

Before anyone could answer, she announced flatly: “If he’s given
you money for my keep, I won’t go an inch—not an inch!”

“Mr. Vincent didn’t give me any money,” Miss Gordon said in a

soothing voice. “He is concerned about your future though.”

“I can imagine!” Mrs. Myles retorted. “I’ll have nothing to do with

him and that’s final.”

Although the Brownies longed to question the widow about the

lost five hundred dollars, they knew better than to do so.

She herself abruptly changed the subject by talking about the

cross-stitched pillow which Veve had bought.

“My mother made that pillow and set great store by it,” she
remarked sadly. “It’s gone now—everything is gone.”
 “You keep it,” Veve said quickly. “Please take it back.”

Mrs. Myles smiled through her tears. “Thank you, child,” she said,
patting Veve’s hand. “No, I can’t take the pillow. It would mean
nothing to me now in any case. My life is ended.”

Lapsing into a moody silence, she said no more during the ride to
Miss Gordon’s home.

During the next week and a half, the Brownies saw Mrs. Myles
infrequently. Nevertheless, she managed to dominate their lives.

Whenever they called at Miss Gordon’s home, they found her

occupying a rocker in the sun room. She complained constantly
about her “hard lot,” yet made no attempt to plan a future.

The Brownies knew Miss Gordon was worried because the old lady
took so much of her time. She was forced to cancel a Brownie
meeting. Unable to take the girls to the tree house, she asked Mrs.
Davidson to drive them there in her car.

“Were losing Miss Gordon,” Veve declared one day when the girls
were all at the tree house. “It’s Mrs. Myles’ fault too! I don’t think it’s
fair of her to take up so much of anyone’s time.”

“Mrs. Myles doesn’t mean to be selfish,” Connie defended her.

“She just doesn’t think, that’s all.”

Mrs. Davidson told the girls she did not believe very much could
be done to change the unfortunate situation.

“Miss Gordon can’t very well send Mrs. Myles to the county home,”
she said. “She has no other place to go.”

“She could live with her brother,” Veve insisted.

 “If she would,” agreed Mrs. Davidson. “But why discuss something
we know is utterly out of the picture? I doubt if Mrs. Myles ever will
change her mind.”

As the fall days grew a bit sharper, the Brownies visited their tree
house every few days. They wished to make the most of their time,
knowing that very soon the snow would fly.

“We’ve had such wonderfully good times here,” Eileen said

wistfully. “It seems a pity we never learned who built the house for
us.”

“Mr. Karwhite could tell if he would,” declared Rosemary.

“Whenever I ask him about it, he only smiles and says the secret
isn’t his to reveal.”

“After the fifteenth of the month, we likely won’t be coming here

again,” Sunny remarked. “Oh, dear!”

Now the Brownies had set aside the fifteenth as the day upon
which they would have their last ceremonial meeting of the fall
season. On this occasion, Eileen would “fly up” into the Girl Scout
organization.

“I almost wish I could be a Brownie forever,” she remarked

regretfully. “Being a Girl Scout will be fun too though!”

For nearly two weeks Miss Gordon had taken little active part in
the Brownie meetings. Instead, she had turned the programs over to
Mrs. Davidson and Connie’s mother.

However, the girls knew she would be on hand for the final
ceremony of the year. To insure that their leader could come, they
had extended an invitation to Mrs. Myles as well as their own
parents.
 “I hope the weather is right,” Connie said anxiously. “What a pity if
it should turn cold before Saturday.”

“Rain or shine we’ll have to hold the ceremonial,” Mrs. Davidson

assured the girls.

All that week the girls worked very hard preparing for the affair.
The tree house was given a thorough cleaning and everything put to
right.

By Saturday, cookies and cakes had been baked ready to serve to

the mothers. Brownie uniforms and ties also had been pressed and
cleaned.

Several Girl Scouts and their leader planned to attend the

ceremonial.

“Everyone will be here,” Eileen declared, her teeth chattering. “Oh,

I’m so scared. I know I’ll forget my lines.”

“You will not,” comforted Connie, squeezing her hand. “Almost

before you know it now, you’ll be a Girl Scout.”

“But being a Brownie was such fun, Connie. I almost think I don’t
want to fly up.”

“Nonsense!” Connie laughed. “We’ll all join the Scouts before long.
And you always may come back and visit our tree house.”

This assurance made Eileen feel much better.

Soon Miss Gordon, Mrs. Myles and many of the parents began to
arrrive at the tree house.

Because it would have been impossible to get even a portion of

the crowd into the house at one time, it was planned to hold the
ceremonial at the foot of the oak tree.
 The day had started out warm and sunny. This pleasant
beginning, however, was only a “teaser.”

Not long after the parents had gathered, clouds began darkening
the sky.

“We’re due for rain,” announced Mrs. Myles, drawing her shawl
about her. “Soon too.”

Miss Gordon and the mothers shared the old lady’s opinion. So it
was decided that the ceremony should be hastened.

Those who were not to take part, seated themselves on cushions

near the base of the big oak.

The Brownies formed a horseshoe, and upon signal, the Scout

Troop made a similar one opposite the younger girls.

Miss Gordon then opened the service by saying that the time had
come for Eileen to take wings and fly up to the Rosedale Girl Scout
Troop.

“Tell us, Eileen,” she invited, “what did you like best about being a
Brownie?”

Now that question was very easy to answer.

“I liked everything,” she answered promptly. “The hikes, the

parties and the cook-outs. I loved our wonderful week-end at Snow
Valley and the time we spent with the circus. It was fun picking
cherries too. But best of all, I liked this tree house!”

All of the Brownies cheered, for of course, they felt the same way.

Now came an important moment.

Miss Gordon moved forward and pinned the Brownie Wings on

Eileen’s Girl Scout uniform. Of gold, embroidered on green felt, they
signified her past membership in the Brownie organization.

Eileen then was asked to repeat the Girl Scout Promise:

“On my honor, I will try:

To do my duty to God and my country,
To help other people at all times,
To obey the Girl Scout Laws.”

The Girl Scouts then greeted Eileen as a new member after

reciting in unison their laws:

A Girl Scout’s honor is to be trusted.

A Girl Scout is loyal.

A Girl Scout’s duty is to be useful and to help others.

A Girl Scout is a friend to all and a sister to every other Girl Scout.

A Girl Scout is courteous.

A Girl Scout is a friend to animals.

A Girl Scout obeys orders.

A Girl Scout is cheerful.

A Girl Scout is thrifty.

A Girl Scout is clean in thought, word and deed.

The Scout pin was bestowed upon Eileen, who then was
welcomed into the troop by the girl Scouts of the Rosedale Troop.
 “I guess I’m a full-fledged Scout now,” she said with a laugh.
“Dear me, it seems a Girl Scout must be just about everything!”

The ceremony now was over, and everyone congratulated Eileen.

She was glad to have joined the older girls’ organization, but of
course she was sorry to bid farewell to the Brownie troop.

“I really should fly down instead of ‘fly up,’” she remarked, gazing
ruefully at the tree house. “After having a meeting house up in the
branches, it will seem strange to have a regular down-to-earth
meeting place.”

“A regular room has some advantages though,” declared Connie as

a drop of rain splashed on her upturned face. “One thing, you aren’t
always in danger of being caught by a storm.”

The rain began to come down faster and faster.

“Let’s all run to the shelter house,” urged Miss Gordon. “I don’t
believe this will last very long.”

The mothers and friends of the Brownies hastened through the

woods to the gate house.

For five minutes the rain came down very fast and hard. Then it
ceased as abruptly as it had started.

“I believe it’s safe to return for our cookies and cake,” encouraged
Miss Gordon as the sun straggled out again. “The trail isn’t very
muddy.”

Some of the Girl Scouts and the mothers did not care to return to
the tree house since the investiture had been completed.

However, all of the Brownies, Eileen, Miss Gordon, Mrs. Myles and
a few of the mothers braved the slippery path to have their
refreshments.
 Before leaving the tree house, Miss Gordon had taken care that all
of the food was under cover. Some of the cushions had been
overlooked.

As the group reached the base of the oak tree, Mrs. Myles noticed
that the cross-stitch one which once had belonged to her, was
thoroughly rain soaked.

“Oh, what a shame!” she exclaimed, picking it up from the ground.

“The feathers must be aired or they will mat down.”

With a hairpin, Mrs. Myles ripped the covering of the pillow.

Reaching in, she began to fluff the damp feathers.

“If these don’t dry out before I leave, I’ll take the pillow home—”
she began.

Mrs. Myles did not complete what she had started to say.

Instead a most peculiar expression came over her face.

“Why, what is wrong, Mrs. Myles?” inquired Connie, who had been
gathering up the other water-soaked pillows. She thought that
perhaps the elderly woman suddenly had been taken ill.

“I—I think I’ve found something inside this pillow,” Mrs. Myles said
in a strange voice.

The Brownies and their mothers quickly closed in about her.

“What have you found?” demanded Veve, for Mrs. Myles had not
withdrawn her hand from the interior of the pillow.

“It’s something round—tied with a piece of string,” Mrs. Myles

murmured. “I’m—I’m almost afraid to look.”

Now the Brownies thought this a most peculiar attitude to take.

 “What have you found?” Veve repeated impatiently. “Show us!”

Very slowly, Mrs. Myles withdrew her hand. Clutched in her

gnarled fist was a roll of greenbacks. The bills were neatly fastened
in a roll with a piece of string.

“Money!” shrieked Veve in such an excited voice that a squirrel

overhead dropped a nut. “Where’d it come from?”

Mrs. Myles held the bills almost as if they would burn a hole in her
hand. She leaned back against the oak tree for support.

“I think I know how this came to be inside the pillow,” she said in
a shaky voice. “If this roll should contain exactly five hundred
dollars, then I’ve done a grave injustice to my brother Sam!”
 CHAPTER 20

A Wish Fulfilled
“LET’S count the money,” urged Connie as Mrs. Myles made no
attempt to do so.

The widow seemed quite stunned by the unexpected discovery of

the roll of bills inside the pillow. Without saying a word she handed it
over to Miss Gordon.

Rapidly the teacher computed the amount of money. Nearly all of

the bills were tens, most of them old in appearance.

“Exactly five hundred dollars,” Miss Gordon announced when she

had completed her count.

“Then this must be the money my father lost so long ago,” Mrs.
Myles said in a weak voice. “He was very forgetful. I suppose he hid
the roll of bills in the pillow and then in his infirmity, forgot all about
it.”

“But Sam Vincent was accused,” Veve reminded her. “All these
years he has been blamed.”

“I’m so ashamed—I don’t know what to say. Father was so sure

the money had been stolen. Oh, dear, what shall I do?”

“This is a fine windfall for you,” declared Miss Gordon, delighted

over the widow’s good fortune. “I’m sure you have use for five
hundred dollars.”
 “But the pillow no longer is mine. One of the Brownies bought it at
the sale.”

“That doesn’t matter,” declared Veve quickly.

“I should say not,” added Connie. “It was only the pillow that was
bought—not the money inside of it.”

“How will I ever make amends to Sam?”

“That part should be easy,” Miss Gordon assured her. “He always
has wanted to help you.”

Mrs. Myles nearly broke down then. “That makes it all the harder,”
she declared. “He always insisted he was innocent, but I never
would listen to any explanation. I was as unjust as I could be.”

“You couldn’t have known the money was hidden in the pillow,”
Rosemary said kindly.

“I should have trusted my own brother,” Mrs. Myles berated

herself. “Oh, I’ll never be able to face him.”

“Nonsense,” declared Miss Gordon. “Now that the money has been
found, everything can be adjusted very easily. Just leave that part to
me.”

Drawing apart from Mrs. Myles, the Brownie leader whispered to

Veve and Connie. She requested them to hasten to Sam Vincent’s
house and if he were at home to ask him to come to the park at
once.

The two girls ran most of the way, so eager were they to impart
the news.

Reaching the Vincent home, they found Sam’s wife there, but the
carpenter had not yet arrived from his work.
 “He should be driving in any minute,” Mrs. Vincent assured the
girls. “Sam was working on an outside job and probably started
home when it began to rain.”

“I see a car coming now that looks like his!” cried Veve.

The automobile turned in at the driveway. Seeing that it was

indeed the carpenter, the girls ran to meet him.

“Well, well, this is a surprise!” he greeted them with a warm smile.

“How does it happen you aren’t at the tree house today? Rained
out?”

“Not exactly,” Connie answered. “We were having an important

ceremony—”

“Eileen flew up into the Girl Scout troop,” Veve broke in. “But
that’s not the important part. It began to rain and the pillow got
wet.”

“So Mrs. Myles ripped it open,” Connie resumed the story.

“Minnie was there?” The carpenter was surprised at this

information.

“Yes, of course,” Connie said impatiently. “She ripped open the

pillow—and what do you think was inside?”

“Money!” shouted Veve. “Five hundred dollars!”

“Five hundred dollars,” Mr. Vincent repeated. “I don’t get it.”

“The pillow was the one with cross-stitching on it,” Connie

explained. “The one that belonged to your family.”

At last Mr. Vincent understood.

 “Then the money Minnie thought I took has been found,” he said
quietly.

“That’s right,” laughed Veve.

“Miss Gordon wants you to come as fast as you can to the tree
house,” Connie urged. “Your sister is waiting for you there.”

“You bet!” the carpenter replied. “We’ll drive to the park. Hop in!”

During the swift ride to the gate house, Veve and Connie told Mr.
Vincent exactly how the money had been found. He laughed when
they repeated that Mrs. Myles had said she would be ashamed to
face him.

“I never held it against Minnie that she thought so poorly of me,”

he told the girls. “For a long while I’ve only felt sorry for her. Now
that this misunderstanding is cleared up, I hope she’ll let me help
her.”

At the tree house, the Brownies remained very excited over

discovery of the money. Between bites of cookies and cake, they
reviewed every detail of the wonderful day.

“I’m so glad we found the money today, while I’m still almost a
Brownie,” Eileen declared. “I couldn’t have stood it if the roll of bills
had turned up later on.”

“To think that the money was hidden in the pillow all these years!”
Mrs. Myles murmured. “If it hadn’t been for the Brownies, I never
would have learned the truth.”

At this moment Veve, Connie and Sam Vincent arrived at the tree
house.

Seeing her brother so unexpectedly made Mrs. Myles feel ill at

ease.
 However, he walked over to her and flung his arm around her thin
shoulders.

“Oh, Sam, you know about the money?” she murmured. “Can you
forgive me?”

“There’s nothing to forgive,” he assured her. “Minnie, the only

thing that matters is the money has been found. You know now that
I never took it.”

“Sam, I’m so ashamed of myself for ever doubting you—” Mrs.

Myles covered her face and began to sob.

“There! There!” her brother comforted her awkwardly. “Let’s forget

about it now. I want to help you, Minnie.”

“I’ve lost everything.”

“You have five hundred dollars,” Veve reminded her.

“That’s right,” Mrs. Myles agreed through her tears.

“And you have a home for the remainder of your life,” her brother
convinced her. “My wife and I want you with us.”

“I can’t impose on you.”

“We really want you,” Mr. Vincent said firmly. “Later on, if you find
you would like to have a place of your own, I’ll build you a modern
cottage close to our property.”

By this time the Brownie Scouts were certain that Sam Vincent
was a most wonderful person. They were pleased that Mrs. Myles
would have a good home and that she no longer would be
dependent upon charity or Miss Gordon’s kindness.

“Oh, hasn’t everything ended just like a story book!” Rosemary

said, her eyes shining.
 “Miss Gordon will have lots of time for our Brownie troop from
now on,” Jane declared in satisfaction.

Of all the girls, only Eileen seemed a trifle sad.

She fingered the Brownie wings on her uniform and stood silently
gazing up at the tree house.

“Don’t think about it,” Connie said, taking her hand.

“But I want to,” Eileen replied earnestly. “Never as long as I live do

I want to forget about the grand times we’ve had here.”

“You’ll come back next summer, Eileen.”

“I know, but only as a visitor. I wouldn’t so much mind not being a

Brownie any more, if only one thing had been settled.”

“What’s that?” asked Connie. She thought she knew, though, the
answer Eileen would give.

And she was right.

“More than anything else, I’d like to know who built this tree
house for us,” Eileen said slowly. “I don’t suppose we ever shall
though.”

Veve had overheard the remark.

“I have an idea,” she proposed. “Almost all of the wishes we’ve

made here have come true, haven’t they?”

“That’s so,” nodded Sunny.

“Let’s all close our eyes and wish hard that we knew who built the
tree house for us,” Veve went on. “Maybe we’ll have our answer.”
 The suggestion appealed to the other Brownies. All of the girls,
including Eileen, closed their eyes, and for a moment concentrated
very hard on the wish.

When they opened their eyes again everything was exactly the
same. However, Mr. Vincent, who had been leaning against the oak
tree, had an odd expression on his face.

“Do you youngsters really want to know who built your house?” he
asked.

“Of course!” cried Connie.

“I should say so!” added Jane. “Eileen never will have any piece of
mind as a Girl Scout unless she learns the answer today.”

“Was it Mr. Karwhite?” demanded Sunny, who began to suspect

that the carpenter might be hiding something.

“It wasn’t Mr. Karwhite,” replied the carpenter.

“But you do know!” cried Jane. “You could tell us if you would!”

“Yes, I could,” Mr. Vincent replied slowly. “I’m wondering, though,

if the fun might not be spoiled.”

“Oh, no!” cried all the Brownies together.

“We’re not children,” added Veve. “It was fun to say that the
brownies built our tree house, but we always knew better.”

Sam Vincent stood gazing down at the girls, his eyes twinkling.

“It was a very large brownie who built this house,” he said. “One
about my size.”

“You did it!” shouted Veve. “Oh, that doesn’t surprise me one bit!”
 “Or me either!” cried Connie. “I think I suspected it all the time.
Only I couldn’t quite be sure.”

The Brownies gazed at Miss Gordon and saw that she did not look
surprised either.

“I’ve known for quite a while,” she admitted with a smile. “I didn’t
tell you because it wasn’t my secret to relate.”

The Brownies urged Mr. Vincent to tell them exactly how he had
chanced to build the house.

“I frequently come to the park just to walk around,” he explained.

“Mr. Karwhite is a good friend of mine. Well, one day I overheard the
Brownies wish for a tree house. I knew one could be built quite
easily.”

“Then it was you who threw that first stone with the note
attached,” Sunny recalled.

“Yes, I managed to hide while you were searching for me.”

“But how did you get the house built so quickly?” Connie asked.

“For a carpenter, the job wasn’t such a big one. I had plenty of
boards at home. I did take one chance though.”

“What was that?” questioned Veve.

“Well, I didn’t tell Mr. Karwhite about the tree house until after it
was built. I figured if I asked him first, he’d turn me down.”

“That’s why he didn’t know anything about it that first time we

talked to him,” remarked Connie.

“I brought the boards and materials I needed in at night and built

the house in one day—it happened that Mr. Karwhite was away from
the park. I did a good job on the house if I do say so myself!”
 “Magnificent!” declared Miss Gordon.

“At any rate, Mr. Karwhite decided to let it stay in the park when
he saw that it was a good sturdy job. One thing that influenced him
was the fine time you youngsters were having here.”

“Tell us how you were able to make so many of our other wishes
come true,” urged Sunny. “Every time we asked for something—
presto chango! There it was!”

“Not quite presto chango!” laughed the carpenter. “I was curious

to see how you liked the tree house, so I frequently hid in the
bushes to overhear your comments. It pleased me to make a few of
the wishes come true.”

Connie asked Mr. Vincent if he were the one who had prepared a
hot meal for the Brownies on the day they had invited him to lunch.

“Guilty,” he chuckled.

The Brownie Scouts told the carpenter again how well they liked
the tree house and the many surprises.

“It wasn’t much,” he said, belittling his work. “The Brownies did
far more for me by finding the lost money.”

The day had turned rather chilly following the brief rain. Mr.
Vincent built a fire in one of the stone fireplaces of the park and
everyone gathered about to warm themselves.

Some distance away, plainly visible in the old oak, could be seen
the little tree house.

“Now that the leaves are falling, it stands out just like a light
house!” declared Connie proudly.
 “Yes, it does resemble one,” cried Veve, her imagination deeply
stirred. “That little window is the searchlight!”

“A bright beacon blazing a trail to the future,” supplied Miss

Gordon.

“May we come back here next spring?” Connie asked.

Even before the teacher replied, the girls knew what her answer
would be.

“Of course,” she said heartily. “We’ll fly back with the birds—not
only for good times, but to carry out many wonderful new Brownie
plans!”
 Transcriber’s Note
Punctuation has been standardised.
Changes to the original publication have
been made as follows:

Page 65
best would be very treachous
changed to
best would be very treacherous
Page 76
the girls to their seperate
homes changed to
the girls to their separate
homes
*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE BROWNIE
SCOUTS AND THEIR TREE HOUSE ***

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