General Zoology

BBY 3109

Lecture notes

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 Lecture 1
Introduction to entomology, classification, diversity
1.1 Lecture Overview
Insects and other related terrestrial arthropod groups are the most diverse forms of life on
earth and ideal models for studies of evolution, ecology, and behaviour. Their segmented
body plan has been adapted to diverse functions, allowing insects to thrive as dominant
herbivores, predators, and parasites in all terrestrial and many aquatic environments, with
immense impact on human society. This module will equip students with entomological
knowledge and skills, including practical experience collecting, preparing, and identifying an
insect collection, as a foundation for basic and applied research on these most diverse of
organisms

By the end of this lecture, you should be able to:

i) Outline the classification of insects

ii) Discuss the physiology and life cycle of class insecta

iii) Discuss dispersal and migration of selected insects

1.2 Introduction
Entomology is the study of insects, the most abundant form of animal life on earth. Three
quarters of a million species of insect have already been described and estimates for the
number of species awaiting discovery range from 1 million to 30 million. So for any budding
entomologists out there, you have an excellent chance of discovering a new species.
Given that there are so many species of insect, it follows that insects are a major component
of the earth's biodiversity. They inhabit every terrestrial and freshwater ecosystem and by
studying the ecological roles insects play we can have a better understanding of how those
ecosystems function. Insects have important roles as plant consumers and herbivores, a food
source for other organisms, scavengers and detritivores, predators and parasites. Insects also
directly affect human welfare by competing with us for food and transmitting diseases.
However, not all insects are detrimental to human welfare. For example, bees are used to

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produce honey, silkworms to produce silk and many predatory species are used to control crop
pests.
Insects have incredibly diverse morphological, physiological, and behavioural adaptations to
their surroundings which makes the study of insects a fascinating subject. Many features of
insect biology also make them ideal to use as model biological systems. Their abundance,
short life cycle, reproductive potential and small size allow scientific experiments to be set up,
monitored and duplicated with relative ease in almost any location. Much of our basic
understanding of genetics, population ecology, and evolution has resulted from
experimentation with insects.

1.3 Definition of terms

Entomology:It is a science that deals with the study of arthropods in general, and incorporates
sciences like zoology, biology, parasitology and micro-biology.
Arthropods: “Arthro” means jointed and “Poda” means legs. Arthropods are invertebrate
animals with jointed-legs and identified by their peculiar characteristics.
Taxonomy is the study of the principles of scientific classification
classification-arranging organism into related gruops

1.4 General classification

Living organisms are divided into an hierarchical system of classification. For instance, the
Animal Kingdom is divided into several phyla (sing.phylum) Each phylum is further divided
into classes, one of which is Insecta.
1.4.1Classes are further didvided into orders, families, genera(sing, genus) and finally
species kingdom
Phylum
Class
Subclass
Order
Family
Genus
Species Each recognised species of organism is known by a scientific name which consists of
two parts - its genus name and its species name. So the common house fly is called Musca

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domestica. This is known as binomial nomenclature. This name is always shown in italics or
alternatively is underlined.
1.4.2The animal kingdom is divided in a number of groups called “phyla” (sing.
Phylum). Examples:
Porifera
Paletyhelminthes
Mollusca
Arthropoda
Anelida
Cnidaria

1.5 Diversity
Arthropods are by far the most successful phylum of animals, both in diversity of distribution
and in number of species and individuals. They have adapted successfully to life in water, on
land and in the air. About 80% of all known animal species belong to the Arthropoda - about
800,000 species have been described, Medical Entomology 10 and recent estimates put the
total number of species in the phylum at about 6 million. Arthropods are found in a great
variety of habitats than any other animal group; on top of mountains, at great depths in the
ocean and in the icy wilderness of Antarctica. They can survive great extremes of temperature,
toxicity, acidity and salinity.
Activity 1.1
What are the basic differences between insects and
humans?_____________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________

You have come to the end of lecture one. In this lecture you have learnt the
following:
 To study anything, we need a system of names - “nomenclature” Similarity is the basis
for all nomenclature and morphological traits were the first classifying traits.

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  Carl Linneaus, created a system of animal and plant classification called binomial
nomenclature: (i. e. the genus & the species. The species is the basic unit of
nomenclature)

i. V B Awasthi (2007); Introduction To General And Applied Entomology; Scientific

Publishers (India)
ii. Hickman Roberts (2007); Integrated Principle of Zoology; M C Graw Hill USA
iii. Harold Kuzman (2006); General Textbook Of Entomology; Appleacademics

5
 Lecture 2
Classification of arthropods

2.1 Arthropod Classification

Arthropods can commonly be classified into different sub groups as shown below.
The phylum arthopoda is the largest of the animal phyla.

Figure 1 General classification of arthropods

 Subphylum Trilobita
 Subphylum Chelicerata - chelicera and pedipalps
• This class includes spiders, scorpions, mites, ticks and many other terrestrial
arthropods.
• The body consists of a cephalothorax and abdomen.
• Cephalothorax is comprised of fused head and thorax.
• Have six pairs of jointed appendages.
• Most are carnivorous and prey upon insects and other small arthropods.
• Respiration takes place either by trachea or book lungs or by both.
• They are mainly terrestrial arthropods.
• They have no antenna.
• Cephalothorax is non-segmented.
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 1. Class Merostomata – ex. Limulus
2. Class Pycnogonida – sea spiders
3. Class Arachnida - spiders, scorpions, mites, ticks
a. Order Araneae - spiders
b. Order Scorpionida - scorpions
c. Order Opiliones - harvestmen,
d. Order Acari - mites and ticks
 Subphylum Crustacea
• They live both in marine and fresh waters.
• A few are terrestrial.
• Crustaceans are unique among arthropods in possessing two pairs of antenna.
• They always have one pair of mandibles and two pairs of maxillae around the mouth.
• Mandibles are usually adapted for biting and chewing. Maxillae are used for holding
the food.
• Their body is divided into three distinct parts, i.e. the head, thorax and abdomen.
• Respiration usually takes place through gills associated with appendages.
• The sexes are usually separate and the reproduction is sexual.
• The thoracic and abdominal appendages may be variously modified for walking,
swimming, feeding, respiration or as accessory reproductive structures.
1. Class Branchiopoda – fairy shrimp, brine shrimp
2. Class Maxillopoda - Copepods
3. Class Malacostraca
a. Order Isopoda - sow bugs
b. Order Amphipoda - sideswimmers, scuds
c. Order Decapoda - crabs, true shrimp, lobsters, crayfish
d. Order Euphausiacea – Inc Krill, looks like shrimp, and food of many whales
and fishes
 Subphylum Uniramia (Myriapoda)
• All the animals are terrestrial.
• Their body is divided into a head and an elongated trunk with many segments.
• Each segment bears one or two pairs of legs.
• They are carnivorous /herbivorous.
• Eyes may present or absent.

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 1. Class – Chilopoda – Centipedes
2. Class - Diplopoda – Millipedes
3. Class - Pauropoda – Soft bodied myriapods
4. Class - Insecta
 Differences between centipedes and millipedes

CENTIPEDES MILLEPEDES

Have fewer body segments Have many body segments

Have one pair of legs per segment Have two pairs of legs per segment

Have poison claws Have no poison claws

Are carnivorous Are herbivores

Do not coil They coil

2.2 Monophyletic classification of Arthropods

The monophyletic classification scheme, proposed by Boudreaux ,recognizes three
evolutionary lineages within the phylum Arthropoda: Trilobita, Chelicerata, and
Mandibulata.

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2.3 Meglitsch and Schram (1991) classification scheme
According to them, Crustacea and Chelicerata are the most primitive groups. Insects,
myriapods, and onychophora are grouped together in the superclass Uniramia because of
similarities in leg structure and locomotion.

Activity 2.1
Read the difference between monophyletic classification scheme and
Meglitsch and Schram classification scheme
_______________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________

Now take a break and reflect on some of the issues we have discussed today. After your break,
answer the following questions:

1. Explain taxonomy of arthropods.

_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________

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 _____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________

i. V B Awasthi (2007); Introduction To General And Applied Entomology; Scientific

Publishers (India)
ii. Hickman Roberts (2007); Integrated Principle of Zoology; M C Graw Hill USA
iii. Harold Kuzman (2006); General Textbook Of Entomology; Appleacademics

10
 Lecture 3
Characteristics of class arthropoda

3.1 Common Characteristics of Arthropods

Arthropods are grouped under the animal kingdom. They are invertebrate animals. Despite the
enormous diversity found among them, they all share the following common characteristics:
1. Bilaterally symmetrical body sub-divided into segments.
2. Body covered with exoskeleton which is made up of a tough and rigid substance
known as chitin.
3. Jointed appendages are present on some body segments.
4. Body cavity between the alimentary canal and the body wall.
5. Open circulatory system that works by diffusion unlike the arteries and veins in higher
animals like humans which are the closed type.
6. Have ventral ladder type of nervous system: These are called ganglia and are situated
at different places in the body of the arthropod with a ladder type linkage: message
passes from one ganglia to the other and finally to the big ganglia at the head trough
nerves.
7. Growth by molting, which is controlled by hormones

3.2 Importance of arthropods

The effect of arthropods may be seen in relation to health and their benefit.
3.2.1 Health Effects
Arthropods affect the health and comfort of man in manydifferent ways. The common fear of
insects (entomophobia)possessed by many people is perhaps the least serious.Proper
knowledge of the appearance of harmful, beneficialand harmless arthropods can do much to
remedy theseconditions. The Following are some examples of the healtheffects attributed to
arthropods:
 Arthropods attack man, domestic and wild animals.
 They bite and suck blood.
 They pass infective organisms and may inject toxin to man and animals (mechanically
or biologically).
 They cause myiasis (infestation by larva of diptera) on man and animals.
 Annoy and irritate man and animals.
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  They cause envenomization by their bite, sting, spines or by their secretions.
Envenomization may cause swelling, pain, redness, rash, fever, allergic
reactions,blood poisoning, or death in some cases.
 Arthropods parasitize man, animals and plants: for example louse, and ticks on
animals, and aphids on plants.
 Cause accidental injury to sense organs: they enter the eyes, ears, mouth or nostrils.
 They cause allergic/asthmatic reactions by their odor, secretions, and by their dead
body fragments.
 Crop adulteration is another effect of arthropods due to their droppings of fecula, dead
body, egg shells, urine
 or microorganisms. Arthropods cause Entomophobia (fear of insects): nervous
disorder, hysterics, hallucination etc.

The following are also other examples of some arthropods that may affect human comfort and
health:
1. Chigger – causes intense itching; dermatitis
2. Rat mite – causes intense itching; dermatitis
3. Grain itch mite – causes dermatitis and fever
4. Scabies mite – burrows in skin causing dermatitis (scabies).
5. Hard ticks – painful bite, tick paralysis, usually fatal if ticks not removed:
6. Soft ticks – some species are very venomous.
7. Black widow spider – its bite causes local swelling, intense pain and occasionally death.
8. Scorpions – painful sting, sometimes death.
9. Centipedes – painful bite.
10. Lice- intense irritation, reddish papules.
11. Bedbug – blood suckers (irritating to some).
12. True bug – painful bite, local inflammation.
13. Beetles – severe blisters on skin from crushed beetles.
14. Caterpillar –rush on contact with the hairs or spines.
15. Bees, wasps, ants – painful sting, local swelling.
16. Flies – painful bite, swelling, bleeding puncture, myiasis.
17. Mosquitoes – irritation.

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3.2.2The Beneficial Effects of Arthropods
Fortunately, for mankind not all arthropods are harmful. Arthropods contribute to a lot of
benefit on commercial products, agriculture and health. It is therefore, necessary to distinguish
between “beneficial” and “harmful” arthropods. The following are some understood benefits
of arthropods:
1. One of the greatest benefits man receives througharthropods (insects) is the pollonization
of plants.Approximately 50 seed and fruit crops depend on honeybees for pollinization.
Clover, onions, apples and others would not yield without insect pollinators,
butterflies,ants, flies and bees
2. Silk is produced by insects. The caterpillar of the silk producing moth (Bombyx mori)
spins a cocoon prior to changing to the adult stage. The filament forming the cocoon is
continuous and ranges in length from 800 – 1200 yards. An ounce of silkworm eggs will
produce 30,000 - 35,000 caterpillars which will yield 100 – 200 pounds of cocoons. These
cocoons will produce 10 -12 pounds of raw silk.
3. Honey and wax is the other product of insects (honey bees must collect 37,000 loads of
nectar from plants in order to make one pound of honey).
4. Arthropods are very helpful in improving the soil. The burrowing of ants, beetles and
other insects enables air to penetrate the soil.
5. Lac insect (Kerria lacca) is a source of a commercial varnish.
6. Arthropods that prey upon and destroy other animals are called predators. They help to
reduce the number of insects. E.g. spiders, ants, dragon flies.
7. Some arthropods lay their eggs on the larva of other arthropods, the eggs hatch and the
young larvae feed up on the body juice of the host as a parasite.
8. Insects are valuable as food for humans and animals. Chickens, turkeys, hogs and fish
utilize many insects as an important source of their food. Some of the primitive
races of man use insects for food. E.g. grasshopper, cricket, beetle, caterpillar, termite and
ant. More than other things insects have served man as sources for scientific knowledge
and technological innovations:
 Man has learned science of flight (planes, space crafts) from insects. Insects have
thought man flight techniques since they had this civilization long before man.
 Learned carpentry wood - work such as tunneling from beetles.
 The science of navigation and communication, utilization of air conditioning, use of
photogenic light, use of chemicals as warfare, paper production, pottery, engineering

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 work, farming, etc .So many technologies seem to have been copied from arthropod
work

Activity 3.1
Arthropods often are classified as beneficial, harmful, or neutral. In which
category would you place each of the following and why?
Centipede
Flea
Ant
Aphid
Mosquitoes
Ticks
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________

i. V B Awasthi (2007); Introduction To General And Applied Entomology; Scientific

Publishers (India)
ii. Harold Kuzman (2006); General Textbook Of Entomology; Appleacademics

14
 Lecture 4
Classification and Characteristics of class insecta

4.1 Class insecta

Despite their small size, the sheer numbers or biomass of insects means that they have a
significant impact on the environment and therefore upon our lives.
Although insects have never adapted to a truly marine environment, they inhabit almost all
terrestrial and aquatic environments. Some have adapted to live with us (cockroaches,
silverfish) while others live on us (lice, bed bugs, mosquitoes).
Their species richness or diversity surpasses any other group of organisms. It has been
said that insects outnumber all the other species of animals and plants combined.
This relative diversity may be appreciated by a speciescape whereby the size of an
organism, as drawn, is approximately proportional to the number of described species in
the group (or taxon) that it represents.
We do not know how many species of insects there are. There are about 1 million named
species. It has taken about 300 years for scientists to describe these. Estimates of actual
species richness vary from less than 5 million to as many as 80 million. Figures at the
higher end of these estimates are dependent upon the diversity of species now being
recovered from the canopies of rainforests.
Obviously there are many years (if not centuries) of work for insect taxonomists to
describe, name and classify these species.

There are many attributes of insects that have allowed for their success and diversification.
 Small size -there are many more niches for small organisms than for large organisms.
For instance, one insect could live solely on and in the seeds of a specific plant.
 Short life cycle - this allows many generations within a given time for selection and
evolution to take place.
 Large reproductive ability - large numbers of offspring support a large variation for
selection and evolution to act upon.
 Variation in the life style of different stages in an insect's life (e.g. caterpillar versus
butterfly) reduces competition for resources within the species.
 Wings-the ability to fly is relatively rare outside insects and has allowed them to
colonise freely.

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  Sensory sophistication - the sensory capabilities of insects surpasses most other
organisms.
 Evolutionary interactions with other organisms - coevolution leads to greater
specialisation and speciation.
 Adaptation of appendages - mouthparts, wings and legs have often become highly
specialized.

4.2 Classification of Insects

• Kingdom: Animalia (animals
Phylum: Arthropoda (arthropods)
Class: hexapoda/Insecta (insects).
• Orders:

Order Example
Archaeognatha Jumping bristletail
Blattodea Cockroaches

Coleoptera Beetles

Dermaptera Earwigs
Diptera Flies (like the house fly and the mosquito)
Embioptera Webspinners
Ephemeroptera Mayflies
Grylloblattodea Rock crawlers

Heteroptera, Hemiptera Bugs

Homoptera Aphids, cicadas

Hymenoptera Ants, bees, wasps
Isoptera Termites
Lepidoptera Butterflies, moths
Mantodea Mantids
Mecoptera Scorpionflies
Megaloptera Dobsonflies

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 Monophasmatodea Gladiators

Neuroptera Lacewings, antlions

Odonata Dragonflies

Orthoptera Grasshoppers, crickets

Phasmatodea Walkingsticks

Phthiraptera Lice

Plecoptera Stoneflies

Psocoptera Book lice

Raphidioptera Snakeflies

Siphonaptera Fleas

Strepsiptera Twisted-wing parasites

Thysanopteraera Thrips

Trichoptera Caddisflies

Zoraptera Angel wings

Zygentoma Silverfish

 An example of the classification of an insect:

• Kingdom -- Animalia
• Phylum -- Arthropoda
• Class -- Hexapoda (= insects)
• Order -- Lepidoptera (= butterflies and moths)
• Family -- Noctuidae (= noctuids)
• Genus -- Helicoverpa
• Species -- Helicoverpa armigera (American bollworm)

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 Activity 4.1
Identify examples of insects in the following orders:
Blattodea, Homoptera, Siphonaptera, Phthiraptera, Orthoptera, Diptera,
Hymenoptera
______________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________

4.3 Characteristics of class insecta

• The distingiushing features of the insecta may be listed briefly as follows:
4.3.1 Body
• Body divided into three distinct regions: head, thorax, and abdomen
4.3.1 Head
• One pair of antanae
• One pair of mandible
• One pair of maxillae
• A hypopharynx
• A pair of compound eyes
• A labium
4.3.3 Thorax
• Three pairs of legs, one pair per thoraxic segment( a few insects are legless and some
larvae posses additional leglike appendages- such as prolegs on the abdominal
segment
• Often one or two pairs of wings, borne by second and/or third of the thoraxic segments
4.3.4Abdomen
• The gonopore at the posterior end of the abdomen
• No locomotor appendages on the abdomen of adults(except in some primitive insects)
the abdominal appendages if present they are at the apex of the abdomen and consist
of a pair of cerci, an apiproct, and a pair of paraprocts.

Now take a break and reflect on some of the issues we have discussed today. After your
break, answer the following questions:

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 1. Discuss why insects are diverse in the world?
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
2.Describe use of insect?
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
3. List orders of class insect?
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________

i. V B Awasthi (2007); Introduction To General And Applied Entomology; Scientific

Publishers (India)
ii. Harold Kuzman (2006); General Textbook Of Entomology; Appleacademics

19
 Lecture 5
Morphology of class insecta

5.1 Insect morphology

Figure 2 General structure of insect cuticle

5.1.1 Head

Figure 3 General structure of insect head

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 • Eyes : most insects have a pair of compound eyes located dorsolaterally on the head, It
is composed of several units called ommatidia. There may be up to 30,000 ommatidia
in a compound eye. This type of eye gives less resolution than the vertebrate eye, but it
gives acute perception of movement -important in flight.in addition to cmpd eyes most
insects also pocess a simple eyes called ocelli, detect low light or small changes in
light intensity.
• Antennae: are paired segmented appendages located on the head usually between or
Figure 2 General structure of insect cuticle: the enlargement above shows
below
details compound
of the cuticle eyes. they are sensory in function and act as tactile organs, organs of
smell hearing, thermal receptors.

Figure 4 General structure of insect antannae

 Types of antannae:
• Setaceous antennae have a bristle-like shape. Examples: Dragonflies and damselflies

(order Odonata).
• Aristate antennae are pouch-like with a lateral bristle.Examples: House and shore flies

(order Diptera).
• Capitate antennae are abruptly clubbed at the end.Examples: Butterflies (order

Lepidoptera)

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• Clavate antennae are gradually clubbed at the end. Examples: Carrion beetles (order
Coleoptera). Adult carrion beetles feed on decaying animal matter or maggots.

• Filiform antennae have a thread-like shape. Examples: Ground and longhorned beetles

(order Coleoptera), cockroaches (order Blattaria).

• Moniliform have a beadlike shape. Examples: Termites (order Isoptera).

• Pectinate antennae have a comb-like shape. Examples: Fire-colored beetles and

fireflies (order Coleoptera).

• Plumose antennae have a feather-like shape. Examples: Moths (order Lepidoptera)

and mosquitoes (order Diptera).

• Serrate antennae have a saw-toothed shape.Examples: Click beetles (order

Coleoptera).
 Geniculate antennae are hinged or bent like an elbow. Examples: Bees and ants

(order Hymenoptera).
• Lamellate or clubbed antennae end in nested plates. Examples: Scarab beetles (order

Coleoptera).

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  Mouthparts
• The 4 main mouthparts are the
o labrum
o mandibles
o maxillae (plural maxilla)
o labium.

Figure 5 General structure of insect mouth parts

• The labrum is a simple fused sclerite, often called the upper lip, and moves
longitudinally. It is hinged to the clypeus.
• The mandibles, or jaws, are highly sclerotized paired structures that move at right
angles to the body. They are used for biting, chewing and severing food.
• The maxillae are paired structures that can move at right angles to the body and
possess segmented palps.
• The labium (often called the lower lip), is a fused structure that moves longitudinally
and possesses a pair of segmented palps.
Mouthparts vary greatly among insects of different orders but there are two main functional
groups: mandibulate and haustellate. Shown above are mandibulate (chewing) mouthparts.
Haustellate mouthparts can be further classified as piercing-sucking, sponging, and siphoning.
• Mandibulate (chewing) mouthparts are used for biting and grinding solid foods (see
diagram above).
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 Examples: Dragonflies and damselflies (order Odonata), termites (order Isoptera), adult
lacewings (order Neuroptera), beetles (order Coleoptera), ants (order Hymenoptera),
cockroaches (order Blattaria), grasshoppers, crickets and katydids (order Orthoptera),
caterpillars (order Lepidoptera). Adult Lepidoptera have siphoning mouthparts.

• Haustellate (Sucking)mouthparts are primarily used for sucking liquids and can be
broken down into two subgroups: those that possess stylets and those that do not.
• Stylets are needle-like projections used to penetrate plant and animal tissue. The
modified mandibles, maxilla, and hypopharynx form the stylets and the feeding tube.
After piercing solid tissue, insects use the modified mouthparts to suck liquids from
the host.
Some haustellate mouthparts lack stylets. Unable to pierce tissues, these insects must rely
on easily accessible food sources such as nectar at the base of a flower
One example of nonstylate mouthparts are the long siphoning proboscis of butterflies and
moths (Lepidoptera). Although the method of liquid transport differs from that of the a
Lepidopteran proboscis, the rasping-sucking rostrum of some flies are also considered to
be haustellate without stylets.
• Piercing-sucking mouthparts are used to penetrate solid tissue and then suck up liquid
food. Examples: Cicadas (see diagram), aphids, and other bugs (order Hemiptera), sucking

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lice (order Phthiraptera), stable flies and mosquitoes (order Diptera).

Figure 6 General structure of insect mouth: order Hemiptera

5.1.2 Thorax
• It is the middle region of the insect-body and consists of three segments, namely
pro-, meso-, and meta-thorax. It is the locomotory centre of the insect body.

Figure 7 General structure of insect thorax

• Hence each thoracic segment bears a pair of legs and in wing-bearing insects possess a
pair of wings on each meso- and meta-thorax.
• The wing bearing segments are collectively termed as pterothorax.
• Each thoracic segment is divided into four distinct surfaces i.e. the dorsal surface
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 (the notum or tergum); the ventral surface (the sternum); and each lateral side, the
pleuron (the
Pleure).

5.1.3 Legs

Figure 8 General structure of insect leg

• The fore-legs are located on the prothorax, the mid-legs on the mesothorax, and the
hind legs on the metathorax.
• Each leg has six major components, listed here from proximal to distal: coxa (plural
coxae), trochanter, femur (plural femora), tibia (plural tibiae), tarsus (plural tarsi),
pretarsus
• The femur and tibia may be modified with spines. The tarsus appears to be divided
into one to five "pseudosegments" called tarsomeres. Like the mouthparts and
antennae, insect legs are highly modified for different functions, depending on the
environment and lifestyle of an insect.
• Ambulatory legs are used for walking. The structure is similar to cursorial (running)
legs.Examples: Bugs (order Hemiptera), leaf beetles beetles (Corder oleoptera).
• Cursorial legs are modified for running. Note the long, thin leg segments.
Examples: Cockroaches (order Blattaria), ground and
tiger beetles (order Coleoptera).
• Fossorial fore legs are modified for digging.
Examples: Ground dwelling insects;
mole crickets (order Orthoptera) and cicada nymphs (order Hemiptera).
• Raptorial fore legs modified for grasping (catching prey).
Examples: Mantids (order Mantodea), ambush bugs, giant water
 bugs and water scorpions (order Hemiptera)

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  Natorial legs are modified for swimming. These legs have long setae on the
tarsi.Examples: Aquatic beetes (order Coleoptera) and bugs (order Hemiptera).
 Saltatorial hind legs adapted for jumping.
These legs are characterized by an elongated
femur and tibia.Examples: Grasshoppers, crickets and katydids (order Orthoptera).

5.1.4 Wings
• Most adult insect possess wings. Some have shortened (brachypterous) wings
while others may be wingless (apterous)Insects have evolved many variations of
the wings, and an individual insect may posess more than one type of wing.
• Wing venation is a commonly used taxonomic character, especially at the family
and species level.
• Wings have a network of veins which give rigidity and support. Air, nerves and
blood also pass through the wing veins
• There are several major longitudinal veins. These are the costa, subcosta, radius,
median, cubitus and anal veins
• Primitive wings have many, short cross veins. Such wings are called reticulate
• Grasshoppers and cockroaches have leathery forewings which are termed
tegmina (sing. tegmen)
• Many plant bugs have forewings that are thickened at the base but membranous
distally. These are called hemelytra (sing.hemelytron). Most beetles have very
hardened forewings called elytra (sing. elytron)
• In flies, (Diptera), the hind wings have become modified to form small balance
organs, called halteres.In more advanced insects the wings are fastened together
These hooks engage a vein on the posterior margin of the forewing Hamuli are
tiny hooks on the anterior margin of the hind wing hooks engage a vein on the
posterior margin of the forewing
• .A frenulum is a bristle on the hind wing of many butterflies and moths. The
frenulum fits into a hook, (or retinaculum), on the forewing rather like a safety pin
longitudinal cross vein

27
 Figure 9 General structure of insect wing

longitudinal veins- long veins that originate from base, generally parallel to leading edge
cross-veins- short veins that connect longitudinal veins
cell -area enclosed between veins.
5.1.5 Abdomen

Figure 10 General structure of insect abdomen

• Insect abdomen is typically 11- segmented, in many insect the number is reduced
either by fusion of the last two segment or by telescoping of the terminal segment.
• The abdomen contains the reproductive organs and the majority of the organ system.
• The dorsal and ventral abdominal segments are termed terga (singular tergum) and
sterna (singular sternum), respectively.
• Spiracles usually can be found in the conjunctive tissue between the terga and sterna
of abdominal segments 1-8.
• Reproductive structures are located on the 9th segment in males (including the
aedeagus, or penis, and often a pair of claspers) and on the 8th and 9th abdominal
Ovipositor
• The ovipositor is the egg-laying device found only in female insects. In some insects,
the ovipositor is highly modified and conspicuous. In others, the apparatus may be
needle or blade-like
• segments in females (female external genitalia copulatory openings and ovipositor).

28
5.1.6 Insect integument
-It is the outer body covering of insects. At some places it has invaginated (as apodemes
and apophyses) to form endoskeleton for the attachment of muscles.
- It also forms the inner lining of fore- and hind-gut of alimentary canal, due to respiratory
and reproductive systems, and of various dermal glands.
• Functions
-It provides proper shape to the body, unlimited area for muscle attachment, being hard and
rigid protects the internal organs from injury; prevents water loss from the body as well as
inhibits the entry of microorganisms and pesticides, and help in the formation of various
appendages.
-The major limitation is its inability to undergo extensive expansion. Hence, for the increase
in size it has to be shed periodically and the period between shedding and hardening of the
new integument leaves the insect in a very vulnerable condition.
1. Cuticle: It is complex, non-cellular layer and largely secreted by the epidermis. It
comprises up to one-half of the dry weight in certain species. It is variously differentiated
according to the function it is required to perform. It is thick and rigid where abrasion may
occur; flexible and elastic at points of articulation, and extremely thin over some sensory
structures. It is further sub-divided into
i)epicuticle
ii)procuticle.

29
 Figure 11 General structure of insect integument
i)Epicuticle: It is very thin (0.03-4.0 micrometers thick), multilayered, without chitin and
unpigmented structure. It prevents water loss from the body. It is resistant to chemical
attack and insoluble in ordinary solvents. It comprises of:
(a) cement layer: It is a layer of lipoprotein (tanned protein + lipid) – a shellac-like sub
stance, less than 0.1 micrometer (1/1000 mm) in thickness, largely secreted by the
dermal glands, and protects the underlying wax layer from abrasion. It is apparently
absent in many adult insects that possess cuticular scales.
(b) wax layer: It is a monolayer (one molecule thick) consists of long chain hydrocarbons
+ long chain fatty acids and alcohol. It imparts impermeability characteristics (water
proofing).
c)cuticulin: A universal layer covering the entire integumental surface including the
tracheoles and the gland ducts. It is composed of lipoprotein and consists of two layers:
outer epicuticle: It is an outer, thin but dense layer, and consists of polyphenols.
inner epicuticle: It is an inner thick and relatively homogenous layer. It is chemically
complex and consists of tanned lipoproteins. During its production phenolic substances
and phenoloxidase are concerned with tanning the proteins.
ii) Procuticle: It is a thick layer (up to 200 micrometers) providing protection, support,
area for attachment to muscles, rigidity and pigmentation. It consists of two non-cellular
layers i.e. outer (Exocuticle) and inner (Endocuticle).
Exocuticle: It varies greatly in thickness sclerotized (hard); containing tanned proteins
which impart rigidity and a very small quantity of chitin and pigmented.
It is a major component of the cuticle in hard-bodied insects and very thin in soft-bodied
insects.
-It is resistant to the action of moulting fluid and is shed as exuviae during moulting along
with epicuticle.
-It is absent below the ecdysial cleavage line and intersegmental membranes.
Endocuticle: It is a very thick (10-200 micrometers) layer, soft and pliable containing
untanned proteins and chitin (C8H13O5N)n in large proportion.

30
 It is a major portion of the cuticle in soft-bodied insects. It consists of light (deposited
during night) and dark (deposited during day) daily growth layers. Light layers are further
subdivided into alternating layers of light and dark lamellae.
2. Epidermis: It consists of a single layer of cells, accommodating secretary cells, and
show greatest activity during moulting when these cells become elongate and columnar
from their original rhomboidal and rectangular shape. The adjacent cells are joined by
septate desmosomes. It secretes the cuticle and may secrete the basement membrane.
. Basement membrane: It is a non-cellular sheath on which epithelial cells stand. It is
amorphous, granular layer and generally 0.5 micrometer or less in thickness. It is a connective
tissue containing mucopolysaccharide and mainly secreted by the blood cells.

Activity 5.1
Draw a generalized insect body and identify as many parts as possible.
_____________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________

i. V B Awasthi (2007); Introduction To General And Applied Entomology; Scientific

Publishers (India)
ii. Harold Kuzman (2006); General Textbook Of Entomology; Appleacademics

31
 Lecture 6
Anatomy and physiology of class insecta:digestion, circulaory system

6.1 Anatomy And Physiology Of Insects

6.1.1 The digestive system

• The digestive system (sometimes referred to as the alimentary canal) is a long tube-
like structure that runs from the mouth to the anus and is centrally located within the
body cavity, or hemocoel.
• The anterior-most region is called the foregut (or stomodeum) which includes the
Buccal cavity, the esophagus, and the crop.
• The primary function of the foregut is to begin the breakdown of food particles and
transport them to the next region, the midgut (or mesenteron).
• The midgut is the major area of digestion and absorption. Undigested food particles
then pass into the third region, the hindgut (or proctodeum), which consists of the
ileum, colon, rectum, and (often) rectal pads.
• The digestive system (sometimes referred to as the alimentary canal) is a long tube-
like structure that runs from the mouth to the anus and is centrally located within the
body cavity, or hemocoel.
• The anterior-most region is called the foregut (or stomodeum) which includes the
Buccal cavity, the esophagus, and the crop.
• The primary function of the foregut is to begin the breakdown of food particles and
transport them to the next region, the midgut (or mesenteron).
• The midgut is the major area of digestion and absorption. Undigested food particles
then pass into the third region, the hindgut (or proctodeum), which consists of the
ileum, colon, rectum, and (often) rectal pads.

32
 Figure 12 General structure of insect digestive system

• The hindgut functions in water and solute re-absorption and waste excretion.
• The three sections of the digestive tract can be easily identified by structures found at
the junction of each region.
• Gastric caecae, for example, mark the end of the foregut and beginning of the
midgut. It is believed that the purpose of these structures is to increase surface area for
greater nutrient absorption. The constriction at the gastric caecae also marks the spot
of the cardiac valve (or sphincter).
• Near the junction of the midgut and hindgut are long, thin structures called
Malpighian tubules. These range in number from a few to hundreds, but only aphids
are currently known to have none.
• Malpighian tubules are creamy to yellow in color and work in conjunction with the
ileum to provide the primary site for osmoregulation and excretion.

• The crop serves as a storage space for food.

• Salivary glands open into the gullet, and their secretions are mixed with the food
during mastication.
• Digestion takes place primarily in the midgut, and the products are absorbed in the
midgut and the hindgut.
• The food waste passes to the hindgut, or intestine, for elimination.
• Waste matter in the blood passes through the walls of malpighian tubes and into the
hindgut, from which it is eliminated from the body of the insect.
• In addition to the alimentary canal, insects also have paired salivary glands
and salivary reservoirs. These structures usually reside in the thorax .

33
 • Salivary ducts lead from the glands to the reservoirs and then forward, through the
head, to an opening (the salivarium) behind the hypopharynx. Movements of the
mouthparts help mix saliva with food in the buccal cavity.

Activity 6.1
Describe the functional morphology of the alimentary canal of a generalize
insect
_____________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________

6.2 Circulatory system

• Unlike the closed circulatory system of humans, insect circulatory systems are said to
be open, meaning that they lack a complex network of veins and arteries to help
transport blood throughout the body. Instead, insect blood (called hemolymph) flows
relatively freely throughout the hemocoel.
• Only one vessel is present in the insect circulatory system: the dorsal vessel.
• Posteriorly (in the abdominal region), the dorsal vessel acts as the heart, pumping
hemolymph forward into the anterior region (in the head and thorax), where it acts as
the aorta and dumps the hemolymph into the head.
• It flows posteriorly and is returned to the heart via ostia, which are small slits in the
heart region of the dorsal vessel designed for hemolymph uptake.

34
 Figure 13 General structure of insect circulatory system
6.2.1 Role of insect circulatory system
• The circulatory system is responsible for movement of nutrients, salts, hormones, and
metabolic wastes throughout the insect's body.
• In addition, it plays several critical roles in defense: it seals off wounds through a
clotting reaction, it encapsulates and destroys internal parasites or other invaders, and
in some species, it produces (or sequesters) distasteful compounds that provide a
degree of protection against predators.
• The hydraulic (liquid) properties of blood are important as well. Hydrostatic pressure
generated internally by muscle contraction is used to facilitate :
• hatching,
• molting,
• expansion of body and wings after molting,
• physical movements (especially in soft-bodied larvae), reproduction (e.g. insemination
and oviposition).
• In some insects, the blood aids in thermoregulation: it can help cool the body by
conducting excess heat away from active flight muscles or it can warm the body by
collecting and circulating heat absorbed while basking in the sun.

35
6.2.2 Role of Insect blood cells

Cell Type Major Function(s) Location

Plasmatocytes, Defense (e.g. phago-cytosis, throughout hoemocoel

Granulocytes, encapsulation, coagulation),
Prohaemocytes storage & distribution of nutrients

Cystocytes Coagulation throughout hoemocoel

Nephrocytes haemolymph filtering, metabolize localized: near dorsal vessel

wastes for excretion

Oenocytes lipid synthsis (haemoglobin localized: fat body, epidermis

synthesis, rare)

Activity 6.2
Describe the role of circulatory system in insects
_____________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________

i. V B Awasthi (2007); Introduction To General And Applied Entomology; Scientific

Publishers (India)
ii. Harold Kuzman (2006); General Textbook Of Entomology; Appleacademics

36
 Lecture 7
Anatomy and physiology of class insecta:nervous system,endocrine system,
respiration

7.1 Nervous system

• The ventral nerve cord, resembles a railroad track running from the head posteriorly
to the abdominal region (above, lower diagram).
• The ventral nerve cord is made up of two nerve cords (connectives) that run
longitudinally with a series of node-like ganglia.

Figure 14 General structure of insect nervous system

7.1.1Insect Ganglion
• The anterior most region of the ventral nerve cord is called the subesophageal
ganglion. Just dorsal to that structure is the insect brain (or supraesophageal ganglion)
• An insect's brain is a complex of six fused ganglia (three pairs) located dorsally within the
head capsule.
• Each part of the brain controls (innervates) a limited spectrum of activities in the insect's
body:

1. Protocerebrum: The first pair of ganglia are largely associated with vision; they innervate
the compound eyes and ocelli.
2. Deutocerebrum: The second pair of ganglia process sensory information collected by the
antennae.

37
Trebrum: The third pair of ganglia innervate the laritocebrum and integrate sensory inputs
from proto- and deutocerebrums. They also link the brain with the rest of the ventral nerve
cord .

7.2 Respiratory system

 The insect respiratory system is made up of a series of tubes that originate from
spiracles.
 The exterior openings of the tracheae are called spiracles. The spiracles are situated on
the sides of the insect and are usually 20 in number (10 pairs), 4 on the thorax and 16 on
the abdomen. Some water-breathing insects have gill-like structures.
 Internally, the tubes, or tracheae, appear as thin white lines throughout the hemocoel
and are particularly noticeable surrounding internal organs.
 Trachea deliver oxygen to internal organs and tissues.

Figure 15 General structure of insect respiratory system

7.2.1 Respiration
• All insects are aerobic organisms -- they must obtain oxygen (O2) from their environment
in order to survive.
• They use the same metabolic reactions as other animals.
• Arthropods use a variety of respiratory systems, lots of different kinds depending on
habitat eg.
• Gills in most aquatic species such as crustaeans and aquatic insect larvae and Nymphs
• Book gills in some chelicerates extend from abdomen like pages of a book
• Lungs-protected internal chamber for air breathing arthropods i.e thin walls of chamber
allow exchange of gasses with body fluids
• Book lungs-several hollow internal folds; reverse of book lungs

38
• Trachea-all terrestrial arthropods use this system for respiration is a system of branching
tubules that delivers oxygen directly to tissues insect tracheal system was an excellent
method to get lots of oxygen to muscle tissues
• Certain species of insects breathe through the body wall, by diffusion, but in general the
respiratory system of members of this class consists of a network of tubes, or tracheae
(tracheal system), that carry air throughout the body to smaller tubelets or tracheoles with
which all the organs of the body are supplied.
• In the tracheoles the oxygen from the air diffuses into the bloodstream, and carbon
dioxide from the blood diffuses into the air.

7.3 Endocrine system

• Hormonal control is vital to many aspects of insect physiology
& behavior, including: development, molting, & reproduction.
• Major hormonal centers include the brain, corpora allata,
corpora cardiaca, prothoracic gland.
• There are dozens of known insect hormones.
• Best known system = “the Triumvirate” of
1) neurohormones, 2) ecdysteroids, & 3) juvenile hormones.
• Some insect hormone analogs are used as pesticides.

39
Figure 16 General structure of insect endocrine system
7.3.1 Major Insect Hormone Types
• Neurohormones
(peptides)
Most diverse class Regulate various developmental
and metabolic processes
• Modes of action:
Along nerve axons
Through haemolymph
(carrier proteins)
Indirect: through effects on
other glands
• Ecdysteroids (sterols, from diet)
Primarily ß-ecdysone.
Molt-promoting but
many other functions.
• Juvenile Hormones
(sesquiterpenes)
Several forms, sometimes more than one
produced by same species
• Functions:
• Control of metamorphosis
• Retention of larval characteristics
• Inhibition of metamorphosis
• Regulation of reproduction
• Stimulation of egg yolk deposition in ovary of mother
• Controls accessory gland activity
• Controls production of pheromones

40
Activity 7.1
Complete the table below:
Location of endocrine Hormones synthesized Function/Action

41
 Lecture 8
Life cycle of class insecta

8.1 Reproductive system

Female Male

Figure 17 General structure of insect reproductive system

8.1.1 The female's reproductive system

• The female's reproductive system contains a pair of ovaries, a system of ducts through
which eggs pass to the outside, and some associated structures.
• When the insect is actively reproducing, these organs swell with developing eggs and may
nearly fill the abdomen.
• Each ovary is subdivided into functional units called ovarioles where the eggs are actually
produced, these leads into the oviduct posterially and anterially unite in a suspensory
ligament that attaches to the body wall.
• Near the midline of the body, these lateral oviducts join to form a common oviduct which
opens into a genital chamber called the bursa copulatrix.

42
• Female accessory glands (one or more pairs) supply lubricants for the reproductive system
and secrete a protein-rich egg shell (chorion) that surrounds the entire egg.
• These glands are usually connected by small ducts to the common oviduct or the bursa
copulatrix.

8.1.2 The male's reproductive system

 The male's reproductive system contains a pair of testes, usually located near the back
of the abdomen.
 Each testis is subdivided into functional units called follicles where sperm are actually
produced.
 Each sperm tube attaches to the vas deferens. The two vasa deferentia unite posterially
to form an ejaculatory duct which opens to the outside on a pennis or an aedeagus.
 Near the distal end of each follicle, there are a group of germ cells (spermatogonia)
that divide by mitosis and increase in size to form spermatocytes.
 These spermatocytes migrate toward the basal end of the follicle, pushed along by
continued cell division of the spermatogonia.
 Each spermatocyte undergoes meiosis: this yields four haploid spermatids which
develop into mature spermatozoa as they progress further along through the follicle.
 Production of spermatophores, pouch-like structures (mostly protein) that encase the
sperm and protect them as they are delivered to the female's body during copulation.
 Mature sperm pass out of the testes through vasa efferentia and collect in storage
chambers seminal vesicles that are usually little more than enlarged sections of the
vasa.
 One or more pairs of accessory glands are usually associated with the male's
reproductive system.
 These are secretory organs that connect to the reproductive system by means of short
ducts -- some may attach near the testes or seminal vesicles, others may be associated
with the ejaculatory duct. The glands have two major functions:
 Manufacture of seminal fluid, a liquid medium that sustains and nourishes mature
sperm while they are in the male's genital system.

43
8.2 Reproduction
 Rapid and prolific reproduction is typical of many insects and plays a major role in
their success as a group.
 Inclusive phenomena: gamete production, mating, fertilization,embryology,
hatching/birth.
 Reproduction is the main activity, besides dispersal, for which the insect imago (adult)
is adapted.
• Controlled by: innate (genetically programmed) behavior,
hormones, environment and interactions between these.
• Insect sperm & eggs are diverse!
• The egg, if present, may hatch internally or externally. Many species reproduce
asexually in one or all generations.
• Other typical modes of reproduction include
hermaphroditism, and colony fission in eusocial species.
• Embryo developmental variations include:
paedogenesis, polyembrony, & viviparity (4 types)
• Egg development may depend on mother’s
physiological/hormonal status.
• Species specific mating behavior may be an
efficiency/isolating mechanism &/or an outcome of sexual
selection.
8.2.1 Egg formation
• Near the distal end of each ovariole, the germ cells oogonia divide by mitosis and
increase in size to form oocytes.
• These oocytes migrate toward the basal end of the ovariole, pushed along by continued
cell division of the oogonia. Each oocyte undergoes meiosis: this yields four cells --
one egg and three polar bodies. The polar bodies may disintegrate or they may
accompany the egg as nurse cells.
• As developing eggs move down the ovariole, they grow in size by absorbing yolk.

• By the time an egg reaches the base (calyx) of the ovariole it has reached full size -
- often growing up to 100,000 times larger than the original oocyte. Mature eggs
leave the ovaries through short lateral oviduct.

44
  During copulation, the male deposits his spermatophore in the bursa copulatrix.
Peristaltic contractions force the spermatophore into the female's spermatheca, a
pouch-like chamber reserved for storage of sperm.
 A spermathecal gland produces enzymes (for digesting the protein coat of the
spermatophore) and nutrients (for sustaining the sperm while they are in storage).
Sperm may live in the spermatheca for weeks, months, or even years!
 During ovulation, each egg passes across the opening to the spermatheca and
stimulates release of a few sperm onto the egg's surface. These sperm swim through
the micropyle (a special opening in the egg shell) and get inside the egg.
 Mate attraction. Female pheromones may attract males over long distances. Other
species use visual cues or sound to attract mates.
 Courtship, close-range stimulation that initiates receptivity. In some Lepidoptera male
pheromones play an “aphrodesiac” role in courtship. In other species one sex performs
a “dance”, or the couple vibrate or antennate each other.
 Fertilization occurs as soon as one sperm's nucleus fuses with the egg cell's nucleus.
Oviposition (egg laying) usually follows closely after fertilization. Once these
processes are complete, the egg is ready to begin embryonic development.

Activity 8.1
Using labeled diagrams only, compare the internal female and male
reproductive systems of generalized insects
_____________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________

i. V B Awasthi (2007); Introduction To General And Applied Entomology; Scientific

Publishers (India)
ii. Harold Kuzman (2006); General Textbook Of Entomology; Appleacademics

45
 Lecture 9
Reproduction of class insecta

9.1 Life cycle

• The life cycle of an insect is often very complex, and the organism passes through
various stages before it becomes an adult — that is, sexually mature.
• This change in one form to another form is known as metamorphosis, and each time
an insect changes, it undergoes a process known as molting.
• Sometimes there is very little change in the organism at a molt, but sometimes the
changes are profound, as when an adult butterfly molts from its cocoon.
Stages of the Life Cycle

Figure 19 General structure ofstages of insect life cycle

9.1.1 Molting
• The number of molts during the life of an insect ranges from three or four to more than
30
9.1.2 Functions of molting
 it allows the insect to grow. Because a sclerotized cuticle is very rigid, an insect cannot
grow without shedding the cuticle. Once the insect is freed of its old cuticle, its body can
expand before the new cuticle hardens.
 it enables the insect to alter its cuticular structures and allows it to get rid of waste
materials that have accumulated in the old cuticle.
• Molting begins with the epidermis cells secreting a new cuticle underneath the old one.
When the new cuticle is formed, the old cuticle becomes detached from the body.
46
• When the insect is completely free within the old cuticle, the process of molting is
complete; the actual emergence of the insect from the old cuticle is known as ecdysis. and
the stage between successive moults an instar.
• At first the new cuticle is soft and can stretch, but soon it becomes hardened.
9.1.3 Hormones and Molting
• Major endocrine centers are the brain, corpora allata,
corpora cardiaca, & prothoracic gland.
• Major hormone groups that affect molting include juvenile
hormone (JH), ecdysial hormones (“ecdysone”), &
prothroacicotropic hormone (PTTH).

47
Figure 18 stages of molting in insect
Activity 9.1
1. Discribe molting stages in inscetcs
_____________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________

48
i. V B Awasthi (2007); Introduction To General And Applied Entomology; Scientific
Publishers (India)
ii. Harold Kuzman (2006); General Textbook Of Entomology; Appleacademics

49
 Lecture 10
Metamorphosis

10.1 Development
10.1.1 Metamorphosis
Metamorphosis is the change through one or more distinctive immature body forms to
adult body form.
• Apterygota (Ametabolous) l Juveniles look like miniature versions of adults. At each
molt, become larger until sexual maturity. Both adults and juveniles are Wingless.

• Holometabola/ complete metamorphosis -the young that emerge from the egg are
called larvae, and they bear no resemblance at all to the adults.
• They may also differ from the adults in their feeding habits, habitats, and other
characteristics. After several molts each larva changes into a pupa, which is the
resting stage of the life cycle.
• A pupa does not feed and generally does not move about, but it undergoes many
internal changes and finally molts to produce the adult.
• Example -beetles, flies, butterflies and moths, ants, wasps, and bees. Larvae of moths
and butterflies are commonly called caterpillars. Larvae of beetles are often called
grubs, and larvae of flies are often called maggots.
• Hemimetabola /simple/ incomplete, metamorphosis- the young that hatch from the
egg appear similar to the adults but are smaller, sexually immature, and lack functional
wings.
• In all of these insects, except for the mayflies, the wings do not develop until the final
molt.
• The young are called nymphs.
Example- grasshoppers, crickets, mantids, true bugs, leafhoppers, and aphids.
EGG - NYMPH - ADULT
10.1.2 Eggs
• Some insects, including mosquitoes, lay their eggs in water, but many insects deposit
eggs on plants or on the ground.
• Many moths, butterflies, lacewings, ant lions, and other insects attach their eggs to
leaves, depositing them in neat stacks. Lacewing flies attach their eggs by a stalk.

50
 • Cockroaches and mantids protect their eggs by enclosing them in a frothy mass inside
protective capsules called oothecae. Locust eggs are deposited in the soil and are
protected by egg pods. Other insects conceal their eggs from predators by hiding them
in crevices in plants or by pushing them into plant or animal tissues.
• Most insects leave their eggs once they are laid. A few flies, however, brood their eggs
until they hatch, and earwigs care for their eggs by periodically turning them over and
licking them. The honeybees and other social insects show the greatest degree of
maternal care for both the eggs and the developing young.
• The amount of time it takes for an insect embryo to develop inside an egg varies
greatly. In some species it may take only a few days, but in others it make take months.
When the embryo is fully developed and ready to emerge, the chorion of the egg
breaks open.
10.1.3 Nymphs
• Nymphs, unlike many larvae, often live in the same habitat as the adults and eat
the same kind of food. In aphids, where many wingless adults are produced during
the summer, it is very difficult to tell the nymphs from the adults.
• In some insects the nymphs are aquatic while the adults are not. In these species the
nymphs usually have special structures, such as tracheal gills or swimming legs. In the
water bugs, where both the adults and nymphs are aquatic, the differences between the
adults and nymphs are very small.
10.1.4 Larva
10.1.4.1 Types
• Campodeiform - moves about on three pairs of thoracic legs Many beetle larvae,
notably those of ladybirds and ground beetles, are of this type.
• Caterpillars -These larvae, known as eruciform larvae, spend most of their time
feeding on vegetation and move sluggishly from one meal to the next. These larvae
have well-developed thoracic legs and a large baggy abdomen that is supported by
several pairs of structures known as false legs or prolegs.
• Scarabaeiform larvae- that live inside their food material have no need to move
about and have short thoracic legs. become more obese than the caterpillars and their
head and thorax appear very small compared with their large abdomen. The larvae of
May beetles and stag beetles are of this type.

51
 • Apodous - have lost all traces of legs. These include the larvae of some beetles, such
as the weevils, most of the Hymenoptera (ants, wasps, bees, sawflies, and others), and
all of the flies.
10.1. 5 Pupa
• may swim or actively crawl about, most pupae appear to move only when the adult has
fully formed within the pupal skin and has not yet broken out of it.
• Although most pupae appear to be inactive, they are undergoing complex biochemical
and structural changes; the larval structures are being resorbed, and adult structures are
being formed.
• The pupa is roughly the same shape as the adult, with the head, legs, and wings enclosed
in a covering called the pupal skin .
• If these different structures are covered separately so that the legs, for instance, can move,
the pupa is said to be exarate. If the appendages are held down and cannot move, the
larvae is said to be obtect. If the pupa is equipped with mandibles that can cut a way out
of the pupal skin, it is considered to be decticous, but if it lacks mandibles for escaping
from the covering, it is said to be adecticous.
Many pupae, in addition to being enclosed in a pupal skin, are protected by an outer covering
that is constructed by the larva before it pupates called a cocoon.

10.2 Neuro-secretion

10.2.1 Hormonal Control of Molting & Metamorphosis

 When an immature insect has grown sufficiently to require a larger exoskeleton,
sensory input from the body activates certain neurosecretory cells in the brain.
These neurons respond by secreting brain hormone which triggers the corpora
cardiaca to release their store of prothoracicotropic hormone (PTTH) into the
circulatory system. This sudden "pulse" of PTTH stimulates the prothoracic
glands to secrete molting hormone (ecdysteroids).
 Molting hormone affects many cells throughout the body, but its principle function is
to stimulate a series of physiological events (collectively known as apolysis) that lead
to synthesis of a new exoskeleton. During this process, the new exoskeleton forms as
a soft, wrinkled layer underneath the hard parts (exocuticle plus epicuticle) of the old
exoskeleton.

52
 Once new exoskeleton has formed, the insect is ready to shed what's left of its old
exoskeleton. At this stage, the insect is said to be pharate, meaning that the body is
covered by two layers of exoskeleton.
 As long as ecdysteroid levels remain above a critical threshold in the hemolymph,
other endocrine structures remain inactive (inhibited). But toward the end of apolysis,
ecdysteroid concentration falls, and neurosecretory cells in the ventral ganglia begin
secreting eclosion hormone. This hormone triggers ecdysis, the physical process of
shedding the old exoskeleton. In addition, a rising concentration of eclosion hormone
stimulates other neurosecretory cells in the ventral ganglia to secrete bursicon, a
hormone that causes hardening and darkening of the integument (tanning) due to the
formation of quinone cross-linkages in the exocuticle (sclerotization).
 In immature insects, juvenile hormone is secreted by the corpora allata prior to each
molt. This hormone inhibits the genes that promote development of adult
characteristics (e.g. wings, reproductive organs, and external genitalia), causing the
insect to remain "immature" (nymph or larva). The corpora allata become atrophied
(shrink) during the last larval or nymphal instar and stop producing juvenile hormone.
This releases inhibition on development of adult structures and causes the insect to
molt into an adult (hemimetabolous) or a pupa (holometabolous).
 At the approach of sexual maturity in the adult stage, brain neurosecretory cells release
a brain hormone that "reactivates" the corpora allata, stimulating renewed production
of juvenile hormone. In adult females, juvenile hormone stimulates production of
yolk for the eggs. In adult males, it stimulates the accessory glands to produce
proteins needed for seminal fluid and the case of the spermatophore. In the absence
of normal juvenile hormone production, the adult remains sexually sterile.
 Although the role of hormones in the physiology of molting was first described by V.
B. Wigglesworth in the 1930's, there is still much about the process that we do not
fully understand. Insect endocrinology is currently an active area of research because
it offers the potential for disrupting the life cycle of a pest without harm to the
environment

53
 Activity 10.1
1. Discribe atleast four types of larvae in insects
2. Descuss hormanal control during molting
_____________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________

Now take a break and reflect on some of the issues we have discussed
today. After your break, answer the following questions

1. What is the significance of metamorphosis?

2. Identify different hormones involved in insect moulting?

i. V B Awasthi (2007); Introduction To General And Applied Entomology; Scientific

Publishers (India)
ii. Harold Kuzman (2006); General Textbook Of Entomology; Appleacademics

54
 Lecture 11
Neuro-secretion

11.1 Dispersal And Migration

• Dispersal is any physical relocation under some control of the insect.
• Dispersal may be controlled by hormones, environment, & other factors.
• Migration is a special type of dispersal involving long-distance movement and cyclic
return, often of a subsequent generation. The distance can vary with species and in
most cases these movements involve large numbers of individuals.
11.1.1Advantages of migration:
1. escape from natural enemies
2. find more favorable growing conditions
3. reduce competition or relieve overcrowding
4. locate new (or unoccupied) habitats
5. disperse to alternate host plants
6. reassort the gene pool to minimize inbreeding
• Most insects migrate by flying from one area to another, but a few species, including
the dragonflies, beetles, butterflies, moths and,ants travel in groups over ground.
• Migratory movements generally take place early in the insect's adult life, as soon as it
is ready for sustained flight. The number of insects involved in a migration flight is
generally very large.
• Many migratory species tend to have polymorphic forms, a migratory one and a
resident phase. The migratory phases are marked by their well developed and long
wings. Such polymorphism is well known in aphids and grasshoppers. In the
migratory locusts, there are distinct long and short-winged forms.
• Migration is usually marked by well defined destinations which need navigation and
orientation. A flying insect needs to make corrections for crosswinds. It has been
demonstrated that many migrating insects sense windspeed and direction and make
suitable corrections.
• Day-flying insects primarily make use of the sun for orientation, however this
requires that they compensate for the movement of the sun.

55
 • Migration is usually a distinct phase in the life cycle, almost always occurring before
the onset of reproductive maturity. Migrants are innately programmed to move; they
are not distracted by food or mates. Once the migratory urge is satisfied, the insect is
generally in a physiological state to continue development or commence reproduction.
Migration can be a very risky venture: in some species more than 90% of a population
may die in transit. Despite such high mortality rates, the reproductive success of
individuals who survive the trek apparently makes the gamble worthwhile for the
species as a whole.

Activity 11.1
Explain the importance of migration in insects
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________

i. V B Awasthi (2007); Introduction To General And Applied Entomology; Scientific

Publishers (India)
ii. Harold Kuzman (2006); General Textbook Of Entomology; Appleacademics

56
 Lecture 12
Dispersal and migration

12.1 Social insects

Entomologists refer to true social insects as eusocial. By definition, eusocial insects must
exhibit all these characteristics:
1. Share a common nest site
2. Individuals of the same species cooperate in caring for the young
3. Reproductive division of labor -- sterile (or less fecund) individuals work for the benefit of
a few reproductive individuals
4. Overlap of generations -- offspring contribute to colony labor while their parents are still
alive
Solitary insects, by contrast, don't exhibit any of these social behaviors. They don't
engage in parental care of their offspring, nor do they inhabit a common nest with others of
their species. Solitary insects don't employ a caste system. In essence, it's every bug for
herself.
12.1.1Advantages
1. Social insects work together to find food and other resources, and communicate its
location to others in the community.
2. They can mount a vigorous defense of their home and resources when under attack.
3. They can outcompete other insects, and even larger animals, for territory and food.
4. Social insects can quickly construct a shelter, and expand it as needed.
5. They can divide chores in a manner that ensures everything gets done expeditiously.
many insects don't fit in either category. Some insects are neither eusocial nor solitary.
Insects fall somewhere on a spectrum of sociality, with several degrees between solitary and
eusocial.

Degree of
Characteristics
Sociality

 overlapping generations, cooperative brood care, sterile worker caste

Eusocial (morphologically different from other castes)

57
 • overlapping generations, cooperative brood care, sterile worker caste
Primitively
(morphologically similar to other castes)
Eusocial

 cooperative brood care, some sterile workers, shared nest

Semisocial

 cooperative brood care, shared nest

Quasisocial

 shared nest
Communal

 some parental care of offspring

Subsocial

 no shared nests, no parental care of offspring

Solitary

12.1.2 Social Termites

• Termites belong to the order Isoptera.
• All termites are eusocial insects.
• Within a single termite colony, you will find individuals at various stages of the
termite life cycle.
• Generations of termites overlap, and there is a constant supply of new adults prepared
to assume responsibility for the colony's care.

• The community cares for its young cooperatively.

• Termite communities are divided into three castes.
a)The reproductive caste is comprised of a king and queen.

58
 • The soldier caste of both males and females is specially adapted for defending the
colony.
b)Soldiers are larger than other termites, and are sterile.
c) the worker caste consists of immature males and females that do all chores:
feeding, cleaning, construction, and brood care.
12.1.3 The Termite Colony. Each termite lives in a nest or colony with hundreds,
thousands, or even millions of its brothers and sisters.
• In fact, the termite colony is really a large, extended family. Within this family,
various groups of individuals have different functional roles according to a "caste
system".
a)The worker caste is the largest group. It consists entirely of immatures, both males
and females.
• These soft-bodied, wingless individuals perform all of the hard labor in the colony:
they clean, maintain, and repair the nest, gather food and water, care for the young,
and construct new tunnels and galleries as the colony grows.
• These juveniles all have the genetic capacity to undergo additional molts and become
soldiers or reproductives, but most will spend their entire lives as workers.

b) Soldiers -Members of the soldier caste are larger in size but fewer in number than the
workers. They are also wingless, but they have large heads with powerful jaws. Their job is to
guard the nest site and protect it from attacks by ants or other invaders
In some species the soldiers lack jaws but have a large gland in the head that shoots defensive
chemicals through a nozzle at the front of the head. The soldiers are unable to care for
themselves so they must be fed and groomed by the workers

59
c) The reproductive caste always includes a king (male) and a queen (female) who are
the parents of the termite family and founders of the colony.
• Some species also have a few supplemental reproductives who share the egg laying
duties. These are the only adult insects in the colony.
• The queen lays large numbers of eggs which develop into more workers and soldiers
as the family grows. In every mature colony, there also develops an annual population
of young winged reproductives that swarm from the parent nest for a short mating
flight.

Activity 12.1
Explain the economic importance of termites
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________

60
i. V B Awasthi (2007); Introduction To General And Applied Entomology; Scientific
Publishers (India)
ii. Harold Kuzman (2006); General Textbook Of Entomology; Appleacademics

61
62
 Lecture 13
Arthropods of medical and economic importance
13.1 Social Bees
 Bees represent a large and successful branch of the insect's family tree:
more than 20,000 species have been described worldwide.
 Nearly all of these species use pollen and/or nectar from flowering plants
as food for themselves and their offspring.
 Physical adaptations for this lifestyle include branched (or plumose) body hairs for
catching and holding pollen, combs (scopae) and baskets (corbiculae) for collecting and
carrying the pollen, and tongue-like mouthparts for sipping nectar from flowers.
 Some bees collect nectar and then convert it into honey. This process occurs in the
bee's crop where sucrose in the nectar undergoes enzymatic conversion into glucose and
fructose. The honey is regurgitated for storage or mixed with pollen and fed to developing
larvae. Some bees have abdominal glands that secrete wax. This wax, alone or mixed

The caste

Reproductive
Queen - Fertile adult female.
Caste
Drone - Fertile adult male - develops from an unfertilized egg.

Worker Unmated adult females - generally the daughters of the queen.

Caste

with other substances, is often used for construction of the nest site.
Example:
 Honey bees include the well-known European honey bee
(Apis mellifera) as well as 8 other species of Apis that are
native to Europe, Asia, and Africa. These bees usually nest
above ground, often inside hollow trees. They construct
vertical wax combs with individual hexagonal cells for
storing honey and rearing brood.

63
 Each hive is "ruled" by a single queen whose only job is to lay eggs.
 Workers are adult females -- daughters of the queen. They perform all housekeeping
chores within the hive, search for nectar and pollen, produce wax and honey, feed the
young and protect the hive against enemies. Adult workers live for about six weeks
(during the summer) but queens may last for several years. During cold winters, the
bees cluster together, feeding on stored food reserves and sharing their body heat.
 Social caste is determined mostly by the diet an individual bee receives during larval
development. Normally, workers feed their larvae royal jelly (a nutrient-rich
glandular secretion) for the first few days and then switch to a less-nutritious diet
of bee bread (a mixture of honey and pollen). Larvae destined to become queens,
however, are reared in special (larger) brood cells and fed a diet of royal jelly
throughout the entire duration of larval development. Males (drones) develop from
unfertilized eggs. Their only function is to mate
with virgin queens.
 A queen controls the social organization within
her colony by means of a pheromone secreted
from her mandibular glands. Workers lick this
pheromone from the queen's body and pass it to
nestmates during the exchange of food (trophallaxis). Queen pheromone maintains
tranquility within the hive and inhibits ovarian development among workers. When
the queen dies (or fails to perform adequately), she is replaced by a new queen reared
from within the hive. Each colony, therefore, has the potential to be perennial, that is,
to endure beyond the lifespan of the founding queen and her workers.
 Mature, healthy colonies may grow to include as many as 80,000 workers. However,
before they reach this size, most large bee hives will "reproduce" by swarming. This
is a process of colony division in which an established queen leaves (absconds) with a
large group of workers to establish a new nest site, while a young queen and the
remaining workers stay behind to occupy the old nest site.
 Honey bees use a variety of signals to communicate with nestmates. An aggregation
pheromone produced by Nasanov's gland (located near the tip of the abdomen) is used
to attract nestmates and to mark a source of nectar or water. An alarm pheromone is
released from mandibular glands when the colony is threatened. Scout bees who find

64
 a good nectar supply will recruit foragers by passing out samples of the nectar and
"dancing" on the comb to indicate distance and direction to the source.

Activity 13.1
Explain the importance of migration in insects
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________

Now take a break and reflect on some of the issues we have discussed today. After your
break, answer the following questions:

1. Discuss why bees are termed as social insects?

________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
2.Describe the different caste of termites?
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
3. outline the importance of bees?
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________

i. V B Awasthi (2007); Introduction To General And Applied Entomology; Scientific

Publishers (India)
ii. Harold Kuzman (2006); General Textbook Of Entomology; Appleacademics

65
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