1.

RIGIDITY MODULUS BY TORSIONAL PENDULUM

AIM:
To find the moment of inertia of the disc and the rigidity modulus of the material of the suspension wire
subjected to torsional oscillations.
APPARATUS REQUIRED:
Metallic disc, Brass/steel wire, Symmetrical masses, Stop clock, Metre scale, Screw gauge and Stand.
FORMULA:

Where,
L= Length of the experimental wire between the chuck nuts (m)
I = Moment of inertia of Regular body (kgm-2 )
r = Radius of experimental wire (m)
T = Time period of oscillation of regular bodies (sec)
PRINCIPLE:
Rectangular plate is weighed using a rough balance. Let its mass be M1.
The length ‘L’ and breadth ‘B’ of the rectangular plate is measured.
The circular plate is weighed. Let M2 be its mass. Radius ‘R’ of the circular plate is noted.
Length ‘l’ of the wire between the chuck nuts is noted.
The two ends of the experimental wire are fastened to chuck nuts. One of the chuck nuts is firmly
clamped to the stand. A convenient reference mark is chosen and the reference stick is kept at that
position.
Torsional oscillations of small amplitude are set up in the body. Stop clock is started when the reference
mark crosses the stick. When the reference mark crosses the stick in the same direction once again, the
body completes one oscillation.
The time taken for ten oscillations is noted and mean time‘t’ is found. Hence, the time period ‘T’ i.e.,
time for one oscillation is calculated.
The same procedure is repeated for different axes of rectangular plate and circular plate. 9. Radius ‘r’ of
given wire is found using screw gauge.
Moment of inertia of regular bodies and rigidity modulus of the given wire are calculated using the
given formulae.
TABLE:
To determine the breadth B:

To determine T:

RESULT:
Rigidity modulus of the material of the given wire…………. 𝑁/𝑚2.
 2. SONOMETER –REQUENCY OF THE TUNING FORK
AIM:
To verify the relation between the length of the vibrating segment of the sonometer wire and hence
determine the frequency of the given tuning fork.
APPARATUS REQUIRED:
Sonometer with brass wire, a low voltage a.c. source such as step-down transformer, two small
magnets, screw gauge
FORMULA:

Here T = Tension applied to the sonometer wire T+ Mg in Kg.

n = frequency of the wire in unison with a.c. in hertz.
l = length of the vibrating segment of the sonometer wire in m.
mass = volume  density
For unit length of the wire,

T – Tension applied (N)

M – Mass added (kg)
g – Acceleration due to gravity (9.8 m/s2)

r – radius of the sonometer wire (m)

d – density of the material of wire (kg/m3), for steel wire 7800 kg/m3
PROCEDURE:
The given tuning fork is excited and placed with its stem on the sonometer box. A suitable mass is
placed on the hanger, let M kg be the total mass suspended from the free string. The wire when plucked
at its centre produces beats with that emitted so that the number of beats produced per second becomes
zero. In this case, the frequency of vibrations of the curve when vibrating in one segment is the same
the frequency of the fork. Atthis stage paper ride placed at the centre of the wire a paper flutters
violently and is thrown off. The length of the vibrating segment is measured. The experiment is
repeated for different loads.
Observation:
To Find the Radius of the Sonometer Wire using Screw Gauge
Distance moved by screw for 5 rotations of head = 5 mm
Distance moved by screw for 1 rotation of head = 1 mm
Number of divisions on the head scale = 100
Least count = Pitch / No. of divisions of H.S = 1/100 = 0.01mm
Zero coincidence = ______ Divisions
Zero error (Z.E) = (Z.E  L.C)
Zero correction = ______ mm

√T
To find
l
Given tuning fork frequency = Hz

Calculations

RESULT
The frequency of the given tuning fork was found to be ______________ Hz.
 3. NEWTONS RINGS
AIM:
To study the formation of Newton’s rings in the air-film in between a plano-convex lens and a glass
plate using nearly monochromatic light from a sodium-source and hence to determine the radius of
curvature of the plano-convex lens.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:
A nearly monochromatic source of light (source of sodium light), plano-convex lens, optically flat
glass plates, convex lens, traveling microscope

THEORY:

Fig. 2. Newton’s rings

When a parallel beam of monochromatic light is incident normally on a combination of a plano-

convex lens L and a glass plate G, as shown in Fig.1, a part of each incident ray is reflected from the
lower surface of the lens, and a part, after refraction through the air film between the lens and the
plate, is reflected back from the plate surface. These two reflected rays are coherent hence they will
interfere and produce a system of alternate dark and bright rings with the point of contact between the
lens and the plate as the center. These rings are known as Newton’s ring.
For a normal incidence of monochromatic light, the path difference between the reflected
rays (see Fig.1) is very nearly equal to 2 t where  and t are the refractive index and thickness of the
air-film respectively. The fact that the wave is reflected from air to glass surface introduces a phase
shift of . Therefore, for bright fringe
2  t  n 2 1  ; n = 0,1,2,3 (1)
and for dark fringe
2  t  n ; n = 0,1,2,3 (2)

For n-th (bright or dark) ring (see Fig. 2), we also have
PROCEDURE:
1. Level the traveling microscope with its axis vertical. Arrange the set-up as shown in Fig.1 and
focus the microscope on the air-film. Newton’s Rings will be clearly seen.
2. Adjust the glass plate G1 for maximum visibility of the point of contact of lens L with the glass
plate G and hence for maximum visibility of Newton’s Rings. In this orientation, G1 is at 450
to the incident beam of light.
3. Move the microscope to the right of the central dark spot (say order ‘n’, this is because the
central ring is often broad and may not necessarily will be zero order) and set it on the extreme
tenth (n+10th order) distinct bright ring so that the cross-wire perpendicular to the direction of
movement of the microscope passes through the bright ring and is tangential to it. Record the
microscope position from the horizontal scale along with its number with bright ring around the
central dark spot as the first bright ring. Move the microscope to left and record the position of
the next bright ring. Repeat it till you reach to the tenth bright ring on the left. From these
measurements, evaluate the diameters of different rings. Repeat these measurements for
microscope movement from left to right and evaluate the diameters of different rings.
Determine the average diameters of different rings.
RESULT:
The formation of newton’s rings was studied and the radius of curvature of the plano-convex
lens was found to be
 4. POTENTIOMETER – CALIBRATION OF LOW RANGE AMMETER
AIM:
To find the corrections of various readings of given ammeter using potentiometer.
APPARATUS REQUIRED:
Potentiometer, Battery, Daniel cell, Rheostat, Galvanometer, High resistance, Ammeter,
Jockey, Standard resistance etc.
FORMULA:
From the theory of potentiometer,
E2 l 2
= E2=IR
E1 l 1

where, E1 = E.M.F of Daniel cell (V)

I = Calculated value of electric current in the secondary circuit (A)
L2 = Balancing length of Daniel cell (m)
L2 = Balancing length for potential difference across R (m)

Determination of l2

Calculated
Ammeter Balancing current Correction (I-A)
S. No Reading length E1 l 2 (A)
I = = (A)
(A) l2 x 10–2 (m) R l1

R= (Ω); E1 = (V); l1 = 10-2(m)

PROCEDURE:
i. Electrical connections are made as shown.
ii. Using Daniel cell of EMF of 1.08 V, galvanometer and high resistance in the primary
circuit, the balancing length l1 is found.
iii. The secondary circuit is made.
iv. Rh2 is adjusted so that the ammeter reads 0.2 ampere. The balancing length l2 for
potential difference across the standard resistance SR is found.
v. Knowing l1 and l2, the current in the secondary circuit is calculated from the
formula given. The correction to the ammeter reading (I – A) is found out.
vi. The experiment is repeated by adjusting the rheostat for reading 0.4, 0.6, 0.8, 1, 1.2
ampere in the ammeter. In each case, the balancing length is found and correction is
calculated.
vii. The calibration graph is drawn by taking ammeter reading along the positive x axis
and calculated current along the y axis. The correction graph is drawn by taking
ammeter reading along the positive x axis and correction along the y axis.

RESULT:
The corrections to various readings of the ammeter are found out and their correction and
calibration graphs are drawn.
 5. BASIC LOGIC GATES - AND, OR AND NOT
AIM:
To construct the basic logic gates, namely AND, OR and NOT gates using diode and discrete
components and to verify their truth tables.
APPARATUS REQUIRED:
Two diodes, 10 Kohm resistor, 2.2 Kohm resistor, multimeter (voltmeter), two 6V batteries,
breadboard, connecting leads and BC 107 transistor (npn).
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM :

PROCEDURE:
The circuit is connected as shown in the figure, A and B are the terminals to give
inputs. All the ground points (G) are connected together at a single point (0 volt).
Now, 0V is taken as 0 state. i.e; V(0) = 0 Volt and 5V is taken as 1 state i.e; V(1) =
5 volt. That is positive logic system is followed.
Case 1: A = 0; B = 0; Y = ?
The input terminal A and B are connected to the ground terminal so as to have 0 input.
The output voltage at Y is measured with respect to ground using a voltmeter. The
observation is recorded.
Case 2: A = 1; B = 0; Y = ?
The input terminal A is connected to (+5) volt and B is connected to the ground. The
output voltage Y is measured with respect to ground using a voltmeter. The observation
is recorded.
Case 3: A = 0; B = 1; Y = ?
The input terminal B is connected to (+5) volt and A is connected to the ground. The
output voltage Y is measured with respect to ground using a voltmeter. The observation
is recorded.
Case 4: A = 1; B = 1; Y = ?
The input terminal A is connected to (+5) volt. The input terminal B is also connected
to (+5) volt. The output voltage Y is measured with respect to ground using a voltmeter.
The observation is recorded. The truth table is formed from the observations record

Y = A.B; V(0) = 0V; V(1) = 5V

PROCEDURE:
The circuit is connected as shown in the figure 3.11.2. The reference voltage VR= 0; The
logic level V(1) = 5V; The logic level V(0) = 0V. The diodes are IN 4001 or by 127.
Case 1: A = 0; B = 0; Y = ?
The input terminals A and B are connected to the ground(0V). The output voltage Y is
measured with respect to ground using volt meter. The reading are recorded.
Case 2: A = 1; B = 0; Y = ?
The input A is connected to +5 V. The terminal B is grounded. The output voltage Y is
measured with respect to ground using a voltmeter. The readings are recorded.
Case 3: A = 0; B = 1; Y = ?
The input terminal B is connected to (+5) volt and A is connected to the ground. The
output voltage Y is measured with respect to ground using a voltmeter. The observation
is recorded.
Case 4: A= 1; B= 1; Y = ?
Now both the inputs are raised to V(1) state be connecting them together at +5V. The
output voltage Y is measured with respect to ground using a voltmeter. The readings are
recorded.
OBSERVATIONS:
The OR logic gate: Y = A + B
V (0) = 0V; V(1) = 5V

PROCEDURE:
The NOT logic gate circuit is connected as shown in the figure 3.12.3. BC 107 (npn)
transistor is used. The logic gate V (1) corresponds to +5 volt and the state V(0) corresponds
to 0 volt in the positive logic system. All the ground points are connected together G (0
volt) and voltage are measured with respect to this point G. The input terminal A is given
+5 volt and it is in the V (1) state. The output voltage at Y is measured with respect to
ground using a voltmeter and recorded.
OBSERVATIONS:
V (1) = +5V; V(0) = 0V;
NOT logic gate: Y = Ā

RESULT:
The AND, OR and NOT gates are constructed using diode and discrete components and
their truth tables are verified.