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 AIMING FOR AN A
IN A-LEVEL
PHYSICS
Mark Jones

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 Every effort has been made to trace all copyright holders, but if any have
been inadvertently overlooked, the Publishers will be pleased to make the
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ISBN: 978 1 5104 2924 6
© Mark Jones 2018
First published in 2018 by
Hodder Education,
An Hachette UK Company
Carmelite House
50 Victoria Embankment
London EC4Y 0DZ
www.hoddereducation.co.uk
Impression number 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
Year 2022 2021 2020 2019 2018
All rights reserved. Apart from any use permitted under UK copyright law, no
part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by
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or held within any information storage and retrieval system, without
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Typeset by Integra Software Services Pvt. Ltd., Pondicherry, India.
Printed in Spain
A catalogue record for this title is available from the British Library.

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 Contents
About this book
The A-grade student 5
Using this book 5

Chapter 1 Quantitative skills

Introduction 8
Core study skills 8
Higher-order study skills 14
Application to the exam 21

Chapter 2 Reading skills

Introduction 26
Core study skills 26
Higher-order study skills 35
Application to the exam 38

Chapter 3 Writing skills

Introduction 43
Core study skills 44
Higher-order study skills 49
Application to the exam 58

Chapter 4 Practical skills

Introduction 61
Core study skills 63
Higher-order study skills 69
Application to the exam 81

Chapter 5 Study skills

Introduction 84
Core study skills 85
Higher-order study skills 91

Exam board focus

AQA 95
Edexcel 96
Eduqas 97
OCR 98
WJEC 99
Advice for students 100
Answers to the activities are online at:
www.hoddereducation.co.uk/AforAPhysics

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 Getting the most from this book
Aiming for an A is designed to help you master the skills you need to achieve the highest grades.
The following features will help you get the most from this book.

Learning objectives Exam tip

Practical advice about how to
› A summary of the skills that will be covered in the apply your skills to the exam.
chapter.

Activity Common pitfall

An opportunity to test your skills with relevant activities. Problem areas where
candidates often miss out
on marks.

The difference between...

Key concepts differentiated and explained.

Annotated example
Exemplar answers with commentary showing how to achieve top grades.

Worked example
Step-by-step examples to help you master the maths skills needed for top grades.

Take it further
Suggestions for further reading or activities that will stretch your thinking.

You should know

› A summary of key points to take away from the chapter.

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 Using this book

About this book

The A-grade student
Only about 9% of physics students achieve an A* grade and 20%
a grade A at A-level. To obtain the top grades you must not only
respond successfully to questions that assess recall of knowledge
and its application in a particular context, but also in the forming
of judgements in general contexts. These are higher-order skills
for which, according to examiners, students tend to be poorly
prepared. This book is a course companion designed to support
you from the start to the end of your physics course and develop
those higher-order thinking skills that are not covered in standard
revision guides and textbooks.

Using this book

This book will develop your ability to apply your mathematical
and practical skills to unfamiliar contexts, and to draw together
different areas of understanding within a single answer. You
will develop the skills and confidence to ‘know what to do when
you don’t know what to do’. Ultimately the aim of this book is
to enable you to think for yourself, so that you can successfully
overcome unexpected and unfamiliar challenges that you will meet
in the A-level course and beyond.
The book begins by developing quantitative skills (Chapter 1),
with emphasis on evaluating complex expressions, answering
multiple-stage calculations, and making judgements and drawing
conclusions using quantitative analysis.
Chapter 2 focuses on the reading skills needed to develop your
subject knowledge, how to engage with material by critical
evaluation and how to transfer these skills to examination
questions.
Chapter 3 develops your writing skills to ensure that you can
write clear, concise responses which contain judgements and
connections between different areas of the specification. There
is a special focus on 6-mark extended-response questions, which
assess both the quality of your application of physics and your
ability to communicate your reasoning.
Chapter 4 covers practical skills. You will learn how to apply
fundamental principles of practical physics, including appropriate
apparatus and techniques to plan effective investigations.
Analysis of data and evaluation of results and procedures are
covered, along with the skills of drawing conclusions and
suggesting appropriate improvements to experimental designs.
Study skills (Chapter 5) uses ideas from neuroscience to explain
the most effective ways to learn and recall physics content for the
long term. As well as helping you understand the material better,
it also explores methods to help you see synoptic links between
different areas of the specification.

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 About this book

Chapter 6 compares the different content and methods of

assessment of each exam board. It also gives a brief overview of
how each exam board assesses higher-order skills and finishes with
some top tips for examination success.

The difference between...

Assessment objective Weighting Typical exam question

AO1: Demonstrate knowledge and 35–40% of an Exam questions of this type test core thinking
understanding of scientific ideas, processes, AS paper and skills and recall of knowledge.
techniques and procedures. 30–35% of an They have command words such as: ‘state’,
A-level paper ‘describe’, ‘give’ and ‘name’.

AO2: Apply knowledge and understanding of 40–45% of both Applying knowledge is a higher-order thinking
scientific ideas, processes, techniques and AS and A-level skill, so questions may feature unfamiliar
procedures: examples.
• in a theoretical context They have command words such as: ‘explain’,
• in a practical context ‘calculate’, ‘derive’ and ‘show’.
• when handling qualitative data
• when handling quantitative data

AO3: Analyse, interpret and evaluate scientific 25–30% of an Questions may require you to make judgements,
information, ideas and evidence, including in AS paper and reach conclusions and develop and refine
relation to: 25–30% of an practical procedures.
• making judgements and reaching A-level paper They have command words such as: ‘assess’,
conclusions ‘analyse’, ‘decide’, ‘evaluate’, ‘criticise’, ‘comment
• developing and refining practical design on’ and ‘discuss’.
and procedures

How to tackle unfamiliar questions: use MAPS to navigate

the question
Often students find it difficult to know how to start a physics
question. This is because they don’t understand what they are
being asked to do. This book is full of practical strategies that you
can apply to help you think about and solve problems in unfamiliar
contexts.
The following mnemonic is a very useful way to analyse questions
to the identify the key information that will enable you to write a
top-quality answer:
Use MAPS to navigate the question:
M Marks How many marks are allocated?
This gives you information about how much detail is required or whether a calculation will
involve multiple stages or the use of appropriate significant figures etc.

A Action What action does the command word tell you to take?
‘Describe’ requires a very different response from ‘explain’ which is very different from ‘discuss’.
The action tells you what type of response is required.

P Physics principles What are the underlying physics principles in the question? What particular equations or
ideas are involved?

S Situation What is the context of the question?

How does the physics concept apply in this specific situation?

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 Using this book

Combining this strategy with effective reading skills, as discussed

in Chapter 2, will enable you to quickly and efficiently identify
what type of response is expected. The information in Chapter 3
will help you be able to compose a clear, coherent response which
is appropriate to the question.
The key to developing your ability to apply your knowledge to the
deep structure of the question is to practise critically evaluating
every question you tackle. When revising don’t just analyse the
question you have been asked, but also think about how the
question could have been asked differently using the information
presented, or think about how the question could be extended,
either to assess a different concept or to increase the level of
difficulty of the question — what other information would you
need to be given? Practising this skill will give you invaluable
experience in applying and evaluating questions and will improve
your understanding of physics, enabling you to see the whole and
not just the parts.

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 1 Quantitative skills

Learning objectives
› To develop the mathematical skills required for A-level
› To apply mathematical skills to answer extended,
multiple-stage calculations
› To evaluate complex expressions
› To make judgements and draw conclusions using
quantitative analysis

Introduction
Quantitative skills require the use of numerical data in a variety
of formats. Developing the skills to manipulate and analyse data
in order to draw conclusions is essential if you are to be successful
on the A-level course and beyond. At least 40% of the assessment
in your A-level (and AS) physics course will require the use of Activity 1.1
mathematical skills equivalent to Level 2. Level 2 is a grade 9–4 on
the new GCSE grading system (or A*–C on the older grading system). Look up the mathematical
requirements for your exam
You should aim to develop mastery of the core mathematical skills board. Make sure that you
required on the course, which means that you should be able to can carry out the necessary
apply them automatically. Examples are recalling scientific prefixes, mathematical processes
rearranging equations and use of appropriate significant figures. (some of them will be A-level
This quantitative chapter will begin by introducing the only). Use the activities in
mathematical skills required on the course. The first activity allows this book to help you assess
you to try out many of the required skills without the distraction of your competency.
a contextualised question. The chapter then discusses the core
quantitative skills in more detail. The core mathematical skills are
those which can be learned prior to the examination. There are Exam tip
worked examples to show you how to demonstrate your knowledge
of the appropriate skills. Always write your final numerical
answer to the appropriate number
The chapter then goes on to look at higher-order study skills. of significant figures. This should
Application style questions are characterised by extended be equal to the data with the least
calculations and applying your understanding to explain number of significant figures in
the calculation.
quantitative changes. To reach an A/A* grade you need to master
the ability to use quantitative analysis to evaluate new situations
and make reasoned judgements. The development of these skills is
the focus of the final part of the chapter.

Core study skills

Knowledge and understanding
Ten core mathematical skills
Questions asking you to demonstrate your knowledge and
understanding of mathematical skills require you to recall

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 Core study skills

information and skills that can be learned prior to the examination. Exam tip
The following are ten core skills which you must be able to carry out
automatically and with minimum effort: Physical quantities consist of
a value matched to a unit, so if
1 Recall appropriate units for all physical quantities and be able there is no unit beside the answer
to convert between units, e.g. mm → m, cm2 → m2, radians → space, include one.
degrees.
2 Convert between standard form and ordinary form.
3 Calculate a mean. Exam tip
4 Use estimates to check calculated values. Prefixes
5 Use a calculator for power, exponential, logarithmic and The following prefixes and their
trigonometric functions. symbols must be learned:
6 Rearrange and solve algebraic equations. • pico, p ×10 −12
• nano, n ×10 −9
7 Substitute numerical values into equations (using appropriate • micro, μ ×10 −6
units). • milli, m ×10 −3
8 Plot two variables on a graph, draw a line of best fit, calculate • centi, c ×10 −2
the gradient of the line and determine the intercept. • deci, d ×10 −1
• kilo, k ×103
9 Give answers to an appropriate number of significant figures. • mega, M ×106
10 Calculate circumference, surface area and volume of regular • giga, G ×109
shapes. • tera, T ×1012

Exam tip
Most equations are given on the data and formulae sheet, but three that you
do need to recall are:
charge
• specific charge =
mass
• volume of a cylinder = cross-sectional area × length
Since the diameter, d, is the most commonly measured quantity of a wire
or string, the most useful form of this equation is often:
pd 2l
V=
4
• volume of rectangular block = length × width × height
• stopping potential, Vs = E kmax
e

Four quick tips that apply to all quantitative questions

1 Where possible, use the symbols that are given to you in
the question. For example, M for mass of a planet, or gs for the
gravitational field strength at the planet’s surface.
2 Show your substitution of values into the equation.
3 Substitute values into the equation before rearranging.
This gives the examiners a chance to give you a mark for this
process and also generally results in fewer mistakes in the
rearrangement.
4 Set out your working clearly. This enables the examiner to
give marks for stages in your working even if your final answer
is incorrect. It also enables you to identify and correct mistakes
more effectively in your calculations.

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 1 Quantitative skills

Activity 1.2
You should be able to recall the correct units for all quantities in the equations on
the data sheet. Occasionally you may not be able to remember the exact unit ­— for
example, what is the unit for resistivity?
When this happens, go back to the equation and ensure that the quantity you are
looking for is the subject of the equation:
ρl
R=
A
ρ = RA
l
The units must match on both sides of the equation:
Ω m2
=
m
Simplifying, we get:
= Ωm
Thus, the unit for resistivity, ρ, is the ohm metre, Ω m.
Try these questions:
1 Determine the units of
2ε − VA
VB
where ε is the emf of the cell and VA and VB are the potential differences across
components A and B.
2 Determine the units of √l + x − √l , where l is the length of a string and x is the
extension.
3 Determine the units of the Young modulus.
Answers online – see page 3

Worked example 1.1 Exam tip

This example combines recall of basic information relating to
SI units
atomic structure, such as atomic notation and specific charge, The Système International (SI)
base quantities and their units are:
with the mathematical skills of standard form, significant figures
and ratios. • mass in kilograms, kg
• length in metres, m (and therefore
18 area in m2 and volume in m3)
An isotope of oxygen can be represented as 8O. • time in seconds, s
(a) Calculate the number of neutrons. (1) • current in amperes, A
• temperature in kelvin, K
(b) Calculate the specific charge of the nucleus. Give your • amount of substance in moles, mol
answer to an appropriate number of significant figures. (3)
(c) The ratio of the specific charge of the nucleus of
this isotope to the specific charge of the nucleus of Exam tip
a heavier isotope of oxygen is 1.4:1. Determine the You can use dimensional analysis to
number of neutrons in this heavier isotope of oxygen. (3) check that the form of an equation
is physically sensible or to check the
(a) Step 1: Marks, Action, Physics Situation (MAPS): units of an unknown quantity.
The fundamental units used for
M: 1 — this is a very simple calculation. dimensional analysis are:
A: ‘calculate’ means we need to manipulate numbers to • length [L] • charge [C]
generate a numerical answer. • time [T] • temperature
• mass [M] [Θ]

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 Core study skills

P: you must recall that the top number is the mass of the
isotope, which is is the number of protons and neutrons.
The bottom number is the number of protons (also called
the atomic number). The number of neutrons can be
calculated as the difference between the mass number
(protons and neutrons) and the number of protons.
S: the mass number is 18 and the atomic number is 8.
Step 2: Carry out the calculation:
mass number − atomic number = 18 − 8 = 10 neutrons ✓
(b) Step 1: M: 3 — more than just a simple calculation, so
you need to consider what else is required in the question
(see below).
A: ‘calculate’ means you need to substitute values into an
equation to produce a numerical answer.
P: you need to recall the equation to calculate the specific
charge of any nucleus or ion:
charge
specific charge = mass
S: the question is asking for the specific charge of a Exam tip
nucleus, so you do not need to consider the number of Become familiar with the content
electrons. Therefore the charge comes only from the 8 on the data sheet by using it when
protons and the mass comes only from the protons and you answer questions throughout
neutrons (not the electrons). Because the mass of the the course — this will save you
time in the exams.
proton and the neutron are the same to three significant
figures (1.67 × 10 −27 kg) we consider both types of particle
to have this mass.
The question asks for the final answer to be written to an
appropriate number of significant figures (this is the
extra mark to make it a 3 mark question instead of a more
straightforward 2 mark calculation).
Step 2: Carry out the calculation:
charge
specific charge = mass
8 × 1.60 × 10−19
=
18 × 1.67 × 10−27 ✓
= 42 581 503 C kg−1 ✓
There are two points to make about the value we have calculated:
● Large and small numbers should always be written in standard
form.
● All final answers should be written to an appropriate number of
significant figures.
Although you should keep the full figure either on your page or
in your calculator memory for use in subsequent calculations,
you need to format your final answer correctly. First you need to
decide the appropriate number of significant figures — the rule
is to use the same as the lowest number of significant figures
in the question. The working uses data from the data sheet and
both values are given to three significant figures. Therefore your
answer also needs to be written to three significant figures:

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 1 Quantitative skills

specific charge = 42 600 000 C kg−1 Exam tip

Although technically this is the correct answer and it is written to In any quantitative question
you should check that your final
the correct number of significant figures, you should write this answer seems sensible. Go
large number in standard form: back and check your working if
not. Clear presentation of your
specific charge = 4.26 × 107 C kg−1 ✓
calculations will make it far easier
(c) Step 1: Marks, Action, Physics, Situation (MAPS): to locate the problem in your
working.
M: 3 — multiple stage calculation.
A: ‘Determine’ — this is a calculation, but not a
straightforward substitution of values into equations.
charge
P: specific charge = mass , so the heavier isotope will
have a lower specific charge.
S: the specific change of the lighter isotope calculated
in part (b) is 1.4 times greater than the specific charge
of the heavier isotope, but the charge is the same so you
can work out the mass in kilograms and then divide by the
mass of a nucleon to find the total mass.
Step 2: Calculate specific charge of heavier isotope: Exam tip
7 Always show your full working
specific charge of new isotope = 4.26 × 10 out. Calculations in the multiple-
1.4 choice questions will require you
= 3.04 × 107 C kg−1 ✓ to do working (although you do
Step 3: Calculate mass of new isotope: not gain extra marks for this).
charge
mass = specific charge
8 × 1.6 × 10−19
=
3.04 × 107
= 4.21 × 10−26 kg
Step 4: Determine number of nucleons:
mass
number of nucleons = mass per nucleon
4.21 × 10−26
=
1.67 × 10−27
= 25.1 = 25 nucleons ✓
Step 5: Determine number of neutrons in this isotope of
oxygen:
number of neutrons = mass number − atomic number
= 25 − 8
= 17 neutrons ✓

Worked example 1.2

You are expected to be able to use percentages in any context, so
here is a different example in the form of a percentage change.
(a) Determine the mass per unit length of an oscillating
string if the density is 1340 kg m−3 and it has a uniform
diameter of 4.0 × 10−4 m. (2)

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 Core study skills

(b) Suppose the wire, which is initially 2000 mm in length,

is put under tension which results in a 0.42% increase
in length. Calculate the increase in volume if there is
no appreciable change in the diameter of the string. (2)
(a) Step 1: Marks, Action, Physics, Situation (MAPS):
M: 2.
A: ‘Determine’ — this is asking for a quantitative line of
reasoning.
P: The concept of volume is often combined with density.
Density is the mass per unit volume of a substance:
m
ρ = V
Unit: kg m−3
This equation is often most useful in the form of m = ρV.
This is often used when calculating the mass of a planet
(assuming the density of the planet is constant).
The equation m = ρV is also useful when calculating the
mass per unit length, μ, of a material such as a string:
m
If μ = and since m = ρV:
m 
l ρV
=
l l
μ = ρA This is another useful relationship to remember.
S: you have been given the (uniform) diameter, d, of the
�d2
wire, so you can calculate the area, A, either by A = or
2 d 4
A = �r (where r = radius = ).
2
Step 2: Substitute the values into the equation:
d2 (4.0 × 10−4) 2
μ = ρA = ρ � 4 = 1340 × 3.14 × ✓
4
Step 3: Calculate the final value:
μ = 1.68 × 10−4 kg m−1 ✓
(b) Step 1: Marks, Action, Physics, Situation (MAPS):

M: 2. Exam tip
A: ‘calculate’ — use an appropriate equation to find a In a multiple-part question you
numerical answer. should always use your full
P: an increase in a quantity of 0.x% means that the new answer in the subsequent stages
of the question. The exception
length is 100.x% not x% longer. A wire is a cylinder and
to this is if the earlier part was
the volume of a cylinder can be calculated using: V = A × l. a ‘show that’ question and your
The change in volume of a cylinder with constant diameter answer is nowhere near the
can be calculated using: ΔV = A × Δl. ‘show that’ value. In that case you
should use the ‘show that’ value
S: there is a ‘0.42% increase in length’ means that the
in the further calculations.
length is now 100.42%. This is not a 42% increase in
length. The new length is 1.0042 × 2000 mm = 2008.4 mm
= 2008 mm because the length measurement must have
been made with a long measuring device such as a tape
measure, which has a resolution of ±1 mm (see Chapter 4
for more on this).

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 1 Quantitative skills

Step 2: Substitute the values into the equation for

change in volume.
ΔV = A × Δl
d2
ΔV = p × Δl
4
(4.0 × 10−4)2
ΔV = 3.14 × × 8 × 10−3 ✓
4
Step 3: Calculate the change in volume:
ΔV = 1.0 × 10−9 m3 ✓

Higher-order study skills

Application of knowledge
The skills we have looked at so far involve recalling rules or stating
units, describing simple procedures, and knowing equations (e.g. for
gradient). Questions that assess higher-order skills in physics are
characterised by requiring you to contextualise your knowledge and
understanding. This means that your responses are not a rewriting
of your revision notes, but you need to use your understanding
to explain what is happening, or what might happen in a specific
situation. Application of knowledge questions account for the
largest percentage of the marks across your A-level (42%).
Each examination question has a specific action or command word
which tells you what type of response is required. The key action
words for AO2 quantitative questions are:
➜ Calculate Use an appropriate equation to find a numerical answer.
➜ Determine This is asking for a quantitative line of reasoning.
➜ Derive Combine at least two equations and rearrange to find an
algebraic expression.
➜ Explain Describe what is happening or what the effect would be
and then give the reasons behind your statement. Qualitative
‘explain’ questions often involve the application of a rule such as
Fleming’s left-hand rule.
➜ Show Often these questions involve a numerical calculation
— you must write your answer to at least one extra significant
figure than the ‘show that’ number in the question.
You will need to routinely demonstrate the following skills:
➜ Select the appropriate equation from the data sheet.
➜ Substitute values into the equation.
➜ Ensure the substituted values are in standard units, e.g.
570 nm = 570 × 10 −9 m.
➜ Calculate the final value.
➜ Select an appropriate number of significant figures for your final
answer.
➜ Write your final value with the appropriate unit.
These stages often form the majority of student practice questions
during class and homework activities. One problem is that often

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 Higher-order study skills

students use books that only quote the final answer. This puts an
emphasis only on the final answer and promotes poor-quality working,
both in terms of the detail and the clarity and flow of the working.
A/A* grade-level questions will often involve extended, multiple-
stage calculations.

Worked example 1.3

This question relates to the photoelectric effect.
When monochromatic ultraviolet radiation of wavelength
210 nm is incident upon a metal, electrons are emitted with
a maximum kinetic energy of 8.7 × 10−19 J. Calculate the
work function of the metal and explain what will happen to
the velocity of the emitted electrons if the frequency of the
incident radiation is doubled. (5)
Step 1: Marks, Action, Physics, Situation (MAPS):
M: 5 — but these marks are distributed across both aspects of
the question.
A: ‘calculate’ is the command word for the first part and the
second part requires you to ‘explain’ what happens when part of
the system is changed.
P: the photoelectricity equation is hf = ϕ + Ekmax. Each photon
interacts with only one electron. If the energy of the incoming
photons is greater than the work function, then the number of
emitted electrons is proportional to the intensity.
S: you are given the wavelength rather than the frequency, so
you can either use c = fλ to find the frequency and use the
photoelectric equation, or replace E = hf with E = hc. Typical
λ
photoelectric effect questions ask you to explain the relationship
between incident photon frequency and number of electrons
emitted per second. However, here you are asked to explain the
effect on the speed of the emitted electrons. Recall that the
prefix nm is nanometres: ×10 −9.
Step 2: Select the appropriate equation and substitute
the values (use the data sheet for the numerical value of the
constants h and c):
hf = ϕ + Ekmax
hc
Substitute hf with :
λ
hc
= ϕ + Ekmax
λ
6.63 × 10−34 × 3 × 108
= ϕ + 8.7 × 10−19 ✓
210 × 10−9
Step 3: Rearrange to calculate the work function, ϕ:
6.63 × 10−34 × 3 × 108
ϕ= − 8.7 × 10−19
210 × 10−9
= 9.47 × 10−19 − 8.7 × 10−19

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 1 Quantitative skills

It can be useful to write down the calculations completed at each

stage so that the examiner can clearly see your working. If you
make a mistake the first steps are often worth marks.
ϕ = 7.71 × 10−20 J ✓
Step 4: Write your final answer to an appropriate number of
significant figures. In this case all data in the question are given
to two significant figures, so this should also be applied to the
final answer.
ϕ = 7.7 × 10−20 J
Step 5: Look at the next part of the question. What happens to
the velocity if the frequency is doubled?
Doubling the frequency doubles the energy of the incident
photons. ✓
This will double the maximum value of the kinetic energy of the
emitted electron (because the work function will remain the same),
i.e. the kinetic energy will be: 1.74 × 10−18 J. ✓
Ek = 12 mv2
2E
Rearrange to make v the subject: v = m k , so the velocity of the
emitted electron will increase by a factor of √2, i.e. 1.41. ✓
In this case it is important to use values where possible, i.e.
saying that the kinetic energy doubles rather than just saying it
increases (and definitely don’t just say it changes). This allows
you to determine exact relationships without having to make all
of the calculations — i.e. here you do not need to calculate the
kinetic energy of the emitted electrons with both frequencies of
light to find the exact way that the velocity will change.

Take it further
Use online assessment resources such as Isaac Physics
https://isaacphysics.org/ to improve your quantitative problem-solving skills.
The immediate feedback you receive on your incorrect answers will help
you learn from your mistakes more rapidly.

Analysis, interpretation and evaluation

Each examination question follows a staircase or ramping model
whereby, as the question progresses, the difficulty increases.
Generally the question begins with knowledge domain questions
(AO1) worth 1 or 2 marks, such as asking you to state a definition
or complete a simple calculation. The question then begins to
assess application of knowledge by increasing the level of difficulty
of the calculations (AO2). The final part of the question is the
most demanding and requires you to make a judgement and reach

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 Higher-order study skills

conclusions (AO3). To reach appropriate conclusions and judgements

you will need to analyse, interpret and evaluate the information
you have developed in your answers and new information supplied
at this stage of the question. Students often find these kinds of
question the toughest on the exam paper.
Let’s look first at the meaning behind these key higher-order action/
command words:
➜ ‘Assess’ Consider all factors that might apply and then decide
which are the most important or relevant. You are making a
judgement on relative importance and then drawing a conclusion.
➜ ‘Analyse’ This means separate information into components
and identify their characteristics. You need to also be able to
discuss pros and cons of the idea or device and make a reasoned
comment.
➜ ‘Decide’ You must provide a statement as to your decision along
with the evidence that you have used to make that decision.
➜ ‘Evaluate’ Review all available evidence and make a judgement.
You will need to also use your own knowledge and understanding
in order to help you identify strengths and weaknesses in the
particular context being examined.
➜ ‘Interpret’ This means that you have to ‘translate information
into a recognisable form’. Most commonly this means that you
will have to explain the meaning of information presented in
graphical form (e.g. a stress–strain graph), or in the form of a
diagram (e.g. energy levels in an atom).
Other action/command words assessing higher-order skills in
quantitative questions are:
➜ ‘Deduce’ This means ‘draw conclusions from the information
provided’. This may involve different skills from simply
calculating — e.g. you may be expected to obtain information
from a graph and apply this to an equation.
➜ ‘Criticise’ Here you have to inspect numerical data, statements,
scientific ideas or experimental methods and make a judgement Exam tip
about their strengths and weaknesses.
➜ ‘Comment on’ This means that you have to synthesise a variety Action/command words give
you an indication of the style
of information and form a judgement. of response you should give to
➜ ‘Discuss’ You should address a range of ideas and arguments. the question. The rest of the
In terms of quantitative questions you do not need to calculate wording in the question gives
exact values, but you should explore the effects on different the context of the response
and may also contain other key
factors in terms of increases or decreases. words. Remember to read all of
➜ ‘Compare and contrast’ Identify at least one similarity and one the words in the question and to
difference between two (or more) things. You do not need to consider the number of marks
come to an overall conclusion. Remember to address both (or all) allocated before beginning your
response.
things stated in the question.

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 1 Quantitative skills

Worked example 1.4

Derive an expression for the escape velocity of an object
of mass m from a planet of mass M and radius R. Comment
on how your result could explain why some planets have an
atmosphere and others do not. (4)
This question has two parts. First we need to derive an expression
for escape velocity. Escape velocity is the minimum velocity given
to an object at the planet’s surface that will allow it to leave the
planet’s gravitational field. It is important to understand that this
velocity is needed if there is no further input of energy, but if
the object can be supplied with energy — for example by burning
rocket fuel — then the object can escape the gravitational field
without reaching escape velocity.
The derivation is an application of conservation of energy. When
an object escapes the gravitational field we say it is at infinity
and the gravitational potential energy has its maximum value
of zero. The gravitational potential energy decreases as you get
closer to the planet so that it has a value of Ep = −GmM at the
planet’s surface. R

The initial kinetic energy at the surface must be at least equal to

this initial amount of gravitational potential energy. ✓
GmM
½mv2 = ✓
R
We can cancel the ms and rearrange this equation to find the
minimum value of velocity:
2GM
v=
R
2GM
If v > R , then the particle will have enough velocity to escape
✓. Planets of larger mass have larger escape velocities and so will
be more likely to retain an atmosphere. Planets of smaller mass Exam tip
have a lower value for the escape velocity, so gas particles are more Always use the symbols given to
likely to exceed the escape velocity, leaving the planet without an you in the question when deriving
atmosphere ✓. expressions.

Worked example 1.5

Comparing an unfamiliar equation given to you in an exam to the equation for a straight line
(y = mx + c) is one of the most common methods for processing data to calculate other quantities.
This example looks at a graphical method of analysis to determine the internal resistance of a cell.
You are given a series circuit with a cell, filament lamp, variable resistor, ammeter and voltmeter.
(a) Explain how you could use experimental data to determine the emf, ε, and the internal
resistance, r, of a cell. (5)
(b) Discuss the effect of replacing the original lamp with a lamp of twice the resistance. (3)

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 Higher-order study skills

(c) Explain the consequences of adding an identical cell to the original circuit:
(i) in series
(ii) in parallel(3)
(a) From the data sheet, the emf can be calculated using:
ε = I(R + r)
where R is the resistance of an external resistor in the circuit and r is the internal resistance of the
circuit.
ε = V + Ir
We can measure V, the potential difference across the lamp, using the voltmeter connected in parallel
with the lamp. We can measure the current, I, in the series circuit using the ammeter. ✓
Use variable resistor to obtain a range of values for p.d. and current. ✓
Rearranging the equation to make V the subject, we get:
V = ε − Ir
If we compare this to the equation for a straight line we get:
V = −rI + ε
y = mx + c
where m is the gradient of the line and c is the y-intercept.
If we plot a graph of V against I ✓ (i.e. V on the y-axis and I on the x-axis), we will get a straight-line
graph with a negative gradient i.e. slopes from top left to bottom right.
ε is the intercept on the y-axis. ✓
r is minus the gradient of the graph. ✓
The second part of the question is asking us to discuss the effects of doubling the resistance of
the lamp. This means that we need to explore the implications on various factors, but we do not
need to calculate exact values.
If the lamp is replaced with a lamp of twice the resistance, the current in the circuit will reduce ✓:
I= ε
R+r
The potential difference across the internal resistance will decrease: Ir. ✓
A smaller proportion of the energy will be wasted by the internal resistance, so the overall efficiency of
the circuit will increase. ✓
The final part of the question requires the rules about combining cells in series and parallel:
(i)  When the two cells are combined in series the emfs of the two cells add together: ε T = ε1 + ε2 ✓
and the internal resistances also add up, just like the equation for resistors in series rT = r1 + r2 ✓.
(ii) When the extra cell is added in parallel to the first the total emf, ε, is unaffected. However, the
internal resistance will halve 1 1 1
r = r + r decrease so the current will double. ✓
T 1 2

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 1 Quantitative skills

Worked example 1.6

Logarithms are an excellent tool for evaluating complex expressions where you have quantities raised to
powers. The following example uses periodic motion.
The following expression relates a particular oscillating system’s time period, T, to its length, l.
1
2
= klm
T
where k is a constant and m is an integer.
Evaluate this expression to determine the value of m and k.(3)
To see relationships between variables in an equation we need to use linear graphs. When there are
unknown powers involved — i.e. m in our equation — we need to use logarithms.
Step 1: Take logs of both sides:
log 12 = log (kl m)
T
= log k + log l m
= log k + m log l
Step 2: Compare this expression to the equation for a straight line:
y = mx +c
log 12 = m log l + log k ✓
T
So if you plot a graph of log 12 against log l, you should get a straight line of positive gradient. The
T
gradient of the graph gives the value of m in the expression. ✓
You would need to include the negative sign if the graph had a negative gradient. Often the value
will be an integer as in our question, so you will need to round your gradient value to the nearest
whole number.
Step 3: Identify the y-intercept with k:
log k represents the y-intercept of the line of best fit. This gives us an equation:
log k = y-intercept
Step 4: Use the reverse of the log function to get k on its own. This is called the antilog function.
You can see where it arises from using the following examples:
➜ log 1000 = 3 and (using antilog) 103 = 1000
➜ log 100 = 2 and 102 = 100

So if: log k = y-intercept,

10(y -intercept) = k ✓

Activity 1.3
1 T
f=
2l μ
What would the gradient of a ln f against ln μ graph be?
Answers online – see page 3

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 Application to the exam

Application to the exam Exam tip

The following examination style question brings together the ideas
Capacitor discharge
covered in this quantitative chapter. You must use your quantitative
analysis skills to evaluate complex expressions, work through It is often useful to use a graphical
method to evaluate exponential
multistage calculations and use your quantitative results, combined expressions. Here is a typical
with your understanding of the underlying physics principles, to example:
give insight into unfamiliar situations.
V = V0e−t/RC
2
A satellite of mass 1330 kg and cross-sectional area 1.5 m is in You would plot a graph of ln V
a low polar orbit at a height of 198 km above the Earth’s surface. against t.
V −t
(a) Show that the satellite makes 16 orbits for each full rotation ln =
V0 RC
of the Earth. (5) −t
ln V − ln V0 =
(b) The density, ρ, of the atmosphere can be modelled in a simple RC
1
way using an exponential equation: ln V = − t + ln V0
RC
y = mx +c
ρ = ρ0e−h/a
So the graph should be a straight
where line with a negative gradient.
1
The gradient will be equal to .
ρ0 is the density of air at sea level, 1.23 kg m−3 Therefore the resistance,
RC
h is the height above the Earth’s surface R=
1
.
(C × gradient)
a is the effective height of the atmosphere if it were to
The y-intercept gives the initial
have a constant density with altitude 8.42 km voltage of the capacitor before
Use the equation to estimate the density of the atmosphere discharge.
at the orbit height of the satellite. (2)
(c) According to NASA the drag force, Fd, can be considered to be
the main force on low-Earth-orbiting (LEO) spacecraft. The Exam tip
drag force can be calculated using: Old multiple-choice questions
1 2 from previous years often
Fd = 2 ρACdv reappear in examinations. Read
the examiner’s reports to spot
where A = cross-sectional area of the satellite and Cd = drag patterns here — if questions are
coefficient = 2.2. incorrectly answered by a high
percentage of candidates, they
Calculate the drag force on the satellite. (2) are more likely to be re-used.
(d) Calculate the work done against friction per 24 hours. (2)
(e) Use the information from the question and graph in
Figure 1.1 to evaluate the issues with low-Earth-orbiting Exam tip
(LEO) satellites. (3) When a quantity decreases (or
increases) by the same factor in a
Height/km given interval of time (or with the
same thickness of absorber), the
300 change is said to be exponential.
250

200

150

0
10 20 30 40 50 60
Time/days

Figure 1.1 Altitude graph for an LEO satellite

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 1 Quantitative skills

How to approach the question

(a) The first part of the question requires us to find the time period
or velocity of the satellite and show that it allows 16 complete
orbits in 24 hours.
(b) Use the exponential density equation given in the question to
calculate the density at a height of 198 km above the Earth’s surface.
1
(c) To use the drag equation (Fd = 2 ρACdv2) we first need to
calculate the speed of the satellite.
This can be done several ways, but the easiest is probably just to
d
use v = t .
Then substitute values into the drag equation.
(d) Identify the appropriate equation. Work done can be calculated
using the equation for work on the data sheet:
W = Fs cos θ
If we consider the force to always be acting in the opposite
direction to the velocity, this reduces to:
W = Fs
where s is the distance travelled in 24 hours.
Substitute values into the equation, W = Fs.
(e) Describe the pattern shown in the graph.
Explain why this process occurs.
Evaluate LEO orbits compared with other orbits.

B-grade answer
mv2 GMm Exam tip
(a) F = r = 2
r In a ‘show that’ question make
your working out clear and always
v = GMr    show your final numerical answer
to at least one more significant
6.67 × 10−11 × 5.97 × 1024 figure than the value given in the
v=   
6.37 × 106 question.
v = 7906 m s−1 ✓ ecf
distance in one revolution = circumference of circle, C = 2�r
C = 2 × 3.14 × 6.37 × 106 = 4 × 107
d = s × t = 7906 × 24 × 60 × 60 = 6.8 × 108 ✓ ecf
revolutions = d/C = 17 ✓ ecf Therefore the satellite can make at
least 16 complete revolutions.
This candidate scores 3 marks. The processes they have carried out are
correct, but they have failed to take into account the radius of the Earth
in their distance. This has resulted in them not arriving at the correct
‘show that’ figure. They should also display their final answer to at least
one extra significant figure in a ‘show that’ question.
(b) ρ = 1.23 × e−198/8.42 ✓

ρ = 7.53 × 10−11 Pa ✓

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 Application to the exam

Both marks awarded. There is even less chance of making a mistake

if the original equation is written out before substituting the
values.
(c) Fd = 0.5 × 7.53 × 10−11 × 1.5 × 2.2 × (7.9 × 103)2 ✓ ecf

Fd = 9.81 × 10−7 N ✗
They have correctly substituted values into the equation (they
receive 1 mark and error carried forward because they have used
their incorrectly calculated velocity from part (a). However, in the
subsequent calculation they have forgotten to square the velocity.
(d) work = force × distance = 9.81 × 10−7 × 6.8 × 108 ✓ ecf = 667 J ✓ ecf

Both marks awarded, although both values in the equation are

actually incorrect due to previous errors in their calculations.
(e) The graph shows a quick descent of the satellite (in less than
60 days), because the density of the atmosphere increases. This
means that very low-Earth-orbiting satellites will crash towards
Earth quickly.

No marks awarded here. None of the points in the mark scheme is

addressed with sufficient clarity or detail. In the first point it looks
like the candidate thinks the satellite has crashed after 60 days, but
since the y-axis does not start at the origin this is not necessarily
true. The candidate mentions that the density of the atmosphere
increases, but does not use information from earlier parts of the
question to do this accurately enough (i.e. they do not mention the
exponential nature of this increase in pressure). The candidate tries
to make a comment about the issues with LEO satellites, but it is
too vague.

A/A*-grade answer
(a) Centripetal force on the satellite is caused by the gravitational
force of the Earth:
GMm
F = mw 2r = 2 ✓
GM r
w2 = 3
r
r = rE + h = 6.37 × 106 + 1.98 × 105 = 6.57 × 106 m ✓
6.67 × 10−11 × 5.97 × 1024
w2=
(6.57 × 106)3
w 2 = 1.41 × 10−6
w = 1.19 × 10−3 rad s−1 ✓
2� 2�
since w = T , then T =
w
2 × 3.14
T=
1.19 × 103
T = 5.30 × 103 s ✓
In 24 hours there are 60 × 60 × 24 = 86 400 s
The number of orbits in 24 hours = 86 400/5.30 × 103 = 16.3 ✓
orbits, so it can make 16 complete orbits (but not 17).

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 1 Quantitative skills

There are many steps in this calculation and it is easy to make

mistakes at various stages. The clear way in which the working has
been done not only makes it easy for the examiner to award marks,
but the student can easily identify where the error is if the final
answer does not yield the ‘show that’ value.
(b) ρ = ρ0e−h/a

ρ = 1.23 × e−198/8.42 ✓
ρ = 7.53 × 10−11 Pa ✓
Full and clear working shown. Both marks awarded.
6
d (16.3 × 2 × 3.14 × 6.57 × 10 )
(c) v = t =
86 400
v = 7783 m s−1
Fd = 1 ρACdv2
2
Fd = 0.5 × 7.53 × 10−11 × 1.5 × 2.2 × (7.78 × 103)2 ✓
Fd = 7.5 × 10−3 N ✓
The working is clearly shown in this multistage calculation, and the
full values are used for latter parts of the calculation.
(d) W = Fs
W = 7.5 × 10−3 × (16.3 × 2 × 3.14 × 6.57 × 106) ✓
W = 5.1 × 106 J ✓
Both marks awarded. Again, clear working and accurate use of the
calculator.
(e) The graph shows that for a satellite the rate of descent
increases as the satellite descends (this indicates that descent
is exponential). ✓ This is because the satellite is doing a greater
amount of work against the atmosphere at lower altitudes because
the density increases exponentially as the altitude decreases. ✓
LEO satellites will always have more drag than those at higher orbits
so they will ‘lose energy’ by doing work on the surroundings and lose
altitude more quickly than at higher Earth orbits, which means they
will need to be replaced more frequently. ✓

A very good response, for all 3 marks. The candidate correctly

describes the altitude change over time from the graph and then
explains why this behaviour occurs, using their understanding
of physics and the ideas from the earlier parts of the question.
They finish their response by evaluating the issues relating to this
behaviour with regard to real-life, low-orbit satellites.

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 Application to the exam

You should know

› There are many core mathematical skills that you are expected to use throughout A-level
Physics questions. Ensure you can carry out these processes routinely.
› Always set out your working clearly and logically. This not only makes mistakes less likely,
but it also allows you to find errors more quickly and allows examiners to award marks for
stages in your work, especially in longer multiple-stage calculations.
› You can use dimensional analysis to check that the form of an unfamiliar equation is
physically sensible or check the units of an unknown quantity.
› Logarithms are a useful tool for evaluating expressions with quantities raised to powers.
› Comparing complex expressions to the equation of a straight line allows effective analysis
of the different parts of the expression.
› Use the action word in the question to decide on the type of mathematical analysis you
carry out.
› Higher-level questions require you to evaluate your final numerical answer and make
judgements not only about the implications of this data, but also about how valid the
arguments in the analysis are, i.e. what assumptions have been made?

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 2 Reading skills

Learning objectives
› To develop effective note taking techniques
› To research effectively and cite sources
› To apply appropriate reading skills to different situations
› To use critical reading to evaluate sources of information
› To apply effective reading skills to examination
questions

Activity 2.1
Introduction
Go to your examination
This chapter aims to help you develop a range of reading skills
board’s website and download
which will not only improve your performance in exams but also
a copy of the specification.
give you the skills necessary to learn effectively. The step up
In addition to defining the
from GCSE, and subsequent steps into degree and further study or
examinable material, the
employment, require a greater degree of independent studying. This
specification also gives
is reliant on effective reading: recalling, processing and evaluating
information about the
information.
content and length of exams,
The chapter begins by looking at the core resources you should and the data and formulae
be using to support your studies and then examines how different sheet. The specification will
reading styles should be used to maximise your comprehension of also enable you to track your
the text. You will then be guided through the very important skill of progress through the course
taking effective notes and referencing your sources when carrying and identify areas you would
out research for your practical endorsement. The chapter then like your teacher to help
explores the higher-order thinking skills of evaluating and engaging with. You may find it useful
with material through critical reading and explores how wider to print off relevant pages
reading can push you towards an A/A* grade. to keep in your A-level file/
exercise book.
Core study skills
Using core resources
It is important to make effective use of the resources available
to you. The key resources you need initially are the specification
for your examination board, the data and formulae sheet and the
practical handbook. These important documents are available to
download from the website of your examination board.
The specification is the definitive guide to the content you will be
examined upon. The headings from the specification make a logical
way of organising your notes and also help to ensure that you have
covered every required part of the specification. You should work
with your data and formulae sheet whenever you are answering
questions — familiarity with the location of content on the
equation sheet as well as what quantities the symbols represent will

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 Core study skills

save you valuable time in exams. The practical handbook is the

definitive guide to practical techniques and processing data. There Common pitfall
is more detail on this resource in Chapter 4 of this book.
Often students copy out
Most A-level students will also use a textbook to extend and notes from the textbook
support work done in class. If you use a textbook that covers or classwork in full. This is
multiple boards, then carefully check the sections that apply to your
ineffective in many ways:
specification.
it takes longer to write out
Most textbooks contain ‘test yourself’ questions for each section. everything; you are not
The answers are usually supplied at the back of the book. Make processing the information;
sure that you attempt these questions for every section of the (by summarising and
course that you have covered. These types of question will help you
reorganising) so you will
develop mastery of the equations and basic principles of each topic.
not retain it; and it does not
However, remember that their emphasis will be on AO2, focusing on
calculations, with some AO1 content involving recall of definitions promote links with your
and simple statements. prior knowledge. Use the
strategies and tips in this
Effective reading book to make your note
Being able to learn from the information provided in texts is not taking more effective.
about reading quickly, but it is about reading effectively. To read
effectively you must do the following:
➜ read with purpose — have a clear goal for the reading
➜ choose the right reading material
➜ select the right reading style
➜ use appropriate note taking techniques to ensure longer-term
recall
Read with purpose
First and foremost you need to determine why you are reading.
By determining a reading goal, you make it easier to identify the
relevant material in the text you are reading and allow yourself
to spend more time on the key information, thus maximising your
reading effectiveness.
Choose the right reading material
Once you have identified why you are reading, you then need to use
suitable reading material to find the required information. The most
important thing is that the source is reliable — i.e. the information
provided is factually correct. Material is considered reliable if it is
from a reputable peer-reviewed source, or by a well-known publisher.
There is more information on critically evaluating sources for
reliability in the higher-order study skills section.
Reading styles
You use different styles of reading on a daily basis. For example,
reading information from your social media feed requires a different
reading style from reading questions in an end-of-topic assessment.
The main three types of reading style are:
➜ scanning
➜ skimming
➜ intensive reading
➜ extensive reading

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 2 Reading skills

Scanning
Scanning is a technique that is useful when you are trying to locate
specific information within a text. Your eyes pass rapidly over the
text to try to locate particular words or phrases.
For example, if you were looking for a different point of view on
gravitational potential, you would scan the contents page to find
the chapter on gravitational fields, then you would scan through the
chapter to find the description, equation and examples related to
gravitational potential. You can use other contextual information,
such as key words being written in a bold typeface or the headings
and subheadings of the text, to help you scan more effectively.
Skimming
Skimming is where you read quickly for general meaning. Skimming
is used to get an understanding of the main points, while skipping
over words containing detailed information.
It is often useful to skim a page of text or a section of a textbook
before reading it in more detail. Once you have an overview of the
material, it should be easier to see how the specific information
you encounter in your more detailed reading fits within the ‘bigger
picture’ and this will also help to structure your note taking. You
can also use skimming to refresh your understanding after you have
completed a more detailed reading.
Intensive reading
Intensive reading is where you examine the content in detail with a
specific goal in mind. You may be revising the content for a test or
exam or you might be researching a topic that you will be covering
in a subsequent lesson. To be effective, intensive reading should be
active rather than passive.
Active reading
Simply reading and rereading is not an effective way to understand
or remember information. In essence, active reading means
interacting and engaging with the material in different ways so that
you critically evaluate your understanding of the material and see
how the information connects to your prior knowledge.
Try these techniques to make your reading more active:
Exam tip
➜ Underline or highlight key words and phrases as you read. Be
selective though — a full page of highlighted material will not When reading intensively
make key information stand out. underline key information, e.g.
when given an angle for a force
➜ Make a note of key information, questions or ideas as you read — or a light ray, make sure you have
you could annotate in the margins or use sticky notes. noted whether it has been given
to the horizontal or to the vertical.
➜ Summarise the key information — use bullet points, mind maps,
or flashcards to keep your notes condensed.
➜ Test yourself by putting the text away and making a note of the
key points from memory. This is useful for identifying gaps in
your understanding.
➜ Explain what you have learned to someone else, e.g. a family
member or study partner.

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 Core study skills

➜ Read the information critically — this is a great way of engaging

with the text and making you think more deeply about the
content (more guidance on this is contained in the ‘Critical
reading’ section).

Activity 2.2
Visit your school library and choose one of the ‘popular’ physics
books — you can ask the librarian for help locating these. Read
the book and make some brief notes about what you found
interesting. Can you see any links to the work you are doing in
class?

Extensive reading
Extensive reading is reading texts for pleasure. The goal of this
kind of reading is enjoyment, so you do not need to make notes
or write questions as you read. You should choose material that
is interesting and engaging, such as magazine articles or popular
science books — your school library should have a selection of
these and you can speak to your physics teacher to get other
recommendations.
Extensive reading enables you to develop your scientific vocabulary,
build your background knowledge and develop your own ideas and
opinions. It may even help you uncover areas which you may wish to
study further, e.g. cosmology or particular areas of engineering.
Note taking
Every student needs to take notes at some point in order to process Exam tip
and retain information. There are lots of ways to try to remember Definitions, equations and units
the content of your course. The key to remembering information should be learned as they are
is thinking about the information. This means that you have presented by your teacher/
to think about your notes as you make them, i.e. don’t just copy textbook and not re-written in
information from the board, textbook or website. If you process the your own words.
information, by rearranging it, summarising it and writing it in your
own words, you will not only have a better understanding of the
content, but you will remember it for longer.
Your notes should be considered a ‘work in progress’ and can always
be updated. Key phrases from the mark schemes and examiner’s
reports as you take past paper questions make an extremely useful
addition to your initial set of notes. You may find that when you
reread your notes from earlier in the course you will be able to
reduce the content and summarise further.
You should organise your notes in a logical order. As suggested
above, the key headings from the specification make a good set of
topic titles to structure your notes.

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 2 Reading skills

Annotated example 2.1

The following example shows how information presented on one page of a textbook (Figure 2.1)
can be processed to make effective notes. Three key strategies are involved: summarising,
re-structuring, and using key questions to check content and detail.

●● The fluorescent tube

The fluorescent tube

Fluorescence is when a substance absorbs If you are at school or college, the room you are in probably uses fluorescent
short wavelength electromagnetic radiation lights. Fluorescence in these lights occurs when electrons absorb photons
and emits it as longer wavelength radiation. of ultraviolet radiation, and move to a higher energy level. When the excited
A fluorescent tube is a type of light bulb electrons fall back to the lower energy level, energy is released as visible light.
that gives out light when its inner coating anode
fluoresces. mercury vapour

Thermionic emission happens when cathode

free electrons are released from a heated
filament.

phosphor coating

Figure 3.11 The main components of a fluorescent tube.

A fluorescent tube is a glass tube filled with mercury vapour and coated
inside with fluorescent materials called phosphors. When the light
is switched on, the cathode is heated causing thermionic emission.
Thermionic emission occurs when a heated cathode releases free electrons
from its surface. The free electrons have a range of energies. A potential
difference of 500 V, applied across ends of the glass tube, accelerates the
electrons from the cathode to the anode through the mercury vapour. If the
free electrons collide with mercury atoms inelastically, some energy may be
transferred from the free electrons to the mercury atoms. These atoms may
be ionised or excited, provided the free electrons transfer enough kinetic
Plasma is a mixture of ions and electrons
energy. High-energy electrons cause ionisation, and lower energy electrons
in a gas. cause excitation. As the mercury atoms in the vapour become ionised (lose
electrons), a mixture of ions and free electrons is created; this is called a
plasma. When the electrons in the excited mercury atoms return to their
ground state, they release photons of ultraviolet radiation. These photons
strike the phospors in the coating and are absorbed. The energy is re-emitted
as visible light, and some energy is transferred as heat.

TEST YOURSELF ionised

10.44
18 Describe the purpose of these parts of a 8.85
fluorescent tube: electrode, mercury vapour, 8.84
phospor coating.
7.93
19 Explain why a person viewing a fluorescent bulb 7.73
though a diffraction grating observes specific
peaks in the spectrum. 6.70
20 Explain why the spectrum from a fluorescent
51
lamp and an incandescent bulb are different. 5.46
21 The diagram shows some allowed energy levels
4.89
for mercury. Use the diagram to calculate: 4.67
a) the energy of photons emitted for each of the
three electron transitions from excited states
to the ground state
b) the wavelength of the emitted photons.
ground state
0.00 eV
Figure 3.12 Some allowed energy levels for mercury.

Figure 2.1 Sample page from AQA A-level Physics student textbook
807732_C03_AQA_Physics_042-056.indd 51 28/02/15 5:16 PM

Notes from AQA A-Level Physics textbook

page 51
The notes have The fluorescent tube Even though the extract
added structure to has a lot of detailed
the long prose in Tube information, the notes
the textbook. The have reduced the word
• filled with mercury vapour
first section states count to around 30% of
the structure of the • inside surface coated with fluorescent the original text.
fluorescent tube. material

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 Core study skills

Exciting mercury atoms This section explains

the process of exciting
Free electrons from cathode accelerated by high the mercury atoms
voltage by electron–electron
collisions.
They collide with electrons in mercury atoms,
transferring energy to them and causing:
• excitation (lower energy free electrons)
or
• ionisation (high energy) The final section of
the notes uses the
Creates plasma of mercury ions and free electrons
questions in the ‘Test
This section explains Emitting light yourself’ section to
how the UV photons check content coverage
emitted from the When electrons in excited mercury atoms return to (question 18) and add
mercury atoms are ground state, release UV photons further detail. The
converted into visible process of comparing
frequency photons. UV (short wavelength EM rad) photons hit phosphor the output from the
coating and move electrons to higher energy level fluorescent tube with
an incandescent bulb
The notes have a clear, Excited electrons fall back to lower energy level → (questions 19 and
logical structure, which emit visible light (and some energy transferred as 20) ensures a deeper
would enable them to
heat) exploration of the
be applied directly in
material and will
an extended-response Comparison with incandescent bulb result in a longer-
exam question.
term retention of the
Fluorescent tube has emission line spectra
information. Making
because only certain transitions allowed — comparisons and finding
between discrete energy levels in the mercury links to other areas of
atoms the specification also
allows you to try and
Incandescent bulb emits continuous spectrum anticipate the type of
because heated filament has continuous range of higher-level questions
energies you will face in the
exam.

Researching new sources of information

There are many reasons why you would want to find new sources
Take it further
of information about your A-level content. Perhaps you have Read up on the ‘faster than
light neutrinos’ experiment. In
found it difficult to understand a certain topic from notes and September 2011, researchers
discussion in class — you have looked in your textbook, but published results showing muon
you are still unsure. In this case a different point of view would neutrinos travelling faster than
be helpful. Another reason is that in order to achieve a pass the speed of light, a result which
in the Practical Endorsement, you will need to have conducted violated Einstein’s special theory
of relativity. Reading up on this
some research. Criterion 5b of the Common Practical Assessment
experiment will give you insight
Criteria (CPAC) states that you need to ‘cite sources of information into how the physics community
demonstrating that research has taken place, supporting planning reacts to controversial new
and conclusions’. findings and will also serve as a
good review of particle physics.

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 2 Reading skills

Referencing your sources

Referencing is an important skill because it allows you to acknowledge
the words and ideas from another author in your work. When you
progress to university, referencing is mandatory. Not only does it give
credit to scientists who carried out earlier research, but it also allows
others reading your work to evaluate the breadth and depth of the
prior research you have carried out on the subject you are writing
about.
You need to reference when:
➜ you quote directly from a source
➜ you paraphrase ideas (i.e. you are writing the ideas in your own
words)
Although it can be useful to record the source of information when
researching for revision notes so that you can find the original
source, the most important time for referencing on the the A-level
Physics course is when carrying out research for your required
practical activities. Most often this will involve paraphrasing, rather
than quoting text directly. Either you will be describing different
experimental methods that you can use to carry out a practical
activity or you will be using results or values obtained by a different
experimenter.
How to reference sources
There are two types of referencing, when paraphrasing and when
quoting exact phrases. There are many styles of referencing, but the
mostly widely used is the Harvard style, which will be explained below:
1 Paraphrasing
When you are paraphrasing a source you just need to indicate the
author and the year of publication, e.g. (Jones, 2018).
2 Exact quotes
When you are quoting text exactly, you need to add quotation marks
around the text and add the page number to the reference. For
example: ‘Wider reading has educational benefit but it also should
be an enjoyable activity, free from the pressures of deadlines and
assessments.’ (Jones, 2018, p35)
Whenever you cite research in your work, you must also include the
full source. This can either be done at the bottom of the page or in
a separate section at the end called ‘references’ or ‘bibliography’.
For a printed or electronic book this is set out as follows:
Surname, Initials. (Year of publication) Title in Italics, Edition if not
first, Place of publication: Publisher
Example:
Jones, M. (2018) Aiming for an A in A-level Physics. London: Hodder
Education.
For a webpage:
Surname, Initials [or organisation responsible for the site]. (Year
created or last updated), Name of sponsor of site (if available),

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 Core study skills

accessed day month year (the date you viewed the site), URL or
internet address (between pointed brackets)
Example:
Hodder & Stoughton. About Us, accessed 20 December 2017
<https://www.hodder.co.uk/Information/About%20Us.page>

Worked example 2.1

In your lab book you need to demonstrate your ability to cite sources of information and demonstrate
that you have conducted research to support your planning.
You have been asked to research a method to investigate acceleration due to gravity using a
free-falling object.
Step 1: Find reliable sources of information.
There are many places you could go to get a method, but it is important that the information you
find is reliable. Material is considered reliable if it is from a reputable peer-reviewed source or by a
well-known publisher.
Suppose we choose the OCR Practical Assessment book by Hodder Education. The extract in Figure 2.2
gives a suggested method and diagram of the apparatus:

Figure 2.2

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 2 Reading skills

Step 2: Read the material and extract the relevant information to generate a suitable a plan
for the experiment.
Method:
I could use the following apparatus to measure acceleration due to gravity (Davenport, C. and George,
G., 2017):
Electromagnet

+
Ball bearing Power supply
−

Switch

Trap-door switch
Stopclock

You need to be specific with your method. There is more on this in Chapter 4, but basically you must
state the range of readings, the interval of your readings and the instruments used to take the readings.
Also remember that any experimental values should be recorded to the resolution of the measuring
device. For example, length using a metre ruler should be stated to a resolution of 1 mm (0.001 m).
1 Start with a distance, h, of 1.000 m between the electromagnet and the trap-door switch.
2 The switch will initially be in the closed position. This completes the top circuit and current flows
through the electromagnet causing it to be activated and attract the steel ball bearing.
3 Press the switch to the lower position, causing the current in the electromagnet to stop. This
causes the ball bearing to be released and also starts the stopclock. When the ball bearing falls into
the trap-door switch the bottom circuit is broken. This stops the stopclock.
4 Record the fall time in a results table.
5 Repeat the experiment two more times for this height and calculate a mean value for the time.
6 Reduce the height by 0.100 m and carry out the timing experiment three more times.
7 Repeat this for a range of values from 1.000 m to 0.200 m.
Then you should also describe how you will process these measurements.
Plot a graph of t2 against h.
The gradient of the graph should be equal to 2 g , where g is the acceleration due to gravity.
The intercept should be zero, but if it is not zero, there must be a systematic error in my results.
Either, the t values are too big because there was a delay in releasing the ball even though the timer had
started, or a delay in the trap door opening when it is hit by the ball bearing.
Or, the values of h are too small so there was a systematic error in measuring the height, h.
You would then add the book or resource into your references section at the end of the lab report.
References
Davenport, C. and George, G. (2017) OCR Physics A and B Practical Assessment, London: Hodder
­Education.

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 Higher-order study skills

Higher-order study skills

Reading beyond the specification
Students who want to be successful at A-level and make a strong
application to a top university tend to have explored physics
through wider reading outside the classroom. This sort of reading
is often called ‘super-curricular’ because it enhances the knowledge
and understanding you have from studying in school. Remember
that you do not need to purchase any books. There are excellent
free web resources available and it is also a good idea to visit your
school or local library to see the resources they have on offer. You
can discuss your particular area of interest or a particular author
with the librarian and they can suggest relevant materials or order
books that you would like to look at.
The great thing about ‘super-curricular’ reading is that you can
follow your own passion and take the time to explore areas of the
subject you are most interested in. Not only will this give you a
greater understanding of what you might like to study beyond your
A-levels, but it will also help you to build connections between
the material you are covering on your A-level course and its wider
application.
There are many other ways to explore physics beyond the
specification. You could visit science museums, or attend lectures,
seminars or other outreach activities from local universities. You
might join a regional or national club or society — many areas have
amateur astronomy societies. There are many factual television
and radio programmes available via BBC iPlayer. There are excellent
science podcasts on the internet, and many universities offer audio
recordings of their academic lectures. Use a podcast app on your
mobile device or search for podcasts on university websites.
Wider reading has educational benefit, but it also should be
an enjoyable activity, free from the pressures of deadlines and
assessments.

Take it further
Project Tuva: Richard Feynman’s Messenger Lecture series
has been described by Bill Gates as the ‘best science
lectures I’ve ever seen’. Explore the Feynman lectures at:
http://research.microsoft.com/apps/tools/tuva/index.html

Critical reading
Through your A-level studies and beyond, you are expected to
develop a critical and analytical mind, so that you do not simply
take on information at ‘face value’. You need to apply the technique
of critical reading when looking at new information. Critical reading
is not about being negative or closed off about an argument, but
about engaging with, and making judgements about, what you are
reading.

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 2 Reading skills

The following sections give a range of questions you should consider

when critically reading a text:
Author
➜ Who are the writers?
➜ What are their credentials?
➜ Are they scientists? If not, have they consulted scientists with
sufficient qualifications? What institutions are they affiliated with?
➜ Why have they written it? Who is funding the research and who
may profit from it?
➜ Is the work cited by others?
Source
➜ Who owns or edits the website?
➜ Is the same story reported in different ways in different sources?
➜ Is the source a peer-reviewed scientific journal?
➜ Is the source a published book? If so the research will have been
reviewed by the publisher.
Hypotheses
➜ Are there testable and falsifiable hypotheses? Scientific theories
should allow predictions to be made and evidence to be collected
to test the predictions. Do they describe what results would be
expected if the hypothesis was false?
Procedure and results
➜ What steps were taken to control the other variables?
➜ Were repeat measurements taken?
➜ Are the results reproducible?
➜ Are there any results which might undermine the findings?
Conclusions Activity 2.3
➜ How valid are the conclusions? (With what degree of certainty Research the risks and
and in what circumstances are the conclusions valid?) benefits of nuclear power.
➜ Could you draw different conclusions from the evidence? Explore a range of different
➜ What other studies could be done to be more certain about the websites, ensuring that you
conclusions? find some that are in favour
➜ Are there clear lines of reasoning in the explanation or does the of and some against nuclear
author try to use scare tactics and other persuasive techniques? power. Read your sources
critically using the guidance
Reading exam questions in the ‘Critical reading’
section of this chapter. Use
Many exam questions contain a lot of introductory information your research to evaluate
to process before you can answer the questions effectively. Use the balance between the
the reading skills described in this chapter to help you gain risks and benefits of the
understanding of the new introductory material presented in the development of nuclear
question and of what is being asked of you in the high-pressure power.
exam situation.

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 Higher-order study skills

1 Read with purpose

You need to have a clear understanding of what you are being asked
to do and use any additional information in the text to tailor your
answer to the specific question you are being asked.
The following mnemonic is an excellent way to remember why you
are reading the material:
Use MAPS to navigate the question:
M — Marks — how many marks are allocated?
A — Action — what action does the command word tell you to take?
P — Physics — what are the underlying physics principles of the
question?
S — Situation — what is the context of the question: how does the
physics concept apply in this situation?
2 Select the right reading style
Step 1: Skim the stem text and subsequent questions to get an
overview of the physics principles (P) involved.
Step 2: Read the question stem intensively. Here you should
highlight or underline key words and add relevant notes to the
question paper, e.g. mark missing information on to the diagram.
Step 3: Scan the question part you are about to answer to
identify the command word. This indicates the action (A) that you
need to take to produce a response in line with the marking points
expected by the examiner.
Step 4: Scan the question to determine the number of allocated
marks (A) for this part of the question. The number of marks,
rather than the amount of space allocated, is the best guide for the
quantity of information required in your answer.
Step 5: Read the question intensively to ensure you fully
understand what is being asked. One of the most common comments
from examiners is that students do not answer the specific question
being asked. Respond to the particular situation (S) being referred
to in the question.

Exam tip
‘Calculate by making suitable measurements on the Figure…’ (5)
There are two key parts to understand from the wording in such a question:
• The command word is ‘calculate’, so we need to process numerical data
to obtain a numerical answer.
• The next part of the introduction to the question states ’making suitable
measurements on the diagram’. Many candidates lose marks by not clearly
showing on the diagram the measurements that they need to make.

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 2 Reading skills

Worked example 2.2

Careful reading of the not statement
Often multiple-choice questions will ask which of the following is
not correct, or in which of the following situations does a certain
phenomena not occur. Although the key word, not, is written in
a bold typeface, many students still jump for the first correct
answer they see.
In which of the following situations does electromagnetic
induction not take place? (1)
A in a hydroelectric power station
B in an ac power adaptor for a mobile phone
C in a back-up capacitor for a computer
D in the wings of an aircraft as it cuts through the Earth’s
magnetic field lines
Many students will rush in and select the first option. An easier
option has deliberately been placed at the beginning so that you
are drawn into thinking that it is an easy question and you move
quickly on to the next question. If you take a little more time to
read the second option, you will then see that electromagnetic
induction also takes place in the step-down transformer of
the power adaptor. This would then make you analyse the last Exam tip
two options in more detail and perhaps reread the question
to catch that it asks for the option where electromagnetic Underline the key terms in the
question as you read through. If it
induction does not take place. C deals with only dc electricity,
mentions anything specific at the
so electromagnetic induction does not take place here. Many end, such as ‘write your answer
students may still go for D because it is not obviously to do with to an appropriate number of
electromagnetic induction: until we realise that Faraday’s law significant figures’, then highlight
of electromagnetic induction states that the value of the emf this now. It is easy to forget this
induced depends upon the rate of change of flux and how many once you get into answering
the mathematical aspect of the
loops of conductor are in the field. question.

Application to the exam

To remain in a geostationary orbit a satellite needs to be
35 800 km above the Earth’s surface. Currently, it costs about
£5000 per kilogram to send objects to this height using a
rocket propulsion system. The two major contributors to the
cost are the large amount of propellant and the fact that the
rocket is not reusable. The propellant makes up 80% of the
launch mass. The propellant contains fuel, but is mostly made
of oxidiser, which is liquid oxygen. A further 16% of the launch
mass is the rocket itself, which leaves 4% available for cargo,
i.e. experimental apparatus, astronauts, food etc.

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 Application to the exam

Two new technologies have been proposed to get objects into

space at a greatly reduced financial cost: space planes and a
space gun.
Space planes would have a higher efficiency because they use
oxygen from the Earth’s atmosphere as the oxidiser rather than
carrying liquid oxygen with them.
A space gun does not need to take any propellant. The energy
required for launch is provided by an explosion within a long
cannon. The spacecraft would reach a speed of 17 000 m s−1 in
10 seconds.
(a) Calculate the minimum energy required to send a payload
of 800 kg into a geostationary orbit. Ignore the mass of the
propellant.(3)
(b) Acceleration due to gravity on the Earth’s surface, g = 9.81 m s−2.
On a roller coaster you may experience 5 g and a fighter pilot
can typically handle around 9 g, but a constant 16 g for anything
other than a brief moment may be deadly to humans. Determine
whether the space gun is viable for human space flight. (3)
(c) Discuss the role that space planes and space guns could have
in making space travel more affordable. (4)

How to approach the question

There are several parts to this question, all involving processing
information from the stem of the question.
Step 1: Skim through the question to identify the underlying
physics (P) principles — there is a lot of new information
presented here, so it helps to get an overview first. It is a wide-
ranging question involving energy changes: chemical or kinetic to
gravitational potential energy.
Step 2: Intensively read the information to pick out the key
details for each question.
Step 3: Scan the question to identify the action (A) word:
Part (a) is ‘calculate’, so we need to use an equation and obtain
a numerical answer.
Part (b) is ‘determine’, so we need to use a numerical argument
and come to a conclusion.
Part (c) is ‘discuss’, so we need to address the benefits and
drawbacks of the new technologies introduced in the question.
We need to intensively read the section of text again, focusing
on the issues impacting on the cost of spaceflight. There are
several key information points to pick up on: costs can be
reduced by using less propellant and reusing the rocket. We then
need to talk about both new technologies in comparison with the
current rocket launch process.

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 2 Reading skills

Mark scheme
(a) payload = 800 kg = 4%
mass of rocket plus pay load = 20%
therefore, 800 × 5 = 4000 kg ✓
ΔW = mΔV
−1 −1
[= mGM r − R ]
E
1 1
ΔW = GMm R − r ✓
E
= 6.67 × 10 −11 × 5.97 × 1024 × 4000
1 1
× × 106 −
6.37 (6.37 × 10 ) + (35 800 × 103✓)
6

= 2.12 × 1011 J ✓
v − u 17 000 − 0
(b) Acceleration can be calculated using: a = t =
10
= 1700 m s−2 ✓
1700
Determine the number of gs: = 173 g ✓
9.81
This amount of g-force is above the threshold for human survival,
so the space gun is not a suitable option for human spaceflight. ✓
(c)Relevant points relating to propellant and/or reusability and cost
implications for both space planes and space guns.
Indicative content:
Space planes:
• Less propellant needed so efficiency savings.
• More cargo or passengers can be taken into space.
• Fewer trips to carry cargo would need to be taken.
• Even a 1% reduction in fuel mass, means that you could have
an extra 1% total mass for cargo. In real terms this means
that you would have an extra 25% cargo.
• Launching from a higher altitude could mean that there is less
stress on the rocket and it may be more reusable.
Space guns:
• Require much less fuel (because you have a greatly reduced
mass of spacecraft).
• The overall mass of the spacecraft would be reduced by
around 80%.
• However, humans cannot be launched into space using this
technology — the high g-forces would be lethal to living
creatures. However, you could space guns to launch non-living
materials, such as building supplies and foodstuffs (to then be
manipulated and used by humans who used the current space
launch technology).
• This could reduce overall costs.
• Not clear that the spacecraft would be reusable after such an
explosive launch. (Max 4)

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 Application to the exam

Sample answer
(a) Potential, V at Earth’s surface:

Vs = −GM
.

RE
−11 24
= −6.67 × 10 × 5.97 × 10
6.37 × 106
= −6.25 × 107 J kg−1
Potential, V, of geostationary orbit:
Vg = −GM
r
−11 24
= −6.67 × 10 × 5.97 × 10 ✓
(6.37 × 106) + (35 800 × 103)
= −9.44 × 106 J kg−1
ΔV = (−9.44 × 106) − (−6.25 × 107)
= 5.31 × 107 J kg−1 ✓
total energy change = ΔV × mass of payload
= 5.31 × 107 × 4000
= 2.12 × 1011 J ✓
This candidate has broken the calculation down into stages. This is
a good approach to minimise errors, but it does make for a slightly
longer calculation. They have correctly calculated the geostationary
orbital radius by adding the radius of the Earth to the height above
the surface.
(b) Use SUVATs to calculate acceleration:
s=X
u=0
v = 17 000 m s−1
a=?
t = 10 s
v = u + at
v−u
a=
t
17000 − 0
=
10
= 1700 m s−2 ✓
a 1700
= = 173.3 ✓
g 9.81
Since a g-force of 16 could be fatal, the g-force exerted on
passengers from the space gun would be very likely to cause death
and therefore it would not be safe for human flight. ✓
The candidate has correctly calculated the acceleration, although
they have used a longer method than simply using a = Δv/Δt, and
they have correctly calculated the g-force. A sensible conclusion
relating to the information given in the question satisfies the final
marking point.

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 2 Reading skills

(c) Both technologies will save money for space flight. They both use Exam tip
less propellant (because they need to take less oxygen) and
therefore they are not as heavy and will therefore not cost as much Multiple-choice
to launch. However the space gun is not suitable for passengers so technique
could only fire supplies and parts into space, whereas the space
In questions that require a
plane could transport humans and supplies. ✓ statement to be chosen, think
carefully, and read through all of
The answer is not well structured and is not specific enough in the the statements carefully. Don’t
points it addresses. Each alternative should be discussed separately rush to a conclusion before
and in more detail. One marking point is achieved for identifying reading them all.
that the space gun could be used for launching supplies, but not
living objects.

You should know

› Your exam board specification and core textbook are useful resources for independent
study. Use these to track your progress and support classwork. Make use of the summary
questions and exam-style questions in the textbook.
› When you read new information, do so critically. This means that you analyse and evaluate
the information and the source and do not just accept everything that you read as true.
› Enjoy your ‘super-curricular’ reading. There are lots of books, websites and magazines that
will excite and engage you as well as increasing your background knowledge of physics.
› When reading an exam question, identify the command word and use the information
given to you in the question to produce an effective answer.

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 3 Writing skills

Learning objectives Exam tip

› To write clear, concise responses which demonstrate Remember that 40% of the A-level
knowledge and understanding course overlaps with the GCSE
› To write using precise, technical language Physics course. This means that if
a question looks straightforward,
› To present information using clear, unambiguous then it often is. You need to
language answer such questions efficiently,
› To communicate ideas and information effectively using which means quickly and
concisely. Look carefully at the
an appropriate style of writing number of marks available and
› To give coherent, structured answers in extended- then do not overcomplicate your
response questions answer. Efficient responses to
simpler questions will allow you
› To make connections between different areas of physics to spend more time on the more
to answer synoptic questions challenging parts of the paper.
› To develop your ability to make judgements using
analysis and evaluation
Common pitfall

Introduction When questions have a lot

of information in them, you
Communication is a vital life skill, whether it is with friends and
need to carefully pick out
family, at a job interview or in your university application. The
the key information. After
aim of this chapter is to help you develop the skills necessary to
communicate your knowledge and understanding effectively to an reading the information,
examiner. ensure that you focus on
the specific language in the
We will look at selecting the appropriate style to communicate your final part of the question
ideas and the use of appropriate terminology. We will also look at
— this will contain the key
how to respond to questions that require an extended response.
Extended-response questions require you to demonstrate your words to ensure that you
ability to construct and develop a sustained line of reasoning which give a response which
is coherent, relevant, substantiated and logically structured. As covers the information
part of your extended response you may also be required to include required in the mark
extended calculations. We go through the key skills for writing scheme. For example, when
effective longer responses. discussing the reasons for
In addition, we will look at the higher-order skills of making a certain choice, you often
judgements, and answering synoptic questions which tackle need not only to make
different areas of the curriculum in one question. The chapter a decision about which
finishes with an example question along with different student choice should be made
responses for you to see how the skills in the chapter apply in and why, but also explain
examination situations. why you rejected the other
options. Do not just focus
on the option you chose but
also explain clearly why
the other options were not
suitable.

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 3 Writing skills

Core study skills

This section will focus on skills that are applicable to all written
answers. The emphasis of the core skills section is on producing
effective responses to short, structured questions, typically worth
between 1 and 3 marks.
Typical command words used on these short, structured questions
are:
➜ State
➜ Explain
➜ Describe
Tell the ‘complete story’ in a logical sequence and don’t forget to
state the obvious.
Demonstrating factual knowledge
You will always obtain some marks in your examinations by
accurately recalling specific information such as units and
definitions. We have already discussed the reduction in the amount
of marks available for recall of knowledge (AO1), but it still
represents 33% of the A-level grade. Remembering information
directly from the specification and then accurately reproducing this
information without being asked to demonstrate understanding is
classed as ‘knowledge in isolation’. There is a limit of 15% of the
marks available for ‘knowledge in isolation’. At a maximum this
could still yield around 40 marks across your entire A-level. These
are the easiest marks to obtain and to reach the top grades you
must succeed in getting these.
This shows the importance of learning standard definitions. The
physical ideas you present should be complete and aligned to the
number of allocated marks. This means that you need to use the
number of allocated marks to determine the amount of detail you
will include in your answer.

Worked example 3.1

Coherence
State what is meant by coherent wave sources. (2)
Step 1: Read the question — identify the command word and marks allocated.
This is a ‘state’ question, which is AO1: factual recall. i.e. this is a definition that should be learned
prior to the exam. Many of these types of recall question appear on different past papers. You should
ensure that you have a method of learning these key definitions, such as using flashcards or an app
or piece of software to test yourself. Ensure that you include the full definition.
Coherence is related to the interference of waves. Interference patterns lasting long enough for us to
see them can only occur if the superposing waves are coherent.
Step 2: Plan your answer.
There are 2 marks available, so the mark allocation will be as follows:

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 Core study skills

Sources are coherent if they have the same frequency ✓ [and since I = f λ and speed is constant for a
particular wave in the same conditions/material, then you could also say] or same wavelength. The waves
must also have a constant phase difference. ✓
When the frequency is the same it also means that the wave is monochromatic. It is not enough for
sources to just be monochromatic — for example, light from a red light may be of a single frequency,
but it is incoherent because the photons of light emitted do not have a constant phase relationship.
Thus the second marking point is essential in defining coherence. You should also note that even
though a light may be ‘red’, it can consist of a range of wavelengths, so this would also make
interference effects difficult to detect.

Recalling relevant information Exam tip

In addition to learning specific definitions, there are also many
descriptions, such as the effect of temperature on resistance,
Use diagrams to help
that you should learn. The added caveat with descriptions is communicate your ideas
that you must ensure that you are applying the description The phrase ‘a picture is worth a
to the situation being asked about in the question, and not thousand words’ can be helpful
to bear in mind when questions
simply writing what was asked in a previous question you have require a longer descriptive
answered. For example, if the question is asking you about the response. Often a well-drawn
effect of temperature on resistance, it makes a huge difference and clearly labelled diagram
whether the context is a metallic conductor or a thermistor. Not can communicate your ideas
taking the specific situation into account will result in zero marks more effectively than paragraphs
of descriptive writing. Diagrams
in many cases. are particularly helpful when
For these types of question it is important to first recall the trying to understand the effect of
relevant information regarding the physical principles involved, and forces on an object.
then describe how the rule or phenomenon applies in the particular When you are asked to add
information to diagrams be sure
context of the question. to draw carefully and accurately.

Worked example 3.2

Describing using relevant information
A magnet is dropped vertically through a coil of wire, which is connected to a circuit. There is
an ammeter connected to the circuit.
Describe what the student would see as the magnet passed through the coil and out of the
other end. Analyse the differences, if any, if this procedure was repeated on the Moon. (5)
Step 1: Marks, Action, Physics, Situation (MAPS):
M: 5 — (distributed across both parts of the question — max 3 for either section).
A: ‘describe’ — just say what you will observe; ‘explain’, using your knowledge and understanding of
the physics, how and why this changes on the Moon.
P: the underlying physics principles are: Faraday’s law: (ε = NΔφ/Δt) and Lenz’s law (the direction of
induced emf would cause a current to flow in a conductor, which would generate a field to oppose the
change that created it).

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 3 Writing skills

S: magnet accelerating into and then continuing to accelerate out of a coil of wire. The procedure is
then repeated on the Moon where acceleration due to gravity, g, is smaller. Therefore the magnet will
experience a smaller acceleration.
Step 2: Describe how the current changes as the coil descends:
The current would increase, from zero, as the magnet approached the coil; as it reached to halfway
through the coil, the current would reverse direction. ✓ The current in the reverse direction would be
larger. ✓ As the magnet fell beyond the coil the current would reduce back to zero. The second increase
in current would last for a shorter amount of time. ✓(Max 3)
A diagram would arguably convey this description more effectively. Either of these two diagrams
communicate the above sentence clearly, and leave less room for ambiguity.
I I

0 or 0
t t

Figure 3.1 Two graphs showing current against time for a magnet falling through a coil of wire

Step 3: Explain the differences in the motion of the magnet on the Moon:
There is less gravity on the Moon. Therefore the magnet would not accelerate as quickly and so would fall
at a slower speed through the coil. ✓
Step 4: Explain how the different motion changes the emf and current:
This means that the emf and therefore current induced would not be as high. The current would still
increase and then decrease, but would not reach as high a value ✓ and the overall time from start to
finish would be longer. ✓ (Max 3)

Using technical language

When communicating your ideas, technical language should be
used whenever possible. Many candidates lose marks by not being
precise enough with their technical language. Often students are
deliberately vague because they do not have sufficient knowledge
of the particular situation, but sometimes it is because they are
not aware of how important it is to use the appropriate technical
language at all times.

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 Core study skills

The difference between...

Explain the momentum change when an object rebounds elastically from a wall. (2)
Poor-quality answer A/A*-grade answer
When the object rebounds from the wall its velocity Momentum is calculated by: momentum = mass ×
changes, therefore since momentum = mass × velocity. Velocity is a vector quantity which means
velocity, the momentum also changes. it has size and direction, which also means that
momentum is a vector quantity. When the object
rebounds, the direction reverses which reverses the
sign of the velocity and also reverses, the sign of
the momentum. Therefore change in momentum for
elastic collision: mu − − mu = 2mu.
Zero marks: no mention of vector nature of velocity or
momentum. Vague description of ‘change’.

Other areas where candidates typically lose out on marks

When you describe tensile stress, you need to write force per cross-
sectional area rather than just saying force per unit area. When
defining tensile strain, you have to specifically say extension per
unit length rather than change in length per length.
When asked to explain the significance of the critical temperature
of a material in relation to its resistance, many students will have
a general understanding and will say that the material needs to
be at the critical temperature in order to have zero resistivity
and therefore zero resistance. This typical response is not
precise enough: the material needs to be at or below the critical
temperature in order to have zero resistivity.
Describing wave motion — it is important to understand that it
is not the wave that oscillates parallel to the direction of energy
transfer, but it is the particles that are oscillating.

Worked example 3.3

Faraday’s law
State Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction. (1)
Step 1: Read the question.
This is a ‘state’ question so again it requires recall of a learned definition. You need to be precise
with your statement to get the marks. For example, all of the following statements would score zero
marks:
1 ‘The emf is proportional to the change of flux.’
2 ‘The emf is proportional to the rate of change of flux linkage.’
3 ‘The direction of the induced emf is in the direction to oppose the change in flux producing it.’
You should be able to see why these statements would score zero marks. We will go through this
shortly, but first note that many of the definitions asked for in written responses are given in a
mathematical form on the examination equation sheet.

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 3 Writing skills

Stating Faraday’s law correctly is made much easier by referring to this equation sheet:
N∆φ
ε=
∆t
Step 2: Write an accurate response.
So ‘the induced emf is equal to the rate of change of flux linkage’ is a correct statement of Faraday’s
law. But you could also write that ‘the magnitude of the induced emf is proportional to the rate of
change of flux’.
Now we can look carefully at the three previous statements to assess their failure to be precise with
technical language:
1 This statement does not include the term ‘rate of change’ (of flux).
2 The emf is equal to the rate of change of flux linkage, not proportional to it.
3 This is a correct statement of Lenz’s law, rather than Faraday’s law. Faraday’s law tells us that
the magnitude of the emf is equal to the rate of change of flux linkage. Lenz’s law tells us
the direction to the induced emf: it produces induced currents, which produce magnetic fields
that act to oppose the changes causing the initial change in flux linkage.

Use unambiguous language Exam tip

This is related to the previous section on technical When asked to suggest how a certain
language, but deserves its own section. When you explain quantity will be affected by a change
a phenomenon you should express your ideas clearly and in another factor, you should never
unambiguously. This means that the examiner must be sure just state that it changes — this is an
of what you mean when you are describing or explaining example of an ‘equivocal’ statement,
which means that it is open to more
your ideas. than one interpretation. If possible, try
to explain numerically how the quantity
will change rather than give a vague
description of decrease or increase.

The difference between...

(a) Explain the changes in energy and motion as an object falls. (2)
(b) Suggest an improvement that could be made to this experiment. (2)
Response 1 Response 2
(a) When the object’s height decreases energy is (a) As the object falls its gravitational potential
converted, so the ball increases in velocity. energy store decreases and the kinetic energy
store increases. Since Ek = ½mv 2, the velocity also
increases.
Response mentions energy conversion without specifying Response clearly states the changes in energy and
the types of energy involved. relates these to the motion of the object.

(b) Making a video would improve the accuracy. (b) Record the motion of the pendulum using a video
camera. By analysing the motion frame by frame
you could reduce the uncertainty in determining the
displacement of the pendulum compared with when
it is swinging in real time.
This is just a general statement, like the similar go-to This not only suggests an improvement but, guided by
phrase ‘to make it a fair test’ that crops up when students the 2 mark allocation, explains why this procedure would
don’t want to analyse the situation in detail or consider a improve the experiment.
precise response.

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 Higher-order study skills

Higher-order study skills

Application
Candidates often lose marks when a question appears to be asking
for a standard explanation for a process but, in fact, the question
is asking you to apply physics to the context of the question and
not just repeat a law or explanation from memory. When applying
your knowledge and understanding in context, you need to carefully
consider what conditions may have changed from the ‘textbook’
situation. You will need to explain these changes as well as their
effect.

Worked example 3.4

Quantum phenomena: excitation
Explain the excitation of mercury atoms in a fluorescent tube. (2)
Although the question is short, many candidates will see the first three words and start writing:
‘Explain the excitation’… However, bearing in mind the points from Chapter 2, you should read the
question fully and navigate the question using MAPS to identify the key information:
Step 1: Marks (M): 2 — needs a clear, concise response.
Step 2: Action (A): ‘explain’ — use your knowledge and understanding to give the reasons why
the processes occur.
Step 3: Physics (P): excitation in atoms occurs when electrons absorb energy and move to higher
energy levels.
Step 4: Situation (S): the key here is to focus your response on the context, i.e. do not just start
explaining excitation, but do explain how mercury atoms are excited in a fluorescent tube.
Step 5: Write a clear, concise response:
Free electrons collide with electrons in mercury atoms ✓ moving them from the ground state to a higher
energy level. ✓

Key features of an excellent extended

response
Extended response questions are allocated 6 marks and give you the
opportunity to show that you can produce a coherent and logically
structured answer that links content from the specification through
clear and fully sustained lines of reasoning. These types of question
are also referred to as ‘level of response’ questions as you will be
allocated to one of three levels depending on both the quality of
your application of physics and your ability to communicate your
reasoning.
The knowledge and understanding necessary to write an A*-grade
answer to an extended writing question is called ‘indicative
content’. Mark schemes will provide a number of curriculum ideas
covering the indicative content, but an A* grade needs more than
just lists of indicative content. You can only obtain top marks by
communicating your ideas effectively.

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In order to reach top marks your answer must apply the following:
1 Be legible.
If the examiner cannot read what you have written you will score
zero marks. Remember that the examiner will be trying to mark
hundreds of papers and will be trying to do so as quickly (and
accurately) as possible, but this means that they will not spend a
long time trying to work out exactly what you have written: ‘is that
a 5 or a 3 or an 8?’ They will not be able to give the mark if they
cannot interpret your answer quickly.
2 Use appropriate grammar, spelling and punctuation.
The old SPAG (spelling, punctuation and grammar) marks have
gone. (In previous versions of the specifications you could score 1
or 2 marks for simply writing with excellent spelling, punctuation
and grammar — even if what you were writing contained incorrect
physics!) Now, what matters is that the spelling, punctuation and
grammar enable the meaning of what you are writing to be clear.
To access the top level of answer you should only make one or two
spelling or grammatical errors.
3 Use a style of writing appropriate to the question.
Different situations will require different styles of writing. This Exam tip
means that it may be more appropriate to use bullet points, e.g.
in an equipment list. It may be appropriate to use an equation The advice from examiners is that
you should plan your response
to show a particular relationship succinctly (remember to always
before you start to write. This
define the quantities in any equation you state). It may be will help you write your answer
appropriate to use diagrams to communicate your point effectively, logically and with the minimum
e.g. explaining the strong nuclear force (remember to include labels amount of repetition.
on all diagrams).
4 Be clearly organised and show linkage of ideas.
Your lines of reasoning should have a logical structure and be easy to
follow. A key feature of an excellent answer is that it shows ‘linkage
of ideas’. This means that not only does it address content points
from the mark scheme, but it does so in a way that relates them
together to explain the bigger process. In practice, this generally
means that the information should be presented in a chronological
way. i.e. start at the beginning of the process and explain what
happens until you arrive at the end of the process, do not jump back
and forth in time, or back and forth between different ideas.
5 Be relevant.
Only include information that relates directly to the context of the
question. Focus your answer on the specific information requested
in the question.
6 Be coherent.
This means that you must be consistent in your reasoning and
conclusions throughout your response. This is also referred to as
‘fully sustained reasoning’. If you gain marks for a correct point, but

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 Higher-order study skills

then later on in your answer you contradict yourself, you will not Exam tip
only lose the mark for the content, but also lose the more holistic
criterion of being coherent. In general it is best to be brief
and precise in physics. Some
7 Be substantiated. candidates are too verbose in
their explanations and this can
This means that you should provide sufficient evidence to support
lead to contradictory statements.
your ideas. Do not just say that some factor will increase. Explain In this case an incorrect mark will
why this will be the case using appropriate information to justify cancel out a correct explanation
your assertion. point earlier in the response.

Worked example 3.5

Providing a coherent answer
Explain why the amount of gamma radiation decreases as the detector is moved further from
the source. (1)
The intensity of gamma radiation obeys an inverse square law which means that it decreases
exponentially. ✗
e The first part of the answer is almost enough to obtain the mark. It would be even better with
1
a mathematical explanation e.g. I ∝ 2 where d is the distance between the gamma source and the
d
detector. However, the candidate has described the reduction as exponential, this is not an inverse
square law reduction — the answer is therefore not coherent and is awarded zero marks.

Common pitfall
Don’t waste time ‘setting the scene’ — focus on the relevant
information.
Read the question carefully, as described in Chapter 2. Often
in extended writing questions there are bullet points which
identify the specific points that you need to address in your
response. When planning what you are going to write ask
yourself the question: ‘Does this directly relate to what I am
being asked to do (command word) and does it relate to the
context of the question?’
Many candidates begin their answer by repeating the
question — this gains no credit and wastes time.

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Worked example 3.6

Electricity extended question
Students lack confidence in their understanding of the electricity topics and this is often evident
in questions which require an extended written response involving the electricity area of the
specification.

Figure 3.2 Circuit diagram

Figure 3.2 shows an electrical circuit with a filament lamp, battery, switch and connecting
wires. A voltmeter of very high resistance is used to measure the potential difference across
the battery terminals. All of the components are initially at room temperature.
Describe and explain what happens to the reading on the voltmeter when the switch is closed.
● Consider the change as the switch is closed.
● Consider any further changes that may occur in a very short time after the switch has been
closed.(6)
Step 1: Read the question and identify relevant information.
‘All components are initially at room temperature’ — this is an unusual piece of information to
include with a circuit diagram, but it implies that the temperature may not stay constant.
You need to describe what happens — the only effect we can see is the effect on the voltmeter,
which measures the potential difference across the battery.
You also need to explain why any changes happen using your understanding of electrical circuits.
You need to address the bullet points to ensure you meet the marking criteria, so you must talk
about the change as the switch is closed and then consider further changes that will occur in a very
short time after the switch has been closed.
The question is worth 6 marks, so you need sufficient detail in your answer.
Step 2: Plan your answer.
A good answer will follow a logical sequence. In this case we will be looking at the pd value (this
will be the description) at three different points in time: before the switch is pressed, just after the
switch is closed and at a slightly later time. The answer will need to include an explanation at each
stage to correctly identify why the changes are happening.
You need to think about what subject-specific content you can apply in this situation: V, I, r and R.
Think about the link between current, potential difference and resistance, but also between current
and temperature, temperature and resistance, and internal resistance and current.

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 Higher-order study skills

Step 3: Write a clearly organised and coherent answer.

Before the switch is closed, no current is supplied, so the voltmeter will read the full emf, ε, of the
battery. ✓ As soon as the switch is closed, a current flows through the circuit and the battery loses
volts because of its internal resistance. The reading of the voltmeter decreases because the pd across
its terminals decreases from ε to V = ε − Ir ✓where r is the internal resistance of the battery. As
the current flows through the circuit, the filament bulb gets hot. ✓ Therefore the resistance of the
circuit increases. ✓ This decreases the current in the circuit, which means the pd across the internal
resistance decreases and the reading on the voltmeter will increase slightly ✓ (it will remain below the
initial value, ε). The reading would then remain constant. ✓
This is an excellent response. The candidate breaks the steps into three main stages: before the
switch is closed, immediately after the switch is closed and a short time later. They apply their
physics knowledge of internal resistance and potential dividers in a series circuit and combine this
well with contextual information about the temperature. Technical language is used frequently and
accurately throughout the explanation.

Synoptic assessment
There are three main types of question in your physics
examinations:
1 The first type requires you to use your knowledge and
understanding in one area of the specification, including relevant
mathematical and practical skills.
2 The second type requires you to apply your mathematical skills
and practical skills to unfamiliar areas of content.
3 The final type of question requires to make and use connections
between different areas of physics. This is known as synoptic
assessment.

The increased emphasis on higher-order thinking skills means that

synoptic questions feature more heavily in A-level Physics. A deep
understanding of underlying physical principles will enable you to
analyse information and evaluate relationships between ideas from
different areas of the specification. The linear course structure
used by many exam boards also lends itself to synoptic assessment,
as you should have relevant mathematical skills and subject
knowledge to make links between the topics studied over the 2-year
course. This is one of the key differences you will notice when you
compare questions on the previous specifications with the current
specifications. There was very little synoptic assessment in the
previous specifications and this something you should be aware of
when completing past papers as part of your revision.
The aim of synoptic assessment is to encourage you to see physics
as a whole subject rather than as a series of unrelated topics.
Synoptic questions require you to bring together your knowledge
and understanding from more than one area of physics and apply
them to a particular situation. Synoptic questions may also ask you
to use your knowledge and understanding of physics principles to
plan investigations or to analyse and evaluate experimental data.

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Worked example 3.7

Synoptic question
Four particles approach a uniform electric field at the same velocity: parallel to the field lines,
but in the opposite direction. Two of the particles are hadrons: one consisting of up–antiup,
another of up, up, down. The other two particles are leptons: a muon and a positron.
This situation for one of the particles is shown in Figure 3.3:
Uniform electric field

Velocity m Muon

Figure 3.3 Particle in an electric field

Explain how you could identify the different particles by referring to the velocity with which
they leave the electric field. (4)
This question brings together the topic of particle physics with fields, forces and motion. The basic
principle is that electric field lines show the direction of the force on a positive test charge. (They do
not necessarily show the direction of motion, just the direction of the force.)
With this in mind, we just have to understand that the particle will accelerate in the direction of this
force. So really we just have to apply some information from the physics data and equation sheet
to determine the charges of the particles involved — this process is even quicker if you can already
recall this information.
The up–antiup particle is a neutral pion, so has zero charge. This means that it will not experience any
force from the electric field and will continue to move to the left with the same velocity as it entered
the field. ✓
The uud particle is a proton, so has a positive charge. It will experience a force to the right causing
it to decelerate in the electric field. Thus it will leave the field with a velocity lower than its initial
velocity. ✓
The muon has a negative charge. Therefore it will experience a force to the left which will accelerate
the particle. The muon will leave with a final velocity higher than its initial velocity. ✓
The positron is a anti-electron, so it has a positive charge. It will experience a force to the right
causing it to decelerate. Because it has a smaller mass than the proton, it will experience a greater
deceleration whilst in the field and therefore will leave the field with the lowest velocity of the four
particles. ✓

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Worked example 3.8

Compare and contrast different quantum phenomena
This is a synoptic question because it draws information from different areas of the specification.
It asks you to not only explain different phenomena, but it also requires the higher-order skill of
comparing ideas to identify similarities and differences.
Compare and contrast the photoelectric effect, excitation and ionisation. (6)
Step 1: Read the question and identify the mark allocation, action/command word, underlying
physics principles and the situation/context:
‘Compare and contrast’ means that you have to explain these phenomena in relation to each other,
rather than in isolation.
This question does not have a particular context. The skill here is in showing an understanding of the
similarities and differences between these different phenomena.
There are 6 marks allocated so it will be a level-of-response marking grid. Higher-level responses will
have clear descriptions of the phenomena, but will focus on the similarities and differences between
all three. This is what you are aiming for, so we do not need to consider the lower-level marking
criteria.
Step 2: Plan your response:
In order to ensure a coherent and logical presentation of your ideas, it is a good idea to spend a few
minutes thinking through the main components of your answer.
One idea that may help when comparing and contrasting ideas is to make a table:
Photoelectric effect Excitation Ionisation

Electrons ✓ ✓ ✓

Photons ✓ ✓ ✓

Metals ✓ ✗ ✗

Atoms ✗ ✓ ✓

Emitting electrons ✓ ✗ ✓

Emitting photons ✗ ✓ ✗

Evidence for photon model ✓ ✗ ✗

of light

A table like this clearly shows how the three different phenomena are related.
Step 3: Write your response.
The photoelectric effect, excitation and ionisation are all involved in the interaction between photons
(particles of electromagnetic radiation) and electrons. The differences between them relate to the
material involved: individual atoms or a metal surface as a whole, the particles providing the input energy
and the type of particles emitted.
The photoelectric effect is the process where electrons are emitted from the surface of a metal
when electromagnetic radiation above a threshold frequency is incident on the metal. The emission of
electrons from the metal provides evidence for the existence of photons (particles of light) and it is the

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 3 Writing skills

photon model which could then explain the existence of energy levels within atoms, which in turn explains
excitation and ionisation. ✓
Excitation and ionisation involve electrons within individual atoms ✓ absorbing energy and moving to a
higher energy level, whereas the photoelectric effect is about the electrons in the metal as a whole ✓.
In ionisation the electron gains enough energy to leave the atom, but in excitation the electron remains
in a bound state, before returning to a lower energy level. ✓ This is a key difference between excitation
and the other two processes: a photon is emitted after excitation, whereas electrons are emitted in
the photoelectric effect and ionisation. ✓ In all three processes the energy can be transferred to the
electron by a photon: in the photoelectric effect this is the only way to input the energy, but in excitation
and ionisation this energy can also be provided by collisions with other electrons. ✓
This response has attempted to put a structure to the arguments. The opening paragraph gives
a general sense of the similarities and differences. The second paragraph then explains the
photoelectric effect in detail and how it provides evidence for the mechanisms of the other two
phenomena. The final paragraph is full of comparisons, with each statement providing more detail
about how the three phenomena are related. An answer to this question is particularly difficult to
structure, and without an initial plan it would be hard to produce a logical and coherent response.

Making judgements
Making judgements is one of the hardest skills in physics. This is
because it uses all of the other skills as the basis on which to make
your judgement: you have to read the information presented to you,
then process, analyse and evaluate it in the context of the question,
using relevant knowledge and understanding from the specification,
and then, finally, you can make a judgement.
It is difficult to make judgements easier. One way to do this is
to practise making judgements, by constantly evaluating and
comparing different ideas as you come across them in your course.
The other way to develop this skill is by practising examination
questions.
Since the judgement you make will be based on the analysis and
evaluation you have carried out, your final judgement will be
assessed on whether it is logical and in line with the reasoning you
have presented in the rest of your answer. If you have made some
mistakes in your analysis, but your judgement is coherent with this
analysis (even though it may be flawed) you will still be awarded the
marks. When answering a question that asks for a judgement to be
made, you must make a clear final statement where you reflect on
and compare any values you have calculated.
As part of making your judgement you may be asked to evaluate
risks and benefits of certain technologies, based on your scientific
understanding. You may be asked to consider ethical issues in the
treatment of humans, animals and the environment, or in business.
You can also be asked to evaluate the ways in which society can
utilise science and scientific thinking to impact on decision making
in business or government.

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 Higher-order study skills

Worked example 3.9

Judgement
The following question asks you to evaluate and make a judgement about a new piece of technology.
Candidates find this type of question challenging. You are presented with lots of new information.
You need to process this and use it to evaluate some of the new information against criteria stated in
the first part of the text. Finally, you can come to a final judgement.
The inventor of a device called a mass–energy generator, which operates using Einstein’s mass–
energy equivalence principle, hopes to be able to patent their invention. In order to be granted
a patent the invention must be all of the following:
● something that can be made or used
● new
● inventive — not just a simple modification to something that already exists

The device works as follows: an object of mass, m, is allowed to fall a distance, d, within the
machine. As it falls the kinetic energy store of the mass increases. When it reaches the bottom
of the device, the mass is converted into pure energy in the form of photons. The photons are
reflected back up a distance, d, to the top of the device. When they reach the top section the
photons are converted back into a mass and the process is then repeated.
Evaluate this patent application and decide whether it could be granted a patent. (4)
Step 1: To grant a patent you must use the criteria given in the question.
The first criterion is that the device can actually be made, i.e. will it work?
Step 2: You must then evaluate the criterion by examining the operation of the device and
applying your understanding of the physics involved.
As the mass falls, it gains kinetic energy. If the total energy is then converted into photons and
reflected upwards, there will be the energy from the original mass plus the extra kinetic energy gained
as the mass fell. This would be converted into a mass larger than the original mass, which means there
would be even more kinetic energy to be converted into photons the next time around. The energy would
be increasing indefinitely at each cycle. This does not comply with the law of conservation of energy and
so this process cannot actually take place.
Step 3: You then need to make a judgement to decide whether the patent can be granted.
The second two criteria may, or may not, be true, but the first criterion is not satisfied, so the patent
cannot be granted.

Exam tip
Longer question techniques when you don’t have
background knowledge on the topic
There may be occasions when you are asked to describe and explain
processes when you don’t know any specific examples about the topic. In
such cases you need to use the information provided in the question to help
you structure your answer and give the required detail to maximise your
marks. Think about what basic knowledge you have about the underlying
physics principles that you can apply to this situation. Making a quick plan
before you begin your answer can really help. The plan will enable you
to identify gaps or inconsistencies in your reasoning, which you can then
amend before writing your final answer.

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Application to the exam

This question is about wave–particle duality and the nature of
scientific research.
The Nobel Prize in Physics is awarded each year to celebrate
the most outstanding contributions to the field of physics. By
the time of the first award of the Nobel prize, evidence from
experiments by Thomas Young and Christian Huygens suggested
that light was a wave.
Further research into the wave and particle nature of light and
matter has resulted in Nobel prizes being awarded to various
other physicists:
Date Scientist Reason for Nobel prize award
1906 Joseph Thomson Particle nature of electron

1921 Albert Einstein Particle nature of light

1937 George Thomson Wave nature of electron

Use the information presented in this question to evaluate the

way in which society uses science to inform decision making.
Your answer should address:
➜ the evidence supporting the different models
➜ the role of the scientific community in validating new
knowledge
➜ how society uses science in decision making
You do not need to include the details of particular
experiments.(6)

B-grade answer
The question says that the first model for light was that it was a wave.
This is from experiments carried out by Huygens and Young. Young’s
two-slits experiment is when laser light is shone through two slits
and the light produces a series of light and dark fringes on a screen a
distance, D, from the slits. The width of the fringes, w, is given by
w = λDs , where s is the separation of the slits and λ is the wavelength of
the light. Then JJ Thomson proved that electrons were also a particles.
Then Albert Einstein showed that light was a particle because of
the photoelectric effect. This is wave–particle duality: light can be a
wave and a particle, but it depends on the experiment. The different
scientists kept investigating and carrying out experiments which
revealed different aspects of nature. Scientists must carry out these
investigations and if the new results are not explainable by the old
theories then they have to come up with a new model, e.g. light can be a
wave or a particle. The government, businesses and other organisations
can use the scientific ideas to draft laws and improve technology
because the conclusions from the experiments are valid.

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 Application to the exam

Marks awarded: 4
This candidate’s response describes evidence for three of the
four phenomena discussed in the question (there is no evidence
presented for electrons as waves). A lot of information is given at
the beginning of the response which although correct, does not
address the question specifically and gives a lot of information, e.g.
about two-slit interference with light. The candidate has explained
the basic idea (from GCSE level) as to why theories need to change
if results from new experiments are not explainable with current
theories. There is a brief link to how society can use science in a
range of different areas.

A/A*-grade answer
The information from Nobel prize awards shows that our
understanding of light and matter has changed over time —
the theories change as a result of reproducible evidence from
experiments.
Initially interference effects led scientists to believe that light was
a wave. JJ Thomson then used electric and magnetic fields to show
that negatively charged particles were emitted from a cathode.
Einstein explained the photoelectric effect by concluding that light
must consist of particles called photons. George Thomson then
found that electrons produce interference patterns and so must
also behave like waves.
This means that there is evidence for the wave nature and particle
nature of light (electromagnetic radiation) and electrons (matter).
Scientists use ‘peer review’ to ensure that new experimental data
are valid and reproducible. The experiments must be reproducible,
which means that other scientists must be able to obtain the same
results using different apparatus or a different method. Once the
integrity of the new results is ensured, a new model can be developed
to explain the new data.
This means that society in general can trust science and use it
to develop policies and laws, e.g. vaccinations, emissions laws etc.
However, there are still areas where science does not give clear
guidance and the data can be used by either side of an argument
(e.g. global warming).

Marks awarded: 6
This candidate’s response is well written: it is coherent, logical
and even has a good introductory paragraph outlining the general
direction of the rest of the answer. This shows that a plan was
drawn up before the candidate began writing. The evidence for the
wave–particle models is accurately and succinctly described. And
there is effective linkage of ideas between the evidence, why we
believe the evidence, and how this relates to wider society.

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 3 Writing skills

You should know

› Responses to short questions assessing your ability to demonstrate knowledge and
understanding should use clear, concise statements.
› Use precise technical language whenever possible.
› Present your arguments clearly using unambiguous, unequivocal language.
› The style of writing should be appropriate to the ideas and information you are trying to
communicate. Labelled diagrams and bullet points are sometimes more effective than very
long descriptions.
› Extended-response questions require clearly organised, substantiated and coherent
arguments.
› Practise making judgements, by constantly evaluating and comparing different ideas as
you come across them in your course. This will also develop your understanding of the
interrelations of different topics and develop your ability to answer synoptic questions.
› When answering a question that asks for a judgement to be made, you must make a clear
final statement in which you reflect on and compare any values you have calculated.

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 4 Practical skills

Learning objectives
› To become familiar with the assessment methods for
practical skills
› To develop the skills necessary to meet the standard for
the practical endorsement
› To develop confidence with the key terminology of
practical physics
› To develop an understanding of many key practical
techniques, especially relating to improving the accuracy
of investigations
› To apply your knowledge of the fundamental principles
of practical physics to plan effective investigations
› To develop skills of analysis in the context of practical
physics
› To develop the skills to evaluate investigations in terms
of quality of results and experimental procedures
› To be able to draw conclusions and to suggest
appropriate improvements to experimental design

Introduction
Physics is a practical subject, which means that physicists find
answers to questions by observing and experimenting. You need not Take it further
only the technical knowledge and skill to carry out experiments, Bad Science by Ben Goldacre
but also the higher-level skills of evaluating procedures, suggesting is a book which reveals how
improvements and analysing results to arrive at sensible conclusions. dangerous it can be to take at
face value ‘scientific’ claims by
You should approach every practical activity with a critical eye, various companies. It highlights
asking questions such as: How can I improve my methodology? How the true value of the scientific
certain am I about my conclusions? method and good science.

Assessment of practical skills

Practical skills assessment in A-level Physics consists of two
components:
➜ Direct assessment during your practical activities. (The WJEC
exam board also includes a practical exam — for more details,
see Chapter 6.)
➜ Indirect assessment through written examinations.
Direct practical assessment: the practical
endorsement
The assessment of practical skills is a compulsory requirement of
all A-level Physics qualifications. All examination boards have the
same arrangements for assessing practical skills through something

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 4 Practical skills

called the Common Practical Assessment Criteria (CPAC). The CPAC

mean that if you demonstrate the required standard to your teacher
over the 2-year A-level course, you will receive a ‘pass’ grade on
your certificate alongside your overall grade from the written
papers.
To obtain the ‘pass’ grade for the practical endorsement, you must
show mastery of five main practical skills to your teacher. To show
mastery means that your teacher can confidently state that you have
provided evidence that you can consistently and routinely show the
following practical competencies:
➜ Follow written procedures — you demonstrate that you can
correctly follow instructions to carry out practical techniques.
➜ Apply investigative approaches and methods — you select
appropriate equipment and measurement strategies, take into
account control variables, carry out techniques methodically and
make adjustments to procedures as necessary when practical
issues arise.
➜ Use a range of practical equipment safely — identify hazards,
assess risks and make adjustments as necessary.
➜ Make and record accurate observations — obtain sufficient,
relevant, accurate and precise data, and make records with
appropriate units and conventions.
➜ Research, reference and report — use appropriate tools and/
or IT to process data, carry out research and report findings and
make appropriate citations.
You can demonstrate these competencies in any practical activity
which you carry out through the course, but each exam board has
a set of ‘required practical activities’ which you must carry out.
These ‘core practicals’ have been designed to give you practical
opportunities to demonstrate the practical skills.
Indirect practical assessment: questions in written
exams
Your practical skills are also tested in the written examinations.
This is called indirect assessment. At least 15% of the overall
assessment of A-level Physics will assess knowledge, skills and
understanding in relation to practical work, which will be based
around the required practicals.
There are four main areas which will be assessed in the examinations:
➜ Planning — design experiments to solve problems in practical
contexts, identify variables that must be controlled and evaluate
experimental methods against whether they will meet expected
outcomes.
➜ Implementing — explain how a wide range of practical
apparatus and techniques should be used, decide on appropriate
units for measurements and present observations and data in
appropriate ways.
➜ Analysis — process and interpret experimental results using
appropriate mathematical skills to analyse quantitative data.
Use significant figures appropriately. Plot and interpret graphs
including measurement of gradients and intercepts.

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 Core study skills

➜ Evaluating — draw conclusions, identify anomalies, determine

limitations of experiments and suggest improvements in terms
of procedures and apparatus, consider margins of error, accuracy
and precision of measurements, including an assessment of
percentage uncertainties.
The four stages above are the natural way in which you would go
about carrying out an investigation, starting with planning, then
implementing that plan, analysing the data and then evaluating the
results to draw conclusions and present a confidence level about
these conclusions. Activity 4.1
Look up the key practical
Core study skills terms for your examination
board and ensure you learn
Key practical terms the definitions. Practise
Each examination board produces a set of key practical terms using these terms whenever
developed from The Language of Measurement by the Association for you are carrying out practical
Science Education. It is essential that you have complete recall of activities or data analysis by
these terms as they are often used imprecisely and interchangeably referring to as many of them
by candidates. Chapter 5 gives advice on how best to learn and as possible in your lab book.
retain this kind of information.

Worked example 4.1 Exam tip

Introducing key terminology If the independent variable is
continuous, you should produce
This example shows the key practical terminology being used in a line graph of your results. If the
the context of planning an investigation. independent variable is categoric,
you should use a bar chart to
You have been asked to plan an investigation into the factors analyse your results.
that affect the frequency of stationary waves on a string.
The task asks you to measure the effect on the ‘frequency of
stationary waves’, so ‘frequency’ is your dependent variable.
There are many other variables in the experiment: length of
string, tension on string, mass per unit length of string — which
may depend upon the diameter of the string and the material
from which it is made. The type of material is a categoric
variable, but all of the others are continuous (as they are
numbers).
You must carry out a systematic investigation, so you should only
change one variable at a time (the independent variable) and
keep the others constant (the control variables). You can select
any of the other variables to investigate first, e.g. the length of
the string. The control variables, which must remain constant,
would then be the tension on the string and the mass per unit
length of the string.
You could then extend the investigation by changing the
independent variable and exploring how a different factor
affects the frequency. For example, you could make the tension
the independent variable and see how it affects the dependent
variable (frequency). You would need to keep the other variables
controlled, e.g. length of string and mass per unit length. By

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 4 Practical skills

allowing only one variable to affect the dependent variable

each time, you will generate valid data from which to draw
conclusions.
When describing procedures such as this in an exam, ensure you
specify the exact range of the independent variable and how
you will ensure the other variables remain constant. Also state
what apparatus you will use to measure the independent and
dependent variables along with the resolution (the smallest
measuring interval on the instrument).

Planning
Your first task is to decide what problem you are going to solve, and
determine the aim of your investigation.
Measurements
Use the experimental aim to determine the independent, dependent
and control variables and then decide on the range and interval of
the measurements.
Obtaining an adequate range of the variable should be your first
consideration. Then you can decide on the interval.
Range
You should maximise the range of your independent variable so
that you can see how far the pattern or relationship between the
variables extends. The limits you choose for your range should be
due to difficulties in obtaining data beyond these values, rather
than due to time constraints.
Interval
Random errors are present each time a measurement is made, but
the effect of these random errors can be reduced by making more
measurements and calculating a mean.
There are three ways to take more measurements:
➜ Repeat readings: take multiple measurements of the dependent
variable for the same value of independent variable.
➜ Increase the range of the independent variable: this will lead
to increased data collection, especially if the interval remains
constant.
➜ Use a smaller interval: this will generate more data, so that
the line of best fit can be drawn more accurately. The smaller Exam tip
the interval the more sensitively you will discover the changes Read the question carefully. Pay
in the dependent variable. You do not need to use a constant special attention to the definition
value for the interval through the entire range of readings. Where of the letters given in the question,
as these often represent different
there is a sudden change in your dependent variable, it would
measurements and will be
be instructive to use a smaller interval in this region to examine different for each practical set-up.
what is going on in more detail.

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 Core study skills

Worked example 4.2

Measurements
Discuss the issues when deciding upon the range of
your variables when investigating the oscillations of a
mass–spring system. (2)
Your independent variable is the mass on the spring and the
dependent variable is the time period of the oscillations. You
should use as big a range of masses as possible: the upper limit
for the mass is decided by the point at which the spring starts to
deform ✓ (perhaps around 1 kg). When the mass is too small the
oscillations can be erratic, which leads to difficulties in determining
a time period when timing for multiple oscillations. ✓

Instruments and experimental design

The key criterion when considering which measuring instrument
to use concerns the resolution of the device. The rule is that the
minimum resolution must enable changes in the dependent
variable for each change in the independent variable. The
measuring device is not the only thing contributing to inaccuracies.
You also need to consider techniques and procedures. A greater
resolution will tend to produce a smaller percentage uncertainty
in the reading for that quantity (see the section on uncertainty on
page 72).
When carrying out practical work, you should continually ask why the
particular experimental methods and apparatus are being used, and
what the effect might be of changing a particular aspect of the method.

Worked example 4.3

Planning
You are investigating how the interference fringe spacing
from a double slit changes with distance from the screen.
Discuss the methods you could use to ensure the double slits
and the screen are aligned correctly. (4)
Use MAPS to navigate the question:
M: — 4
A: — ‘Discuss’ you need to explore a range of different ideas and
their effects on the factors involved.
P: — From the equation, the fringe spacing, w ∝ D, the distance
between the slits and the screen.
S: — The distance needs to be able to increase whilst keeping the
slits parallel to the screen. Ideally the apparatus needs to be able
to be moved easily whilst maintaining the correct alignment.
A simple method uses a metre ruler to measure the distance
between the two slits and the screen at each side. To ensure the
slits and the screen are parallel the two distances must be equal. ✓

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 4 Practical skills

A different method uses two set squares and a metre ruler. Exam tip
First, place a set square against the slits. ✓ Place a metre ruler The key points regarding selecting
perpendicular to this set square. You can then place a second set and using equipment are related
square at any distance along the ruler, ensuring that the edge is to being specific about the
perpendicular to the metre ruler. If you align the screen against the instrument and exactly how it
second set square then it will be parallel to the slits. ✓ will be used. For example, saying
you will ‘use a ruler to measure
This method has the advantage over simply measuring the the distance’ is not enough to
guarantee the mark. You would
distance at each end because it allows the distance to be varied
need to specify carefully how the
continuously whilst they remain parallel to each other. ✓ ruler readings will be used and
how the ruler and the object will
e Two set squares can be used to check relative alignment, be aligned.
either ensuring objects are perpendicular or parallel. This
response describes two different methods and makes a judgement
regarding which is the more effective one to use in this situation.

Implementing
Key apparatus and techniques
Presenting data and observations in an appropriate format
The following guidelines should apply to your practical work:
1 All observations and raw readings should be recorded.
2 Raw readings should be recorded to the resolution of the
measuring device.
3 Results should be recorded in a results table.
(a) Results for the independent variable should always be placed
in the first column of the results table.
(b) The title of each column should be clearly labelled with two
things:
(i) The physical quantity. This is often just a symbol, e.g.
‘T’ for time period or ‘d’ for distance. Take care to use the
correct case, e.g. l instead of L.
(ii) The unit preceded by a solidus (forward slash) e.g. T/s, or
d/mm. Although using a solidus is the preferred format,
you could also write ‘Time in s’ or ‘Time (s)’.

Worked example 4.4

Length measurement
Using a standard metre ruler, you measure a length of string
as 80 cm. How should you write down your measurement? (1)
The length should be recorded as: 800 mm ✓.
You could also write 80.0 cm or 0.800 m, but not 80 cm. A
standard metre ruler has 1 mm graduations, which means it has a
resolution of 1 mm.

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 Core study skills

Worked example 4.5

Determining instrument resolution from data
The mass of a typical 100 g slotted mass is recorded as
0.10 kg. Comment on this result. (2)
The value of 0.10 kg says that the mass was only measured to a
resolution of 10 g. ✓ However, the typical top-pan balance has a
resolution of 0.01 g, so the recorded figure should show this by
being written as 0.10000 kg. ✓
The number of decimal places you record your data to is important
because it gives information about the resolution and therefore
can relate to the accuracy of your final conclusions.

Worked example 4.6 Exam tip

Techniques to improve accuracy All experimental readings
should be repeated and a mean
Explain the techniques you could use to increase the calculated. This reduces the
timings when investigating oscillations. (3) effect of random errors and
allows anomalies to be detected
Use of fiducial marker at the centre of the oscillations as this which can then be discarded
(before averaging).
precisely identifies the beginning and end of the cycle. This is
because the object is travelling fastest at the centre, making it
easier to identify the exact time at which it passes the marker. ✓
Time over multiple oscillations. Try to time at least 20 oscillations of
the object. But be aware that you don’t need to use a fixed number
of oscillations, when the time period is shorter it may be necessary
to time over more cycles, and if there is heavy damping the amplitude
may have reduced to zero before 20 oscillations. Maximising
the total length of time you measure reduces the percentage
uncertainty in the time period. A longer time measurement also
reduces the effect of human reaction time. ✓ Take care not to
miscount the number of oscillations — say ‘nought’ as you begin
the timing.
Allow transient oscillations to die down before starting to time
the motion. Initial oscillations of any vibrating system being acted
on by a driving force are irregular and have a varying amplitude
and time period. ✓ The transient oscillations gradually move to a
steady state where the driven oscillator has the same frequency
as the driving force (which can be different from its own natural
frequency). The speed at which the transient oscillations give
way to steady oscillations depends on the degree of damping in
the system, but typically you can start timing after one or two
oscillations.
Saying ‘use a data logger’ is not sufficient to obtain a mark. Data
loggers are often the best devices to use in experiments that
require data to be collected over a very short or a very long time
scale, such as fast motions and capacitors charging or discharging.
You also need need to describe what type of sensor you will use,
what measurements it will take and what sample rate you will use.

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Worked example 4.7

Measuring lengths
Lengths of objects can be measured with vernier calipers,
micrometers and rulers. Discuss the best choice of instrument
to measure a length of 8 cm. (3)
The micrometer does not have a large enough range to be used in
this situation. ✓
Measuring an 8 cm length with a ruler will produce a percentage
uncertainty of 1 × 100 = 1.25% ✓
80
The same reading carried out using vernier callipers would produce
0.1
a percentage uncertainty of × 100 = 0.125% = ± 0.13%.
80
So the best instrument to use would be the vernier callipers because
they have the smallest percentage uncertainty for the length
measurement. ✓
The table below shows the trade-off between higher resolution
and smaller range:
Instrument Resolution Maximum range
Metre ruler ±1 mm 1000 mm

Vernier callipers ±0.1 mm 100 mm

Micrometer ±0.01 mm 30 mm

Activity 4.2
Reading a vernier scale
A vernier scale is a second set of scale markings which help you
determine more accurately a measurement that falls between
two graduations on the main scale.
Use the example in Figure 4.1 to help read the scale:
Inside
jaws

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 10
cm
5

Outside
jaws

Figure 4.1 ➥

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 Higher-order study skills

How to read the vernier scale: Exam tip

● Use the main scale to find the nearest whole number and first Reading a micrometer
decimal — 2.1 cm (21 mm) in the diagram.
Before taking a measurement with
● The point at where the lines on the main scale are exactly a micrometer you should check
lined up with those on the vernier scale tells you the next for a zero error by closing the jaws
decimal place — in the example, this is at ‘5’ on the vernier with no object between the jaws.
scale i.e. 0.05 cm • The jaws should be closed using
the ratchet until you hear a click.
● Add the second reading to the first to determine the • It is important that you do not
actual measurement. The reading in the example is over-tighten because it may
2.1 + 0.05 = 2.15 cm (21.5 mm). give an inaccurate reading by
squashing the object and/or
What is the reading on the vernier scale in Figure 4.2? damaging the thread on the
Inside
jaws micrometer.

12 13 Activity 4.3
5
Look up ‘12 Physics
apparatus and techniques’
using either your
specification or practical
handbook. Make sure you
Outside
jaws have evidence of applying
Figure 4.2 these skills in your lab book.
Answers online – see page 3

Higher-order study skills

Analysis
Once the experimental plan has been implemented, the next
step is to process the collected data, which may involve further
calculations, plot the data and interpret the results.
Percentage difference
A very simple way to analyse an experiment result is to use the
percentage difference. Exam tip
your value − accepted value
percentage difference = × 100
accepted value Percentage difference is the
easiest way to check ‘proof of
Graphs claim’ type questions where you
are asked to check the extent to
Plotting and interpreting graphs which a certain claim is true:
• If the experiment has produced
Rules for plotting graphs a valid result with a percentage
You will often have to process at least one of your measured difference that is 5% or less of the
quantities before plotting on the appropriate axes. value in the question, then you
can accept the claim.
1 Use sensible scales. • If the percentage difference is
larger than 10%, the claim should
Points should cover at least half of the grid horizontally and half be rejected.
of the grid vertically. If necessary, a false origin should be used to • The grey area is between 5% and
meet these criteria, and this must be clearly marked. 10%, where you will have to decide
on a case-by-case basis whether
You should use a linear scale with a multiple of 2, 5 or 10. Choosing
to accept the claim or not.
different scales will lead you to having to estimate or use a
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calculator to determine the positions of points. Different scales are

more likely to lead to plotting errors and often lead to errors when
determining the gradient of the line of best fit.
2 Label the axes.
You should ensure both axes are labelled with units.
3 Plot the points accurately.
Each point should be plotted to an accuracy of ±1 mm. Double check
any anomalous points.
4 Draw a line of best fit.
There should be an equal number of points above and below the line of
best fit. All of your data should fall within 2 mm of the line of best fit.
Exam tip
5 Calculate the gradient and determine the intercept.
When calculating the gradient of
When calculating the gradient of a graph you should show all of a graph do not forget to include
your working clearly on the graph. Your y-step and x-step should any standard prefixes or other
both be at least eight semi-major grid squares. Aim for at least an multiplication factors, e.g. KN, μm
or × 1014 Hz, in your calculation.
8 cm by 8 cm triangle on your graph.

There is lots more information on analysing graphs in Chapter 1.

Activity 4.4
Sketch graphs for the following mathematical relationships
(where k is a constant):
(a) y = k (i) y = cos2 x
x
(b) y = kx2
(c) y = 2 k
x (d) y = kx
(e) y = sin x (f) y = cos x
(g) y = e±x (h) y = sin2 x\

Answers online – see page 3

Worked example 4.8

Analysis using graphs — direct proportion
A student says that her experiment shows that the independent and dependent variables
are directly proportional. Explain using a results table and the graph how the student
made this judgement. (3)
To make the judgement using only data from the results table she would need to determine whether
when the value of the independent variable is doubled, the dependent variable is also doubled. ✓ There
are two features of a graph for data that are directly proportional: the line of best fit is a straight line ✓,
through the origin ✓.
Too many candidates remember the ‘passes through the origin’ part, but fail to explain that the graph
must also be linear. For two quantities to be proportional the line must be linear.
Showing relationships between variables
You are often asked to justify whether experimental data can be explained by a particular equation,
i.e. does the equation correctly describe the relationship between variables in the investigation.

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Inverse proportion
To show that two quantities are inversely proportional it is not
sufficient to say that as one quantity increases the other decreases.
If two quantities x and y are inversely proportional we would write:
y∝ 1
x
Mathematically we can say then that y = k , where k is a constant.
x
This means that xy = k. Essentially this means that x multiplied by y
is equal to a constant. This is extremely useful in practical physics
as a way of determining whether two quantities are inversely
proportional.
Inversely proportional means that by multiplying both quantities
together they will be equal to a constant, i.e. xy = constant.

Worked example 4.9

Significant figures
Calculate the speed of an object that takes 6.2 s to travel 448 mm. (2)
Step 1: Identify the appropriate equation:
distance
speed =
time
d
s=
t
Step 2: Substitute values into the equation:
d
s=
t
448 × 10−3
s= 6.2 ✓
s = 7.226 × 10−2 m s−1
Step 3: Write your final answer to an appropriate number of significant figures. The distance is
given to three significant figures and time is to two significant figures, so the result for speed should
be quoted to two significant figures.
s = 7.2 × 10−2 m s−1 ✓
Two significant figures is correct in this example, but what if, as will more frequently be the case, the
raw time from the stopwatch is given as 6.20 s. If the stopwatch was stopped by an experimenter,
then you need to take their reaction time into account, so the real time is actually 6.2 s (as stated in
the previous question).
Also, what if the value for distance had been quoted at 450 mm? Is this to two or three significant
figures? When tackling the practical examination questions you need to apply slightly different logic
to the data. In a theory paper it would be expected that 450 mm was to two significant figures.
However, in a practical context, you need to consider the measuring device. A length that large would
be measured with a ruler, which has a resolution of 1 mm. So you know that the quantity must
have been 450 mm rather than 449 mm or 451 mm. Therefore, it has been quoted to three significant
figures. In fact the only way to remove this kind of equivocation is to use standard form: 4.5 × 10 −3 m
would be to two significant figures and 4.50 × 10−3 m would be to three significant figures.

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Worked example 4.10

Testing relationships
Two equations have been proposed to explain a set of
experimental data: A = kB and A = m√B, where k and m are
constants.
Outline the analysis you would perform on the data to
show which equation correctly describes the data. (3)

If you have data in a table you could calculate values of A and

A B
for multiple values. If one of the ratios gives a constant value
√B
each time, then that equation explains the experimental data. ✓
Calculate the % difference using value 1 − value 2 × 100%. If
mean value
there is less than a 5% difference you can consider the values to be
constant. ✓

You could also plot a graph of A against 1 and a graph of A

1 B
against . If one of these gives a linear graph, then that equation
√B
explains the experimental data. ✓

Evaluating
The final practical skill of evaluation requires you to assess the
quality of your results and draw sensible conclusions. You will need
to evaluate the validity, precision, accuracy and uncertainty of
your measurements. You will be expected to identify anomalies and
limitations in the experimental procedures as well as suggesting
improvements to the experimental design. In reality, the evaluation
forms a feedback loop with the planning stage, where the
refinements to procedures will be incorporated into subsequent
experiments to obtain more accurate data.
Uncertainty
Every measurement has an uncertainty. Even the ‘constants’ from
the data sheet, such as the charge on an electron or the speed of
light in a vacuum, have an uncertainty and are not the actual true
value. Every experimental measurement we have ever taken is simply
the closest that the particular experimental set-up could obtain
using the particular apparatus and techniques. This means that a
measurement result is only complete if it consists of a value and a
statement about the uncertainty in the value.
A good experiment will use appropriate techniques and equipment
to minimise the uncertainty, and provide a realistic calculation
of the uncertainty, such that the true value of the quantity being
measured lies within the range specified by the uncertainty. The
degree of uncertainty will therefore depend upon:
➜ the instrument(s) being used to make the measurement
➜ the method, i.e. the way in which the measurement is made
➜ the quantity measured, which may not be constant

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Uncertainties in readings and measurements

The uncertainty in a reading is no smaller than plus or minus half
of the smallest scale division. A reading is found from a single
judgement using a piece of equipment, e.g. determining the
temperature using a thermometer, or the mass of an object using a
top-pan balance.
A measurement is defined as being the difference between two
readings. A measurement thus includes the uncertainty associated
with two readings, which means it has twice the uncertainty of a
single reading. A measurement is where the value is the difference
between two judgements, e.g. measuring length using a ruler, or an
angle using a protractor.
This gives the absolute uncertainty for a quantity when you have
only one value, or when all of the repeats give the same value.

Worked example 4.11

What is the uncertainty in your temperature reading using
a thermometer with 1°C scale graduation? How does this
change when using 0.5°C graduations? (2)
When using a thermometer with 1°C scale graduations the
uncertainty will be at least ±0.5°C. ✓ If the graduations were 0.5°C,
then the uncertainty in the temperature reading would be ±0.25°C.
Since you cannot read to a hundredth of a degree, this should be
rounded to ±0.3°C. ✓ For a top-pan balance with a resolution of
0.01 g the uncertainty is ±0.005 g for each reading.

Annotated example 4.1

Explain how the uncertainty of a length measurement can be reduced when using a ruler. (3)

This ‘initial value A standard ruler has a resolution of 1 mm. There

uncertainty’ occurs is an uncertainty of ±0.5 mm at the zero end
whenever the
of the ruler and an uncertainty of ± 0.5 mm at This is the minimum
experimenter can set
the zero incorrectly, the other end of the ruler where the reading is uncertainty associated
but does not apply taken. ✓ The total uncertainty in the length with this measurement
to equipment such as measurement is 0.5 mm + 0.5 mm = ±1 mm. ✓ and so should be stated
top-pan balances or as: ‘at least ±1 mm’.
If the experimenter is able to fix one end of a
thermometers.
measuring scale ✓ then the lengths that would
have been measurements (taking into account Often, the way an
instrument is used will
an alignment uncertainty at both ends) become determine whether the
readings, with only an alignment uncertainty experimenter is taking a
at the point where the reading is taken. This reading or a measurement,
technique halves the uncertainty to ±0.5 mm. ✓ and this will have an effect
on the final uncertainty.

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Worked example 4.12

A voltmeter capable of reading up to 100 V, displays a
reading of 14.2 V. Criticise the statement: ‘The voltmeter
has an uncertainty of 0.1 V.’ (3)
When reading a digital scale you usually say that the uncertainty
is ±1 in the least significant digit. In this case the least significant
figure is the 0.2 V so the uncertainty of this reading is ±0.1 V. ✓
The voltmeter has a large range, and will therefore probably have
different range settings. On a smaller range setting, e.g. 0–20 V,
the uncertainty could be as already stated: ± 0.1 V, but on a higher
range setting, e.g. 0–100 V, the uncertainty of the voltmeter
may be ±1 V. ✓ The statement correctly states the magnitude
of the uncertainty on one particular range, but omits the ±, which
means that the true value could be greater or less than the value
displayed on the screen and also considers the uncertainty to be
fixed throughout the range when this may not be the case. ✓

Determining absolute uncertainty

When there are multiple readings for a quantity the absolute
uncertainty is estimated using:
(absolute) uncertainty = ±0.5 × range
You would then quote the value of the quantity as: mean value ±
uncertainty.

Percentage uncertainties
It is useful to be able to convert uncertainties into percentage
uncertainties, as they allow you to compare which aspect of the
procedure contributes more to the overall uncertainty.
uncertainty
percentage uncertainty = × 100%
value
Combining percentage uncertainties
When data are processed this often involves calculating quantities
by combining different measurements together. The following rules
allow you to calculate the combined uncertainty:
➜ If quantities are added or subtracted, add the absolute
uncertainties of each quantity.
➜ If quantities are multiplied or divided, add the percentage
uncertainties of each quantity.
➜ If a quantity is raised to a power, then multiply the percentage
uncertainty by the power.
Using uncertainties to evaluate experiments
If the true value or hypothesised value is within the range specified
by the uncertainty on the final value determined by the experiment,
then the experiment can be said to be accurate. The goal of a good
experimentalist is to then evaluate the experiment to try to find
the places where the uncertainty can be reduced. If the methods
are valid, then the true value should lie within the new, smaller

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range determined by the uncertainty. This would give an even more

accurate value for the quantity being measured.
Identify the largest contributor to uncertainty
You can use your percentage uncertainties to evaluate the
experimental techniques. You should try to reduce the factor which
has the biggest contribution to the overall uncertainty. Remember
that if the equation involves powers, e.g. T 2, then the quantity with
the largest percentage uncertainty may not necessarily contribute
the most to the final uncertainty.
Techniques for reducing uncertainty
You need to be familiar with various methods to reduce uncertainty
and increase the accuracy of measurements, such as the use of a
set square to check alignment. Many techniques have a common
idea behind their application, so that, once understood, they can be
applied in many different circumstances. Essentially they reduce the
percentage uncertainty by increasing the value of the mean while
maintaining the absolute uncertainty.
When measuring multiple objects stacked or lined up, the total
length is increased, while the absolute uncertainty remains fixed.
Using n objects or n oscillations the percentage uncertainty is
reduced by a factor of n.
Typical Absolute % uncertainty using
Object % uncertainty
measurement uncertainty 10 objects
Thickness of 1 ±0.01 mm using 0.01 0.01
Coin %U= × 100 = 0.7% %U= × 100 = 0.07%
coin: 1.5 mm micrometer 1.5 15
Length of 1 paper 1 1
Paper clip ±1 mm using ruler %U= × 100 = 2% %U= × 100 = 0.2%
clip: 50 mm 50 500
0.1 s due to
Time period of Time period for 1 0.1 0.1
experimenter’s %U= × 100 = 10% %U= × 100 = 1%
oscillating object oscillation: 1 s 1 10
reaction time

Worked example 4.13

Combining uncertainties
A student is investigating the relationship between force and change of momentum. A load
is attached to the end of a string, fed over a pulley and attached to a glider on an air track.
For a certain reading, the the load consists of four similar objects. The mass of one of these
objects is found to be 2.200 kg. The student claims that it does not make any difference if
they measure the mass of one object and multiply by four, or find the mass of all four objects
together on the balance.
Determine the percentage uncertainty in the force and comment on the students claim. (5)
force = weight of the objects = m × g
g = 9.81 m s−2, which means the absolute uncertainty is 0.01 m s−2.
The value should be quoted as g = 9.81 ±0.01 m s−2.
0.01
percentage uncertainty = × 100 = 0.1% ✓
9.81

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 4 Practical skills

This uncertainty is the same for either method.

The mass is quoted as 2.200 kg.
absolute uncertainty = ±0.5 × smallest scale reading ±0.0005 kg
Four masses separately:
With four masses, total uncertainty (add the absolute uncertainties) = 4 0.0005 kg = ±0.002 kg (±2 g)
0.002
percentage uncertainty in total mass (when measured separately) = × 100 = ±0.02%
8.8
total percentage uncertainty in force = 0.1% + 0.02% = ±0.12% ✓
Mass measured together:
0.0005
percentage uncertainty = × 100 = ±0.006%
8.8
total percentage uncertainty in force = 0.1% + 0.006% = ±0.106% ✓
The student is incorrect. The percentage uncertainty in the mass is four times greater when the mass is
determined for each object separately. ✓
0.12 − 0.106
percentage difference = difference × 100 = × 100 = 12%
mean (0.12 + 0.106)/2
The overall percentage uncertainty in the force is 12% larger when the masses of the objects are
measured separately. ✓

Apply scientific knowledge to practical contexts

Although there will be questions based on the core practicals,
there will also be many questions which use theory from a different
part of the course and ask you to explore how this applies in a
certain practical context. The key here is to consider the underlying
principles behind the process. You need to consider what physics
you know about this situation.
Example: heat transfer
Using a temperature sensor to measure the temperature change of
water heated by an electric heater, you find that the temperature
of the water keeps rising even after the heater is switched off.
How can this be? You cannot just say that the heater is still hot
so the water keeps getting hotter, and there is not a substantial
lag between the temperature sensor and the water temperature.
To answer questions such as these, you need to think about the
underlying principles behind the process. This is really about energy
transfer in the form of heat. Heat energy always moves from hotter
objects to cooler ones. There is no temperature change when two
objects are in thermal equilibrium. So why might the water keep
on getting hotter even though the heater has been switched off?
The two objects cannot be in thermal equilibrium yet, so the heater
must have been hotter than the surrounding water even though it
had been switched off. The peak water temperature shown by the
temperature sensor marks the point where the heater and water
reach thermal equilibrium.
Evaluate the design of an unfamiliar instrument
In addition to knowing the appropriate techniques to use
with standard laboratory equipment, such as vernier callipers,
oscilloscopes and light gates, you also need to be able to
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evaluate the design of equipment which you may never have seen or
heard of before.
You should ask yourself how an unfamiliar instrument compares with
an instrument you have previously used, or that has previously been
described. The term ‘evaluate’ also means that you need to assess
Exam tip
the negative implications of using the new device. You need to look
analytically at this instrument and ask a series of questions about it Evaluating experimental
in order to state what features it has which enable it to be better (or techniques and
worse) than the alternative measuring device and then explain why calculations
this feature makes it better or worse.
When asked to evaluate
experimental calculations, state
Worked example: 4.14 an assumption that has been
made in the calculations.
Evaluating a new piece of equipment For example, when a system
uses multiple different springs,
Your teacher presents you with a new type of compass to does the student assume that
investigate magnetic fields. Discuss the steps you could take each of the springs has the
to evaluate its accuracy.  (3) spring constant (stiffness). Are
the masses the same, is the
Step 1: Is there a zero error? ruler stiffness the same, has the
student taken into account the
A key feature of good experimental design is to predict and then masses of all of the different
suggest ways to eliminate sources of error which will produce components, e.g the nuts and
systematic errors. The most obvious example of this is a zero bolts holding an object onto a
error, i.e. does your instrument give a false reading when the true balance point?
value should be zero?
Step 2: Does it have improved resolution?
First determine whether it is a analogue or a digital device.
For a digital device, does it have an extra decimal place of
measurement? It is possible to interpolate to half the scale
markings on most analogue scales. If the spacing between the
markings is increased, you may be able to interpolate to plus or
minus one tenth of the scale. This would give the instrument a
higher resolution and make it more sensitive.
When assessing experimental design, you need to consider how
the experiment can or should be set up. Exactly how will the
experiment ensure that, for example, the screen to show the
interference is parallel to the double slits. You need to be able to
explain clearly a sensible, repeatable way of ensuring the apparatus
is arranged accurately, generally using the apparatus that is
available during your required practical activities. Occasionally you
may be asked to suggest how you may use a new, unfamiliar piece
of apparatus, but in general examiners will be looking for you to
show them that you know what equipment is generally available in
a science lab and that you know how it can be used.
Step 3: Can it be used in the context of the particular
investigation?
When assessing experimental design, you need to consider
how the experiment can or should be set up. Will it actually be
possible to use it in the particular situation, i.e. will it interfere
with the experiment due to its shape or size?

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Step 4: Does the device reduce a particular source of error in

the method?
Is there a reflective material alongside the measuring scale that
you can use to align your eye with the pointer to remove the
parallax error?
Does the new scale give a direct reading rather than having to
use one reading to perform a calculation or second reading?
To check for a zero error, remove the instrument from the
experiment before starting the investigation and observe the
reading on the compass. Since the device does not have a ‘zero’
value, you need to compare the reading with other instruments,
preferably already calibrated (zeroed) devices. If the device gives
the same reading, then there is no zero error. ✓
The compass is an analogue device, so a higher-resolution scale will
enable a more accurate reading, e.g. 1° scale divisions. ✓
If the instrument has a magnifying lens to make the position of the
pointer easier to identify, it will enable a more accurate reading. ✓
Also, if the pointer is longer, it will increase the sensitivity because
a smaller change in the input will produce a larger movement in the
tip of the pointer, again increasing the accuracy. ✓
If there is reflective material behind the pointer, the parallax error
will be reduced, enabling a more accurate reading. ✓ Max 3

Evaluate the effect of changing an aspect of the

­procedure or equipment
You need to be able to predict and explain the effect of varying
different aspects of the experiment.
These types of question can be called ‘what happens if…?’
questions. Here are some examples:

1 Explain the effect of changing the time base setting on an

oscilloscope from 0.5 m s−1/div to 0.2 m s−1/div. (2)
This change has made the oscilloscope more sensitive on the x-axis.
What would have fitted in 1 square will now take 2.5 squares. This
could have a negative effect, in that the wave trace can no longer
fit onto the screen, so that measurement of the time period is
more difficult, but it may have a positive effect by increasing the
length that you are using to calculate the time period. The absolute
uncertainty remains the same, i.e. half a square, but since the
overall wave period is 2.5 times longer, the percentage uncertainty
is reduced by a factor of 2.5 times.

2 Explain what would happen to the first harmonic frequencies

produced on a stretched string if the tension is increased
to a very high value. (2)
Since f = 1 T it is tempting to jump in and just say that the
2l µ
frequencies increase as the tension increases. But does anything
else change as the tension is increased to a very large value? The
string itself may change shape. As it gets stretched, it will get
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thinner, i.e. its diameter would decrease. This means there is less
mass per unit length, i.e. µ decreases rather than being a constant,
as could be the case at low tension. The effect of a decreasing µ
would be to increase the frequency to an even higher value than
would have been predicted with µ being constant.

The difference between...

A student is investigating an oscillating system. The total length of the oscillating object is
made up of two lengths l and l0.
During the experiment l0 is fixed, l is systematically increased and the time period, T, is measured
each time.
The student plots a graph of √l + l0 − √l against 1 , which produces a straight line with a
positive gradient. T
A different student did not line the ruler up vertically with the string when they took their reading
for l0. Describe how this student could have improved their experimental technique and explain the
effect of this error on the graph. (3)
Response (a) Response (b)
The student should have used a set square The student could have ensured that the ruler was vertical
placed against the ruler and the bench to by using two set squares arranged against the ruler
ensure the ruler was vertical ✓. This would perpendicular to each other, but both in the vertical plane. ✓
ensure that the ruler was straight. The error is If the ruler was not straight the student will have
systematic because it is the same each time. overestimated the length measurement (the reading
This makes all of the points bigger by the same would be the hypotenuse of the triangle). Each value of
amount so the gradient stays the same, but
the line is higher and the y-intercept is higher.
√l + l0 - √l will be bigger than it should be, but not by a
constant amount. As l increases the systematic error will
make a smaller and smaller difference, so the y-value on
the graph increases ✓ at a decreasing rate. The student
will have a curve of decreasing gradient instead of a
straight line. ✓ The systematic error on the y-axis also
means that there will be a non-zero y-intercept. (✓)
Student (a) has correctly suggested a way to Student (b) has given a more detailed suggestion for
improve the experiment, and although they have improvement and also correctly analysed the equation to see
stated that the line would be higher they do not that although all of the points for √l + l0 − √l are bigger, they
get credit because of insufficient reasoning. They are not all bigger by the same amount. Student (b) has also
have made a common mistake — thinking that a correctly stated that the new graph will not pass through the
systematic error always increases values by the origin.
same amount so the gradient stays the same.

Worked example 4.15

Capacitor discharge
V

Figure 4.3 Circuit diagram showing a capacitor, C, discharging through a fixed resistor, R

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 4 Practical skills

The capacitor is discharging through a fixed resistor, R, and the pd is measured using a digital
voltmeter.
(a) Describe how the circuit shown in Figure 4.3 can be used to determine the resistance, R,
of the fixed resistor. (3)
(b) Deduce how this value would change if you carried out the experiment with an analogue
meter with the same resistance, R, as the fixed resistor, instead of the digital voltmeter. (3)
(a) You would record the voltmeter readings over time. (The interval of the timing will be set after a
preliminary test to see how quickly the capacitor discharges — if the discharge is quick, around
1 minute, then the interval should be 5 s; if the discharge is much longer, then you could use an
interval of 10 s). ✓
Plot a graph of ln V against t. ✓
You would compare the capacitor decay equation to the equation for a straight line in order to
1
determine the resistance, R = .✓
C × gradient
This technique is covered in Chapter 2.
(b) The experiment would now look like Figure 4.4.
R

Figure 4.4 The voltmeter now acts like a resistor connected in parallel with R.
Use the resistors in parallel equation:
1 = 1 + 1
Rt R1 R2
Therefore:
1 = 1 + 1
Rt R R
1 = 2
Rt R
Therefore:
Rt = R ✓
2
In other words the resistance of the circuit is halved. This would also halve the time constant
because the capacitor would discharge in less time. The gradient of the graph drawn above would
be twice as steep. ✓ So the experimenter would not get the correct value for the resistance of the
fixed resistor — its value would be half of the correct value.
The higher resistance of the digital voltmeter also has the bonus when working with
capacitors that it prevents significant charge leakage from the capacitors. This means that
you can wait longer between charging the capacitor and investigating its discharge without
affecting the results.

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 Application to the exam

Application to the exam

A student is investigating the variation in intensity of gamma
radiation with distance. The student uses a cobalt-60 source
source with a Geiger–Müller (GM) tube connected to a counter a
distance d away. The count is recorded for 2 minutes for values
of d from 50 mm to 950 mm, with an interval of 100 mm.
(a) Explain how the student could collect and process data from
the counter to show that the intensity of gamma radiation
follows an inverse square law. (5)
(b) Another student says that the method is flawed because they
measured the count for the same amount of time for each
distance.
Discuss this argument. (5)
(c) It is suggested that the experiment could be improved in two
ways by turning the GM tube sideways on to the radiation:
1 The experiment would be able to work with sources that
emitted alpha and/or beta radiation in addition to gamma
radiation.
2 The accuracy of the experiment would be improved.
Evaluate the effect if the student turned the GM tube sideways on
to the radiation. (4)

B-grade answer
(a) They would find the background count rate for 2 minutes and do
this three times and calculate the mean. They would then measure
the count rate at each distance three times and also calculate a
mean. ✓ They would then calculate the corrected count rate by
subtracting the background count rate from the count rate. ✓
1
They would then use a graph of against distance ✓ to show the
√C
inverse square relationship.
The candidate has confused the count rate with the count — the
count
count rate is the . They state marking point 3 and 4 in this
time
first section. They then correctly state the graph to be plotted but
fail to explain the significance of the gradient (or intercept) in
verifying the inverse square law. Marks awarded: 3
(b) The uncertainty in the count rate, C is proportional to √C. The
percentage uncertainty in C is given by: √C × 100.
C
As d increases C decreases. This means that the percentage
uncertainty increases at larger values of d. To reduce this increased
uncertainty they need to increase C, which they can do by
increasing the time they measure the count for at larger distances. ✓
Therefore I agree that the original experiment was flawed because
they used the same time for each distance. They should have
measured the count for a longer time period at larger distances. ✓
The candidate has again confused count and count rate. But they
have identified the correct underlying principle, C = ±√C. They have
then followed this reasoning through and have arrived at a sensible
conclusion. However, they have not used the data in the question to
quantify their argument. Marks awarded: 3
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 4 Practical skills

(c) There is now a larger area for detection of radiation so the count
rate will be increased. ✓ This means the count rate will be more
accurate, since C = ±√C. Also, in the perpendicular arrangement the
uncertainty in the distance will be decreased. This is because in the
old arrangement the radiation could be detected at any distance
within the GM tube, whereas in the new orientation the uncertainty
in the place where the detection occurs is reduced. ✓
The candidate gives a detailed account of two ways in which the
accuracy of the experiment would be improved (although they
continue to confuse the term count and count rate). However, the
candidate fails to address the first point about improvements with
different types of source. Marks awarded: 2
A/A*-grade answer
(a) Before removing the source of the container, the student should
measure the background count. Because the count will be low they
should record the count for a longer period of time than the 2
minutes used with the source at different distances, e.g. at least
5 minutes. ✓ This is because the uncertainty in the count, C = ±√C.
They should then divide the total count by the time to get the
background count rate. ✓
They will then record the count for 2 minutes at each distance,
d, repeating this twice and calculating a mean. They will divide the
mean count by 2 to get the count rate (per minute). They will then
calculate the corrected count rate, C, using the equation: corrected
count rate,
  C = count rate − background count rate ✓.
1
They will then plot a graph of against d. ✓ The graph will be a
√C
straight line which does not pass through the origin if the count
1
rate for the gamma source is proportional to 2, i.e. the count rate
follows an inverse square law. ✓ d

This is a very detailed answer, which address all of the key points
involved in both the collection of data and the processing of the data,
along with the subsequent analysis of the graph. Marks awarded: 5

(b) Since radioactive decay is a random process there will always be a

random error in the count rate. ✓ The uncertainty in C = ±√C. ✓ The
√C
percentage uncertainty in C × 100 increases when C decreases.
C
This means that as the distance, d, increases, the count decreases
(following an inverse square law), so the percentage uncertainty
increases. ✓ In this particular experiment the range of d is from
950
50 mm to 950 mm. Therefore the final reading is = 19 times
50
2
further away, so the count rate will be 19 = 361 times smaller.
√C C
√361 19 √C.361
The percentage uncertainty in C = C × 100 = C = C.19
361 361
C
= 19 , i.e. 19 times greater than at 50 mm. ✓ Therefore to
C
reduce the percentage uncertainty at larger values of d, they should

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 Application to the exam

increase the time the count is recorded for ✓ (up to 19 times

greater than at the beginning — although they could record for 1
minute at the shortest distances, otherwise the experiment will
take too long).
An excellent response. The candidate has carried out a numerical
analysis based on ideas in the question and data provided in the
question stem and come to a reasoned judgement at the end.
Marks awarded: 5
(c) Alpha particles have a very small range in air (3–5 cm) so they will
not reach the detector inside the GM tube in either orientation. ✓
However, since the range of beta particles in air is 15 cm, in the
original orientation both beta and gamma radiation could reach the
detector for the shortest distance measurements. Turning the GM
tube perpendicular to the source means that the beta particles can
no longer reach the detector because they cannot penetrate the
sides of the tube. This means that the readings will only be due to
gamma radiation, even if the source emits alpha, beta and gamma
radiation. ✓
In the original orientation you measure a distance from the window
of the GM tube to the front of the radioactive source. The source is
actually on a foil which lies a few millimetres behind the mesh of the
cup source holder; this issue is not changed by the new experimental
arrangement. The average detection point of the radiation is
somewhere within the GM tube, so in the perpendicular orientation
the uncertainty in the place where detection occurs is reduced ✓,
and the distance measurement, d, will be more accurate ✓.
Therefore, turning the GM tube sideways on to the radiation
improves the experiment in two ways.
Both parts of the question are addressed in detail, but both
paragraphs could have been written more concisely. Parts of the
first two sentences of the second paragraph do not contribute any
marking points to the question being asked. Remember to focus on
the question being asked. Writing superfluous information wastes
time that could be spent on other parts of the exam.
Marks awarded: 4

You should know

› Practical skills will be assessed directly for the practical endorsement through the CPAC
and indirectly assessed in your written exams.
› The key terminology related to practical physics must be learned.
› Planning an investigation involves defining a problem, identifying the variables, obtaining
sufficient data and using appropriate equipment and techniques.
› Analysis of the data in results tables and graphical plots can be used to identify
relationships between the variables in an investigation.
› Use uncertainties in measurements and calculated values to evaluate investigations and
suggest improvements to experimental procedures.
› Unfamiliar equipment is evaluated by carefully examining the purpose and processes
needed to make measurements with it.

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 5 Study skills

Learning objectives
› To understand the key neuroscience behind effective
revision
› To develop techniques for remembering and
understanding the specification content
› To explore different ways to process information to
understand curriculum content more deeply and retain
the information for longer
› To explore methods to see synoptic links between
different areas of the specification
› To evaluate your understanding using past paper
questions, mark schemes and examiners’ reports

Introduction
To be successful in linear exams, which are assessed at the end
of a 2-year course of study, it is essential that you review the
material throughout the course. This process of looking back at
content you have already covered and making notes to improve your
understanding is called revision.
Effective revision will look different for different people. You each
have a different starting point and different outside influences,
and may prefer different revision techniques. That said, there are
certain fundamental and important features that must be in place if
your revision is to be effective. We will look at the neuroscience of
revision and use this to develop strategies to improve your ability to
remember, apply and evaluate in exam situations.
The neuroscience of memory formation
Short-term memory typically lasts only around 30 seconds, so
any information that can be recalled after that time is a long-term
memory. It is vital, then, that you move information from short-
term to long-term memory. When a memory is stored in your long-
term memory, neurones make new physical connections (called
synapses) between each other. All strategies to maximise learning
and long-term retention must be based around effective creation of
these new neural connections.
There are two main factors to consider: (1) convincing your brain
that the information is important enough to transfer into long-term
storage, and (2) not over-working the brain, which prevents new
memories being formed.

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 Core study skills

The rest of the chapter goes into more detail about effective
revision strategies and looks at how and why they work, but in
essence there are two key messages about effective revision:
1. You remember what you think about.
2. Take regular breaks.

Core study skills

The key skills for effective revision
Put yourself in control: organise your time
Organising your time effectively will maximise your ability to help
your brain create new memories without being overloaded and then
strengthen those memories. The following key features should be
part of your revision schedule.
Focus
The key to learning new information and retaining it is focus. By
directing your attention onto something and by thinking about the
concept, you will tell your brain that this information is important
and needs to be stored as a new long-term memory.
Many neuroscientists think that playing music whilst you are
revising will have a detrimental effect on your ability to remember
the information you are studying because some of your brain’s
attention is directed towards the music, and away from your work. If
background music has a negative effect on your focus, you definitely
should not revise with one eye on social media or Netflix!
Take breaks
As your brain is busy storing different patterns of information,
it can get confused and overloaded. The best way to prevent this
overload is by taking regular breaks. This will help maintain your
focus.
A popular schedule for combining work and breaks is to work for 25
minutes and then break for 5 minutes. In the break you should get
up and do something else, e.g. stretch, walk around or make a drink.
After four such sessions you should take a slightly longer break, e.g.
15 minutes. A simple way to keep track of the sessions is to use a
timer on your phone, but you can also download specific apps that
help you track how much work you are doing for each subject — as
a physicist you may find the data interesting and motivational!
Space out your sessions: don’t cram
You should space out your revision sessions, rather than cramming
them all together on one day. If you plan to do 5 hours of revision
on particle physics, then doing 1 hour per day for 5 days is far
more effective for long-term recall than doing 5 hours on one day.
Despite knowing this, we often fall into the trap of cramming. There
are two main reasons for this: first, and most obviously, we did not
start our revision early enough and we feel the need to rush through
it — see the next point for remedying this. The second main reason
is that it actually feels easier for our brains to cram. The subsequent
hours of study feel easier when the previous information gives us a
sense of familiarity with the material. Unfortunately, this is counter

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 5 Study skills

to all current thinking on making learning effective. Learning should

feel hard, because you learn by recalling information from memory
rather than having a sense of recognition about the content. There
will be more on this in the next section.
Revision timetable
Making a revision timetable is an important feature of your revision
because it enables you to organise your time and work effectively.
Your plan can include sufficient time for shorter, more effective,
sessions with breaks, and because you do not have to worry about
running out of time you can focus on exactly what you need to be
doing at that moment, rather than worrying that you should be
revising something else. The revision timetable puts you in control.
This makes you more relaxed, which is the ideal state for making
and strengthening memories.
The fundamentals of effective revision technique
The previous section talked about getting the environment right and
setting up the structure to focus on what you are revising. Now we
can look at the strategies you should use within those sessions. This
section will look at remembering key information and understanding
it. The next section will look at how to build the higher-order skills
of applying, evaluating and creating into your revision.
Process the information
All effective revision techniques have one thing in common.
They make you process and think about the information in some
way. This means that you should not just read over your notes, or
read over exam questions or mark schemes. You need to interact
with the information and process it in some way, summarising it,
transforming it into a diagram, answering an exam question etc.
This is similar to the way we discussed active and passive reading
in Chapter 2 — you cannot just read over the information and hope
to have enough recall to be useful in an examination. The more
thinking you do as part of the processing the better, because the
more you think about a particular concept the more you indicate to
your brain that the information must be important, and therefore
the more neural connections are devoted to understanding and
remembering the associated information.
Test yourself
Many (often more passive) revision techniques involve recognising
information, rather than recalling it. Often students feel bored, or
feel that they have fully revised when they look over their notes or
look at a practice paper question and feel a sense of familiarity. You
are tricked into thinking that you understand it, but there is a big
difference in an exam situation between being familiar with a topic
and being able to recall information about it accurately. It is easier
to use techniques promoting recognition: reading through notes,
scanning mark schemes etc., but effective revision makes you think.
If it does not feel challenging, your revision is not working.
You must test yourself to ensure that you can recall the information
accurately (or know where to find it on the data sheet).

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 Core study skills

With these important criteria in place, let us look at some of the

most effective ways to remember information for your physics
exams.
Remembering information
In previous chapters we have discussed the importance of learning
specific information from the specification, such as definitions, laws
and units. Here we look at some of the best ways to help you learn
the information.
Flashcards
When something needs to be learned exactly, one of the best
learning techniques is to use flashcards. Flashcards are essentially
a way to test yourself on information by writing a question or
key term on one side, and writing the answer or definition on the
other. There are lots of free electronic flashcard apps and websites
(it is often easier to enter your information via the website using
a keyboard, and then sync your flashcard sets to your mobile
device). The electronic format is good because you always have the
information on you and can test yourself whenever you have a spare
minute or two, even if you are just waiting for the bus.
For example:
Key term Definition

Principle of moments The sum of the clockwise moments = the sum of the
anticlockwise moments.

The speed of light in an optical fibre depends on the

Material dispersion/ wavelength of the light (red travels faster than violet
spectral dispersion in glass), so if white light is used the pulse become
longer.

When using the flashcards you should always have the key term face
up and test your recall of the definition (doing the opposite simply
encourages recognition, which will not be enough in the exam).
You can also make flashcards for specific examination question mark
schemes.

Activity
Spaced repetition is a revision technique based on the idea that you should
repeatedly test yourself on information, but it also says that you should test
yourself more frequently on the bits that you find the hardest to remember. At its
simplest you could create five ‘boxes’ to store flashcards with different review
frequencies depending on how easily you can recall the information:
1 Every day — this is information that you are really struggling to learn
2 Every other day
3 Once per week
4 Every other week
5 Just before the test — this is material that you have excellent recall of
Make a set of flashcards for the topic you are studying or have already studied and
try to develop your own spaced repetition system to supercharge your memory.

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Memory palace/method of loci

The most commonly used memory technique among memory contest
champions is the ‘memory palace’. This is also known as the method
of loci. The technique, which was known to the ancient Greeks and
Romans, is ideally suited to remembering information that follows
sequentially, such as speeches, but also works for faces, digits, lists
of words etc. It has been used to recall pi to over 65 000 digits.
How does it work? You pick a place that you know very well, such as
your house. You then imagine objects at specific locations around
your house, e.g:
➜ on your drive, at your porch door, at your front door
➜ entrance hall
➜ lounge:
• sofa
• coffee table
• shelves
• fireplace
• television
• window ledge
The technique works more efficiently if you always take the same
path around the house, e.g. clockwise, and it is even better if you
have the same number of locations in each room, e.g. five. Then
you know if you have got all of the places. To make the memories
stronger you should try to make the images more vivid by making an
emotional connection to what is happening, e.g. by making it funny.

Worked example 5.1

Defining simple harmonic motion
Simple harmonic motion is defined as oscillating motion in which the acceleration is
proportional to the displacement and always in the opposite direction from the displacement.
Using your lounge as the room with the objects being the television, the light fitting, the sofa, the
coffee table and the fireplace, you could produce your own memories within the palace:
Lounge
Location Event The physics
1 Television Your physics teacher is on ‘Britain’s Got Talent’ singing a (terrible) Simple harmonic motion
simple harmony and swaying with the microphone.

2 Light fitting The light fitting is swinging from side to side. Motion with oscillations

3 Sofa You are sitting on the sofa and can hear a car speeding off Where the acceleration
outside — the driver must be flooring the accelerator from a
standing start right on your street.

4 Coffee The coffee table is propped up at one side (making it higher on Proportional to the
table that side) so all of the cups keep sliding along the table (displacing). displacement

5 Fireplace The flames in the fireplace are upside down. They are coming Always in the opposite
down out of the top of the fireplace — they always do that in this direction (to the
strange fireplace. displacement)

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 Core study skills

The events are supposed to be strange — there is a lot of evidence

to suggest that the stranger the event is, the more likely you are
to remember it. You should be able to find many other areas where
the memory palace technique will be able to help you remember key
information.

Activity 5.1
Build your own memory palace. Think of the main objects in your room, then move
to the next room and repeat this throughout your house. It will take some time to
‘build’ your palace, but then you can start to use it to remember anything you want.
Use it to remember the prefixes: tera (×1012) — a terrifying (tera-fying) monster
with 12 arms is waiting at your front door. (Tera derives from the Greek word
meaning monster.)
1
Try to use your memory palace for the derivation of pV = Nm(crms)2.
3

Take it further
Joshua Foer visited the US Memory Championships to report on the
contestants and their amazing abilities. Through his interviews he learned
that all of the contestants used the same technique: the ‘memory palace’.
In the TED talk ‘Feats of memory anyone can do’, Foer describes how he
developed his ability to use the memory palace technique and subsequently
used this to win the US Memory Championships. His TED talk will inspire
you to make the most of the amazing memory capabilities that you have:
https://www.ted.com/talks/joshua_foer_feats_of_memory_anyone_can_do

Understanding
The previous sections have talked about remembering information.
As we have mentioned, having knowledge of, say, a definition
is necessary, but you cannot succeed on a physics course by
memorisation alone. The key to success is not just knowledge, but
also understanding. Obviously, knowledge of the concepts and terms
involved is an important prerequisite for being able to apply physics
principles and ideas to different situations and to evaluate new
information.
Use the specification as a checklist
With physics, if you truly understand a concept, as determined
by your ability to answer several past examination questions on
the topic correctly, then you have less need of memorisation
than in many other subjects. The symbol equations and values for
constants, along with their units, are given to you in the exam on
the data sheet. You just need to know what the symbols stand for.
For example:
g=−
ΔV
Δr
You need to know that:
➜ g is the gravitational field strength at a point a distance r from
the centre of a planet.

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 5 Study skills

Δ
V
➜ is the gradient of the potential curve at a distance r from the
Δr
centre of a planet.

Read around the subject

Your understanding can be improved by increasing your background
knowledge (as discussed in Chapter 2). Background knowledge, also
called prior knowledge, is essential in making connections between
the new information and the experiences and ideas that we already
know. It is the opposite of Homer Simpson’s view: ‘Every time I learn
something new, a little of the old gets pushed out of my brain.’ In
fact: the more you know, the easier it is to learn more.
So how can you increase your store of prior knowledge?
Video
Subscribe to physics online video channels.
There are so many excellent physics videos online. Obviously you
have to check that the information they present is scientifically
accurate. A few of the best (entertaining and educational) are:
➜ Sixty Symbols www.sixtysymbols.com/
➜ MinutePhysics www.youtube.com/user/minutephysics
➜ Veritasium https://tinyurl.com/mavy9ns
➜ Vsauce https://tinyurl.com/mbytvak
➜ CrashCourse — Physics Playlist https://tinyurl.com/jszkbwn
➜ SmarterEveryDay www.youtube.com/user/destinws2
You should also keep your eye on BBC documentaries on physics (on
iPlayer, click: Categories → Science & Nature).
Audio
Subscribe to physics podcasts.
Use your podcasting app of choice to listen to the latest
information about physics and the universe whilst you are travelling
or do not have the opportunity to look at a screen. Some good
places to start are:
➜ The Infinite Monkey Cage (BBC)
➜ Science Weekly www.theguardian.com
➜ Little Atoms
➜ The Naked Scientists Podcast (University of Cambridge — BBC)
➜ The Skeptic’s Guide to the Universe
➜ Science Talk
➜ The Reith Lectures (BBC)
Use a range of resources
There is more than one way to present an idea in physics, so if
you have not fully understood it after first meeting it in class
and consulting your textbook, try a different resource to get an
alternative description or explanation.

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 Higher-order study skills

Here are some good online resources:

➜ Antonine Physics is a good alternative set of notes with some
worked examples www.antonine-education.co.uk
➜ www.topphysicsgrades.com is my physics website. It has
condensed revision notes, explainer videos and example
questions.
➜ www.physicsandmathstutor.com has brief revision notes and lots
of past paper questions.
➜ The DrPhysicsA Youtube channel has whiteboard style explainer
videos which cover the main A-level topics. It also goes beyond
A-level with videos such as ‘Spin Orbit Coupling’ and ‘The
Strength of the Nuclear Force’ www.youtube.com/user/DrPhysicsA
Some of the most successful students are part of a motivated
and supported informal study group. Study groups give you the
opportunity to ask questions of other students who have a better
grasp of particular concepts. Perhaps they can see how to apply the
theory in the context of a particular question you are struggling
with. It also gives you the opportunity to help others. This is one of
the most effective ways to improve your understanding and long-
term retention. If you can successfully teach another student about
an area of physics, then you definitely understand it, and the bonus
is that because the act of teaching others forces you to think about
the concepts involved, you will create longer-term memories.
You should also ask your teacher for help if you are struggling with a
particular topic or question. Your teachers appreciate proactivity on
your part, so if you seek their help well in advance of any deadlines,
they will be very glad to give you as much help as you need.

Higher-order study skills

Applying
Application of knowledge and understanding questions account for
the largest proportion of marks in your A-level. Too many students
spend their time making revision notes, perhaps even testing
recall of this information, but they do not prioritise the practice of
applying their knowledge and understanding.
A sporting analogy works well. You could practise set plays without
the opposition and you would be able to do them without a problem,
but the only way to get better in a game situation is to play the
game. You will find that the formations and strategies you planned
to implement need to change slightly depending on the opposition or
the environmental conditions on the day. This is the same with school
examinations. You have to adapt your performance to the context of the
question. The absolute best way of practising applying your knowledge
and understanding is by answering past examination questions, so
ensure they are integrated into your revision from the beginning.
As well as answering full papers, you can ask your teacher to prepare
booklets of past paper questions on the sections of the specification
that you have covered. This makes your revision much more
effective: you can learn the theory, definitions etc., and can then
assess your level of understanding against exam-style questions.

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Evaluating
The skills of analysing, interpreting and evaluating account for 25%
of the marks available in your exams. This book is full of guidance
on how to develop your evaluation skills in the contexts of tables
of data, reading sources and practical procedures, but you can also
develop your evaluating skills whilst revising.
Mark schemes: formative assessment
When you mark your written responses to exam questions against
the mark scheme criteria, you are evaluating your answers. When
completing questions there are essentially two types of assessment
you can carry out: summative and formative. Summative assessment
is essentially about grading. You evaluate your response to give it a
score, a number of marks which tells you how well you did compared
with the mark scheme standard. To be effective, though, your
revision needs to be focused on formative assessment. Formative
assessment is where you evaluate your answers to identify areas
where you can focus subsequent revision. As part of this higher-
level evaluation you can find two main areas where you can improve:
➜ Subject knowledge — do you need to add a particular key
term or phrase to your flashcards? Do you need to review your
understanding of gravitational potential and then practise some
further questions on this topic?
➜ Exam technique — should you have used data from the graph to
support your answer? Why did you only include two key marking
points instead of adjusting your answer to the 3 marks allocated
for the question?
Insights from your formative assessment can then be included into
your revision notes. Formation assessment can be gleaned from a
number of sources.
Activity 5.2
Examiners’ reports: key insights from the examining Even if you have not seen
team the benefit of mind maps
in the past, make a mind
The examining team carries out its own evaluation of the candidate
map of the particle section
responses and summarises the findings in the examiners’ report for
of your specification. Aim
each exam. The reports comment on general patterns in candidate
to include: classification
responses and highlight areas of particular strength or weakness.
of particles, particle
You should take a special note of any areas where the examiner has
interactions, particles
commented that improvements need to be made, as future exams
and anti-particles, and
will contain questions designed to assess whether candidates have
conservation laws. If
improved in these areas.
you have space, you may
As a candidate aiming for an A/A* grade, you should consult the even be able to include
examiners’ reports for all previous past papers and add these constituents of the atom
insights into the relevant area of your revision notes. and explanations of the
strong and weak forces
Creating and Feynman diagrams. As
Revision and independent learning activities that promote the you use mind maps more
creation of original material or generate links between information frequently, your skills will
will be highly effective. Creating is a higher-order skill that really develop and you will find
makes you think about the concepts that you are trying to learn them even more effective,
or revise, which as we have seen means that you will retain the both for remembering and
information for longer. deeper understanding.

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 Higher-order study skills

Mind maps
Mind maps are an excellent way, not only of learning factual
information, but also of seeing and making connections between
different areas of physics. A specification area such as particle
physics is ideally suited to mind mapping. A mind map will clearly
show the classification of fundamental particles along with the
connections to the conservation rules.
By selecting the information yourself and personalising the content,
you are thinking about the concepts involved and helping long-term
recall. You should be able to close your eyes and walk around your
mind map. The areas where you get stuck are the areas you need
to focus on. Aim for 100% recall. Mind maps are also excellent for
revision because new information can be added in as your revision
progresses. For example, notes from examiners’ reports can easily be
added as you complete past papers.
Comparison tables Activity 5.3
Creating a comparison table is a great way of seeing the connections Create a comparison table
between two or three different concepts. As a tool it is well suited to for fields: gravitational,
directly comparing and contrasting between a small number of ideas, electrostatic and magnetic.
or comparing different items against a particular list of features. In Think about the criteria that
fact this is where you tend to see comparison tables, e.g a website would be useful to compare,
comparing different cars or mobile phones. In your revision you can e.g. source, range, strength,
use it to see similarities and differences between closely related topics direction of field lines…
such as different types of force, types of radiation, or types of field.
Model answers
Creating your own set of model answers for different styles of
question is a really effective revision technique. It practises many
different skills, including: recall, application of knowledge and
understanding, evaluation of mark schemes and examiners’ report
comments, and then finally creating your own content blending
Activity 5.4
together all of these other resources. Creating model answers Arrange for you and some of
for extended writing questions is particularly useful as it also your friends from the physics
requires you to practise analysis, drawing conclusions and making course to write some exam
judgements, all skills of a highly competent physicist. questions (and mark schemes)
As part of your informal study group you could even have a go at to test each other. You could
writing your own examination-style questions and mark schemes. even get your teacher to
Allocate each of you 10 marks to assess a different area of the photocopy them for you into
specification. Review the past paper questions on the same topic an exam booklet. Each of
and then create your own question. You will find this activity you should answer the full
challenging. Thinking is difficult, but thinking is key to learning and paper (you should do well
long-term retention of information. on your own question!) in
exam conditions and then
Analysing mark it according to your
We have already discussed a kind of ‘gap analysis’ that you can do as mark scheme. Any discussion
part of your formative assessment when you are marking your work. generated about alternative
But how can you further develop your analysis skills as part of your acceptable answers is
revision? an excellent learning
opportunity. This kind of
One way is to analyse past papers to identify which of the questions debate occurs after each real
are designed to test which assessment objective. Remember that exam when the examiner
some longer questions may assess more than one objective. You team gets together to decide
should be able to easily identify AO1 objectives and answer these upon the final mark scheme.
questions using mostly recall. Do you have the required information

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 5 Study skills

in your revision notes? Where are the AO3 questions? What are the
command words associated with A03, and how would you structure
your answers for these questions?
You can also analyse the specification content of each past paper.
Are there patterns between papers. Are some concepts assessed
each year? Is there anything that hasn’t yet been assessed?
Remember that every mathematical skill and piece of content
from the specification must be assessed over the lifetime of the
specification. As you get nearer to the end of the specification’s
lifetime, it may be possible for you to try to predict some of the
content that should be assessed.

You should know

› The key messages from neuroscience about effective revision are that you remember what
you think about and you should take regular breaks.
› Use flashcards, spaced repetition and loci to improve your ability to remember the
specification content.
› There is a wide range of resources to improve your understanding of physics content.
Explore them to find the resources that work for you.
› Use past papers, mark schemes and examiners’ reports to get key insights into the style of
thinking that will be required in your exams and evaluate your own level of understanding.
› Create mind maps, comparison tables, and model answers to help you see links between
topics and gain a deeper understanding of the subject content.

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 Exam board focus
Learning objectives
› To provide an overview of the course content for each
exam board
› To describe the assessments for each exam board
› To list typical question command words that assess
higher-order skills
› To gain insight into the examining process
› To review good technique for multiple-choice questions
› To describe exam techniques to obtain a top grade

This chapter presents a very brief overview of the assessments for

each exam board along with notes about how each board assesses
the higher-order skills. Although the chapter is designed with a
focus on individual exam boards, the final section on ‘Advice for
students’ is relevant to all students.

The exam boards featured in this section are:

➜ AQA
➜ Edexcel
➜ Eduqas
➜ OCR
➜ WJEC

AQA
Core content and assessment
Paper 1 Paper 2 Paper 3
Measurement and errors Measurement and errors Section A:
Particles and radiation Thermal physics All content
Waves Fields and their consequences Practical skills and data analysis
Mechanics and materials Nuclear physics Section B:
Electricity Assumed knowledge from Paper 1 Option unit:
Periodic motion • Astrophysics
• Medical physics
• Engineering physics
• Turning points in physics
• Electronics

2 hours 2 hours 2 hours

85 marks 85 marks 80 marks

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 Exam board focus

Paper 1 Paper 2 Paper 3

34% of A-level 34% of A-level 32% of A-level

45 marks of short- and long-answer questions

60 marks of short- and long-answer 60 marks of short- and long-answer
on practical experiments and data analysis
questions questions
35 marks of short- and long-answer questions
25 marks of multiple choice 25 marks of multiple choice
on an optional topic

All papers have roughly one third of the marks allocated to AO1 questions.
Paper 2 has an increased AO2 (53%) weighting and reduced AO3
(15%) mark allocation.
There are 12 required practical activities.
Assessment of higher-order skills
Questions assessing higher-order skills, such as application of
knowledge or requiring analysis, evaluation or judgements to be
made, typically have command words such as:
➜ Suggest how [some experimental evidence can be used to
confirm a theory]… (3)
➜ Deduce, using calculations, whether *** is suitable for a certain
application.(4)
➜ Compare…(2)
➜ Derive an expression to show that… (3)
Extended-response questions may contain these command words and
phrases:
➜ Discuss some of the problems associated with… (6)
➜ Compare the [two diagrams]… (6)
➜ Discuss how [a piece of equipment works or how a particular
phenomenon works] (6)
➜ Discuss which [from a selection of pieces of equipment is best
suited for a particular application] (6)

Edexcel
Core content and assessment
Paper 1 Paper 2 Paper 3
Working as a physicist Working as a physicist Questions on any topic in the
Mechanics Materials specification
Electric circuits Waves and particle nature of light Synoptic questions that may draw on
Thermodynamics two or more different topics
Further mechanics
Space Experimental methods and data
Electric and magnetic fields
analysis
Nuclear and particle physics Nuclear radiation
Gravitational fields
Oscillations

1 hour 45 mins 1 hour 45 mins 2 hours 30 mins

90 marks 90 marks 120 marks

30% of A-level 30% of A-level 40% of A-level

Multiple-choice, short open, open- Multiple-choice, short open, open- Short open, open-response,
response, calculations and extended- response, calculations and extended- calculations and extended-writing
writing questions writing questions questions

There are 18 required practical activities.

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 Eduqas

Assessment of higher-order skills

Higher-level questions requiring some form of judgement are not
always restricted to higher-mark questions. For example:
➜ Criticise the student’s investigation and conclusion. (5)
➜ Explain the shape of the graph… (3)
➜ Criticise the statement provided by the student. (3)
➜ Deduce why one piece of apparatus may be more effective than
another for a particular function. (2)
Extended-response questions may contain these command words and
phrases:
➜ Explain [this could be an experimental observation or a
phenomenon from the specification…] (6)
➜ Use the information to discuss…(6)
➜ Discuss how… [a certain model can explain a set of
observations](6)
➜ Criticise this extract. (6)

Eduqas
Core content and assessment
Paper 1 Paper 2 Paper 3
Newtonian physics Electricity and the universe Section A:
Light and nuclei
Section B: Choice of 1 out of 4
options:
• Alternating current
• Medical physics
• The physics of sports
• Energy and the environment

2 hours 15 mins 2 hours 2 hours 15 mins

100 marks 100 marks 120 marks

31.25% of A-level 31.25% of A-level 37.5% of A-level

Section A: 80 marks of short-answer A mix of short-answer and extended- Section A: 100 marks of short-answer
and extended-answer questions with answer questions with some and extended-answer questions with
some questions set in a practical questions set in a practical context. some questions set in a practical
context context.
Section B: 20 marks — one Section B: 20 marks
comprehension question

There are 12 required practical activities.

Assessment of higher-order skills

You will be assessed on your ability to select, organise and
communicate information and ideas coherently using appropriate
scientific conventions and technical language across different
assessment objectives. This means that higher-level questions
requiring some form of judgement are not always restricted to
higher-mark questions.

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 Exam board focus

OCR
Core content and assessment
Paper 1 — Modelling physics Paper 2 — Exploring physics Paper 3 — Unified physics
Development of practical skills in Development of practical skills in Content from whole specification
physics physics
Foundations of physics Foundations of physics
Forces and motion Electrons, waves and photons
Newtonian world and astrophysics Particles and medical physics

2 hours 15 minutes 2 hours 15 minutes 1 hour 30 minutes

100 marks 100 marks 70 marks

37% of A-level 37% of A-level 26% of A-level

Section A: 15 marks of multiple-choice Section A: 15 marks of multiple- Short-answer and extended-response

questions choice questions questions
Section B: 85 marks of short-answer Section B: 85 marks of short-answer
questions and extended-response questions and extended-response
questions questions

In the final paper it should be noted that there is a reduced

emphasis on AO1 (demonstrating knowledge and understanding)
and AO2 (application of knowledge and understanding) assessment
questions, and an increased emphasis on AO3 (analysis,
interpretation and evaluation).
There are 12 required practical activities.

Assessment of higher-order skills

OCR has an emphasis on synoptic assessment because it believes
it encourages students to see physics as a discipline rather than
as separate topics. All three OCR papers therefore include synoptic
assessment.
OCR includes level-of-response questions to assess your response in
two strands:
➜ Science content: your scientific knowledge and understanding
and ability to apply this in unfamiliar situations.
➜ Communication: your ability to communicate in a clear, coherent
and logical way.
The examiner will read through your whole answer, before deciding
the level that best fits your answer. The top mark band (level 3)
means that you will be awarded 5 or 6 marks. The higher mark will
be awarded if your answer is a good match to the main points,
including the communication statement.
Level-of-response questions are indicated in question papers with an
asterisk (*) after the question number.
Higher-level questions requiring some form of judgement are not
always restricted to higher-mark questions. For example:
➜ Discuss how the actual value compares with the value you
calculated.(1)
➜ Suggest the impact this may have on… (1)

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 WJEC

➜ Explain the variation [using information presented in graphical

form](3)
➜ Compare this value with your value and explain why the values
may differ. (4)
Extended-response questions may contain these command words and
phrases:
➜ Describe with the help of a labelled diagram [how a certain
investigation could be carried out]… (6)
➜ Use your knowledge and understanding of *** to explain these
observations.(6)
➜ Explain what is meant by ***. Describe how the graph can be
used to determine the value of ***. (6)
➜ Evaluate the information [when presented with a sample student
analysis of some data] and the analysis of the data from the
experiment…(6)
➜ Plan an experiment to determine… (6)
Note that OCR sometimes uses multiple command verbs (two or
three) within a single question, so make sure that you respond to
each aspect of the question.

WJEC
Core content and assessment
Unit 1 Unit 2 Unit 3 Unit 4 Unit 5
Motion Electricity Oscillations Fields Practical
Energy Light Nuclei Optics examination:
Matter • Experimental task
• Practical analysis
task

Experimental task
(1 hour 30 minutes)
1 hour 30 minutes 1 hour 30 minutes 2 hours 15 minutes 2 hours
Practical analysis
task (60 minutes)

80 marks 80 marks 100 marks 100 marks 50 marks

20% of A-level 20% of A-level 25% of A-level 25% of A-level 10% of A-level

Short-answer and Short-answer and Section A: 80 Section A: 80 marks SPRING TERM OF 2ND
extended-answer extended-answer marks of short- of short-answer and YEAR OF STUDY
structured questions structured questions answer and extended-answer Experimental task:
with some set in a with some set in a extended-answer questions with some 25 marks — you will
practical context practical context questions with set in a practical be provided with
some set in a context a set of apparatus
practical context Section B: 20 marks — and an experimental
Section B: 20 choice of one out of problem
marks — one four options: Practical analysis
comprehension • Alternating currents task: 25 marks
question
• Medical physics
• The physics of sports
• Energy and the
environment

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 Exam board focus

There are 26 required practical activities (this is the most of any

exam board).
WJEC is the only exam board which features ‘direct assessment’ of
practical skills via an experimental task. In the experimental task
you will be provided with a set of apparatus and an experimental
problem.
All other examination boards apply ‘indirect assessment’ using
questions in the written examinations. Note that all WJEC written
papers may feature some indirect assessment of practical skills or
data analysis.
Assessment of higher-order skills
Questions assessing higher-order skills, such as application of
knowledge, or requiring analysis, evaluation or judgements to be
made typically have command words such as:
➜ Stating any assumptions you make, show that…(3)
➜ Use the graph to compare… (calculations are not required) (4)
➜ Evaluate the associated benefits and risks of… (2)
➜ Draw a diagram of a circuit you might use to investigate… (2)
➜ Comment on the quality and adequacy of the data obtained. (2)
The quality of extended response (QER) question is explicitly
identified on the front page of each examination. Inside the exam
paper the question is also identified by (6 QER) for the number of
allocated marks, rather than (6) after the question.
Typical command words for the extended-response questions are:
➜ Explain how… [changing a certain factor affects this result,
using information presented in the form of a diagram] (6 QER)
➜ Explain how a *** works. (6 QER)
➜ Explain how these data might lead scientists to conclude…
 (6 QER)
Note that the extended-response question may have two separate
ideas for you to explain. It might be more recall-based — ‘explain
a complex idea from the specification’ — or it might require you to
interpret experimental results.

Advice for students

The following section gives some general advice on the examining
process and then lays out a series of top tips to ensure you
maximise your performance in the exam.
General tips regarding the examination
process
A little insight into how your papers are marked may help you
write answers which communicate your ideas to the examiner more
effectively.
Each one of your physics papers will be scanned (hence the need
to write in black ink for better contrast in the scanned image) and
stored electronically by your examination board. The questions are
then broken into separate parts. This means that different examiners

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 Advice for students

will mark different questions on your paper. In the few days after
you have sat the paper, the chief examiner meets with other senior
examiners to finalise the mark scheme. If a significant number of
candidates have interpreted a question in an alternative way from
that which was expected, then the alternative (if it contains correct
physics) may be added to the mark scheme.
When an examiner logs into the marking software, they will choose
a question to mark and will generally complete all of one section
at a time. This process means they get to know the question they
are marking very well, both in terms of what the mark scheme says,
and what other candidates are writing. One effect of this is that
if your definition isn’t quite word perfect compared with the other
candidates’ responses, it will stand out and lose marks. Your writing
needs to be legible. There are various settings that the examiner
can use to make the image slightly easier to read, such as enlarging
the scanned image or changing the contrast, but if it cannot be read
then it cannot score marks.
Make sure you cross through any incorrect working. Failure to do
so will result in you losing marks. It will look like you are not sure
which answer or working is correct and are ‘hedging your bets’,
leaving multiple possibilities on the page.
Multiple-choice technique
All exam boards use multiple-choice questions as part of their
assessment. Multiple-choice questions allow examiners to test
your knowledge and understanding across a broader range of the
specification than would be possible only with extended-response
questions. Here are some tips for good multiple-choice technique:
➜ You should always answer the multiple-choice questions last.
They are worth 1 mark each, but can easily use up more time
than their mark allocation warrants. There is a danger that when
aiming for the top grade you can spend too long answering the
most difficult multiple-choice questions, but often this time is
better spent on questions that are worth more marks.
➜ Read the questions slowly and carefully, and be on the look-
out for the ‘not’ statement — although it is written in a bold
typeface, many candidates will still jump at the first correct
answer they see.
➜ Use the space available on the paper to do working out, such as
writing, rearranging and solving equations. Too many candidates
think they have to do multiple-choice questions in their head.
➜ Be aware that some calculations will involve more than one idea,
and may require the use of more than one equation.
➜ Work through all the questions you can do easily first and come
back to the questions that require more thought later.
➜ Do not guess an answer unless you really have to. When time is
extremely short near the end of the exam, and when all other
approaches have failed, you can make an intelligent guess
because marks are not deducted for incorrect answers.
➜ You should practise as many multiple-choice past paper questions
as possible (some are even reused from previous papers).

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 Exam board focus

Ten top tips for exam day success

Chapter 5 described various revision strategies you can use to
understand and remember specified content and skills throughout
the course and particularly in the lead-up to exams. This section
shares ten top tips for success on the day of the exam.
1 Get plenty of sleep the night before the exam.
An effective revision timetable can help you manage your time and
reduce stress — see the Put yourself in control: organise your time
section of Chapter 5 (p. 85).
2 Get there on time with all of your equipment.
The night before the exam, double check the time of the exam and
prepare everything you need to take for the exam, including: your
calculator, black pen (and spare), HB pencil, rubber, ruler, pencil
sharpener and protractor. Make sure you have a reliable alarm clock
and leave plenty of time to get to the exam hall.
3 Read the questions carefully.
Use the reading styles described in Chapter 2 to sift through the
information presented in the question. Identify the command
word(s), underlying physics, context and allocated marks.
4 Answer the specific question being asked.
Don’t repeat the question. Don’t just write what you know about the
subject. Don’t just repeat textbook explanations.
Do base your answer around a specific equation or principle and use
the context and extra information in the question stem to apply
your physics to the situation you are being asked about.
5 Use information provided in the question.
Use the information given in the question to inform your decision
making, and make a clear judgement reflecting on, and comparing,
any calculated values.
6 Use technical language whenever possible and avoid equivocal
statements (such as ‘the variable will change’).
Candidates too often lose marks for not communicating their physics
knowledge with enough precision. Key physics terminology may
get used imprecisely or incorrectly, e.g accuracy, error, precision,
resolution and uncertainty. Be clear about the meaning of key terms
and use them correctly to ensure a succinct and accurate response.
7 Show your thought process clearly.
In quantitative questions this means setting out your working in a
logical way so that your processes can be followed.
Drawing a labelled diagram can help you and the examiner see the
situation clearly.
8 Be aware of any additional criteria that apply to your answer.
All physical quantities should have a value and units. Vector
quantities must have a specified direction. Has the question
asked you to write your final answer to an appropriate number of
significant figures?

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 Advice for students

9 Use ‘ramping’ to gain momentum.

Each exam paper is typically designed to get more challenging as
you progress through the questions. This process is called ‘ramping’.
This same ramping process occurs through each question too, so
that the subparts in a question get progressively more difficult. This
means that if you get stuck on the final part of a question, move
on to the next question, which should be easier, so that you can
maintain your momentum. You can return to the bits you missed out
later on.
10 Keep an eye on the time.
You need to monitor your progress against the clock to ensure
you don’t run out of time. The different exam boards have slightly
different time allocations for each mark, but they are all around
one and a half minutes per mark. Ensure you have enough time
to answer the longer questions and if you are struggling for time,
use the concept of ‘ramping’ (see previous point) to target the
earlier sub-parts of the questions, which are more likely to yield a
quick mark.

You should know

› The main topics on for your exam board and how these are assessed
› Examples of typical question command words used by your exam board to assess higher-
order skills
› The basics process of how your exam answers are marked
› The essential strategies for multiple-choice questions
› Effective strategies for success on the day of the exam

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