AC/DC Module

User´s Guide

VERSION 4.1
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COMSOL AC/DC Module User’s Guide

 COPYRIGHT 1998–2010 COMSOL AB.
Protected by U.S. Patents 7,519,518; 7,596,474; and 7,623,991. Patents pending.
The software described in this document is furnished under a license agreement. The software may be used
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Version: October 2010 COMSOL 4.1

Part number: CM020101
C O N T E N T S

Chapter 1: Introduction to the AC/DC Module

About the AC/DC Module 12

What Can the AC/DC Module Do? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Where Do I Access the Documentation and Model Library? . . . . . . 12
Typographical Conventions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

The Interfaces and Study Types 16

The AC/DC Module Physics Interfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

Chapter 2: AC/DC Modeling

Preparing for Modeling 22

What Problems Can You Solve? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
Choosing the Space Dimension for the Model Geometry . . . . . . . 23
Simplifying the Geometry Using Boundary Conditions . . . . . . . . . 25
Applying Electromagnetic Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
Selecting a Study Type . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
Field Variables in 2D . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
Meshing and Solving . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28

Infinite Elements 29
Modeling Unbounded Domains . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
Known Issues When Modeling Using Infinite Elements. . . . . . . . . 31

Force and Torque Computations 33

Computing Electromagnetic Forces and Torques . . . . . . . . . . . 33
Model Library Examples—How to Compute Electromagnetic Forces . . . 34

Lumped Parameters 35
Calculating Lumped Parameters with Ohm’s Law . . . . . . . . . . . 35
Calculating Lumped Parameters Using the Energy Method . . . . . . . 37

CONTENTS |3
 Studying Lumped Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38

Importing ECAD Files 39

Overview of the ECAD Import . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
Importing ODB++(X) Files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
Importing GDS-II Files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
Importing NETEX-G Files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
ECAD Import Options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
Meshing an Imported Geometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
Troubleshooting ECAD Import . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48

Chapter 3: Review of Electromagnetics

Fundamentals of Electromagnetics 52
Maxwell’s Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
Constitutive Relations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
Potentials. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
Reduced Potential PDE Formulations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
Electromagnetic Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
The Quasi-Static Approximation and the Lorentz Term . . . . . . . . 57
Material Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
Boundary and Interface Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
Phasors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60

Electromagnetic Forces 61
Overview of Forces in Continuum Mechanics . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
Forces on an Elastic Solid Surrounded by Vacuum or Air . . . . . . . . 63
Torque. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
Forces in Stationary Fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
Forces in a Moving Body . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
Electromagnetic Energy and Virtual Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70

Special Calculations 72
Mapped Infinite Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
Lumped Parameter Conversion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73

4 | CONTENTS
 Electromagnetic Quantities 74

References 76

Chapter 4: The Electric Field Interfaces

The Electrostatics Interface 78

Charge Conservation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
Space Charge Density . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
Force Calculation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
Infinite Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
Initial Values. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
Boundary Conditions for the Electrostatics Interface . . . . . . . . . 83
Pairs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
Ground . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
Electric Potential . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
Surface Charge Density . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
Dielectric Shielding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
Terminal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
Floating Potential . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
Displacement Field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
Distributed Capacitance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
Periodic Condition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
Zero Charge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
Thin Low Permittivity Gap . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
Continuity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
Line Charge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
Point Charge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
Electrostatic Point Dipole . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92

The Electric Currents Interface 93

Current Conservation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
Archie’s Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
External Current Density. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
Current Source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
Force Calculation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99

CONTENTS |5
 Infinite Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
Initial Values. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
Boundary Conditions for the Electric Currents Interface . . . . . . . 100
Pairs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
Boundary Current Source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
Ground . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
Electric Potential . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
Normal Current Density . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
Distributed Impedance. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
Electric Shielding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
Terminal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
Floating Potential . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
Electric Insulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
Periodic Condition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
Contact Resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
Sector Symmetry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
Continuity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
Line Current Source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
Point Current Source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
Electric Point Dipole . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110

The Electric Currents, Shell Interface 111

Initial Values. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
Boundary Conditions for the Electric Currents, Shell Interface . . . . 113
Edge (3D) or Point (2D) Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113

Theory of Electric Fields 115

Charge Relaxation Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115

Theory for the Electrostatics Interface 119

Electrostatics Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119

Theory for the Electric Currents Interface 121

Electric Currents Equations in Steady State . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
Effective Conductivity in Porous Media and Mixtures . . . . . . . . 122
Dynamic Electric Currents Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
Effective Relative Permittivity in Porous Media and Mixtures . . . . . 124
Archie’s Law Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125

6 | CONTENTS
 Theory for the Electric Currents, Shell Interface 126
Electric Currents, Shell Equations in Steady State. . . . . . . . . . 126
Dynamic Electric Currents Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126

Chapter 5: The Magnetic Field Interfaces

The Magnetic Fields Interface 128

Ampère’s Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
Gauge Fixing for A-field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
External Current Density. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
Velocity (Lorentz Term) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
Force Calculation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
Infinite Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
Multi-Turn Coil Domain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
Single-Turn Coil Domain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
Coil Group Domain. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
Initial Values. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
Boundary Conditions for the Magnetic Fields Interface . . . . . . . 140
Pairs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
Magnetic Insulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
Magnetic Field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
Surface Current . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
Magnetic Potential . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
Impedance Boundary Condition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
Perfect Magnetic Conductor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
Transition Boundary Condition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
Thin Low Permeability Gap . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
Periodic Condition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
Sector Symmetry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
Continuity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
Line Current (Out of Plane). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
Electric Point Dipole . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
Magnetic Point Dipole . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151

The Magnetic Fields, No Currents Interface 152

Magnetic Flux Conservation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153

CONTENTS |7
 Initial Values. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
Domain Settings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
Boundary Conditions for the Magnetic Fields, No Currents Interface . . 155
Magnetic Flux Density . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
Zero Magnetic Scalar Potential. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
Magnetic Insulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
Magnetic Shielding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
Thin Low Permeability Gap . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
Point Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159

The Rotating Machinery, Magnetic Interface 160

Initial Values. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
Electric Field Transformation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
Prescribed Rotation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
Prescribed Rotational Velocity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
Other Features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162

Theory of Magnetic and Electric Fields 163

Maxwell’s Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
Magnetic and Electric Potentials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
Gauge Transformations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
Selecting a Particular Gauge. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
The Gauge and the Equation of Continuity for Dynamic Fields. . . . . 165
Explicit Gauge Fixing/Divergence Constraint . . . . . . . . . . . 165
Ungauged Formulations and Current Conservation . . . . . . . . . 166
Time-Harmonic Magnetic Fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167

Theory for the Magnetic Fields Interface 168

Magnetostatics Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
Frequency Domain Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
Transient Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169

Theory for the Magnetic Fields, No Currents Interface 170

Chapter 6: The Magnetic and Electric Fields

8 | CONTENTS
 Interface

The Magnetic and Electric Fields Interface 172

Ampère’s Law and Current Conservation . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
Initial Values. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
Domain Settings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
Boundary Conditions for the Magnetic and Electric Fields Interface . . . 176
Point and Edge Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
Edge Current . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178

Theory for the Magnetic and Electric Fields Interface 179

Magnetostatics Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
Frequency Domain Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180

Chapter 7: The Electrical Circuit Interface

The Electrical Circuit Interface 182

Ground Node . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
Resistor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
Capacitor. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
Inductor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
Voltage Source. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
Current Source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
Voltage-Controlled Voltage Source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
Voltage-Controlled Current Source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
Current-Controlled Voltage Source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
Current-Controlled Current Source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
Subcircuit Definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
Subcircuit Instance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
NPN BJT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
n-Channel MOSFET . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
Diode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
External I vs. U . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188
External U vs. I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
External I-Terminal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189

CONTENTS |9
 SPICE Circuit Import . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190

Theory for the Electrical Circuit Interface 191

Semiconductor Device Models. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191

Chapter 8: The Induction Heating Interface

The Induction Heating Interface 202

Shared Features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
Induction Heating Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204
Electromagnetic Heat Source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
Initial Values. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205

Chapter 9: Materials

Material Library and Databases 208

About the Material Databases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208
About Using Materials in COMSOL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210

Working with the Material Browser 212

Opening the Material Browser. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212
Using the AC/DC Material Database . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213

Chapter 10: Glossary

Glossary of Terms 216

INDEX 217

10 | C O N T E N T S
 1

Introduction to the AC/DC Module

This guide describes the AC/DC Module, an optional add-on package for
COMSOL Multiphysics designed to assist you to solve and model low-frequency
electromagnetics.

This section introduces you to the capabilities of the AC/DC Module including an
introduction to the modeling stages and some realistic and illustrative models. A
summary of the physics interfaces and where you can find documentation and
model examples is also included.

In this section:

• What Can the AC/DC Module Do?

• Where Do I Access the Documentation and Model Library?
• Typographical Conventions
• The AC/DC Module Physics Interfaces

11
 About the AC/DC Module
What Can the AC/DC Module Do?
The AC/DC Module is an optional package that extends the COMSOL
Multiphysics® modeling environment. This module contains a set of interfaces
adapted to a broad category of electromagnetic simulations and it solves problems in
the general areas of electrostatic fields, magnetostatic fields, and quasi-static fields.

Like all COMSOL modules, there is a library of ready-to-run models that make it
quicker and easier to analyze discipline-specific problems. In addition, any model you
develop is described in terms of the underlying partial differential equations, offering
a unique way to see the underlying physical laws of a simulation.

The interfaces are fully multiphysics enabled—you can couple them to any other
interface in COMSOL Multiphysics or the other modules. For example, to find the
heat distribution in a motor you first find the current in the coils using one of the
quasi-static interfaces in this module and then couple it to a heat equation in the main
COMSOL Multiphysics package or the Heat Transfer Module. This forms a powerful
multiphysics model that solves all the equations simultaneously.

COMSOL Multiphysics also has an interface to the MATLAB technical computing

environment. If you have a MATLAB license, you can save it as a Model M-file—a
script file that runs in MATLAB.

Where Do I Access the Documentation and Model Library?

Note: If you are working directly from a PDF on your computer, the blue links do
not work to open a model or documentation referenced in a different user guide.
However, if you are using the online help desk in COMSOL Multiphysics, these links
work to other modules, model examples, and documentation sets.

A number of Internet resources provide more information about COMSOL

Multiphysics, including licensing and technical information. The electronic
documentation, Dynamic Help, and the Model Library are all accessed through the
COMSOL Desktop.

12 | CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION TO THE AC/DC MODULE

THE DOCUMENTATION
The COMSOL Multiphysics User’s Guide and COMSOL Multiphysics Reference
Guide describe all the interfaces included with the basic COMSOL license. These
guides also have instructions about how to use COMSOL Multiphysics, and how to
access the documentation electronically through the COMSOL Multiphysics help
desk.

To locate and search all the documentation, in COMSOL, select Help>Documentation

from the main menu and either enter a search term or look under a specific module in
the documentation tree.

THE MODEL LIBRARY

Each model comes with a theoretical background and step-by-step instructions to
create the model. The models are available in COMSOL as MPH-files that you can
open for further investigation. Use both the step-by-step instructions and the actual
models as a template for your own modeling and applications. SI units are used to
describe the relevant properties, parameters, and dimensions in most examples, but
other unit systems are available.

To open any model in COMSOL, select File>Open Model Library from the main menu,
and then search either by name or browse by module name. If you also want to review
the documentation explaining how to build a model, select the model and click Model
PDF or Dynamic Help to reach the PDF or HTML version, respectively. Alternatively,
select Help>Documentation in COMSOL and again, search by name or browse by
module under Model Library in the documentation tree.

If you have feedback or suggestions for additional models for the library (including
those developed by you), feel free to contact us at [email protected].

COMSOL WEB SITES

• Main corporate web site: http://www.comsol.com/
• Worldwide contact information: http://www.comsol.com/contact/
• Online technical support main page: http://www.comsol.com/support/
• COMSOL Support Knowledge Base, your first stop for troubleshooting assistance,
where you can search for answers to any COMSOL questions:
http://www.comsol.com/support/knowledgebase/
• Product updates: http://www.comsol.com/support/updates/

ABOUT THE AC/DC MODULE | 13

 CONT ACT ING COMSOL BY EMAIL
For general product information, contact COMSOL at [email protected]. To receive
technical support from COMSOL for the COMSOL products, please contact your
local COMSOL representative or send your questions to [email protected]. You
will receive an automatic notification and a case number by email.

COMSOL COMMUNITY
On the COMSOL web site, you find a user community at http://www.comsol.com/
community/. The user community includes a discussion forum, a model exchange,
news postings, and a searchable database of papers and presentations.

Typographical Conventions
All COMSOL guides use a set of consistent typographical conventions that should
make it easy for you to follow the discussion, realize what you can expect to see on the
screen, and know which data you must enter into various data-entry fields. In
particular, you should be aware of these conventions:

• A boldface font of the shown size and style indicates that the given word(s) appear
exactly that way on the COMSOL Desktop (or, for toolbar buttons, in the
corresponding tooltip). For instance, we often refer to the Model Builder window,
which is the window that contains the model tree. As another example, the
instructions might say to click the Zoom Extents button, and the boldface font
indicates that you can expect to see a button with that exact label on the COMSOL
Desktop.
• Click text highlighted in blue to go to other information in the PDF. When you are
using the online help desk in COMSOL Multiphysics, these links also work to other
modules, model examples, and documentation sets.
• The names of other items on the COMSOL Desktop that do not have direct labels
contain a leading uppercase letter. For instance, we often refer to the Main toolbar;
this horizontal bar containing many icons appears on top of the user interface.
However, nowhere on the screen will you see the term “Main” referring to this
toolbar.
• The symbol > indicates a menu item. For example, Options>Results is equivalent to:
From the Options menu, choose Results.
• A Code (monospace) font indicates keyboard entries in the user interface. You might
see an instruction such as “Type 1.25 in the Current density edit field.” The
monospace font also indicates code. This font also indicates variable names. An italic

14 | CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION TO THE AC/DC MODULE

 Code (monospace) font indicates user inputs and parts of names that can vary or be
defined by the user.
• An italic font indicates the introduction of important terminology. Expect to find
an explanation in the same paragraph or in the Glossary. The names of books in the
COMSOL documentation set also appear using an italic font.

ABOUT THE AC/DC MODULE | 15

 The Interfaces and Study Types
The AC/DC Module Physics Interfaces
The physics interfaces in the AC/DC Module form a complete set of simulation tools
for electromagnetic field simulations. To select the right physics interface for
describing the real-life physics you need to consider the geometric properties and the
time variations of the fields. The interfaces solve for these physical quantities—the
electric scalar potential V, the magnetic vector potential A, and the magnetic scalar
potential Vm.

The Model Wizard is an easy way to select the physics interface and study type when
creating a model for the first time, and you can add physics interfaces to an existing
model at any time. Full instructions for selecting interfaces and setting up a model are
in the COMSOL Multiphysics User’s Guide.

Below is a brief summary of each interface. Following the summary are tables that list
the AC/DC interface availability by space dimension and study type. In 2D, in-plane
and out-of-plane variants are available for problems with a planar symmetry as well as
axisymmetric interfaces for problems with a cylindrical symmetry. When using an
axisymmetric interface it is important to note that the horizontal axis represents the r
direction and the vertical axis the z direction, and that you must create the geometry
in the right half-plane (that is, for positive r only). See What Problems Can You Solve?
and Table 1-1 for information about the available study types and variables.

ELECTROSTATICS
This interface simulates electric fields in dielectric materials with a fixed charge present.
Preset stationary and time-dependent study types are available. See The Electrostatics
Interface for settings information.

ELECTRIC CURRENTS
This interface simulates the current in a conductive and capacitive material under the
influence of an electric field. All three study types (stationary, frequency domain, and
time-dependent) are available. See The Electric Currents Interface for settings
information.

16 | CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION TO THE AC/DC MODULE

ELECTRIC CURRENTS, SHELL
This interface simulates the current in a conductive and capacitive shell under the
influence of an electric field. All three study types (stationary, frequency domain and
time-dependent) are available. See The Electric Currents, Shell Interface for settings
information.

MAGNETIC FIELDS
This interface handles problems for magnetic fields with prescribed currents. All three
study types (stationary, frequency domain, and time dependent) are available. See The
Magnetic Fields Interface for settings information.

MAGNETIC AND ELECTRIC FIELDS

This interface handles problems for magnetic and electric fields. It is based on the
magnetic vector potential and the electric scalar potential. The stationary and
frequency domain study types are available. See The Magnetic Fields, No Currents
Interface for settings information.

MAGNETOSTATICS, NO CURRENTS
This interface handles magnetic fields without currents. When no currents are present,
the problem is easier to solve using the magnetic scalar potential. The stationary and
time-dependent study types are available. See The Magnetic Fields, No Currents
Interface for settings information.

R O T A T I N G M A C H I N E R Y, M A G N E T I C
This interface is available with 2D models only. It combines an out-of-plane magnetic
fields (magnetic vector potential) formulation with a selection of predefined frames for
prescribed rotation or rotation velocity—it shares most of its features with the
Magnetic Fields interface. This interface requires that the geometry is created as an
assembly from individual parts for the rotor and stator. See The Rotating Machinery,
Magnetic Interface for settings information.

ELECTRICAL CIRCUIT
This interface has the equations for modeling electrical circuits with or without
connections to a distributed fields model, solving for the voltages, currents, and
charges associated with the circuit elements. See The Electrical Circuit Interface for
settings information.

T H E I N T E R F A C E S A N D S T U D Y TY P E S | 17
 INDUCTION HEATING
This interface combines all features from the Magnetic Fields interface in the time
harmonic formulation with the Heat Transfer interface for modeling of induction and
eddy current heating. See The Induction Heating Interface for settings information.

Heat transfer through conduction and convection in solids and free media (fluids) is
supported by physics interfaces shipped with the basic COMSOL Multiphysics license.
See The Heat Transfer Interface, The Joule Heating Interface and Theory for the Heat
Transfer Interfaces in the COMSOL Multiphysics User’s Guide for more information.

Note: Each interface has a Tag which is of special importance when performing
multiphysics simulations. This tag helps distinguish between physics interfaces and
the variables defined by the interface have an underscore plus the physics interface tag
appended to their names.

PHYSICS INTERFACE ICON TAG 1D 1D AXI 2D 2D AXI 3D

AC/DC
Electrostatics (enhanced) es     

Electric Currents (enhanced) ec     

Electric Currents - Shell ecs   

Magnetic Fields (enhanced) mf   

Magnetic and Electric Fields mef   

Magnetic Fields, No Currents mfnc     

Rotating Machinery, Magnetic rmm 

Electrical Circuit cir not space dependent

Heat Transfer
Induction Heating ih   

18 | CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION TO THE AC/DC MODULE

TABLE 1-1: AC/DC MODULE DEPENDENT VARIABLES, FIELD COMPONENTS AND STUDY AVAILABILITY
**
PHYSICS INTERFACE TAG DEPENDENT FIELD PRESET STUDIES
VARIABLES COMPONENTS
*

MAGNETIC POTENTIAL

FREQUENCY DOMAIN
CURRENT DENSITY

TIME DEPENDENT
MAGNETIC FIELD

ELECTRIC FIELD

STATIONARY
Electrostatics es V x  
y
z
Electric Currents ec V x x   
y y
z z
Electric Currents, Shell ecs V x x   
y y
z z
Magnetic Fields mf A x x x x   
y y y y
z z z z
Magnetic and Electric Fields mef V, A x x x x  
y y y y
z z z z
Magnetic Fields, No Currents mfnc Vm x  
y
z
Rotating Machinery, Magnetic rmm A x z z z  
y
Electrical Circuit cir not   
applicable
Induction Heating ih A,T, J x x x x T, J T, J A
y y y y
z z z z
*
These are the nonzero field components. For Cartesian coordinates, these are indexed by
x, y, and z; for cylindrical coordinates, r,  , and z are used.
**
Custom studies are also available based on the interface, for example, Eigenfrequency and
Eigenvalue.

T H E I N T E R F A C E S A N D S T U D Y TY P E S | 19
20 | CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION TO THE AC/DC MODULE
 2

AC/DC Modeling

The goal of this section is to familiarize you with the modeling procedure in the
AC/DC Module. Because this module is fully integrated with COMSOL
Multiphysics, the modeling process is similar.

In this section:

• Preparing for Modeling

• Infinite Elements
• Force and Torque Computations
• Lumped Parameters
• Importing ECAD Files

21
 Preparing for Modeling
This section is intended to guide you through the selection process among the physics
interfaces in the AC/DC Module and does not contain detailed interface descriptions.
Several topics in the art of modeling are covered here that you may not find in ordinary
textbooks on electromagnetic theory. This section discusses these topics:

• What Problems Can You Solve?—Can I use the quasi-static physics interfaces or do
I need wave propagation?
• Choosing the Space Dimension for the Model Geometry—Is a 2D, 3D, or
axisymmetric geometry best for my model?
• Simplifying the Geometry Using Boundary Conditions—When do I need to resolve
the thickness of thin shells?
• Applying Electromagnetic Sources—What sources can I use to excite the fields?
• Meshing and Solving—What issues might arise with respect to meshing and solving?
• Selecting a Study Type—Is my problem suited for time-dependent or
time-harmonic (frequency domain) formulations?

GENERAL TIPS
These general tips about modeling will help you to decide what to include in your
simulation and what you can do to minimize the size of your problem. Before you start
modeling, try first to answer the following questions:

• What is the purpose of the model?

• What information do you want to extract from the model?

It is important to remember that a model never captures all the details of reality.
Increasing the complexity of a model to make it more accurate usually makes it more
expensive to simulate. A complex model is also more difficult to manage and interpret
than a simple one. Keep in mind that it can be more accurate and efficient to use several
simple models instead of a single, complex one.

22 | CHAPTER 2: AC/DC MODELING

What Problems Can You Solve?
The AC/DC Module handles static, time-dependent, and time-harmonic problems.
The time-dependent and time-harmonic formulations use a quasi-static
approximation. See Table 1-1 in the section The AC/DC Module Physics Interfaces
for a list of the preset study types available by interface.

One major difference between quasi-static and high-frequency modeling is that the
formulations depend on the electrical size of the structure. This dimensionless
measure is the ratio between the largest distance between two points in the structure
divided by the wavelength of the electromagnetic fields.

The quasi-static physics interfaces in this module are suitable for simulations of
structures with an electrical size in the range up to 1/10. The physical assumption of
these situations is that the currents and charges generating the electromagnetic fields
vary so slowly in time that the electromagnetic fields are practically the same at every
instant as if they had been generated by stationary sources.

When the variations in time of the sources of the electromagnetic fields are more rapid,
it is necessary to solve the full Maxwell equations for high-frequency electromagnetic
waves. They are appropriate for structures of electrical size 1/100 and larger. Thus, an
overlapping range exists where you can use both the quasi-static and the full Maxwell
formulations. Interfaces for high-frequency electromagnetic waves are available in the
RF Module.

Independently of the structure size, the AC/DC Module accommodates any case of
nonlinear, inhomogeneous, or anisotropic media. It also handles materials with
properties that vary as a function of time as well as frequency-dispersive materials.
Examples of applications you can successfully simulate with this module include
electric motors, generators, permanent magnets, induction heating devices, and
dielectric heating. For a more detailed description of some of these applications, refer
to the models that comes with this product.

Choosing the Space Dimension for the Model Geometry

Most of the problems solved with COMSOL Multiphysics are three-dimensional (3D)
in the real world. In many cases, it is sufficient to solve a two-dimensional (2D)
problem that is close to or equivalent to your real problem. Furthermore, it is good
practice to start a modeling project by building one or several 2D models before going
to a 3D model. This is because 2D models are easier to modify and solve much faster.

PREPARING FOR MODELING | 23

 Thus, modeling mistakes are much easier to find when working in 2D. Once you have
verified your 2D model, you are in a much better position to build a 3D model.

2D PROBLEMS
The following guides you through some of the common approximations made for 2D
problems. Remember that the modeling in 2D usually represents some 3D geometry
under the assumption that nothing changes in the third dimension.

Cartesian Coordinates
In this case you view a cross section in the xy-plane of the actual 3D geometry. The
geometry is mathematically extended to infinity in both directions along the z-axis,
assuming no variation along that axis. All the total flows in and out of boundaries are
per unit length along the z-axis. A simplified way of looking at this is to assume that
the geometry is extruded one unit length from the cross section along the z-axis. The
total flow out of each boundary is then from the face created by the extruded boundary
(a boundary in 2D is a line).

There are usually two approaches that lead to a 2D cross-section view of a problem:

• When you know there is no variation of the solution in one particular dimension
• When you have a problem where you can neglect the influence of the finite
extension in the third dimension

See the AC/DC Module Model Library model Electromagnetic Forces on Parallel
Current-Carrying Wires for an example (or see Where Do I Access the Documentation
and Model Library?). The geometry has a finite width but the model neglects the (end)
effects from the faces parallel to the cross section because the strongest forces are
between the perpendicular faces (those seen as lines in the cross section).

Figure 2-1: The cross sections and their real geometry for Cartesian coordinates and
cylindrical coordinates (axial symmetry).

24 | CHAPTER 2: AC/DC MODELING

Axial Symmetry (Cylindrical Coordinates)
If you can construct the 3D geometry by revolving a cross section about an axis, and
no variations in any variable occur when going around the axis of revolution, you can
use an axisymmetric physics interface. The spatial coordinates are called r and z, where
r is the radius. The flow at the boundaries is given per unit length along the third
dimension. Because this dimension is a revolution, you have to multiply all flows with
r, where  is the revolution angle (for example, 2 for a full turn).

3D PROBLEMS
Although COMSOL Multiphysics fully supports arbitrary 3D geometries, it is
important to simplify the problem. This is because 3D problems easily get large and
require more computer power, memory, and time to solve. The extra time you spend
on simplifying your problem is probably well spent when solving it. Below are a few
issues that should be addressed before starting to implement a 3D model.

Is it possible to solve the problem in 2D? Given that the necessary approximations are
small, the solution is more accurate in 2D because you can use a much denser mesh.
See 2D Problems if this is applicable.

Are there symmetries in the geometry and model? Many problems have planes
where the solution on either side of the plane looks the same. A good way to check this
is to flip the geometry around the plane, for example, by turning it up-side down
around the horizontal plane. You can then remove the geometry below the plane if you
do not see any differences between the two cases regarding geometry, materials, and
sources. Boundaries created by the cross section between the geometry and this plane
need a symmetry boundary condition, which is available in all 3D physics interfaces.
See the AC/DC Module Model Library model Eddy Currents for an example (or see
Where Do I Access the Documentation and Model Library?).

Do you know the dependence in one direction so it can be replaced by an analytical

function? You can use this approach either to convert 3D to 2D or to convert a layer
to a boundary condition (see the next topic Simplifying the Geometry Using
Boundary Conditions).

Simplifying the Geometry Using Boundary Conditions

An important technique to minimize the problem of size is to use efficient boundary
conditions. Truncating the geometry without introducing large errors is one of the

PREPARING FOR MODELING | 25

 great challenges in modeling. Following are some suggestions of how to do this in
both 2D and 3D problems.

Does the solution only undergo small changes? When a model extends to infinity, it
might have regions where the solution only undergoes small changes. This problem is
addressed in two related steps. First, truncate the geometry in a suitable position.
Second, apply a suitable boundary condition there. For static and quasi-static models,
it is often possible to assume zero fields at the open boundary, provided that this is at
a sufficient distance away from the sources.

Can you replace the thin layers with boundary conditions? There are several types of
boundary conditions in COMSOL Multiphysics suitable for such replacements. You
can, for example, replace materials with high conductivity with the shielding boundary
condition, which assumes a constant potential through the thickness of the layer. If you
have a magnetic material with a high relative permeability, you can also model it using
the shielding boundary condition. See the AC/DC Module Model Library One-Sided
Magnet and Plate or Where Do I Access the Documentation and Model Library?.

Use boundary conditions for known solutions. A body with a high conductivity at high
frequency has the current density confined to a thin region beneath the surface of the
wire. You can often replace the current in the body by either a surface current
boundary condition or an impedance boundary condition. See the AC/DC Module
Model Library Cold Crucible (or see Where Do I Access the Documentation and
Model Library?).

Applying Electromagnetic Sources

You can apply electromagnetic sources in many different ways. The typical options are
volume sources, boundary sources, line sources, and point sources, where point
sources in 2D formulations are equivalent to line sources in 3D formulations. The way
sources are imposed can have an impact on what quantities you can compute from the
model. For example, a point source in an electrostatics model represents a singularity,
and the electric potential does not have a finite value at the position of the source.

In a COMSOL Multiphysics model, a point source has a finite but mesh-dependent

potential value. Thus, it does not make sense to compute a point-to-point capacitance,
because this is defined as the ratio of charge to voltage and for a point charge, the
potential is not well defined. In general, using volume or boundary sources is more
flexible than using line or point sources but the meshing of the source domains
becomes more expensive.

26 | CHAPTER 2: AC/DC MODELING

Selecting a Study Type
When variations in time are present there are two main approaches to how to represent
the time dependence. The most straightforward is to solve the problem in the time
domain by calculating the changes in the solution for each time step. This approach
can be time consuming if small time steps are necessary for the desired accuracy. It is
necessary to use this approach when your inputs are transients like turn-on and
turn-off sequences.

An efficient simplification is to assume that all variations in time occur as sinusoidal

signals. Then the problem is time-harmonic and you can formulate it as a stationary
problem in the frequency domain with complex-valued solutions. The complex value
represents both the amplitude and the phase of the field, while the frequency is
specified as a predefined scalar input or for frequency sweeps, provided as a solver
parameter. This approach is useful because, combined with Fourier analysis, it applies
to all periodic signals with the exception of nonlinear problems. Examples of typical
frequency domain simulations are quasi-static problems where the input variables are
sinusoidal signals.

For nonlinear problems you can use a frequency domain study after a linearization of
the problem, which assumes that the distortion of the sinusoidal signal is small.

You need to specify a time-dependent study when you think that the nonlinear
influence is very strong, or if you are interested in the harmonic distortion of a
sinusoidal signal. It might also be more efficient to use a time-dependent study if you
have a periodic input with many harmonics, like a square-shaped signal.

There are some special predefined study types for the Induction Heating multiphysics
interface. This interface is based on the assumption that the magnetic cycle time is
short compared to the thermal time scale (adiabatic assumption). Thus, it is associated
with two predefined study types:

• Frequency-Stationary
- Time-harmonic magnetic fields
- Stationary heat transfer

• Frequency-Transient
- Time-harmonic magnetic fields
- Transient heat transfer

PREPARING FOR MODELING | 27

 Field Variables in 2D
When you want to solve for a vector field in 2D, the physics interface gives you three
options: you can solve for the out-of-plane vector, the in-plane vector, or the
three-component vector. Depending on what you choose, the available source
specification options on the domain, boundary, edge, and point levels change
accordingly.

Meshing and Solving

MESH RESOLUTION
The finite element method approximates the solution within each element, using some
elementary shape function that can be constant, linear, or of higher order. Depending
on the element order in the model, a finer or coarser mesh is required to resolve the
solution. In general, there are three problem-dependent factors that determine the
necessary mesh resolution:

Is the variation in the solution due to geometrical factors? The mesh generator
automatically generates a finer mesh where there is a lot of fine geometrical details. Try
to remove such details if they do not influence the solution because they produce a lot
of unnecessary mesh elements.

Is the skin effect or the field variation due to losses? It is easy to estimate the skin
depth from the conductivity, permeability, and frequency. You need at least two linear
elements per skin depth to capture the variation of the fields. If you do not study the
skin depth, you can replace regions with a small skin depth with a boundary condition,
thereby saving elements.

What is the wavelength? To resolve a wave properly, it is necessary to use about 10

linear (or 5 2nd-order) elements per wavelength. Keep in mind that the wavelength
might be shorter in a dielectric medium.

CHOOSING THE SOLVER

You can, in most cases, use the solver that COMSOL Multiphysics suggests. The
choice of solver is optimized for the typical case for each physics interface and study
type in the AC/DC Module. However, in special cases you might need to tune the
solver settings. This is especially important for 3D problems because they use a large
amount of memory. For large 3D problems, you may need a 64-bit platform. See
Solving in the COMSOL Multiphysics User’s Guide for a more detailed description.

28 | CHAPTER 2: AC/DC MODELING

I nf i ni te E le m en t s
Modeling Unbounded Domains
Many environments that are modeled with finite elements are unbounded or open,
meaning that the electromagnetic fields extend toward infinity. The easiest approach
to modeling an unbounded domain is to extend the simulation domain “far enough”
that the influence of the terminating boundary conditions at the far end becomes
negligible. This approach can create unnecessary mesh elements and make the
geometry difficult to mesh due to large differences between the largest and smallest
object.

Another approach is to use infinite elements. There are many implementations of

infinite elements available, and the elements used in the AC/DC Module are often
referred to as mapped infinite elements (see Ref. 1). This implementation maps the
model coordinates from the local, finite-sized domain to a stretched domain. The
inner boundary of this stretched domain coincides with the local domain, but at the
exterior boundary the coordinates are scaled toward infinity:

w
t' = t p ----------------------------------
w –   t – t0 
tp
 = 1 – ---------------------
 pw + t p

The pole distance, tp, and the physical width of the infinite element region, pw, are
input parameters for the region. The variable t is the unscaled coordinate along the
width of the infinite element region (from inner to outer boundary), t0 is the start
position for the region, and w is the unscaled width of the region. The software
automatically computes the value for this variable and the orientation of the transform
for infinite element regions that are Cartesian, cylindrical, or spherical. However, there
is no check that the geometry of the region is correct, so it is important to draw a
proper geometry and select the corresponding region type. The following figures show
typical examples of infinite element regions that work nicely for each of the infinite
element types. These types are:

• Stretching in Cartesian coordinate directions, labeled Cartesian

• Stretching in cylindrical directions, labeled Cylindrical
• Stretching in spherical direction, labeled Spherical

INFINITE ELEMENTS | 29
 • Manual control of stretching, labeled General

Figure 2-2: A cube surrounded by typical infinite-element regions of Cartesian type.

Figure 2-3: A cylinder surrounded by typical cylindrical infinite-element regions.

Cylindrical infinite elements are only supported in 2D axisymmetry.

Figure 2-4: A sphere surrounded by a typical spherical infinite-element region.

30 | CHAPTER 2: AC/DC MODELING

GENERAL STRETCHING
With manual control of the stretching, the geometrical parameters that defines the
stretching are added as Manual Scaling subnodes. These subnodes have no effect unless
the type of the Infinite Elements node is set to General. Each Manual Scaling subnode has
three parameters:

• Scaling direction, which sets the direction from the interface to the outer boundary
• Geometric width, which sets the width of the region
• Coordinate at interface, which sets an arbitrary coordinate at the interface

When going from any of the other types to the General type, subnodes that represent
stretching of the previous type are added automatically.

Known Issues When Modeling Using Infinite Elements

Be aware of the following when modeling with infinite elements:

Element Quality
The coordinate scaling resulting from infinite elements also yields an equivalent
stretching/scaling of the mesh that effectively results in a poor element quality. (The
element quality displayed by the mesh statistics feature does not account for this
effect.)

The poor element quality causes poor/slow convergence for iterative solvers and make
the problem ill-conditioned in general. Especially vector element formulations like the
ones using two or more components of the magnetic vector potential are sensitive to
low element quality. For this reason, it is strongly recommended to use swept meshing
in the infinite element domains. The sweep direction should be selected the same as
the direction of scaling. For Cartesian infinite elements, regions with more than one
direction of scaling it is recommended to first sweep the mesh in the domains with only
one direction of scaling, then sweeping the domains with scaling in two directions and
finishing by sweeping the mesh in the domains with infinite element scaling in all three
direction.

Complicated Expressions
The expressions resulting from the stretching get quite complicated for spherical
infinite elements in 3D. This increases the time for the assembly stage in the solution
process. After the assembly, the computation time and memory consumption is
comparable to a problem without infinite elements. The number of iterations for
iterative solvers might increase if the infinite element regions have a coarse mesh.

INFINITE ELEMENTS | 31
 Erroneous Results
Infinite element regions deviating significantly from the typical configurations shown
in the beginning of this section can cause the automatic calculation of the infinite
element parameter to give erroneous result. Enter the parameter values manually if you
find that this is the case. See General Stretching.

Use the Same Material Parameters or Boundary Conditions

The infinite element region is designed to model uniform regions extended toward
infinity. Avoid using objects with different material parameters or boundary conditions
that influence the solution inside an infinite element region.

REFERENCE
1. O.C. Zienkiewicz, C. Emson, and P. Bettess, “A Novel Boundary Infinite Element,”
Int. J. Num. Meth. Engrg, vol. 19, no. 3, pp. 393–404, 1983.

32 | CHAPTER 2: AC/DC MODELING

Fo r c e a nd T o rq u e Com p u t at i on s
Computing Electromagnetic Forces and Torques
To compute electromagnetic forces and torques in the AC/DC Module two methods
are available:

• The most general method is to use the Maxwell stress tensor.

• Another method that works for the special case of computation of magnetic forces
on nonmagnetic, current-carrying domains uses a predefined physics interface
variable for the Lorentz force distribution in a magnetic flux density B.

M A X W E L L S T RE S S TE N S O R
Force and torque calculations using Maxwell’s stress tensor are available in the
electrostatics, electric currents, magnetic fields, and magnetic and electric fields
interfaces. In electrostatics and electric currents, the force is calculated by integrating

1 T
n 1 T 2 = – --- n 1  E  D  +  n 1  E D (2-1)
2

on the surface of the object that the force acts on. In the magnetic fields interface, the
expression

1 T
n 1 T 2 = – --- n 1  H  B  +  n 1  H B
2

is integrated on the surface to obtain the force. In the magnetic and electric fields
interface, both expressions are included. E is the electric field, D the electric
displacement, H the magnetic field, B the magnetic flux density, and n1 the outward
normal from the object. For a theoretical discussion about the stress tensor see
Electromagnetic Forces.

LORENTZ FORCES
The Lorentz force is defined as

F = JB

The Lorentz force is very accurate for electromagnetic force calculations in electrically
conducting domains. The Lorentz force variables are available both in domains and on
boundaries (in the case of surface currents).

F O R C E A N D TO R Q U E C O M P U T A T I O N S | 33
 Model Library Examples—How to Compute Electromagnetic Forces
There are a number of examples in the AC/DC Module Model Library showing how
to compute electromagnetic forces in different situations.

The Electromagnetic Forces on Parallel Current-Carrying Wires model uses both

Maxwell’s stress tensor and the Lorentz force method to compute magnetic forces. It
shows how to compute the total force on a device by integrating the volume force
J × B—the most important method for computing forces in current-carrying devices.
For materials that can be described as pure conductors (see later on in this section) this
method gives the exact distribution of forces inside a device. The quantity J × B is
called the Lorentz force, and is available as a predefined physics interface variable on
domains and boundaries. The model also illustrates how to compute the force by
integrating the Maxwell stress tensor on boundaries.

The Permanent Magnet model demonstrates how to compute the total force on a
magnetizable rod close to a permanent magnet by integrating the Maxwell stress
tensor in the air on the outside of the rod. This is the most important method for
accurately computing the total force on magnetic devices for which the exact
distribution of volume forces is not known. To retrieve the exact distribution of
volume forces requires a property group that describes the interactions of the
magnetizations and strains. Such property groups are not always available. Therefore
you are often limited to compute the total force by integrating the stress tensor or
using the method of virtual work. Note that none of these methods allows you to
compute and visualize the force distribution inside a domain, but only to compute the
total force and torque in situations where the device is surrounded by air (or when this
is a good approximation).

Also see Where Do I Access the Documentation and Model Library?

34 | CHAPTER 2: AC/DC MODELING

Lumped Parameters
Lumped parameters are matrices describing electromagnetic properties such as
resistance, capacitance, and inductance. In the time-harmonic case the lumped
parameter matrix is either an impedance matrix or an admittance matrix depending on
how the model is excited (current or voltage). In a static calculation you only get the
resistive, capacitive, or inductive part of the lumped parameter matrix.

Calculating Lumped Parameters with Ohm’s Law

To calculate the lumped parameters, there must be at least two electrodes in the
system, one of which must be grounded. You can force either a voltage or a current on
the electrodes. After the simulation you can extract the other property or you can
extract the energy and use it when calculating the lumped parameter.

There are several available techniques to extract the lumped parameters. Which one to
use depends on the interface that you use, what parameter you are interested in, and
how you solve the model. The overview of the techniques below uses a 4-by-4 matrix
example for the lumped parameter matrix. This represents a system of at least five
terminals, where four are used as terminals and the rest are grounded, as illustrated in
Figure 0-7.

V1 V3

Ground

V2 V4

Figure 2-5: A five-terminal system with 4 terminals and one grounded terminal.

If you specify a system where all terminals are terminals, you get redundant matrix
elements. This is better understood if you view a two-terminal system. If both
terminals are declared as terminals, you get a 2-by-2 matrix for the system. This is
clearly too many elements because you only have one unique lumped parameter
between the terminals. As soon as you declare other ground terminals somewhere in
the system, you get a 3-terminal system and the lumped parameter matrix becomes a
2-by-2 matrix.

LUMPED PARAMETERS | 35
 F O R C E D VO L T A G E
If voltages are applied to the terminals, the extracted currents represent elements in the
admittance matrix, Y. This matrix determines the relation between the applied voltages
and the corresponding currents with the formula

I1 Y 11 Y 12 Y 13 Y 14 V 1
I2 Y 21 Y 22 Y 23 Y 24 V 2
=
I4 Y 31 Y 32 Y 33 Y 34 V 3
I4 Y 41 Y 42 Y 43 Y 44 V 4

so when V1 is nonzero and all other voltages are zero, the vector I is proportional to
the first column of Y.

In electrostatics the current is replaced with charge and the admittance matrix is
replaced with the capacitance matrix

Q1 C 11 C 12 C 13 C 14 V 1
Q2 C 21 C 22 C 23 C 24 V 2
=
Q4 C 31 C 32 C 33 C 34 V 3
Q4 C 41 C 42 C 43 C 44 V 4

FIXED CURRENT
It might be necessary to calculate the Z-matrix in a more direct way. Similar to the Y
calculation, the Z calculation can be done by forcing the current through one terminal
at the time to a nonzero value while the others are set to zero. Then, the columns of
the impedance matrix are proportional to the voltage values on all terminals:

V1 Z 11 Z 12 Z 13 Z 14 I 1
V2 Z 21 Z 22 Z 23 Z 24 I 2
=
V3 Z 31 Z 32 Z 33 Z 34 I 3
V4 Z 41 Z 42 Z 43 Z 44 I 4

In magnetostatics this option means that the energy method is used; see Calculating
Lumped Parameters Using the Energy Method below.

36 | CHAPTER 2: AC/DC MODELING

FIXED CHARGE
The Electrostatics interface can use total charge instead of total current. This gives you
the inverted capacitance matrix in a similar manner as the Z and Y matrices.

–1
V1 C 11 C 12 C 13 C 14 Q1
V2 C 21 C 22 C 23 C 24 Q2
=
V3 C 31 C 32 C 33 C 34 Q4
V4 C 41 C 42 C 43 C 44 Q4

Calculating Lumped Parameters Using the Energy Method

When using this method the potential or the current is nonzero on one or two
terminals at a time and you extract the energy density integrated over the whole
geometry. The following formulas show how to calculate the capacitance matrix from
the integral of the electric energy density.

2  0 ji
Vi 

C ii = ------2- W e d Vj = 
 Vi j = i

0 k  i j
1 Vi Vj 
= ------------ W e d – ---  ------ C + ------ C jj
1
C ij
Vi Vj  2 V j ii V i
Vk =  Vi

k = i

 Vj k = j

You can calculate the inductance matrix in the same way from the magnetic energy
density:

2 0 ji
Ii 

L ii = ----2- W m d Ij = 
 Ii j = i

0 k  i j
1 Ii Ij 
= -------- W m d – ---  ---- L + ---- L 
1
L ij
Ii Ij  2  I j ii I i jj
Ik =  Ii

k = i

 Ij k = j

This is the technique used when you select Fixed current in the Magnetostatics
interface.

LUMPED PARAMETERS | 37
 Studying Lumped Parameters
To study lumped parameters you use the Terminal boundary condition for each
electrode. This boundary condition is available in the following interfaces and the
methods described in the previous section are used to calculate the lumped parameters:

• Electrostatics. Uses a stationary study and the energy method.

• Electric Currents. Uses a stationary or frequency domain study type using the
method based on Ohm’s law.
• Magnetic and Electric Fields (when the electric potential is one of the dependent
variables). For the stationary study the energy method is used. For the frequency
domain study type, the method based on Ohm’s law is used.

The lumped parameters are defined as global variables, so you can evaluate them from
the Derived Values node under the Results node in the model tree or define 1D plot
groups for plotting them.

PO R T S W E E P S E T T I N G S A N D TO U C H S T O N E E X P O R T
In the main node of the physics interface you can activate a port sweep that loops the
excitation over the terminals in the model and compute a lumped parameter matrix.
For frequency domain models there is also an inner loop with a frequency sweep for
each terminal and the lumped parameters are exported to Touchstone file. The
generated lumped parameters are in the form of an impedance or admittance matrix
depending on the port/terminal settings. They must consistently be of either fixed
voltage (for an admittance matrix) or fixed current type (for an impedance matrix).

ACCURACY
Use reaction terms to be accurate when calculating the total current over the
boundary. This is necessary for the forced voltage input property. The reaction terms
(representing current or charge density) come from default information stored in the
solution, which gives you an exact calculation of the total fluxes on boundaries with
constraints. They do not change the system of equations in any way, so no special solver
settings are needed when using them. The reaction terms are also stored by default. It
is recommended to use forced voltage input property with reaction terms in the
extraction of the lumped parameters. Lumped parameter variables based on voltage
excitation are only available when reaction fluxes are included in the output.

The optional current excitation performs a coupling that guarantees that the total
current is equal to the specified value, although you cannot verify this without using
reaction terms.

38 | CHAPTER 2: AC/DC MODELING

Importing ECAD Files
Overview of the ECAD Import
This section explains how to import ECAD files into COMSOL Multiphysics. An
ECAD file can, for example, be a 2D layout of a printed circuit board (PCB) that
COMSOL Multiphysics imports and converts to a 3D geometry.

EXTRUDING LAYERS
A PCB layout file holds information about all traces in several 2D drawings or layers.
During import, each 2D layer is extruded to a 3D object so that all traces get a valid
thickness. An standard extrude operation requires that the source plane is identical to
the destination plane. This makes it impossible to extrude an entire PCB with several
layers, where the source and destination planes in almost all cases simply do not match.
It is possible to do several extrude operations, one for each layer, and there is an option
to do so. For complex PCBs it is not trivial to put these layers together, and it might
therefore take a very long time to go from the geometry node to the Material node or
a Physics node in the model tree. In some situations this operation might fail.

As a result of these performance issues, the ECAD Import has its own extrude
operation that automatically connects nonmatching planes. In one operation this
functionality extrudes and connects all layers, so there is only one geometry object
after the import. With only one object, it is trivial to switch to the physics modes. You
use this special extrude operation when you use the grouping option All.

The special extrude operation is bound to certain rules that the 2D layout must fulfill.
If the 2D layout does not comply with these rules, the operation might fail. You can
then switch to one of the other grouping options to import the geometry into
COMSOL Multiphysics.

Importing ODB++(X) Files

This section describes how to import ODB++(X) files into COMSOL Multiphysics. If
your ECAD software supports this format we recommend that you use it, because it
usually gives the most efficient geometry model of the layout.

IMPORTING ECAD FILES | 39

 FILE INFORMATION
The ODB++ file format is a sophisticated format that handles most of the information
needed to manufacture a PCB. Some of the information is not needed when importing
the file into COMSOL Multiphysics, and the program ignores such information
during import.

ODB++ exists in two different format versions:

• A single XML file containing all information organized in a hierarchy of XML tags.
This file format is usually referred to as ODB++(X), and it is the only format that
you currently can import into COMSOL Multiphysics.
• A directory structure with several files, each containing parts of information about
the PCB. An entire PCB layout is often distributed as zipped or unzipped tar
archives. This version is currently not possible to import into COMSOL
Multiphysics.

The ODB++ import reads the layer list and the first step in the file. Multiple step files
are not yet supported. From the first step it reads all the layer features and the board
outline but currently skips all the package information.

EXTRACTING LAYER STACKUP

The import can read stackup information from the ODB++ file, such as thickness for
metal layers and dielectric layers. It is quite common that the layer thickness is not
included in the export from the ECAD program, so the layers only get a default
thickness. You always have the possibility to change the thickness prior to import on
the Layers to import table in the Settings window fort the ECAD import, so it is
recommended that you check these values before importing.

Importing GDS-II Files

This section describes how to import GDS-II files into COMSOL Multiphysics.

FILE INFORMATION
The GDS-II file format is commonly used for mask layout production used in the
manufacturing process of semiconductor devices and MEMS devices. The file is a
binary file, containing information about drawing units, geometry objects, and object
drawing hierarchy. The drawing hierarchy is made up of a library of cell definitions,
where each cell can be instantiated (drawn several times) with scaling, translation,
mirroring, and rotation. It is also possible to repeat a cell as an array of drawn objects.
This is very useful for mask layouts of integrated circuits, which often consist of

40 | CHAPTER 2: AC/DC MODELING

millions of transistors. There are usually only a few transistor configurations present on
the layout, and each transistor configuration only has to be defined once.

File Extension
The file extension of the GDS-II format is usually .gds, and the ECAD import
requires it to be so, otherwise it cannot identify the file as a GDS-II file. If the file has
a different extension, you must changed it to .gds before importing the file.

Supported Features
There are several record types in a GDS file that are of no interest in a geometry
import, and these are ignored. There are also a few record types that actually could be
imported as a geometry object, but are also ignored. One such example is the Text
record, which produce a lot of mesh elements and is usually of no interest in a
simulation. Below is a list of the supported record types.

• Boundary: a closed polyline object

• Box: a box object
• Path: a path with a thickness
• Sref: an instance of a cell that can be translated, rotated, scaled, and mirrored
• Aref: an n-by-m array of Sref objects
• Element: specification of a cell

3D IMPORT OF GDS-II FILES

The GDS-II format does not contain any information about layer thickness and layer
position, so any such information has to be supplied by the user. When importing a
GDS-II file with the ECAD import, it creates a table for all layers included in the file.
In that table it is possible to specify a thickness for each layer and thereby get a 3D
structure. This procedure has a few limitations regarding how the GDS layers are
organized:

• One layer represents one position in height, so if the file contains two GDS layers
that define two objects on the same height, the ECAD import still positions the
layers with one layer on top of the other. Several GDS layers on the same height is
common for semiconductor layouts, where the fabrication process includes
deposition followed by etching and then redepositing of a different layer. Such
advanced process schemes cannot be automatically handled correctly by the ECAD
import.
• With the grouping option All, objects on adjacent layers must not cross each other,
because the original edge of the objects must be kept unchanged when two adjacent

IMPORTING ECAD FILES | 41

 layers are merged to form the interface between them. You can get around this by
selecting a different grouping option (see ECAD Import).
• Use the 3D GDS-II import with the ECAD import. The standard CAD import of
COMSOL Multiphysics does not support prereading of the file, so it is not possible
to specify any properties the layers (like thickness for example). The ECAD import
always reads the file before displaying the import options.

The best way to solve any of these issues is to do the import with the grouping option
By layer, and manually rearrange the layers by simple move operations so the elevation
of the layers are correct. You can do etching by removing a layer from other objects,
using the Difference button on the main toolbar or the Difference feature from the
Boolean Operations submenu on the Geometry node’s context menu.

Importing NETEX-G Files

FILE INFORMATION
The NETEX-G file format is a special format produced by the application NETEX-G
by Artwork (www.artwork.com). NETEX-G can read Gerber and drill files that almost
any ECAD software can export to because those formats are used when sending the
layout to manufacturing. The output file is an ASCII file with a GDS-like structure,
containing information about the layout of each layer, the layer thickness, vias, and
dielectric layers. The geometry objects are defined and instantiated in the same way as
in a GDS file; see the corresponding section in Importing GDS-II Files for a more
detailed description.

File Extension
The file extension of the NETEX-G format is not set, but the ECAD import requires
it to be .asc, otherwise it cannot identify the file as a NETEX-G file. If the file has a
different extension, you have to change it before importing it. Throughout the rest of
this chapter, files of this type are referred to as a Netex file.

USING NETEX-G
This section contains a brief description of the main steps to produce a Netex file for
import into COMSOL Multiphysics. For specific details on how to use NETEX-G, the
user is referred to the NETEX-G manual.

42 | CHAPTER 2: AC/DC MODELING

GERBER Layer Files
The first type of input files to NETEX-G is a collection of Gerber files, one for each
layer. The ECAD software generates these files when the PCB layout is sent to
manufacturing, but they can also be used for interfacing to other programs like
COMSOL Multiphysics. The layer files do not contain any information about layer
thickness, layer materials, dielectrics, and electrical connectivity (nets). Furthermore, a
standard PCB layout usually consists of a large number of conductors, vias, and
symbols printed in metal that are not important for a finite element simulation. With
NETEX-G you can reduce the size of the exported layout in the following ways:

• Defining a region to include in the export. This region is drawn directly on a top
view of the layout.
• Exclude entire layers from the layout.
• Selecting electrical nets to include in the export in addition to the selected region.
• It is also possible to let NETEX-G include nets in the proximity of the selected nets.

Because the Gerber layer files do not contain any physical information about the layer
and dielectrics, you also need to specify this information in NETEX-G.

Some of these steps can also be done during import to COMSOL Multiphysics, for
example, excluding layers from the import and changing thickness of the layers.

Drill Files
The connectivity between the layers is defined through drilled holes, known as vias. A
via can go through the entire circuit board or just between certain layers. Most ECAD
programs use the Excellon drill file format to specify the vias, which contains
information about via diameter and position. Before generating the final output file
from NETEX-G, it is necessary to convert all drill files to Gerber format and include
them to the export project in NETEX-G. For each drill file, it is also necessary to
specify between which layers the hole goes. Within NETEX-G you can call a tool that
directly converts the Excellon drill format into Gerber. After the conversion you also
specify the source and destination layers for the drill file.

NETEX-G Export Settings

To reduce the complexity of the output file it is recommended that vias are exported
as circles and not as polygon chains. Although the arc recognition utility can detect
these polygons, the former option is a bit more robust.

IMPORTING ECAD FILES | 43

 IMPORTING WIREBONDS
The Netex file can contain information about wirebonds or bond wires. Including
wirebonds in the geometry often increases the problem size significantly. To get more
control over the problem size, you can control the complexity of the imported wires.

Types of Wirebonds
The ECAD import can model the wirebond at three different complexity levels:

• As geometrical edges. This is the simplest form, which works well when the current
in the wires is known.
• As solids with a square-shaped cross section. This cross section often produces fewer
mesh elements than when using a circular cross section and is also easier for the
geometry engine to analyze.
• As solids with a circular cross section.

Wirebonds Models
The Netex file format supports wirebonds models according to the JEDEC standard.
It is possible to define the wirebond as a JEDEC3 or a JEDEC4 model. These models
define the bond wire as 3- or 4-segment paths with user-supplied coordinates and
elevations. In a Netex file the bond wire goes from a layer to a special die layer,
representing the semiconductor die.

Note: Wirebonds are currently not supported with the grouping option set to All.
Using this option ignores all wirebonds.

ECAD Import Options

ECAD IMPORT
Most PCB layout files mainly contain definitions of 2D objects. The Netex file also
contains information about wirebonds. The ECAD import engine first creates the 2D
objects for each layer, possibly grouped as one object. Then it extrudes all the objects
in each layer according to the information in the file. GDS files contain no information
about thickness, so a default value of 100 µm is used for all layers. The ECAD Import
allows you to change the layer thickness prior to import. Another alternative is to first
import the objects into 2D and then manually extrude them to 3D.

44 | CHAPTER 2: AC/DC MODELING

To use this import, add an Import node by right-clicking the Geometry node in the
model tree. The Import section under Geometry import, you decide what type of CAD
file to import. In the list there are two options for ECAD import: ECAD file (GDS/
NETEX-G) and ECAD file (ODB++). The next step is to enter the path to the wanted file
or click the Browse button that opens a window where you select the file to import.
Before clicking the Import button you should consider the import options described
below.

THE ECAD IMPORT OPTIONS

There are a number of settings that control how to treat the information in the layout
file. The content of this section depends on the file type you import.

For GDS and NETEX-G files you can enter a net name in the Net to import (blank
means top net) edit field if you want to import a single electrical net beneath the top
net in the hierarchy. Leave this edit field empty to import the top net (top cell). (In
GDS files, the standard terminology is cell instead of net, but structurally they mean
the same thing.)

The Grouping of geometries list specifies how the imported geometry objects are
grouped in the final geometry. The choices for 3D import are:

• All. Groups all objects into one single object. This selection makes use of a more
efficient extrude algorithm that extrudes and combines all layers directly. Because
the import results in only one geometry object, COMSOL Multiphysics does not
need to do a complicated analysis of several geometry objects.
• By layer. Groups all objects in one layer into one geometry object. The final
geometry contains one object for each layer.
• No grouping. No grouping of objects is performed. This can be useful for debugging
purposes when the other choices fail for some reason. This selection returns all the
primitive objects found in the file, so objects with negative polarity are not drawn
correctly.

The Type of import list specifies how to treat metal layers. The Full 3D option imports
all metal layers with a thickness. Select the Metal shell options if you want to import all
metal layers as an embedded boundary between dielectric regions.

IMPORTING ECAD FILES | 45

 For NETEX-G files, bond wires or wirebonds can be imported using three different
complexity levels. You choose the level from the Type of bond wires list:

• Edges. The path of the bond wire is represented only as a geometrical edge. This
option has the least complexity and does not produce a large number of mesh
elements. There might be some limitations when using these edges in modeling.
• Blocks. The bond wire is modeled as a solid with a square cross section.
• Cylinders. Same as above but with a circular cross section.

The layer information from the file appears in the Layers to import table. In addition
to the layer Name, the table includes the following columns:

• The Type column. This column declares the type of layer. The import treats layers
of different types differently. For example, a layer of type Metal converts to faces if
the option Type of import is set to Metal shell. The Outline type uses a union of the
objects in the selected layer as a PCB outline. For ODB++ files, the Drill type means
that the objects in the layer define drilled via holes through the PCB. For NETEX-G
files, the vias are defined within each metal and dielectric layer.
• The numbers in the Thickness column can be changed. This column is especially
important when importing GDS files because that format does not contain any
thickness information, so all layers get a default thickness that you probably want to
change.
• The Import column. Here you can clear the check box for layers that you do not
want to import. Note that if you use the Metal shells import type, you cannot import
isolated boundaries if the import also includes another solid layer. Then you must
perform two imports. The only exception to this rule is when the import results in
only face objects.

In most electromagnetic simulations the material between the metal layers is important
for the simulation result. For NETEX-G/GDS import, the Import dielectric regions
check box controls if the import engine also includes the dielectric layers, which in
most cases are the actual PCB materials. An ODB++ file usually has the outline of the
PCB board defined in the file. If you import a NETEX-G file or a GDS file, it is
possible to define the PCB outline using left, right, top, and bottom margins for the
dielectric material. They define the distance between the exterior of the PCB and the
bounding box of all metal layers.

With the Keep interior boundaries check box cleared, the import removes all interior
boundaries of the imported nets. This keeps the geometry complexity to a minimum
and can also make the import more robust in some situations.

46 | CHAPTER 2: AC/DC MODELING

Clearing the Ignore text objects check box tells the importer to skip all objects in an
ODB++ file that have the TEXT tag set. It is common that PCB layouts have text
written in copper. Such objects increase the problem size and are usually of no interest
in a physical simulation.

For NETEX-G/GDS import, other options that can significantly reduce the
complexity of imported layouts are the recognition of arcs and straight lines. With the
Recognize arcs set to Automatic, all polygon chains that represent arcs are identified and
replaced with more efficient curve objects. With the edit fields appearing when setting
this to Manual, you can fine tune the arc recognition. The Find straight lines check box
also controls whether to convert several polygon segments that lie on a single straight
line into a single straight segment. This option uses the number in the Minimum angle
between segments edit field to determine if a group of segments lies on the same
straight line.

Geometry repair is controlled via the Repair imported data check box and the Relative
repair tolerance edit field.

Meshing an Imported Geometry

The imported geometry often consists of objects with very high aspect ratios, which
are hard to mesh with a free tetrahedron mesh generator. As a result, it is often
necessary to use interactive meshing of the imported geometry in a by-layer fashion.

The following section describes this procedure in general terms.

This procedure assumes that the top and bottom layers are metal layers. All metal layers
can often be meshed using swept meshing, but dielectric layers usually cannot be
meshed that way. You begin by meshing from the bottom or top layer, starting with a
boundary mesh. Then you mesh layer by layer, where each metal layer gets a swept
mesh, and each dielectric layer (with vias) gets a free mesh.

The dielectric layers cannot use a swept mesh because the source and target boundaries
usually do not look the same. If there is a surrounding air domain it is usually not
possible to use swept meshes for the metal layers either. You must then use
tetrahedrons or convert the swept mesh to tetrahedrons before meshing the
surrounding domain.

For more details on meshing operations, see Creating Meshes and Generating a 3D
Swept Mesh in the COMSOL Multiphysics User’s Guide and Convert in the
COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Guide. Or see Where Do I Access the
Documentation and Model Library?

IMPORTING ECAD FILES | 47

 Troubleshooting ECAD Import

TU N I N G I M P O R T S E T T I N G S

Delete Interior Edges

A complex layout produces a large number of faces that can be hard to render. A simple
way to reduce the number of faces is to clear the Keep interior boundaries check box in
the ECAD import options. This removes all faces internal to the nets within a layer.

Removing Features
You can remove all features that are not important for your simulation. This is usually
best to do before the import in NETEX-G or in the ECAD software. When importing
with Grouping of geometries set to None it is possible to manually delete certain objects
after import, but it is recommended to do this only for relatively simple geometries.

PROBLEMS WHEN EXTRUDING LAYERS

Most ECAD or EDA programs support design rule checks (DRC), which test the
entire layout and check that all features (vias, conductors, and components) are
separated according to certain rules. With such checks the layout is free from
overlapping vias and conductors touching other conductors or vias. This also ensures
that the special extrude functionality of the ECAD import works properly. If the file
contains such design-rule violations, the extrude might fail and throw an error message
stating that it could not handle the topology of the layout.

The best approach to handle such problems is to perform a DRC with your ECAD
software and produce new layout files. If this is not possible, you can import the layout
in 2D and try to identify the problematic features. They can either be in a single layer
or at the interface between two adjacent layers. When identified, it is possible to
remove them manually using a text editor if you are importing a NETEX-G file or an
ODB++ file. It can be hard to find a certain feature, but you can use either the
coordinate or the net information to find it. The GDS format is a binary file format so
it is very difficult to edit the file manually.

PROBLEMS WITH SEVERAL GEOMETRY OBJECTS

If you do not use the special extrude functionality you get several geometry objects,
for example, one for each layer if you choose By layer from the Grouping of geometries
list. After a CAD import COMSOL Multiphysics is in the Geometry branch of the
model tree. When you continue to the Materials branch if the model tree or to a physics
interface node or the Mesh branch, the program tries to combine all the objects into
one geometry, and this operation might fail if the objects are very complex and have

48 | CHAPTER 2: AC/DC MODELING

high aspect rations. You can resolve this either by trying the option All in the Grouping
of geometries list. This creates one combined geometry object by using the special
extrude functionality, and with only one object this.

Another possibility is to use assemblies, because then COMSOL Multiphysics does not
have to combine the objects (parts). This is controlled by the Finalize node in the
Geometry branch of the model tree. When using an assembly, you have to use identity
pairs to connect the interfaces between the layers.

As a final option, you can choose to not import the dielectric layers. The import then
leaves you with isolated metal layers that you have to connect with coupling variables.

IMPORTING ECAD FILES | 49

50 | CHAPTER 2: AC/DC MODELING
 3

Review of Electromagnetics

This section contains an overview of the theory behind the AC/DC Module. It is
intended for readers that wish to understand what goes on in the background when
using the physics interfaces.

In this section:

• Fundamentals of Electromagnetics
• Electromagnetic Forces
• Special Calculations
• Electromagnetic Quantities
• References

51
 Fundamentals of Electromagnetics
Maxwell’s Equations
The problem of electromagnetic analysis on a macroscopic level is the problem of
solving Maxwell’s equations subject to certain boundary conditions. Maxwell’s
equations are a set of equations, written in differential or integral form, stating the
relationships between the fundamental electromagnetic quantities. These quantities
are:

• The electric field intensity E

• The electric displacement or electric flux density D
• The magnetic field intensity H
• The magnetic flux density B
• The current density J
• The electric charge density 

The equations can be formulated in differential form or integral form. The differential
form is presented here because it leads to differential equations that the finite element
method can handle. For general time-varying fields, Maxwell’s equations can be
written as

D
  H = J + -------
t
------
B-
E = –
t
D = 
B = 0

The first two equations are also referred to as Maxwell-Ampère’s law and Faraday’s
law, respectively. Equation three and four are two forms of Gauss’ law—the electric
and magnetic form, respectively.

Another fundamental equation is the equation of continuity, which can be written as


J = – ------
t

52 | CHAPTER 3: REVIEW OF ELECTROMAGNETICS

Out of the five equations mentioned, only three are independent. The first two
combined with either the electric form of Gauss’ law or the equation of continuity
form such an independent system.

Constitutive Relations
To obtain a closed system, the equations include constitutive relations that describe
the macroscopic properties of the medium. They are given as

D = 0 E + P
B = 0  H + M 
J = E
Here 0 is the permittivity of vacuum, 0 is the permeability of vacuum, and  the
electric conductivity. In the SI system, the permeability of vacuum is chosen to be
4·107 H/m. The velocity of an electromagnetic wave in vacuum is given as c0 and
the permittivity of vacuum is derived from the relation

1 – 12 1 –9
 0 = ----------
2
= 8.854  10 F/m  ---------  10 F/m
c0 0 36

The electric polarization vector P describes how the material is polarized when an
electric field E is present. It can be interpreted as the volume density of electric dipole
moments. P is generally a function of E. Some materials can have a nonzero P also
when there is no electric field present.

The magnetization vector M similarly describes how the material is magnetized when
a magnetic field H is present. It can be interpreted as the volume density of magnetic
dipole moments. M is generally a function of H. Permanent magnets, for instance,
have a nonzero M also when there is no magnetic field present.

For linear materials, the polarization is directly proportional to the electric field,
P0 e E , where e is the electric susceptibility. Similarly in linear materials, the
magnetization is directly proportional to the magnetic field, Mm H , where m is
the magnetic susceptibility. For such materials, the constitutive relations can be
written

D =  0  1 +  e E =  0  r E = E
B =  0  1 +  m H =  0  r H = H

FUNDAMENTALS OF ELECTROMAGNETICS | 53
 The parameter r is the relative permittivity, and r is the relative permeability of the
material. These are usually scalar properties but they can, for a general anisotropic
material, be 3-by-3 tensors. The properties  and  (without subscripts) are the
permittivity and permeability of the material.

GENERALIZED CONSTITUTIVE RELATIONS

Note: Also see the Charge Conservation feature described for the Electrostatics
interface (under the Electric Field section), which also describes the macroscopic
properties of the medium (relating the electric displacement D with the electric field
E) and the applicable material properties.

Generalized forms of the constitutive relations are well suited for modeling nonlinear
materials. The relation used for the electric fields is

D = 0 r E + Dr

The field Dr is the remanent displacement, which is the displacement when no electric
field is present.

Similarly, a generalized form of the constitutive relation for the magnetic field is

B = 0 r H + Br

where Br is the remanent magnetic flux density, which is the magnetic flux density
when no magnetic field is present.

For some materials, there is a nonlinear relationship between B and H such that

B = f H 

The relation defining the current density is generalized by introducing an externally

generated current Je. The resulting constitutive relation is

J = E + J e

54 | CHAPTER 3: REVIEW OF ELECTROMAGNETICS

Potentials
Under certain circumstances it can be helpful to formulate the problems in terms of
the electric scalar potential V and the magnetic vector potential A. They are given
by the equalities

B = A
A
E = – V – -------
t

The defining equation for the magnetic vector potential is a direct consequence of the
the magnetic Gauss’ law. The electric potential results from Faraday’s law.

In the magnetostatic case where there are no currents present, Maxwell-Ampère’s law
reduces to H0. When this holds, it is also possible to define a magnetic scalar
potential by the relation

H = – V m

Reduced Potential PDE Formulations

The reduced potential option introduces the substitution AAredAext into
Maxwell-Ampère’s law:

–1 dD
  A  = J +
dt

DOMAIN EQUATIONS

Time-Harmonic
For time-harmonic quasi-static systems solving for an A formulation, the reduced
potential formulation results in the following PDE:

2 –1
 j –     A ext + A red  +    A ext + A red   = J e

Here it is possible to interpret the term Aext as an additional remanent magnetic

flux density and the term j2Aext as an additional external current source.

Transient
Similarly to the time-harmonic formulation, in the transient formulation, the above
substitution results in the reduced equation

FUNDAMENTALS OF ELECTROMAGNETICS | 55
    A ext + A red  +    A ext + A red   = J e
–1
t

Static
In static formulations, the induced current is zero. Maxwell-Ampère’s law reduces to

–1
   A ext + A red   = J e

In this case it is also possible to express the external field through a known external
magnetic flux density, Bext. The domain equation in reduced form then reads

–1
   A red + B ext   = J e

Electromagnetic Energy
The electric and magnetic energies are defined as

D T
D
We = V  0 E  dD dV = V  0 E  -------
t 
dt dV

B T
B
Wm = V  0 H  dB dV = V  0 H  ------
t 
- dt dV

The time derivatives of these expressions are the electric and magnetic power

D
Pe = V E  -------
t
dV

B
Pm = V H  ------
t
- dV

These quantities are related to the resistive and radiative energy, or energy loss,
through Poynting’s theorem (Ref. 1)

D B
– V  E  -------
t
+ H  ------- dV =  J  E dV +   E  H   n dS
t  V S
where V is the computation domain and S is the closed boundary of V.

The first term on the right-hand side represents the resistive losses,

Ph =  V J  E dV

56 | CHAPTER 3: REVIEW OF ELECTROMAGNETICS

which result in heat dissipation in the material. (The current density J in this
expression is the one appearing in Maxwell-Ampère’s law.)

The second term on the right-hand side of Poynting’s theorem represents the radiative
losses,

Pr =
S  E  H   n dS
The quantity SE × H is called the Poynting vector.

Under the assumption the material is linear and isotropic, it holds that

D E
E  ------- = E  ------- =   --- E  E
1
t t t 2
B B
H  ------- = --- B  ------- =   ------- B  B
1 1
t  t  t  2 

By interchanging the order of differentiation and integration (justified by the fact that
the volume is constant and the assumption that the fields are continuous in time), you
get


V  --2- E  E + ------
- B  B dV =
1 1
–
t 2  V J  E dV + S  E  H   n dS
The integrand of the left-hand side is the total electromagnetic energy density

1 1
w = w e + w m = --- E  E + ------- B  B
2 2

The Quasi-Static Approximation and the Lorentz Term

A consequence of Maxwell’s equations is that changes in time of currents and charges
are not synchronized with changes of the electromagnetic fields. The changes of the
fields are always delayed relative to the changes of the sources, reflecting the finite
speed of propagation of electromagnetic waves. Under the assumption that you can
ignore this effect, it is possible to obtain the electromagnetic fields by considering
stationary currents at every instant. This is called the quasi-static approximation. The
approximation is valid provided that the variations in time are small and that the
studied geometries are considerably smaller than the wavelength (Ref. 5).

The quasi-static approximation implies that the equation of continuity can be written
as   J = 0

FUNDAMENTALS OF ELECTROMAGNETICS | 57
 and that the time derivative of the electric displacement Dt can be disregarded in
Maxwell-Ampère’s law.

There are also effects of the motion of the geometries. Consider a geometry moving
with velocity v relative to the reference system. The force per unit charge, Fq, is then
given by the Lorentz force equation:

F
---- = E + v  B
q

This means that to an observer traveling with the geometry, the force on a charged
particle can be interpreted as caused by an electric field E'Ev×B. In a conductive
medium, the observer accordingly sees the current density

J =   E + v  B  + Je

where Je is an externally generated current density.

Maxwell-Ampère’s law for quasi-static systems is consequently extended to

e
  H = E + v  B + J

whereas Faraday’s law remains unchanged.

Material Properties
Until now, there has only been a formal introduction of the constitutive relations.
These seemingly simple relations can be quite complicated at times. There are four
main groups of materials where they require some consideration. A given material can
belong to one or more of these groups. The material groups are inhomogeneous,
anisotropic, nonlinear, and dispersive.

The least complicated of the groups above is that of the inhomogeneous materials. An
inhomogeneous medium is one where the constitutive parameters vary with the space
coordinates, so that different field properties prevail at different parts of the material
structure.

For anisotropic materials, the field relations at any point are different for different
directions of propagation. This means that a 3-by-3 tensor is required to properly
define the constitutive relations. If this tensor is symmetric, the material is often
referred to as reciprocal. In these cases, the coordinate system can be rotated in such
a way that a diagonal matrix is obtained. If two of the diagonal entries are equal, the
material is uniaxially anisotropic. If none of the elements have the same value, the

58 | CHAPTER 3: REVIEW OF ELECTROMAGNETICS

material is biaxially anisotropic (Ref. 2). An example where anisotropic parameters are
used is the conductivity when modeling solenoids.

Nonlinearity is the effect of variations in permittivity or permeability with the intensity

of the electromagnetic field. This also includes hysteresis effects, where not only the
current field intensities influence the physical properties of the material, but also the
history of the field distribution.

Finally, dispersion describes changes in the velocity of the wave with wavelength. In
the frequency domain, dispersion is expressed by a frequency dependence in the
constitutive laws. Also see the section Materials for more information.

Boundary and Interface Conditions

To get a full description of an electromagnetics problem, you also need to specify
boundary conditions at material interfaces and physical boundaries. At interfaces
between two media, the boundary conditions can be expressed mathematically as

n2   E1 – E2  = 0
n2   D1 – D 2  = s
n2   H1 – H2  = Js
n2   B1 – B2  = 0

where s and Js denote surface charge density and surface current density,
respectively, and n2 is the outward normal from medium 2. Of these four conditions,
only two are independent. One of the first and the fourth equations, together with one
of the second and third equations, form a set of two independent conditions.

A consequence of the above is the interface condition for the current density,

 s
n 2   J 1 – J 2  = – --------
t

INTERFACE BETWEEN A DIELECTRIC AND A PERFECT CONDUCTOR

A perfect conductor has infinite electric conductivity and thus no internal electric field.
Otherwise, it would produce an infinite current density according to the third
fundamental constitutive relation. At an interface between a dielectric and a perfect
conductor, the boundary conditions for the E and D fields are simplified. If, say,
subscript 1 corresponds to the perfect conductor, then D10 and E10 in the
relations above. For the general time-varying case, it holds that B10 and H10 as

FUNDAMENTALS OF ELECTROMAGNETICS | 59
 well (as a consequence of Maxwell’s equations). What remains is the following set of
boundary conditions for time-varying fields in the dielectric medium.

–n2  E2 = 0
–n2  H2 = Js
–n2  D2 = s
–n2  B2 = 0

Phasors
Whenever a problem is time-harmonic the fields can be written in the form

ˆ
E  r t  = E  r  cos  t +  

Instead of using a cosine function for the time dependence, it is more convenient to
use an exponential function, by writing the field as

ˆ ˆ j jt ˜ jt
E  r t  = E  r  cos  t +   = Re  E  r e e  = Re  E  r e 
˜
The field E  r  is a phasor, which contains amplitude and phase information of the field
but is independent of t. One thing that makes the use of phasors suitable is that a time
derivative corresponds to a multiplication by j,

------
E- ˜ jt
= Re  jE  r e 
t

This means that an equation for the phasor can be derived from a time-dependent
equation by replacing the time derivatives by a factor j. All time-harmonic equations
in the AC/DC Module are expressed as equations for the phasors. (The tilde is
dropped from the variable denoting the phasor.)

When postprocessing the solution of a time-harmonic equation, it is important to

remember that the field that has been calculated is a phasor and not a physical field.
˜
For example, all plot functions visualize Re  E  r   by default, which is E at time t0.
To obtain the solution at a given time, you can specify a phase factor in all results pages
and in the corresponding functions.

60 | CHAPTER 3: REVIEW OF ELECTROMAGNETICS

Electromagnetic Forces
There are several ways to compute electromagnetic forces in COMSOL Multiphysics.
In the most general case, the calculation of electromagnetic forces involves the
computation of volume forces acting on a body, and of surface forces originating from
jumps in the electromagnetic fields on the boundaries. The volume and surface forces
are derived from a general stress tensor that includes electromagnetic terms.

The derivation of the expressions for the electromagnetic stress tensor utilizes
thermodynamic potential (energy) principles (Ref. 1 and Ref. 3). The distribution of
electromagnetic forces in a system depends on the material. Accordingly, the
techniques and expressions used when computing electromagnetic forces are different
for different types of materials.

Another technique for calculating forces using the method of virtual work is described
in the section Electromagnetic Energy and Virtual Work.

The modeling of torque and forces with the AC/DC Module is described in the
section Force and Torque Computations.

Overview of Forces in Continuum Mechanics

Cauchy’s equation of continuum mechanics reads

2
d r
 2
=   T + f ext
dt

where  is the density, r denotes the coordinates of a material point, Tis the stress
tensor, and fext is an external volume force such as gravity (fextg). This is the
equation solved in the structural mechanics physics interfaces for the special case of a
linear elastic material, neglecting the electromagnetic contributions.

In the stationary case there is no acceleration, and the equation representing the force
balance is

0 =   T + f ext

The stress tensor must be continuous across a stationary boundary between two
materials. This corresponds to the equation n 1  T 2 – T 1  = 0

ELECTROMAGNETIC FORCES | 61
 where T1 and T2 represent the stress tensor in Materials 1 and 2, respectively, and n1
is the normal pointing out from the domain containing Material 1. This relation gives
rise to a surface force acting on the boundary between Material 1 and 2.

Material 2
Material 1

n1

In certain cases, the stress tensor T can be divided into one part that depends on the
electromagnetic field quantities and one part that is the mechanical stress tensor,

T = T EM +  M

For the special case of an elastic body, the mechanical stress tensor is proportional only
to the strain and the temperature gradient. The exact nature of this split of the stress
tensor into an electromagnetic and a mechanical part depends on the property group,
if it can be made at all. For more information on the mechanical stress tensor for elastic
materials, see the documentation on the physics interfaces for structural mechanics, for
example, The Solid Mechanics Interface in the COMSOL Multiphysics User’s Guide,
or see Where Do I Access the Documentation and Model Library?

It is sometimes convenient to use a volume force instead of the stress tensor. This force
is obtained from the relation

f em =   T EM

This changes the force balance equation to

0 =    M + f em + f ext

or, as stated in the structural mechanics physics interfaces,

–  M = f where f = f em + f ext

62 | CHAPTER 3: REVIEW OF ELECTROMAGNETICS

Forces on an Elastic Solid Surrounded by Vacuum or Air
Consider now a solid (Material 1) surrounded by vacuum (Material 2). It is natural to
associate the surface force on the boundary between the materials with the solid. Note
that in many applications air can be approximated by vacuum.

In practice, the equation for the force balance also needs to include an external
boundary force gext. It is nonzero on those parts of the boundary where it is necessary
to compensate for the contributions to the stress tensor that you are not interested in
or do not have enough information on. These contributions come from the influence
of the adjacent domains. By approximating the surroundings by vacuum or air, the
influence of these boundaries and their adjacent domains (that are not part of our
model) on the electromagnetic fields are neglected.

On the boundary, the following equations apply:

˜
n1  T2 – T1  = 0
˜
n 1 T 2 = n 1 T 2 + g ext

The external boundary force gext can represent the reaction force from another body
that the solid is attached to.

The equations for the balance of forces on the solid now become

  T 1 + f ext = 0
n 1  T 2 – T 1  + g ext = 0

For computing the total force F on the solid these equations need to be integrated
over the entire solid and the solid/vacuum boundary

    T1 + fext  dV +   n1  T2 – T1  + gext  dS = 0
1  1

Now, according to Gauss’ theorem

   T1 dV –  n1 T1 dS = 0
 1  1

This means that the external force

ELECTROMAGNETIC FORCES | 63
 F ext =  fext dV +  gext dS
1  1

is needed to balance the term for the boundary integral of the stress tensor in the
surrounding vacuum

F =  n1 T2 dS

 1

to keep the solid stationary. That is

F ext + F = 0

If the external forces are suddenly removed, the solid is no longer stationary, but F
causes the solid to begin to move with an initial acceleration according to

2
d r
ma =   ---------
dt
2
dV = F
1

where m is the total mass and a is the acceleration of the solid.

To summarize, the total force, F, is computed as a boundary integral of the stress

tensor in vacuum on the outside of the solid. Note that to obtain this result, the
contribution from the air pressure gradient has been neglected. This is equivalent of
assuming that ·T20. A more detailed treatment shows that the pressure gradient
contributes with a lifting (buoyancy) force on the solid.

Torque
The torque in the case of the previous section is given by

MO =
  r – rO    n1 T2  dS
 1

where rO is a point on the axis of rotation. This follows from a derivation similar to
the one made for forces.

64 | CHAPTER 3: REVIEW OF ELECTROMAGNETICS

Forces in Stationary Fields
The electromagnetic fields are stationary if

B
= 0
t
D
= 0
t

that is, if the fields vary so slowly that you can neglect the contributions from induced
currents and displacement currents.

Also assume that the objects modeled are not moving

v = 0

so that there is no contributions from Lorentz forces. These are treated later on.

T H E E L E C T R O M A G N E T I C S T RE S S TE N S O R
The expressions for the stress tensor in a general electromagnetic context stems from
a fusion of material theory, thermodynamics, continuum mechanics, and
electromagnetic field theory. With the introduction of thermodynamic potentials for
mechanical, thermal, and electromagnetic effects, explicit expressions for the stress
tensor can be derived in a convenient way by forming the formal derivatives with
respect to the different physical fields (Ref. 1 and Ref. 3). Alternative derivations can
be made for vacuum (Ref. 4) but these cannot easily be generalized to polarized and
magnetized materials.

Air and Vacuum

For air, the stress tensor is

0
T 2 = – pI –  ----- E  E + --------- B  B I +  0 EE + ------ BB
1 T 1 T
2 2 0 0

where p is the air pressure, I is the identity 3-by-3 tensor (or matrix), and E and B are
3-by-1 vectors. In this expression of the stress tensor, air is considered to be
nonpolarizable and nonmagnetizable. When air is approximated by vacuum, p = 0.
This expression, with p = 0, of the stress tensor is also known as the Maxwell stress
tensor.

Using the fact that, for air, D = 0E and B =0H the expression for the stress tensor
can be written as

ELECTROMAGNETIC FORCES | 65
 T 2 = – pI –  --- E  D + --- H  B I + ED + HB
1 1 T T
2 2 

The equation for the balance of forces becomes

0 =    – pI –  --- E  D + --- H  B I + ED + HB  + f ext

1 1 T T
 2 2  

Maxwell’s equations in free space give that the contribution of the electromagnetic
part of the stress tensor is zero, and the resulting expression is

0 = – p + f ext

Thus, using the same terminology as earlier, fem0 for air, with MpI. Note that
in the derivation of the total force on an elastic solid surrounded by vacuum or air, the
approximation p0 has been used.

When operating with the divergence operator on the stress tensor, the relation

   EE – --- E  EI = E    E  – E     E 
T 1
2

is useful (and similarly for B). From the right-hand side it is clear (using Maxwell’s
equations) that this is zero for stationary fields in free space.

Consider again the case of a solid surrounded by air. To compute the total force, the
projection of the stress tensor on the outside of the solid surface is needed,

n 1 T 2 = – pn 1 –  --- E  D + --- H  B n 1 +  n 1  E D +  n 1  H B

1 1 T T
2 2

where n1 is the surface normal, a 1-by-3 vector, pointing out from the solid. This
expression can be used directly in the boundary integral of the stress tensor for
computing the total force F on the solid.

See the AC/DC Module Model Library model Permanent Magnet (or see Where Do
I Access the Documentation and Model Library?) for an example of how to apply the
stress tensor in air for computing the total force and torque on a magnetizable rod
close to a permanent magnet.

Elastic Pure Conductor

A material that is nonpolarizable and nonmagnetizable (P0 and M0) is called a
pure conductor. Note that this is not necessarily equivalent to a perfect conductor, for
which E0, but merely a restriction on the dielectric and magnetic properties of the

66 | CHAPTER 3: REVIEW OF ELECTROMAGNETICS

material. The stress tensor becomes identical to the one for air, except for pI being
replaced by the purely mechanical stress tensor M:

T 1 =  M –  --- E  D + --- H  B I + ED + HB

1 1 T T
2 2

where D0E and B0H.

The situation is slightly different from the case of air because there can be currents and
volume charges in the conductor. The current density is

1
J =   H = ------   B
0

and the volume charge density

 =   D = 0   E

The equation for the balance of forces now becomes

0 =    M + E + J  B + f ext

and this means that

f em = E + J  B

See the AC/DC Module Model Library model Electromagnetic Forces on Parallel
Current-Carrying Wires (or see Where Do I Access the Documentation and Model
Library?) for an example of how to compute the total force on two parallel wires either
by integrating the volume force or by integrating the stress tensor on the surrounding
surface.

General Elastic Material

For an elastic solid, in the general case of a material that is both dielectric and magnetic
(nonzero P and M), the stress tensor is given by the expression

0
T 1 =   E B  –  ----- E  E + --------- B  B – M  B I
1
2 2 0
T 1 T T T
+  0 EE + ------ BB + EP – MB
0

where in (E, B) the dependence of E and B has not been separated out. Thus  is
not a purely mechanical stress tensor in this general case. Different property groups

ELECTROMAGNETIC FORCES | 67
 give different appearances of (E, B). The electromagnetic contributions to (E, B)
typically represent pyroelectric, pyromagnetic, piezoelectric, piezomagnetic, dielectric,
and magnetization effects. The expression for the stress tensor in vacuum, air, and pure
conductors can be derived from this general expression by setting MP0.

Note that T1 must be symmetric. The terms EPT and MBT are symmetric in the case
of a linear dielectric and magnetic material because

P = 0 e E
M = B B

Here, the magnetic susceptibility B differs slightly from the classical m. The other
explicit terms are all symmetric, as is (E, B). In the general case this imposes
constraints on the properties of (E, B). For a nonlinear material (E, B) might need
to include terms such as EPT or +MBT to compensate for asymmetric EPT or
MBT.

To instantiate the stress tensor for the general elastic case you need an explicit property
group including the magnetization and polarization effects. Such property groups can
easily be found for piezoelectric materials (Ref. 3).

Forces in a Moving Body

Computing forces in moving objects is important, especially for electric motors and
other moving electromagnetic devices. When performing the computations in a
coordinate system that moves with the object, the electromagnetic fields are
transformed. The most well-known relation for moving objects is the one for the
electric field. The transformed quantity of the electric field is called the electromotive
intensity and is described below.

F I E L D TR A N S F O R M A T I O N S A N D G A L I L E I I NVA R I A N T S
Assume that the object modeled is moving with a constant velocity,

v = v0

The equations now take on a slightly different form that includes the Galilei invariant
versions of the electromagnetic fields. The term Galilei invariant is used due to the fact
that they remain unchanged after a coordinate transformation of the type

r' = r + v0 t

68 | CHAPTER 3: REVIEW OF ELECTROMAGNETICS

In continuum mechanics, this transformation is commonly referred to as a Galilei
transformation.

The Galilei invariant fields of interest are

˜
E = E+vB (Electromotive intensity)
˜
J = J – v (Free conduction current density)
˜ ------
P-
P = + v    P  –    v  P  (Polarization flux derivative)
t
˜
M = M + v  P (Lorentz magnetization)
˜ B ˜
H = ------ –  0 v  E – M (Magnetomotive intensity)
0

As mentioned earlier the electromotive intensity is the most important of these

invariants. The Lorentz magnetization is significant only in materials for which neither
the magnetization M nor the polarization P is negligible. Such materials are rare in
practical applications. The same holds for the magnetization term of the
magnetomotive intensity. Notice that the term 0v × E is very small compared to
B/0 except for cases when v and E are both very large. Thus in many practical cases
you can neglect this term.

Air and Vacuum

The stress tensor in the surrounding air or vacuum on the outside of a moving object is

T 2 = – pI –  --- E  D + --- H  B I + ED + HB +  D  B v
1 1 T T T
2 2 

Notice that there is an additional term in this expression compared to the stationary
case.

Elastic Pure Conductor

The stress tensor in a moving elastic pure conductor is

T 1 =  M –  --- E  D + --- H  B I + ED + HB +  D  B v

1 1 T T T
2 2

where D0E and B0H.

To get the equation for the balance of forces you need to compute the divergence of
this expression. Doing this requires an introduction of an extra term in Cauchy’s
equation corresponding to an additional electromagnetic contribution to the linear
momentum. Cauchy’s equation with this extra term reads

ELECTROMAGNETIC FORCES | 69
 2
d r
 2
+ D  B =   T + f ext
dt

The extra term is canceled out by the additional term in the stress tensor, and the final
result is

2
d r ˜ ˜
 2
=    M + E + J  B + f ext
dt

For the case of no acceleration, with the explicit appearance of the transformed
quantities,

0 =    M +   E + v  B  +  J – v   B + f ext

The terms containing v × B cancel out, which yields the following equation:

0 =    M + E + J  B + f ext

which is the same expression as for the stationary case.

General Elastic Material

The stress tensor for a moving general elastic material is

˜ 0 ˜
T 1 =   E B  –  ----- E  E + --------- B  B – M  B I +
1
2 2 0
T 1 T ˜ T ˜ T T
+  0 EE + ------ BB + E P – M B +  0  E  B v
0

Notice that the magnetization M and the polarization P occur explicitly in this
expression.

To instantiate the stress tensor for the general elastic case you need a property group
explicitly including the magnetization and polarization effects as mentioned earlier in
this section.

Electromagnetic Energy and Virtual Work

Another technique for computing forces is the one of deriving the electromagnetic
energy of the system and computing the force by studying the effect of a small
displacement. This is known as the method of virtual work or the principle of virtual
displacement.

70 | CHAPTER 3: REVIEW OF ELECTROMAGNETICS

The method of virtual work is used for the electric energy and magnetic energy
separately for computing the total electric or magnetic force as follows.

M A G N E T I C F O R C E A N D TO R Q U E
The method of virtual work utilizes the fact that under constant magnetic flux
conditions (Ref. 5), the total magnetic force on a system is computed as

F  = – W m

If the system is constrained to rotate about an axis the torque is computed as

W m
T = –


where  is the rotational angle about the axis.

Under the condition of constant currents, the total force and torque are computed in
the same way but with opposite signs,

F I = W m

W m
TI =


E L E C T R I C F O R C E A N D TO R Q U E
Under the condition of constant charges, the total electric force and torque on a
system are computed as

F Q = – W e

W e
TQ = –


Under the condition of constant potentials, the total electric force and torque on a
system are computed as

F V = W e

W e
TV =


The method of virtual work can be employed by using the features for deformed mesh
and sensitivity analysis in COMSOL Multiphysics, for more details see Deformed
Meshes and Sensitivity Analysis in the COMSOL Multiphysics User’s Guide.

ELECTROMAGNETIC FORCES | 71
 Special Calculations
Mapped Infinite Elements
In general, infinite elements are used at outer boundaries to model open boundaries,
extending toward infinity. With proper settings infinite elements techniques enable
termination of the simulations volume closer to the active regions (regions with
sources), drastically reducing the amount of degrees of freedoms.

There are several different types of infinite elements, and the one used in the AC/DC
Module is taken from Ref. 6. This technique is usually referred to as mapped infinite
elements in the literature because it uses coordinate mapping of a region so its outer
boundary is located at infinity. The principle can be explained in a one-coordinate
system, where this coordinate represents Cartesian, cylindrical, or spherical
coordinates. Mapping multiple coordinate directions (for Cartesian and cylindrical
systems only) is just the sum of the individual coordinate mappings.

r0 t’

tp w
unscaled region unscaled region scaled region

Figure 3-1: The coordinate transform used for the mapped infinite element technique. The
meaning of the different variables are explained in the text.

Figure 3-1 shows a simple view of an arbitrary coordinate system. The coordinate r is
the unscaled coordinate that COMSOL Multiphysics draw the geometry in (reference
system). The position r0 is the new origin from where the coordinates are scaled, tp is
the coordinate from this new origin to the beginning of the scaled region also called
the pole distance, and w is the unscaled length of the scaled region. The scaled
coordinate, t’, approaches infinity when t approaches tpw. To avoid solver issues
with near infinite values, it is possible to change the infinite physical width of the scaled
region to a finite large value, pw. The true coordinate that the PDEs are formulated
in is given by

r' = r 0 + t

72 | CHAPTER 3: REVIEW OF ELECTROMAGNETICS

where t’ comes from the formula

w
t' = t p ---------------------------------
p –   t – tp 
tp
 = 1 – ---------------------
 pw – t p

Lumped Parameter Conversion

When the impedance matrix, Z, or the admittance matrix, Y, is available it is possible
to calculate all other types of lumped parameter matrices from the relations below.

–1
S = G ref   E –  Z ref  Y     E + Z ref  Y 
–1
 G ref ,
–1 Im  Z  Im  Y 
Z = Y , L = ----------------- , C = ----------------- ,
 
R = Re  Z , G = Re  Y 

where L is the inductance, C is the capacitance, R is the resistance, and G is the

conductance. S is the S-parameter. The relations also include the following matrices

1 0 0 0
E = 0 1 0 0
0 0 1 0
0 0 0 1

Z ref = E  Z 0
1
G ref = E  ------------------------------
2 Re  Z 0 

where Z0 is the characteristic impedance.

SPECIAL CALCULATIONS | 73
 Electromagnetic Quantities
Table 3-1 shows the symbol and SI unit for most of the physical quantities in the
AC/DC Module. The default values for the permittivity of vacuum,
0 = 8.854187817·1012 F/m, and for the permeability of vacuum,
0 = 4·107 H/m, require that you provide all other quantities in SI units and that
meter is used for the length scale of the geometry. If the geometry is drawn using
another length scale, it is necessary to change the numerical values for the physical
quantities accordingly. For example, if you draw the geometry using m as the length
scale, you need to have 0 = 8.854187817·1018 F/m and 0 = 4·1013 H/m.
TABLE 3-1: ELECTROMAGNETIC QUANTITIES

QUANTITY SYMBOL SI UNIT ABBREVIATION

Angular frequency  radian/second rad/s

-1
Attenuation constant  meter m-1
Capacitance C farad F
Charge q coulomb C
Charge density (surface) s coulomb/meter2 C/m2
Charge density (volume)  coulomb/meter3 C/m3
Current I ampere A
Current density (surface) Js ampere/meter A/m
Current density (volume) J ampere/meter2 A/m2
Electric displacement D coulomb/meter2 C/m2
Electric field E volt/meter V/m
Electric potential V volt V
Electric susceptibility e (dimensionless) -
Electric conductivity  siemens/meter S/m
3
Energy density W joule/meter J/m3
Force F newton N
Frequency  hertz Hz
Impedance Z,  ohm 
Inductance L henry H
Magnetic field H ampere/meter A/m
Magnetic flux  weber Wb

74 | CHAPTER 3: REVIEW OF ELECTROMAGNETICS

TABLE 3-1: ELECTROMAGNETIC QUANTITIES

QUANTITY SYMBOL SI UNIT ABBREVIATION

Magnetic flux density B tesla T

Magnetic potential (scalar) Vm ampere A
Magnetic potential (vector) A weber/meter Wb/m
Magnetic susceptibility m (dimensionless) -
Magnetization M ampere/meter A/m
Permeability  henry/meter H/m
Permittivity  farad/meter F/m
Polarization P coulomb/meter2 C/m2
Poynting vector S watt/meter2 W/m2
Propagation constant  radian/meter rad/m
Reactance X ohm 
Relative permeability r (dimensionless) -
Relative permittivity r (dimensionless) -
Resistance R ohm W
Resistive loss Q watt/meter3 W/m3
Torque T newton-meter N·m
Velocity v meter/second m/s
Wavelength  meter m
Wave number k radian/meter rad/m

ELECTROMAGNETIC QUANTITIES | 75
 References
1. A. Kovetz, The Principles of Electromagnetic Theory, Cambridge University Press,
1990.

2. Jianming Jin, The Finite Element Method in Electromagnetics, 2nd Edition,

Wiley-IEEE Press, May 2002.

3. O. Wilson, Introduction to Theory and Design of Sonar Transducers, Peninsula

Publishing, 1988.

4. R.K. Wangsness, Electromagnetic Fields, John Wiley & Sons, 1986, 2nd edition.

5. D.K. Cheng, Field and Wave Electromagnetics, Addison-Wesley, 1991, 2nd

edition.

6. O.C. Zienkiewicz, C. Emson, and P. Bettess, “A Novel Boundary Infinite Element,”

International Journal for Numerical Methods in Engineering, vol. 19(3), pp. 393–
404, 1983.

76 | CHAPTER 3: REVIEW OF ELECTROMAGNETICS

 4

The Electric Field Interfaces

This section summarizes the functionality of the electric field interfaces. The AC/
DC Module enhances the Electrostatics and Electric Currents interfaces included
with the basic COMSOL Multiphysics license. Also refer to the COMSOL
Multiphysics User’s Guide or Where Do I Access the Documentation and Model
Library? for detailed information about selecting geometric entities (domains,
boundaries, edges, and points).

In this section:

• The Electrostatics Interface

• The Electric Currents Interface
• The Electric Currents, Shell Interface
The underlying theory for each interface is also discussed:

• Theory of Electric Fields

• Theory for the Electrostatics Interface
• Theory for the Electric Currents Interface
• Theory for the Electric Currents, Shell Interface

77
 The Electrostatics Interface
The Electrostatics interface ( ) has the equations, boundary conditions, and space
charges for modeling electrostatic fields, solving for the electric potential.

For an introduction to the physics and equations implemented by this interface, see
the Theory for the Electrostatics Interface.

Charge Conservation is the main feature, which adds the equation for the electric
potential and has a Settings window for defining the constitutive relation and its
associated properties such as the relative permittivity.

When you add this interface, these default nodes are also added to the Model Builder—
Charge Conservation, Zero Charge (default boundary condition), and Initial Values.
Right-click the Electrostatics node to add other features that implement, for example,
boundary conditions and space charges.

INTERFACE IDENTIFIER
The interface identifier is a text string that can be used to reference the respective
physics interface if appropriate. Such situations could occur when coupling this
interface to another physics interface, or when trying to identify and use variables
defined by this physics interface, which you use to reach the fields and variables in
expressions, for example. You can change it to any unique string in the Identifier field.

The default identifier (for the first interface in the model) is es.

DOMAINS
Select the domains where you want to define the electric potential and the equations
that describe the potential field for dielectrics. The default setting is to include all
domains in the model.

EQUATION
The default Study types are listed in the Equation Form list. Study controlled is the
default selection. The availability of the Equation display options are based on how
each model is constructed. Select options as required and see Physics Interface
Nodes—Equation Section in the COMSOL Multiphysics User’s Guide or Where Do
I Access the Documentation and Model Library? for more information.

78 | CHAPTER 4: THE ELECTRIC FIELD INTERFACES

OUT-OF-PLANE THICKNESS (2D MODELS ONLY)
Define the out-of-plane thickness d by entering a value or expression (SI unit: m) in
the Thickness edit field. The default value of 1 m is typically not representative for a thin
dielectric medium, for example. Instead it describes a unit thickness that makes the 2D
equation identical to the equation used for 3D models.

PO R T SWEEP SETTINGS
Select the Activate port sweep check box to switch on the port sweep and invoke a
parametric sweep over the ports/terminals. Enter a Port parameter name to assign a
specific name to the variable that controls the port or terminal number solved for
during the sweep. The generated lumped parameters are in the form of capacitance
matrix elements. The port/terminal settings must consistently be of either fixed
voltage or fixed charge type. See Lumped Parameters for more information.

Solving for a Port Sweep

An additional step is required when solving for a port sweep. You need to right-click
the Study node in the model tree and add a Parametric Sweep. In the new Parametric
Sweep node, you enter for Parameter names, the Port parameter name specified when
activating the port sweep and for Parameter values, you enter the desired list with
terminal numbers. You then need to right-click the Study node and select Other and
Generate Sequences from Study before solving.

DEPENDENT VA RIA BLES

The dependent variable (field variable) is for the Electric potential V. You can change
the name in the corresponding edit field, but the names of fields and dependent
variables must be unique within a model.

ADVANCED SETTINGS
To display this section on a physics interface Settings window, select Show More Options
from the View menu in the Model Builder. Normally these settings do not need to be
changed. See Show More Options: Advanced Settings in the COMSOL Multiphysics
User’s Guide or Where Do I Access the Documentation and Model Library?.

DISCRETIZATION
To display this section on a physics interface Settings window, select Show More Options
from the View menu in the Model Builder. Select an Electric potential—Quadratic (the
default), Linear, Cubic, or Quartic.

THE ELECTROSTATICS INTERFACE | 79

 Charge Conservation
The Charge Conservation node adds the equations for charge conservation according to
Gauss’ law for the electric displacement field. The Charge Conservation page contains
these sections for defining the related material properties:

DOMAINS
Select the domains where you want to define the electric potential and the equation
based on Gauss’ law that describes the potential field.

MODEL INPUTS
This section contains field variables that appear as model inputs, if the current settings
include such model inputs. By default, this section is empty.

COORDINATE SYSTEM SELECTION

The Global coordinate system is selected by default. The Coordinate system list contains
any additional coordinate systems that the model includes.

ELECTRIC FIELD
Select a Constitutive relation to describe the macroscopic properties of the medium
(relating the electric displacement D with the electric field E) and the applicable
material properties, such as the relative permittivity. Select:

- Relative permittivity to use the constitutive relation D0rE (the default).

- Polarization to use the constitutive relation D0EP.
- Remanent displacement to use constitutive relation D0rEDr, where Dr is
the remanent displacement (the displacement when no electric field is present).
• If Relative permittivity is selected, the default is to take the Relative permittivity (r)
values From material. If User defined is selected, select Isotropic, Diagonal, Symmetric,
or Anisotropic and enter values or expressions in the field or matrix.
• If Polarization is selected, enter components (3 in 3D, 2 in 2D) for the Polarization
vector P (SI unit: C/m2).
• If Remanent displacement is selected, the default is to take the Relative permittivity
(er) values From material. If User defined is selected, select Isotropic, Diagonal,
Symmetric, or Anisotropic and enter values or expressions in the field or matrix. Then
enter components (3 in 3D, 2 in 2D) for the Remanent displacement Dr (SI unit: C/
m2).

80 | CHAPTER 4: THE ELECTRIC FIELD INTERFACES

Space Charge Density
The Space Charge Density node adds a space charge density , which appears on the
right-hand side of the equation that the Electrostatics interface defines.

DOMAINS
Select the domains where you want to define a current source.

SPACE CHARGE DENSITY

Enter a value or expression for the Space charge density (SI unit: C/m3).

Force Calculation
The Force Calculation node allows you to select a set of domains to calculate a resultant
force.

DOMAINS
Select the domains where you want to define a force calculation.

FORCE CALCULATION
Enter a Force name, which is then available as a global variable. The method used is
integration of the Maxwell’s stress tensor over the exterior surfaces of the set of
domains. This feature also gives access to the normal component of the Maxwell Stress
tensor on the external surfaces. (For the Magnetic and Electric Fields interface, the force
calculation includes both electric and magnetic forces).

Enter coordinates for the Torque axis rax and Torque rotation point r0. A torque
calculation about a given point (Torque rotation point) is made, and the resulting
torque component parallel to the given Torque axis is given as a global variable,
typically es.tax_<force name>.

Infinite Elements
The Infinite Elements node imposes a coordinate transformation to the selected domain
that effectively moves one or more sides of the domain to infinity. Infinite elements are
used for the modeling of open boundary problems. A default Charge Conservation node
or Ampere’s Law and Current Conservation node is also added.

For the Magnetic and Electric Fields interface, you can also right-click to add additional
features.

THE ELECTROSTATICS INTERFACE | 81

 DOMAINS
Select the domains where you want to use infinite elements.

GEOMETRIC SETTINGS
Select the Type of infinite element scaling to use— Cartesian, Cylindrical, Spherical, or
General. The options available depend on the spatial dimensions modeled.

• If Spherical is selected, enter values for the Center coordinate r0 (SI unit: m).
• If Cylindrical is selected, enter values for the Center coordinate r0 (SI unit: m) and
Center axis direction raxis.

PARAMETERS
Select Show More Options from the View menu in the Model Builder to display this
section and to adjust the Physical width and Pole distance parameters, which affect the
coordinate transformation. Both use default values that should work well for most
cases.

The Physical width parameter sets the modeled width of the infinite element region,
which typically is a large value. The default value is 1e3*es.dGeomChar, where
es.dGeomChar (the interface identifier es might vary) is the characteristic distance for
the geometry. The parameter Pole distance is a tuning parameter that controls the
nature of the coordinate transform. The default value is 5*es.avgDelta, where
es.avgDelta (or ec.avgDelta) is the average thickness.

Initial Values
The Initial Values node adds an initial value for the electric potential V that can serve
as an initial condition for a transient simulation or as an initial guess for a nonlinear
solver.

DOMAINS
Select the domains where you want to define an initial value.

INITIAL VALUES
Enter a value or expression for the initial value of the Electric potential V. The default
value is 0 V.

82 | CHAPTER 4: THE ELECTRIC FIELD INTERFACES

Boundary Conditions for the Electrostatics Interface

Exterior Boundaries
The following exterior boundary conditions are available:

• Ground—also available from the Edges (3D) and Points (2D and 3D) submenus
• Electric Potential—also available from the Edges (3D) and Points (2D and 3D)
menus
• Surface Charge Density
• Dielectric Shielding
• Terminal
• Distributed Capacitance
• Zero Charge - the default boundary condition
• Displacement Field
• Periodic Condition
The relevant interface condition at interfaces between different media is

n2   D1 – D2  =  s

In the absence of surface charges, this condition is fulfilled by the natural boundary
condition

n     0 V – P  1 –   0 V – P  2  = – n   D 1 – D 2  = 0

Interior Boundaries
In addition, the following interior boundary conditions are available:

• Ground
• Electric Potential
• Surface Charge Density
• Zero Charge
• Thin Low Permittivity Gap
• Dielectric Shielding
• Terminal
• Distributed Capacitance

THE ELECTROSTATICS INTERFACE | 83

 For axisymmetric models, COMSOL Multiphysics takes the axial symmetry
boundaries (at r = 0) into account and automatically adds an Axial Symmetry feature to
the model that is valid on the axial symmetry boundaries only.

Pairs
The following are available from the Pairs submenu.

• Ground
• Electric Potential
• Surface Charge Density
• Dielectric Shielding
• Terminal
• Distributed Capacitance
• Zero Charge
• Displacement Field
• Floating Potential
• Continuity

Ground
The Ground node is the default boundary condition and implements ground as the
boundary condition V = 0 .

Ground means that there is a zero potential on the boundary. This boundary condition
is also applicable at symmetry boundaries where the potential is known to be
antisymmetric with respect to the boundary.

BOUNDARIES, EDGES, POINTS

Select the geometric entity (boundaries, edges, or points) where you want to apply a
ground (zero potential) boundary condition. For some interfaces, also select
additional Ground features from the Edges (3D models) or Points (2D and 3D models)
submenus.

Note: Beware that constraining the potential on edges or points in 3D or on points in

2D usually yields a current outflow that is mesh dependent.

84 | CHAPTER 4: THE ELECTRIC FIELD INTERFACES

PAIR SELECTION
If Ground is selected from the Pairs submenu, select the boundary pair where you want
to define this feature. First an identity pair may have to be created.

CONSTRAINT SETTINGS
To display this section, select Show More Options from the View menu in the Model
Builder. Select a Constraint type—Bidirectional, symmetric or Unidirectional. If required,
select the Use weak constraints check box.

Electric Potential
The Electric Potential node provides an electric potential V0 as the boundary condition:

V = V0

Because you are solving for the electric potential in this interface, you typically define
the value of the potential at some part of the geometry. For some interfaces, add
additional features from the Edges (3D models) or Points (2D and 3D models) menus.

BOUNDARIES, EDGES, POINTS

Select the geometric entity (boundaries, edges, or points) where you want to apply an
electric potential as the boundary condition.

Note: Beware that constraining the potential on edges or points in 3D or on points in

2D usually yields a current outflow that is mesh dependent.

PAIR SELECTION
If Electric Potential is selected from the Pairs submenu, select the boundary pair where
you want to define this feature. First an identity pair may have to be created.

EL ECT RIC PO TENT IA L

Enter the value or expression for the Voltage V0 (SI unit: V).

Surface Charge Density

The Surface Charge Density node provides the following surface-charge boundary
condition for exterior boundaries (left) and interior boundaries (right):

THE ELECTROSTATICS INTERFACE | 85

 –n  D = s , n   D1 – D2  = s

Specify the surface charge density s at an outer boundary or at an interior boundary

between two nonconducting media.

BOUNDARIES
Select the boundaries where you want to apply a surface charge density.

PAIR SELECTION
If Surface Charge Density is selected from the Pairs submenu, select the boundary pair
where you want to define this feature. First an identity pair may have to be created.

SURFACE CHARGE DENSITY

Enter the value or expression for the Surface charge density s (SI unit: C/m2).

Dielectric Shielding
The Dielectric Shielding node provides a dielectric shielding boundary condition. It
describes a thin layer with thickness ds and a bulk relative permittivity; rs that shields
the electric field:

n  D = –  t   0  rs d s tV

You can use this boundary condition when approximating a thin domain with a
boundary to reduce the number of mesh elements.

BOUNDARIES OR EDGES
Select the boundaries or edges (3D models) where you want to apply a dielectric
shielding as the condition.

PAIR SELECTION
If Dielectric Shielding is selected from the Pairs submenu, select the boundary pair
where you want to define this feature. First an identity pair may have to be created.

COORDINATE SYSTEM SELECTION

The Global coordinate system is selected by default. The Coordinate system list contains
any additional coordinate systems that the model includes.

86 | CHAPTER 4: THE ELECTRIC FIELD INTERFACES

ELECTRIC FIELD
The default is to take the Relative permittivity r (unitless) values From material. If User
defined is selected, select Isotropic, Diagonal, Symmetric, or Anisotropic and enter values
or expressions in the field or matrix.

THIN LAYER
Enter a Surface thickness ds of the shielding (SI unit: m).

Terminal
The Terminal node provides a boundary condition for connection to external circuits
or with a specified voltage or charge. By specifying zero charge, a floating potential
condition is obtained. Also see Lumped Parameters for more information.

BOUNDARIES
Select the boundaries that you want to model as terminals connected to external
circuits or an external charge or voltage.

For the Electric Currents, Shell interface, you select edges (3D) or points (2D) instead
of boundaries.

PAIR SELECTION
If Terminal is selected from the Pairs submenu, select the boundary pair where you
want to define this feature. First an identity pair may have to be created.

TE R M I N A L
Specify the terminal’s properties. To indicate which boundaries that belong to the
same terminal, enter the same name in the Terminal name field. The Terminal name
should be numeric for port sweeps to work properly.

Select a Terminal type—Voltage, Charge, or Circuit. Select:

• Voltage to enter a voltage V0 (SI unit: V).

• Charge to enter a charge Q0 (SI unit: C). The default is zero charge for an electrode
at floating potential.
• Circuit to specify a terminal connected to an external circuit.
The Circuit type should not be used for lumped parameter calculations. For the
terminal you can also enter the value of the voltage or current/charge used. If you
enter zero, the terminal acts as a floating electrode.

THE ELECTROSTATICS INTERFACE | 87

 Floating Potential
The Floating Potential node is used when modeling a metallic electrode at floating
potential. For circuit connections use the Terminal feature instead.

BOUNDARIES
Select the boundaries where you want to define the floating electrode.

For the Electric Currents, Shell interface, you select edges (3D) or points (2D) instead
of boundaries.

PAIR SELECTION
If Floating Potential is selected from the Pairs submenu, select the boundary pair where
you want to define this feature. First an identity pair may have to be created.

FLOATING POTENTIAL
Specify a an optionally non zero Terminal charge Q0 (SI unit: C).

For the Magnetic and Electric Fields and Electric Currents, Shell interfaces, enter a
Terminal current I0 (SI unit: A). Specify zero current for a disconnected electrode.

Displacement Field
The Displacement Field node provides the following electric-displacement boundary
condition:

n  D = n  D0

It specifies the normal component of the electric displacement field at a boundary.

BOUNDARIES
Select the boundaries where you want to use the normal component of the
displacement field as the boundary condition.

PAIR SELECTION
If Displacement Field is selected from the Pairs submenu, select the boundary pair where
you want to define this feature. First an identity pair may have to be created.

COORDINATE SYSTEM SELECTION

The Global coordinate system is selected by default. The Coordinate system list contains
any additional coordinate systems that the model includes.

88 | CHAPTER 4: THE ELECTRIC FIELD INTERFACES

DISPLACEMENT FIELD
Enter the coordinates of the Boundary displacement field D0 (SI unit: C/m2).

Distributed Capacitance
The Distributed Capacitance node adds a distributed capacitance boundary condition
according to the following equations for exterior boundaries (left) and interior
boundaries (right):

V ref – V V ref – V
– n  D =  0  rL -------------------- n   D 1 – D 2  = 0  rL --------------------
dL dL

You can use this boundary condition to model a thin sheet or film of a dielectric
material. The sheet has the relative permittivity rL and the surface thickness dL, and
it is connected to the reference potential Vref.

BOUNDARIES
Select the boundaries where you want to apply a distributed capacitance.

PAIR SELECTION
If Distributed Capacitance is selected from the Pairs submenu, select the boundary pair
where you want to define this feature. First an identity pair may have to be created.

DISTRIBUTED CAPACITANCE
Enter the values or expressions for Relative permittivity er, Surface thickness ds (SI unit:
m), and Reference potential Vref (SI unit: V). The default value for the surface thickness
is 103 m (1 mm).

Periodic Condition
The Periodic Condition node defines periodicity or antiperiodicity between two
boundaries. You can also activate periodic conditions on more than two boundaries, in
which case the Periodic Condition tries to identify two separate surfaces that can each
consist of several connected boundaries. For more complex geometries it might be
necessary to use the Destination Selection subnode. With this subnode you can
manually specify which boundaries constitute the source and destination surfaces. To
add the subnode, right-click the Periodic Condition node and select Destination
Selection.

THE ELECTROSTATICS INTERFACE | 89

 BOUNDARIES
Select the boundaries where you want to apply a periodic condition.

PERIODIC CONDITION
Select a Type of periodicity—Continuity or Antiperiodicity.

Select a Constraint type—Bidirectional, symmetric or Unidirectional. If required, select

the Use weak constraints check box.

Zero Charge
The Zero Charge node adds the condition that there is zero charge on the boundary:

nD = 0

This boundary condition is also applicable at symmetry boundaries where the potential
is known to be symmetric with respect to the boundary. This is the default boundary
condition at exterior boundaries. At interior boundaries, it means that no displacement
field can penetrate the boundary and that the electric potential is discontinuous across
the boundary.

BOUNDARIES
Select the boundaries where you want to apply a zero charge condition.

PAIR SELECTION
If Zero Charge is selected from the Pairs submenu, select the boundary pair where you
want to define this feature. First an identity pair may have to be created.

Thin Low Permittivity Gap

Use the thin low permittivity gap condition to model a thin gap of a material with a
small permittivity compared to the adjacent domains. The layer has the thickness dL
and the relative permittivity rL. The indices 1 and 2 refer to the two sides of the
boundary.

 0  rL
n  D 1 = --------------  V 1 – V 2 
dL
 0  rL
n  D 2 = --------------  V 2 – V 1 
dL

90 | CHAPTER 4: THE ELECTRIC FIELD INTERFACES

BOUNDARIES
Select the boundaries where you want to apply a thin low permittivity gap condition.

THIN LOW PERMITTIVITY GAP

Enter a Thickness d (SI unit: m).

The default is to take the Relative permittivity (er) values From material. Select User
defined to enter a different value or expression.

Continuity
The Continuity node provides continuity in the field variables across a boundary
between parts in an assembly where you have created a pair. Also see Defining an
Identity Pair in the COMSOL Multiphysics User’s Guide or Where Do I Access the
Documentation and Model Library?

BOUNDARIES
Select individual boundaries in an existing identity pair. This pair first has to be created.

PAIR SELECTION
When Continuity is selected from the Pairs submenu, select the boundary pair where
you want to define this feature. First an identity pair may have to be created.

Line Charge
In 3D specify line charges along the edges of a geometry. To add this feature,
right-click the Electrostatics node and select Edges>Line Charge.

EDGES
Select the edges where you want to add a line charge.

LINE CHARGE
Enter a value or expression to apply a Line charge Qj (SI unit: C/m) to edges. This
source represents electric charge per unit length.

Point Charge
It is possible to add point charges to both 2D and 3D models. To add this feature,
right-click the Electrostatics node and select Points>Point Charge.

THE ELECTROSTATICS INTERFACE | 91

 POINTS
Select the points where you want to add a point charge.

POINT CURRENT SOURCE

Enter a value or expression to apply a Point charge Qp (SI unit: C) to points. This
source represents an electric displacement field flowing out of the point.

Electrostatic Point Dipole

It is possible to add point dipoles to both 2D and 3D models. To add this feature,
right-click the Electrostatics node and select Points>Electrostatic Point Dipole. This
represents the limiting case of zero separation distance between two equally strong
point sources of opposing signs while maintaining the product between separation
distance and source strength at a fixed value (P). The dipole moment is a vector entity
with positive direction from the negative charge to the positive one.

POINTS
Select the points where you want to add an electrostatic point dipole.

DIPOLE SPECIFICATION
Select a Dipole specification—Magnitude and direction or Dipole moment.

SETTINGS
If Magnitude and direction is selected under Dipole Specification, enter coordinates for
the Electric dipole moment direction np and the Electric dipole moment, magnitude p
(SI unit: Cm).

If Dipole moment is selected under Dipole Specification, enter coordinates for the Electric
dipole moment p (SI unit: Cm).

92 | CHAPTER 4: THE ELECTRIC FIELD INTERFACES

The Electric Currents Interface
The Electric Currents interface ( ) has the equations, boundary conditions, and
current sources for modeling steady electric currents in conductive media, solving for
the electric potential. Current Conservation is the main feature, which adds the equation
for the electric potential and provides a settings window for defining the electric
conductivity as well as the constitutive relation and its associated material properties
such as the relative permittivity.

For a more extensive introduction to the physics and equations implemented by this
interface, see the Theory for the Electric Currents Interface.

When you add this interface, these default nodes are also added to the Model Builder—
Current Conservation, Electric Insulation (the default boundary condition), and Initial
Values. Right-click the Electric Currents node to add other features that implement, for
example, boundary conditions and current sources.

INTERFACE IDENTIFIER
The interface identifier is a text string that can be used to reference the respective
physics interface if appropriate. Such situations could occur when coupling this
interface to another physics interface, or when trying to identify and use variables
defined by this physics interface, which you use to reach the fields and variables in
expressions, for example. You can change it to any unique string in the Identifier edit
field.

The default identifier (for the first interface in the model) is ec.

DOMAINS
Select the domains where you want to define the electric potential and the equations
that describe the potential field for conductive media. The default setting is to include
all domains in the model.

EQUATION
The default Study types are listed in the Equation Form list. Study controlled is the
default selection. The availability of the Equation display options are based on how
each model is constructed. Select options as required and see Physics Interface
Nodes—Equation Section in the COMSOL Multiphysics User’s Guide or Where Do
I Access the Documentation and Model Library? for more information.

THE ELECTRIC CURRENTS INTERFACE | 93

 PHYSICAL MODEL
Select the Porous media and mixtures check box to enable the modeling of electric
currents in porous media saturated with a conducting fluid, or a solid matrix with
inclusions of another material with different electric properties. Selecting this check
box enables features on the Current Conservation page and adds the option to use the
Archie’s Law feature.

OUT OF PLANE THICKNESS (2D MODELS ONLY)

Define the out-of-plane thickness d (see Equation 4-1) by entering a value or
expression (SI unit: m) in the Thickness edit field. The default value of 1 m is typically
not representative for a thin grounding plate, for example. Instead it describes a unit
thickness that makes the 2D equation identical to the equation used for 3D models.

POR T SWEEP SETTINGS

Select the Activate port sweep check box to switch on the port sweep and invoke a
parametric sweep over the ports/terminals. Enter a Port parameter name to assign a
specific name to the variable that controls the port or terminal number solved for
during the sweep. The generated lumped parameters are in the form of capacitance
matrix elements. The port/terminal settings must consistently be of either fixed
voltage or fixed charge type.

The lumped parameters are subject to Touchstone file export. Enter a file path or Browse
for a file. See Lumped Parameters for more information.

Select an Output format—Magnitude angle, Magnitude (dB) angle, or Real imaginary.

Enter a Reference impedance Zref (SI unit:  ). The default is 50.

Solving for a Port Sweep

An additional step is required when solving for a port sweep. You need to right-click
on the Study node in the model tree and add a Parametric Sweep. In the new Parametric
Sweep node, you enter for Parameter names, the Port parameter name specified when
activating the port sweep and for Parameter values, you enter the desired list with
terminal numbers. You then need to right-click on the Study node and select Other and
Generate Sequences from Study before solving.

DEPENDENT VARIABLES
The dependent variable (field variable) is for the Electric potential V. You can change
the name in the corresponding edit field, but the names of fields and dependent
variables must be unique within a model.

94 | CHAPTER 4: THE ELECTRIC FIELD INTERFACES

ADVANCED SETTINGS
To display this section on a physics interface Settings window, select Show More Options
from the View menu in the Model Builder. Normally these settings do not need to be
changed. See Show More Options: Advanced Settings in the COMSOL Multiphysics
User’s Guide or Where Do I Access the Documentation and Model Library?.

DISCRETIZATION
To display this section on a physics interface Settings window, select Show More Options
from the View menu in the Model Builder. Select an Electric potential—Quadratic (the
default), Linear, Cubic, or Quartic.

Current Conservation
The Current Conservation node adds the appropriate current conservation law and has
the following sections for defining the related material properties.

DOMAINS
Select the domains where you want to define the electric potential and the continuity
equation that describes the potential field.

For the Electric Currents, Shell interface, select boundaries instead of domains.

MODEL INPUTS
This section contains field variables that appear as model inputs, if the current settings
include such model inputs. By default, this section is empty. If you add a linear
temperature relation for the conductivity, you can then define the source for the
temperature T. From the Temperature list, select an existing temperature variable (from
another physics interface) if available, or select User defined to define a value or
expression for the temperature (SI unit: K) in the edit field that appears underneath
the list.

COORDINATE SYSTEM SELECTION

The Global coordinate system is selected by default. The Coordinate system list contains
any additional coordinate systems that the model includes.

MATERIALS
This section is available when the Porous media and mixtures check box is selected on
the Electric Currents Settings window (see Physical Model).

THE ELECTRIC CURRENTS INTERFACE | 95

 Select Material 1 from the list and enter a Volume fraction 1. Select Material 2 from the
list, and its volume fraction is automatically set to 2 = 11. The default is to use
Domain material for both Material 1 and 2.

CONDUCTION CURRENT
By default, the Electric conductivity (SI unit: S/m) for the media is defined From
material.

If User defined is selected, select Isotropic, Diagonal, Symmetric, or Anisotropic

depending on the characteristics of the electric conductivity, and then enter values or
expressions in the field or matrix. If you want to use another type of temperature
dependence than a linear temperature relation (see below), you can enter any
expression for the conductivity as a function of temperature.

Select Linear temperature relation for a temperature-dependent conductivity (which

occurs in, for example, Joule heating, which is also called resistive heating). The
following equation then describes the conductivity:

1
 = -----------------------------------------------
0  1 +   T – T0  

where 0 is the resistivity at the reference temperature T0.  is the temperature

coefficient of resistance, which describes how the resistivity varies with temperature.

The default Reference temperature Tref (SI unit: K), Resistivity temperature coefficient
(SI unit: 1/K), and Reference resistivity 0 (SI unit:  m) are taken From material,
which means that the values are taken from the boundary material.

To specify other values for any of these properties, select User defined from the
corresponding list and then enter a value or expression. T is the current temperature,
which can be a value that you specify as a model input or the temperature from a heat
transfer interface. The definition of the temperature field appears in the Model Inputs
section.

Effective Conductivity
When the Porous media and mixtures check box is selected on the Electric Currents
Settings window (see Physical Model) and Material 1 and Material 2 are defined (see
Materials), this section enables you to define the electric conductivities for the two
materials and the effective conductivity for the mixture. Also see Effective
Conductivity in Porous Media and Mixtures for more information.

96 | CHAPTER 4: THE ELECTRIC FIELD INTERFACES

The default Electric conductivity for Material 1 and Material 2 uses values From material
and is defined based on settings made in the Materials section.

If User defined is selected, enter another value or expression for Material 1 (or Material
2) conductivity 1 (or 2). Select Isotropic to define a scalar value or Diagonal,
Symmetric, or Anisotropic to define a tensor value.

Then select an Effective conductivity averaging technique—Volume average,

conductivity, Volume average, resistivity, or Power law.

ELECTRIC FIELD
See the settings for Electric Field under Charge Conservation for the Electrostatics
interface.

Effective Relative Permittivity

When the Porous media and mixtures check box is selected on the Electric Currents
Settings window (see Physical Model) and Material 1 and Material 2 are defined (see
Materials), this section enables you to define the relative permittivity for the two
materials and the effective relative permittivity for the mixture. Also see Effective
Conductivity in Porous Media and Mixtures for more information.

The default Relative permittivity for Material 1 and Material 2 uses values From material
and is defined based on settings made in the Materials section.

If User defined is selected, enter another value or expression for Material 1 (or Material
2) relative permittivity 1 (or 2). Select Isotropic to define a scalar value or Diagonal,
Symmetric, or Anisotropic to define a tensor value.

Then select an Effective relative permittivity averaging technique—Volume average,

permittivity, Volume average, reciprocal permittivity, or Power law.

Archie’s Law
The Archie’s Law feature adds a current conservation node specially tailored for the
conduction of electric currents in saturated (or variably saturated) porous media. It has
the following sections for defining the related material properties. See Archie’s Law
Theory for more information.

DOMAINS
Select the domains where you want to define Archie’s law.

THE ELECTRIC CURRENTS INTERFACE | 97

 MODEL INPUTS
This section contains field variables that appear as model inputs, if the current settings
include such model inputs. By default, this section is empty.

COORDINATE SYSTEM SELECTION

The Global coordinate system is selected by default. The Coordinate system list contains
any additional coordinate systems that the model includes.

CONDUCTION CURRENTS
By default, the Electric conductivity L(SI unit: S/m) for the fluid is defined From
material.

If User defined is selected, enter a value or expression. If you want to use another type
of temperature dependence than a linear temperature relation, enter any expression for
the conductivity as a function of temperature.

Enter a Porosity pto set up the volume fraction of the fluid. Enter other Archie’s law
parameters as required: Cementation exponent (m), Saturation exponent (n), and Fluid
saturation (SL). All are unitless numbers and the defaults are 0.

ELECTRIC FIELD
You set up the permittivity of the saturated porous media. See the settings for Electric
Field under Charge Conservation for the Electrostatics interface.

External Current Density

The External Current Density node adds an externally generated current density Je (SI
unit: A/m2), which appears in Ohm’s law

J = E + J e

and in the equation that the Electric Currents interface defines.

DOMAINS
Select the domains where you want to define an external current density.

For the Electric Currents, Shell interface, select boundaries instead of domains.

COORDINATE SYSTEM SELECTION

The Global coordinate system is selected by default. The Coordinate system list contains
any additional coordinate systems that the model includes.

98 | CHAPTER 4: THE ELECTRIC FIELD INTERFACES

EXTERNAL CURRENT DENSITY
Enter the components (x, y, and z components in 3D, for example) of the External
current density Je in the corresponding fields.

Current Source
The Current Source node adds a distributed current source Qj (SI unit: A/m3) in the
equation that the Electric Currents interface defines. Use this feature with caution as
it may violate the current conservation law that is inherent in Maxwell-Ampère’s law.

DOMAINS
Select the domains where you want to define a current source.

For the Electric Currents, Shell interface, select boundaries instead of domains.

CURRENT SOURCE
Enter a value or expression for the Current source Qj (SI unit: A/m3).

Force Calculation
See Force Calculation as described for the Electrostatics interface.

Infinite Elements
See Infinite Elementsas described for the Electrostatics interface.

Initial Values
The Initial Values node adds an initial value for the electric potential that can serve as
an initial condition for a transient simulation or as an initial guess for a nonlinear solver.
If you need to specify more than one set of initial values, you can add additional Initial
Values features.

DOMAINS
Select the domains where you want to define an initial value.

IN IT IA L VA LUES
Enter a value or expression for the initial value of the Electric potential V (SI unit: V).
The default value is 0 V.

THE ELECTRIC CURRENTS INTERFACE | 99

 Boundary Conditions for the Electric Currents Interface
The relevant interface condition at interfaces between different media and interior
boundaries is continuity; that is,

n2   J1 – J2  = 0

which is the natural boundary condition.

Exterior Boundaries
The following exterior boundary conditions are available:

• Ground—also available for Edges> (3D) and Points> (2D and 3D)
• Electric Potential—also available for Edges> (3D) and Points> (2D and 3D)
• Normal Current Density
• Distributed Impedance
• Electric Insulation—the default exterior boundary condition
• Electric Shielding
• Terminal
• Periodic Condition

Interior Boundaries
In addition, the following interior boundary conditions are available:

• Boundary Current Source

• Ground
• Electric Potential
• Distributed Impedance
• Electric Shielding
• Terminal
• Electric Insulation
• Contact Resistance
• Floating Potential
For axisymmetric models, COMSOL Multiphysics takes the axial symmetry
boundaries (at r = 0) into account and automatically adds an Axial Symmetry node to
the model that is valid on the axial symmetry boundaries only.

100 | CHAPTER 4: THE ELECTRIC FIELD INTERFACES

Pairs
The following are available from the Pairs submenu.

• Sector Symmetry
• Boundary Current Source
• Ground
• Electric Potential
• Electric Shielding
• Terminal
• Electric Insulation
• Floating Potential
• Continuity

Boundary Current Source

The Boundary Current Source node adds a current source Qj on the boundary.

n   J1 – J2  = Q j

It is applicable to interior boundaries that represent either a source or a sink of current.

BOUNDARIES
Select the boundaries where you want to apply a current source.

For the Electric Currents, Shell interface, you select edges (3D) or points (2D) instead
of boundaries.

PAIR SELECTION
If Boundary Current Source is selected from the Pairs menu, select the boundary pair
where you want to define this feature. First an identity pair may have to be created.

COORDINATE SYSTEM SELECTION

The Global coordinate system is selected by default. The Coordinate system list contains
any additional coordinate systems that the model includes.

BOUNDARY CURRENT SOURCE

Enter a value or expression for the Surface current source Qj (SI unit: A/m2).

THE ELECTRIC CURRENTS INTERFACE | 101

 Ground
See Ground as described for the Electrostatics interface in the COMSOL Multiphysics
User’s Guide or Where Do I Access the Documentation and Model Library?.

Electric Potential
See Electric Potential as described for the Electrostatics interface in the COMSOL
Multiphysics User’s Guide or Where Do I Access the Documentation and Model
Library?.

Normal Current Density

The Normal Current Density node is applicable to exterior boundaries that represent
either a source or a sink of current. It provides a condition for specifying the normal
current density of an inward or outward current flow:

–n  J = Jn

You then specify the normal current density using the inward current density Jn.

Alternatively, you can use the current density J0 to define the normal current density:

n  J = n  J0

The normal current density is positive when the current flows inward toward the edge.

BOUNDARIES
Select the boundaries where you want to apply a current flow as the boundary
condition using the normal current density.

For the Electric Currents, Shell interface, you select edges (3D) or points (2D) instead
of boundaries.

COORDINATE SYSTEM SELECTION

The Global coordinate system is selected by default. The Coordinate system list contains
any additional coordinate systems that the model includes.

102 | CHAPTER 4: THE ELECTRIC FIELD INTERFACES

NORMAL CURRENT DENSITY
Select an option from the Type list—Inward current density or Current density.

• If Inward current density is selected, enter a value or expression for the normal
current density Jn (SI unit: A/m2). Use a positive value for an inward current flow
or a negative value for an outward current flow.
• If Current density is selected, enter values or expressions for the components of the
current density in the J0 edit fields.

Distributed Impedance
The Distributed Impedance node adds a distributed impedance boundary condition
according to the following equation for exterior boundaries (setting J2 = 0) and
interior boundaries assuming DC currents:

L
n   J 1 – J 2  = -------  V – V ref 
dL
1
n   J 1 – J 2  = -------  V – V ref 
ZL

You can use this boundary condition to model a thin sheet of a resistive material. The
sheet has the electric conductivity L and the surface thickness dL, or a general
(resistive) layer impedance ZL and it is connected to the reference potential Vref.

For the frequency domain and time dependent study types, this boundary condition is
slightly more sophisticated and accounts also for capacitive coupling. The
corresponding equations including the bulk relative permittivity of the sheet; rL or a
general (complex) layer impedance; ZL are given below:

  L + j 0  rL 
n   J 1 – J 2  = ---------------------------------------  V – Vref 
dL
1
n   J 1 – J 2  = -------  V – V ref 
ZL

n   J 1 – J 2  = -------   L  V – V ref  +  0  rL   V – Vref 

1
dL  t 

BOUNDARIES
Select the boundaries where you want to apply a distributed impedance.

THE ELECTRIC CURRENTS INTERFACE | 103

 For the Electric Currents, Shell interface, you select edges (3D) or points (2D) instead
of boundaries.

COORDINATE SYSTEM SELECTION

The Global coordinate system is selected by default. The Coordinate system list contains
any additional coordinate systems that the model includes.

DISTRIBUTED IMPEDANCE
Enter the Reference potential Vref (SI unit: V).

Select a potentially complex valued Layer specification from the list—Surface impedance
or Thin layer.

• If Surface impedance is selected, enter values or expressions for the Surface resistance
s (SI unit: m2).
• If Thin layer is selected, enter values or expressions for Electric conductivity  (SI unit:
S/m) and Surface thickness ds (SI unit: m). The default value for the surface
thickness is 103 m (1 mm).

Electric Shielding
The Electric Shielding node provides an electric shielding boundary condition. It
describes a thin layer of a highly conductive medium that shields the electric field. The
sheet has the electric conductivity s and the surface thickness d. The condition is
represented by the following equation for interior boundaries and (setting J2=0)
exterior boundaries assuming DC currents

n   J 1 – J 2  = –  t  d   s tV 

For the frequency domain and time-dependent study types, also displacement currents
are accounted for via the bulk relative permittivity of the sheet; rs and the
conservation laws change to:

n   J 1 – J 2  = – t  d    s + j 0  rs  tV 


n   J 1 – J 2  = –  t  d   s tV +  0  rs tV
 t 

For the Electric Currents, Shell interface, the equivalent Wire cross-section area is the
shell thickness d, multiplied by the layer thickness dL.

104 | CHAPTER 4: THE ELECTRIC FIELD INTERFACES

 n   J 1 – J 2  = –  t  dd L    L + j 0  rL  tV 


n   J 1 – J 2  = –  t  ddL   L tV +  0  rL tV
t

You can use this boundary condition when approximating a thin domain with a
boundary to reduce the number of mesh elements.

BOUNDARIES
Select the boundaries where you want to apply an electric shielding as the boundary
condition.

For the Electric Currents, Shell interface, you select edges instead of boundaries.

MODEL INPUT
Any model inputs (such as temperature for a temperature-dependent electric
conductivity) appear here.

PAIR SELECTION
If Electric Shielding is selected from the Pairs menu, select the boundary pair where you
want to define this feature. First an identity pair may have to be created.

CONDUCTION CURRENT
The default Electric conductivity of the boundary comes From material as defined on
the domain.

If User defined is selected, choose Isotropic, Diagonal, Symmetric, or Anisotropic from the
list then enter a different value or expression in the field or matrix.

Select Linearized resistivity to define the electric resistivity (and conductivity) as a linear
function of temperature. The following equation then describes the conductivity:

1
 = -----------------------------------------------
0  1 +   T – T0  

where 0 is the resistivity at the reference temperature T0.  is the temperature

coefficient of resistance, which describes how the resistivity varies with temperature. T
is the current temperature, which can be a value that you specify as a model input or
the temperature from a heat transfer interface. The definition of the temperature field
appears in the Model Inputs section.

THE ELECTRIC CURRENTS INTERFACE | 105

 If Linearized resistivity is selected, by default, the Reference temperature Tref
(SI unit: K), Resistivity temperature coefficient  (SI unit: 1/K), and Reference
resistivity o (SI unit: m) values are taken From material. Select User defined to enter
different values or expressions.

ELECTRIC FIELD
By default, the Relative permittivity r (unitless) is taken From material. If User defined
is selected, choose Isotropic, Diagonal, Symmetric, or Anisotropic from the list then enter
a different value or expression in the field or matrix.

THIN LAYER
Enter a value or expression for the Surface thickness ds (SI unit: m).
For the Electric Currents, Shell interface, enter a value for the Wire cross-section area (SI
unit: m2).

Terminal
See Terminal as described for the Electrostatics interface in the COMSOL Multiphysics
User’s Guide or Where Do I Access the Documentation and Model Library?.

Floating Potential
See Floating Potential as described for the Electrostatics interface in the COMSOL
Multiphysics User’s Guide or Where Do I Access the Documentation and Model
Library?.

Electric Insulation
Electric Insulation is the default boundary condition and this feature adds electric
insulation as the boundary condition:

nJ = 0

This boundary condition means that no electric current flows into the boundary. At
interior boundaries, it means that no current can flow through the boundary and that
the electric potential is discontinuous across the boundary. This boundary condition is
also applicable at symmetric boundaries where the potential is known to be symmetric
with respect to the boundary.

106 | CHAPTER 4: THE ELECTRIC FIELD INTERFACES

To add electric insulation to an interior boundary, add an Electric Insulation node in
addition to the one that represents the default boundary condition. Electric insulation
as the default boundary condition is not applicable to interior boundaries.

BOUNDARIES
Select the boundaries where you want to apply electric insulation.

For some interfaces, All boundaries are selected by default and can not be changed.
For the Electric Currents, Shell interface, you select edges (3D) or points (2D) instead
of boundaries.

PAIR SELECTION
If Electric Insulation is selected from the Pairs submenu, select the boundary pair where
you want to define this feature. First an identity pair may have to be created.

Periodic Condition
See Periodic Condition as described for the Electrostatics interface in the COMSOL
Multiphysics User’s Guide or Where Do I Access the Documentation and Model
Library?.

Contact Resistance
Use the Contact Resistance boundary condition on interior boundaries to model a thin
layer of resistive material.


n  J 1 = -------  V 1 – V 2 
dL

n  J 2 = -------  V 2 – V 1 
dL
1
n  J 1 = -------  V 1 – V 2 
ZL
1
n  J 2 = -------  V 2 – V 1 
ZL

The layer has the thickness dL and the conductivity  or a general (resistive) layer
impedance ZL. The indices 1 and 2 refer to the two sides of the boundary.

For the frequency domain and time-dependent study types, this boundary condition
is slightly more sophisticated and accounts also for capacitive coupling. The

THE ELECTRIC CURRENTS INTERFACE | 107

 corresponding equations including the bulk relative permittivity of the sheet; rL or a
general (complex) layer impedance; ZL are given below:

  L + j 0  rL 
n  J 1 = ---------------------------------------  V 1 – V 2 
dL
  L + j 0  rL 
n  J 2 = ---------------------------------------  V 2 – V 1 
dL
1
n  J 1 = -------  V 1 – V 2 
ZL
1
n  J 2 = -------  V 2 – V 1 
ZL

n  J 1 = -------   L  V 1 – V 2  +  0  rL   V 1 – V 2 
1
dL  t 

n  J 2 = -------   L  V 2 – V 1  +  0  rL   V 2 – V 1 
1
dL  t 

BOUNDARIES
Select the boundaries where you want to apply a contact resistance.

CONTACT RESISTANCE
Enter a Thickness d (SI unit: m) for the resistive layer. The default value is 5·103 m
(5 mm).

The default Electric conductivity  (SI unit: S/m) is taken From material. Select User
defined to enter a different value or expression for the electric conductivity.

Sector Symmetry
Select sector symmetry at interfaces between rotating objects where sector symmetry
is used. It is only available for pairs. Also see Defining an Identity Pair in the COMSOL
Multiphysics User’s Guide or Where Do I Access the Documentation and Model
Library?.

BOUNDARIES
Select individual boundaries in an existing identity pair. This pair first has to be created.

PAIR SELECTION
When Sector Symmetry is selected from the Pairs menu, select the boundary pair where
you want to define this feature. First an identity pair may have to be created.

108 | CHAPTER 4: THE ELECTRIC FIELD INTERFACES

SECTOR SETTINGS
Enter the Number of sectors (must be <50).

Select a Type of periodicity—Continuity or Antiperiodicity.

Continuity
The Continuity feature provides continuity in the field variables across a boundary
between parts in an assembly where you have created a pair.

BOUNDARIES
Select individual boundaries in an existing identity pair. This pair first has to be created.

PAIR SELECTION
When Continuity is selected from the Pairs menu, select the boundary pair where you
want to define this feature. First an identity pair may have to be created.

Line Current Source

In 3D you can specify line sources along the edges of a geometry. To add a this feature,
right-click the Electric Currents node and select Edges>Line Current Source.

EDGES
Select the edges where you want to add a current source.

LINE CURRENT SOURCE

Enter a value or expression to apply a Line current source Qj (SI unit: A/m) to edges.
This source represents electric current per unit length.

Point Current Source

It is possible to add point sources to both 2D and 3D models. To add a this feature,
right-click the Electric Currents node and select Points>Point Current Source.

PO IN TS
Select the points where you want to add a current source.

PO INT CURRENT SOURCE

Enter a value or expression to apply a Point current source Qj (SI unit: A) to points.
This source represents an electric current flowing out of the point.

THE ELECTRIC CURRENTS INTERFACE | 109

 Electric Point Dipole
The Electric Point Dipole node is available for 2D and 3D models. This represents the
limiting case of zero separation distance between two equally strong point sources of
opposing signs while maintaining the product between separation distance and source
strength at a fixed value (P). The dipole moment is a vector entity with positive
direction from the negative charge to the positive one.

POINTS
Select the points where you want to add an electrostatic point dipole.

DIPOLE SPECIFICATION
Select a Dipole specification—Magnitude and direction or Dipole moment.

SETTINGS
If Magnitude and direction is selected under Dipole Specification, enter coordinates for
the Electric dipole moment direction np and the Electric dipole moment, magnitude p
(SI unit: A·m).

If Dipole moment is selected under Dipole Specification, enter the components of the
Electric dipole moment p (SI unit: A·m).

110 | CHAPTER 4: THE ELECTRIC FIELD INTERFACES

The Electric Currents, Shell Interface
The Electric Currents, Shell interface ( ) provides the equations, boundary
conditions, and current sources for modeling steady electric currents in thin
current-conducting shells, solving for the electric potential. Current Conservation is the
main feature, which adds the equation for the electric potential and provides a settings
window for defining the electric conductivity as well as the constitutive relation and its
associated material properties such as the relative permittivity.

For a more extensive introduction to the physics and equations implemented by this
interface, see Theory for the Electric Currents, Shell Interface.

When you add this interface, these default nodes are also added to the Model Builder—
Current Conservation, Electric Insulation (the default edge or point condition), and
Initial Values. Right-click the Electric Currents node to add other features that
implement, for example, edge or point conditions and current sources.

Note: Except where described below, the majority of the Settings windows are the
same as for the Electrostatics and Electric Currents interfaces as referenced.

INTERFACE IDENTIFIER
The interface identifier is a text string that can be used to reference the respective
physics interface if appropriate. Such situations could occur when coupling this
interface to another physics interface, or when trying to identify and use variables
defined by this physics interface, which you use to reach the fields and variables in
expressions, for example. You can change it to any unique string in the Identifier field.

The default identifier (for the first interface in the model) is ecs.

BOUNDARIES
Select the boundaries (shells) where you want to define the electric potential and the
equations that describe the potential field for conductive media. The default setting is
to include all boundaries in the model.

EQUATION
The default Study types are listed in the Equation Form list. Study controlled is the
default selection. The availability of the Equation display options are based on how

THE ELECTRIC CURRENTS, SHELL INTERFACE | 111

 each model is constructed. Select options as required and see Physics Interface
Nodes—Equation Section in the COMSOL Multiphysics User’s Guide or Where Do
I Access the Documentation and Model Library? for more information.

OUT-OF-PLANE THICKNESS (2D ONLY)

Enter a value or expression for the Thickness d (SI unit: m). The default value is 1 m.

SURFACE THICKNESS
Define the surface thickness ds by entering a value or expression (SI unit: m) in the
Surface Thickness edit field. The default value is 1 cm.

POR T SWEEP SETTINGS

When activated this invokes a parametric sweep over the ports/terminals in addition
to the automatically generated frequency sweep. Tick the Activate port sweep check
box to switch on the port sweep. The generated lumped parameters is in the form of
an impedance or admittance matrix depending on the port/terminal settings which
consistently must be of either fixed voltage or fixed current type. The Port parameter
name input field assigns a specific name to the variable that controls the port number
solved for during the sweep. The lumped parameters are subject to Touchstone file
export. File name and path are entered in an input field.

DEPENDENT VARIABLES
The dependent variable (field variable) is for the Electric potential V. You can change
the name in the corresponding edit field, but the names of fields and dependent
variables must be unique within a model.

ADVANCED SETTINGS
To display this section, select Show More Options from the View menu in the Model
Builder. Normally these settings do not need to be changed. See Show More Options:
Advanced Settings in the COMSOL Multiphysics User’s Guide or Where Do I Access
the Documentation and Model Library?.

DISCRETIZATION
To display this section, select Show More Options from the View menu in the Model
Builder. Select a Electric Potential—Quadratic (the default), Linear, Cubic, or Quartic.

112 | CHAPTER 4: THE ELECTRIC FIELD INTERFACES

Initial Values
Initial Values adds an initial value for the electric potential V that can serve as an initial
condition for a transient simulation or as an initial guess for a nonlinear solver. If you
need to specify more than one set of initial values, you can add additional Initial Values
features from the Other menu when you right-click the main feature for the physics
interface.

BOUNDARIES
Select the boundaries where you want to define an initial value.

IN IT IA L VA LUES
Enter a value or expression for the initial value of the electric potential V in the Electric
potential edit field. The default value is 0 V.

Boundary Conditions for the Electric Currents, Shell Interface

The following boundary conditions are described for the Electric Currents interface.
The only difference is that you select boundaries instead of domains for each feature—
Current Conservation, External Current Density, and Current Source. See The
Electric Currents Interface for details.

Edge (3D) or Point (2D) Conditions

The relevant interface condition at interfaces between different media and interior
edges/points is continuity; that is,

n2   J1 – J2  = 0

which is the natural edge/point condition.

Exterior Edges or Points

The following edge conditions (point conditions in 2D) are available on exterior edges
(points) and correspond to the boundary conditions in the standard Electric Currents
or Electrostatics interfaces:

See The Electrostatics Interface for these features:

• Ground (also available for points in 3D)

• Electric Potential (also available for points in 3D)
• Terminal

THE ELECTRIC CURRENTS, SHELL INTERFACE | 113

 See The Electric Currents Interface for these features:

• Normal Current Density

• Distributed Impedance
• Electric Shielding
• Electric Insulation - the default edge/point condition

Interior Edges or Points

In addition, the following boundary conditions are available on interior edges/points.
These features are as described for the Electric Currents or Electrostatics interfaces. The
difference is that you can select edges (3D) or points (2D) instead of boundaries.

See The Electrostatics Interface for these features:

• Electric Potential
• Ground
• Floating Potential. One further difference is you specify an optionally non zero
current I0 in the Terminal Current field.
• Terminal
See The Electric Currents Interface for these features:

• Boundary Current Source

• Electric Insulation
• Distributed Impedance
• Electric Shielding. One further difference is that you enter information for the Wire
cross section area.
• Contact Resistance

114 | CHAPTER 4: THE ELECTRIC FIELD INTERFACES

Theory of Electric Fields
COMSOL Multiphysics includes physics interfaces for the modeling of static electric
fields and currents. Physics interfaces for the modeling of dynamic, quasi-static (that
is, without including wave propagation effects) electric fields and currents are available
in the AC/DC Module and MEMS Module. What physics interface and study type to
select for a particular modeling situation requires a basic understanding of the charge
dynamics in conductors. This section is a brief introduction to that topic. After reading
it, you should be more confident when deciding what physics interface and study type
to use, depending on the material parameters and characteristic time scales involved.

Charge Relaxation Theory

The different physics interfaces involving only the scalar electric potential can be
interpreted in terms of the charge relaxation process. The fundamental equations
involved are Ohm’s law

J = E

the equation of continuity

-----
-
+J = 0
t

and Gauss’ law

   E  = 

By combining these, one can deduce the following differential equation for the space
charge density in a homogeneous medium

-----
- 
+ ---  = 0
t 

This equation has the solution

–t  
  t  = 0 e

where


 = ---


THEORY OF ELECTRIC FIELDS | 115

 is called the charge relaxation time. For a good conductor like copper,  is of the order
of 1019 s whereas for a good insulator like silica glass, it is of the order of 103 s. For
a pure insulator, it becomes infinite.

When modeling real world devices, there is not only the intrinsic time scale of charge
relaxation time but also an external time scale t at which a device is energized or the
observation time. It is the relation between the external time scale and the charge
relaxation time that determines what physics interface and study type to use. The
results are summarized in Table 4-1 below,
TABLE 4-1: SUITABLE PHYSICS INTERFACE AND STUDY TYPE FOR DIFFERENT TIME-SCALE REGIMES.

CASE PHYSICS INTERFACE STUDY TYPE

>>t Electrostatics Stationary

<<t Electric Currents Stationary
~ t Electric Currents Time Dependent or Frequency Domain (in AC/DC
Module or MEMS Module)

FIRST CASE:  > > T

If the external time scale is short compared to the charge relaxation time, the charges
do not have time to redistribute to any significant degree.Thus the charge distribution
can be considered as given model input and the best approach is to solve the
Electrostatics formulation using the electric potential V.

By combining the definition of the potential with Gauss’ law, you can derive the
classical Poisson’s equation. Under static conditions, the electric potential V is defined
by the equivalence

E = – V

Using this together with the constitutive relation D0EP between D and E, you
can rewrite Gauss’ law as a variant of Poisson’s equation

–     0 V – P  = 

This equation is used in the Electrostatics interface. It is worth noting that Gauss’ law
does not require the charge distribution to be static. Thus, provided dynamics are slow
enough that induced electric fields can be neglected and hence a scalar electric
potential is justified, the formulation can be used also in the Time Dependent study
type. That typically involves either prescribing the charge dynamics or coupling a
separate formulation for this. Such separate charge transport formulations can be
found in the Plasma Module and the Chemical Reaction Engineering Module.

116 | CHAPTER 4: THE ELECTRIC FIELD INTERFACES

SECOND CASE:  <<T
If the external time scale is long compared to the charge relaxation time, the stationary
solution to the equation of continuity has been reached. In a stationary coordinate
system, a slightly more general form than above of Ohm’s law states that

e
J = E + J

where Je is an externally generated current density. The static form of the equation of
continuity then reads

e
  J = –     V – J  = 0

To handle current sources the equation can be generalized to

e
–     V – J  = Q j

This equation is used in the static study type for the Electric Currents interface.

GENERAL CASE: CHARGE DYNAMICS

If the charge relaxation time is comparable to the external time scale, the time
dependent or frequency domain study types for the Electric Currents physics interface
must be used.

Combining the time-harmonic equation of continuity

J =    E + J e  = – j
with the equation

D = 

yields the following equation for the frequency domain study type:

e
–      + j 0 V –  J + jP   = 0

For the time dependent study type, use the transient equation of continuity

e 
  J =    E + J  = –
t

and the resulting equation becomes

–      0 V + P  –    V – J  = 0
e
t

THEORY OF ELECTRIC FIELDS | 117

 These dynamic formulations are valid as long as induced electric fields can be ignored
and hence the electric field is essentially curl free. This condition is fulfilled provided
that skin effect and wave propagation effects can be ignored. The skin depth must be
much larger than the geometrical dimensions of the modeled device and so must the
wavelength. Note also that these formulations can be used to model dielectric regions
of capacitive/resistive devices even though the interior of electrodes may not meet the
large skin depth condition. In that case, the electrodes must only be represented as
boundary conditions (fixed or floating potential). The interior, metallic domains are
not included in the analysis. Obviously, this is only a valid approach for devices where
metallic electrodes do not entirely bypass (short circuit) the capacitive/resistive layers.
If metallic electrodes short circuit the capacitive/resistive layers, the time evolution of
the current is determined by inductive and resistive effects with very little influence
from the capacitive layers. Then the Magnetic Fields physics interface in the AC/DC
Module is the appropriate modeling tool.

118 | CHAPTER 4: THE ELECTRIC FIELD INTERFACES

Theory for the Electrostatics
Interface
The Electrostatics interface is available for 3D, 2D in-plane, and 2D axisymmetric
models. Applications involving electrostatics include high-voltage apparatus,
electronic devices, and capacitors. The term “statics” is not to be interpreted literally
but rather that the observation time or time scale at which the applied excitation
changes is short compared to the charge relaxation time and that the electromagnetic
wavelength and skin depth are very large compared to the size of the domain of
interest. If you are uncertain whether to use the Electric Currents interface or the
Electrostatics interface, which both solve for the scalar electric potential V, or maybe
consider using an explicit charge transport model see Charge Relaxation Theory.

Electrostatics Equations
Under static conditions the electric potential, V, is defined by the relationship

E = – V

Combining this equation with the constitutive relationship D0EP between the
electric displacement D and the electric field E, it is possible to represent Gauss’ law
as the following equation:

–     0 V – P  = 

In this equation, 0 is the permittivity of vacuum (a physical constant; SI unit: F/m);

P is the electric polarization vector (SI unit: C/m2); and  is a space charge density
(SI unit: C/m3).

This equation describes the electrostatic field in dielectric materials.

For in-plane 2D modeling, the Electrostatics interface assumes a symmetry where the
electric potential varies only in the x and y directions and is constant in the z direction.
This implies that the electric field, E, is tangential to the xy-plane. Given this
symmetry, you solve the same equation as in the 3D case. The Electrostatics interface
solves the following equation where d is the thickness in the z direction:

–   d   0 V – P  = 

THEORY FOR THE ELECTROSTATICS INTERFACE | 119

 The axisymmetric version of the Electrostatics interface considers the situation where
the fields and geometry are axially symmetric. In this case the electric potential is
constant in the  direction, which implies that the electric field is tangential to the
rz-plane.

120 | CHAPTER 4: THE ELECTRIC FIELD INTERFACES

Theory for the Electric Currents
Interface
The Electric Currents interface solves a current conservation problem for the scalar
electric potential V and is available for 3D, 2D in-plane, and 2D axisymmetric models.
Electrolysis and the computation of resistances of grounding plates are examples that
involve conductive media with electric conductivity s and electric currents. If you are
uncertain whether to use the Electric Currents interface or the Electrostatics interface
which both solve for the scalar electric potential V, refer to the section on Charge
Relaxation Theory.

Electric Currents Equations in Steady State

When handling stationary electric currents in conductive media you must consider the
stationary equation of continuity. In a stationary coordinate system, the point form of
Ohm’s law states that

J = E + J e

where  is the electric conductivity (SI unit: S/m), and Je is an externally generated
current density (SI unit: A/m2). The static form of the equation of continuity then
states

  J = –     V – J e  = 0

To handle current sources, you can generalize the equation to

–     V – J e  = Q j

In planar 2D the Electric Currents interface assumes that the model has a symmetry
where the electric potential varies only in the x and y directions and is constant in the
z direction. This implies that the electric field, E, is tangential to the xy-plane. The
Electric Currents interface then solves the following equation where d is the thickness
in the z direction:

–   d   V – J e  = dQj (4-1)

THEORY FOR THE ELECTRIC CURRENTS INTERFACE | 121

 In 2D axisymmetry, the Electric Currents interface considers the situation where the
fields and geometry are axially symmetric. In this case the electric potential is constant
in the  direction, which implies that the electric field is tangential to the rz-plane.

Effective Conductivity in Porous Media and Mixtures

When handling electric currents in porous media or mixtures of solids with different
electric properties, you must consider different ways for obtaining the Effective
conductivity of the mixture.

There are several possible approaches to do this, starting from the values defined by
the user, composed by a volume fraction  1 of material 1, and a volume fraction
 2 = 1 –  1 of material 2.

The effective conductivity  is then given as input for the electric current conservation
specified in Equation 4-1, in the same way of modeling an effective (single phase)
material.

VO L U M E A VE R A G E , C O N D U C T I V I T Y
If the electric conductivities of the two materials are not so different from each other,
a simple form of averaging can be used, such as a volume average:

 = 1 1 + 2 2 ,

here  1 is the conductivity of the material 1, and  2 is that of material 2. This is

equivalent to a “parallel” system of resistivities.

Note that if the conductivities are defined by second order tensors (such as for
anisotropic materials), the volume average is applied element by element.

VO L U M E A VE R A G E , R E S I S T I V I T Y
A similar expression for the effective conductivity can be used, which mimics a “series”
connection of resistivities. Equivalently, the effective conductivity is obtained from

 
--1- = -----1- + -----2-
 1 2

Note that if the conductivities are defined by second order tensors, the inverse of the
tensors are used.

122 | CHAPTER 4: THE ELECTRIC FIELD INTERFACES

POWER L AW
A power law gives the following expression for the equivalent conductivity:

 
 =  11  22

Note that the effective conductivity calculated by Volume Average, Conductivity is the
upper bound, the effective conductivity calculated by Volume Average, Resistivity is
the lower bound, and the power law average is somewhere in between these two.

Dynamic Electric Currents Equations

In the frequency domain and time dependent study types dynamic formulations
accounting for both conduction currents and displacement currents are used.

Combining the time-harmonic equation of continuity

J =    E + J e  = – j
with the equation

D = 

and generalized to handle current sources yields the following equation:

e
–      + j 0 V –  J + jP   = Q j

For the transient case, using the transient equation of continuity

e 
  J =    E + J  = –
t

and generalized to handle current sources the resulting equation becomes

–      0 V + P  –    V – J  = Q j
e
(4-2)
t

In planar 2D the dynamic formulations also involves the thickness d in the z direction:

e
–   d    + j 0 V –  J + jP   = dQ j

 e
–   d (  0 V + P  –   d  V – J ) = dQ j
t

THEORY FOR THE ELECTRIC CURRENTS INTERFACE | 123

 Effective Relative Permittivity in Porous Media and Mixtures
When handling electric currents in porous media or mixtures of solids with different
electric properties, you must consider different ways for obtaining the effective
relative permittivity of the mixture.

There are several ways to do this, starting from the values defined by the user,
composed by a volume fraction  1 of material 1, and a volume fraction  2 = 1 –  1 of
material 2. The effective relative permittivity  r is then given as input for the electric
current conservation specified in Equation 4-2, in the same way of modeling an
effective (single phase) material.

VO L U M E A VE R A G E , PE R M I T T I V I T Y
If the relative permittivities of the two materials are not so different from each other,
a simple form of averaging can be used, such as a volume average:

r = 1 1 + 2 2 ,

here  1 is the relative permittivity of the material 1, and  2 is that of material 2.

Note that if the permittivities are defined by second order tensors (such as for
anisotropic materials), the volume average is applied element by element.

VO L U M E A VE R A G E , R E C I P R O C A L PE R M I T T I V I T Y
A similar expression for the effective permittivity can be used, which mimics a “series”
connection of resistivities. Equivalently, the effective conductivity is obtained from

1  
---- = -----1 + -----2
r 1 2

Note that if the permittivities are defined by second order tensors, the inverse of the
tensors are used.

POWER LAW
A power law gives the following expression for the equivalent conductivity:

 
 r =  11  22

Note that the effective permittivity calculated by Volume Average, Permittivity is the
upper bound, the effective permittivity calculated by Volume Average, Reciprocal
Permittivity is the lower bound, and the power law average gives a value somewhere in
between these two.

124 | CHAPTER 4: THE ELECTRIC FIELD INTERFACES

Archie’s Law Theory
The electric conductivity of the materials composing saturated rocks and soils can vary
over many orders of magnitude. For instance, in the petroleum reservoirs, normal sea
water (or brine) has a typical conductivity of around 3 S/m, whereas hydrocarbons are
typically much more resistive and have conductivities in the range 0.1 0.01 S/m.

The porous rocks and sediments may have even lower conductivities. In variably
saturated soils, the conductivity of air is roughly ten orders of magnitude lower that
the ground water. A simple volume average (of either conductivity or resistivity) in
rocks or soils might give different results compared to experimental data.

Since most crustal rocks, sedimentary rocks, and soils are formed by non-conducting
materials, Archie (Ref. 1) assumed that electric current are mainly caused by ion fluxes
trough the pore network. Originally, Archie’s law is an empirical law for the effective
conductivity of a fully-saturated rock or soil, but it can be extended to variably
saturated porous media.

Archie’s law relates the effective conductivity to the fluid conductivity  L , fluid
saturation s L and porosity  p :

n m
 = sL p L

here, m is the cementation exponent, a parameters that describes the connectivity of

the pores. The cementation exponent normally varies between 1.3 and 2.5 for most
sedimentary rocks, and it is close to 2 for sandstones. The lower limit is m = 1
represents a volume average of the conductivities of a fully saturated, insulating (zero
conductivity) porous matrix, and a conducting fluid. The saturation coefficient n is
is normally close to 2.

Note: The ratio F =  L / is called the formation factor.

Archie’s Law does not take care of the relative permittivities of either fluids or solids,
so the effective relative permittivity of the porous medium is normally consider as
r = 1 .

REFERENCE
1. G. E. Archie, “The Electric Resistivity as an Aid in Determining Some Reservoir
Characteristics,” Trans. Am. Inst. Metal. Eng. 146, 54–62, 1942.

THEORY FOR THE ELECTRIC CURRENTS INTERFACE | 125

 Theory for the Electric Currents,
Shell Interface
Use the Electric Currents, Shell interface in 3D to model thin shells of conductive
media. This physics interface is similar to the 2D Electric Currents interface, solving
for the electric potential on 2D surfaces in a 3D geometry. The difference is that the
shell does not have to be flat as they obviously are when using the 2D Electric Currents
interface. The Electric Currents, Shell interface is also available on boundaries in 2D
geometries.

Electric Currents, Shell Equations in Steady State

In the static study type, the Electric Currents, Shell interface solves the following
equation where d is the thickness (SI unit: m) of the shell:

e
–  t  d   t V – J  = dQ j

 is the electric conductivity (SI unit: S/m), Je is an externally generated current

density (SI unit: A/m2), and Qj is an external current source (SI unit: A/m3). The
operator t represents the tangential derivative along the shell.

Dynamic Electric Currents Equations

In the frequency domain and time dependent study types dynamic formulations
accounting for both conduction currents and displacement currents are used:

e
–  t  d    + j 0  t V –  J + jP   = dQ j

For the transient case, the resulting equation becomes

 e
–  t  d (  0  t V + P  –  t  d   t V – J ) = dQj
t

126 | CHAPTER 4: THE ELECTRIC FIELD INTERFACES

 5

The Magnetic Field Interfaces

This section summarizes the functionality of the magnetic field interfaces.

In this section:

• The Magnetic Fields Interface

• The Magnetic Fields, No Currents Interface
• The Rotating Machinery, Magnetic Interface

The underlying theory for each interface is also discussed:

• Theory of Magnetic and Electric Fields

• Theory for the Magnetic Fields Interface
• Theory for the Magnetic Fields, No Currents Interface

127
 The Magnetic Fields Interface

Note: The AC/DC Module enhances the Magnetic Fields interface included with the
basic COMSOL Multiphysics license.

The Magnetic Fields interface ( ) has the equations, boundary conditions, and
external currents for modeling magnetic fields, solving for the magnetic vector
potential. The main feature is the Ampère’s Law feature, which adds the equation for
the magnetic vector potential and provides an interface for defining the constitutive
relation and its associated properties such as the relative permeability. For a more
thorough introduction to the equations solved by this physics interface, see the Theory
for the Magnetic Fields Interface.

When you add this interface, these default nodes are also added to the Model Builder—
Magnetic Fields, Ampère’s Law, Magnetic Insulation (the default boundary condition),
and Initial Values. Right-click the Magnetic Fields node to add other features that
implement, for example, boundary conditions and external currents.

INTERFACE IDENTIFIER
The interface identifier is a text string that can be used to reference the respective
physics interface if appropriate. Such situations could occur when coupling this
interface to another physics interface, or when trying to identify and use variables
defined by this physics interface, which you use to reach the fields and variables in
expressions, for example. You can change it to any unique string in the Identifier edit
field.

The default identifier (for the first interface in the model) is mf.

DOMAINS
Select the domains where you want to define the magnetic vector potential and the
equations that describe the potential field for magnetic fields. The default setting is to
include all domains in the model.

EQUATION
The default Study types are listed in the Equation Form list. Study controlled is the
default selection. The availability of the Equation display options are based on how

128 | CHAPTER 5: THE MAGNETIC FIELD INTERFACES

each model is constructed. Select options as required and see Physics Interface
Nodes—Equation Section in the COMSOL Multiphysics User’s Guide or Where Do
I Access the Documentation and Model Library? for more information.

OUT-OF-PLANE THICKNESS (2D MODELS ONLY)

Define the out-of-plane thickness d by entering a value or expression (SI unit: m) in
the Thickness field. The default value of 1 m is typically not representative for a thin
domain. Instead it describes a unit thickness that makes the 2D equation identical to
the equation used for 3D models.

ADVANCED SETTINGS
To display this section on a physics interface Settings window, select Show More Options
from the View menu in the Model Builder. Normally these settings do not need to be
changed. See Show More Options: Advanced Settings in the COMSOL Multiphysics
User’s Guide or Where Do I Access the Documentation and Model Library?.

DISCRETIZATION
To display this section on a physics interface Settings window, select Show More Options
from the View menu in the Model Builder. Select a Magnetic vector potential—Quadratic
(the default), Linear, Cubic, or Quartic.

Ampère’s Law
The Ampère’s Law feature adds Ampère’s law for the magnetic field and provides an
interface for defining the constitutive relation and its associated properties such as the
relative permeability as well as electric properties.

Right-click the Ampère’s Law node to add a Gauge Fixing for A-Field feature. For some
interfaces this feature is added by default.

DOMAINS
Select the domains where you want to define the magnetic vector potential and the
equation based on Ampère’s law that defines the potential.

MODEL INPUTS
This section contains field variables that appear as model inputs, if the current settings
include such model inputs. By default, this section is empty. If you add a linear
temperature relation for the conductivity, you can then define the source for the
temperature T. From the Temperature list, select an existing temperature variable (from

THE MAGNETIC FIELDS INTERFACE | 129

 another physics interface) if available, or select User defined to define a value or
expression for the temperature (SI unit: K) in the edit field that appears underneath
the list.

COORDINATE SYSTEM SELECTION

The Global coordinate system is selected by default. The Coordinate system list contains
any additional coordinate systems that the model includes.

MAGNETIC FIELD
Specify the constitutive relation that describe the macroscopic properties of the
medium (relating the magnetic flux density B and the magnetic field H) and the
applicable material properties, such as the relative permeability.

Select one of the following constitutive relations from the Constitutive relation list (the
equation for the selected constitutive relation appears under the list):

• Select Relative permeability r to use the constitutive relation B0rH (the

default). The default uses values From material. If User defined is selected, choose
Isotropic, Diagonal, Symmetric, or Anisotropic and enter values or expressions in the
field or matrix.
• Select Magnetization to use the constitutive relation B0H0M. You then
specify M, the magnetization vector (SI unit: A/m). Enter its components (3 in 3D,
2 in 2D) in the edit fields in the table that appears under the constitutive equation.
• Select Magnetic losses to describe the relative permeability as a complex-valued
quantity: ri, where  and  are the real and imaginary parts, respectively.
The default uses values From material. If User defined is selected, enter values or
expressions for the real and imaginary parts.
This option is not available for the Magnetic Fields, No Currents interface.
• Select HB curve to use a curve that relates magnetic flux density B and the magnetic
field H as HfB. The default is to use the value H, From material. If User
defined is selected, enter a value or expression for the magnitude of the magnetic
field.
If you are using the Induction Heating interface, this option is not relevant for time
harmonic modeling so it should not be selected.
• Select Remanent flux density to use the constitutive relation B0 r HBr, where
Br is the remanent flux density (the flux density when no magnetic field is present).
In this case you specify r , the relative permeability (unitless), and Br, the remanent
flux density (SI unit: T). For the relative permeability, use the r list: The default

130 | CHAPTER 5: THE MAGNETIC FIELD INTERFACES

 uses values From material. If User defined is selected, choose Isotropic, Diagonal,
Symmetric, or Anisotropic based on the characteristics of the relative permeability and
enter another value or expression in the field or matrix. For the remanent
displacement, enter its components (3 in 3D, 2 in 2D) in the Br table.

CONDUCTION CURRENT
By default, the Electric conductivity (SI unit: S/m) for the media is defined From
material.

If User defined is selected, choose Isotropic, Diagonal, Symmetric, or Anisotropic based on

the characteristics of the electric conductivity, and then enter values or expressions in
the field or matrix.

If Linearized resistivity is selected, it defines the electric resistivity (and conductivity) as

a linear function of temperature and this equation describes the conductivity:

1
 = -----------------------------------------------
0  1 +   T – T0  

where 0 is the resistivity at the reference temperature T0.  is the temperature

coefficient of resistance, which describes how the resistivity varies with temperature.

The default Reference temperature Tref (SI unit: K), Resistivity temperature coefficient
(SI unit: 1/K), and Reference resistivity 0 (SI unit: ·m) are taken From material,
which means that the values are taken from the boundary material.

To specify other values for any of these properties, select User defined from the
corresponding list and then enter a value or expression. T is the current temperature,
which can be a value that you specify as a model input or the temperature from a heat
transfer interface. The definition of the temperature field appears in the Model Inputs
section.

ELECTRIC FIELD
The default Relative permittivity er (unitless) for the media is From material and defined
on the shell domain.

If User defined is selected, choose Isotropic, Diagonal, Symmetric, or Anisotropic based on

the characteristics of the permittivity and then enter values or expressions in the field
or matrix.

THE MAGNETIC FIELDS INTERFACE | 131

 Gauge Fixing for A-field
Right-click the Ampère’s Law node to add the Gauge Fixing for A-Field subnode. The
feature provides gauge fixing by adding an additional potential variable, , and its
associated conservation equation to the system. This is often necessary to get a unique
and numerically stable solution to the equation solving for the magnetic vector
potential A. For more details on gauge fixing see Explicit Gauge Fixing/Divergence
Constraint.

DOMAINS
Select the domains where you want to define the gauge-fixing potential .

GAUGE FIXING FOR A-FIELD

Enter a Divergence condition variable scaling psi0 (SI unit: A/m). The default value is
1 A/m, which means no scaling.

External Current Density

The External Current Density feature adds an externally generated current density Je,
which appears on the right-hand side of the equation that the Magnetic Fields interface
defines.

DOMAINS
Select the domains where you want to define an external current density.

COORDINATE SYSTEM SELECTION

The Global coordinate system is selected by default. The Coordinate system list contains
any additional coordinate systems that the model includes.

EXTERNAL CURRENT DENSITY

Enter a value or expression for each component of the External current density Je (SI
unit A/m2) in the table.

Velocity (Lorentz Term)

The Velocity (Lorentz term) feature adds velocity v. The external current is equal to
v × B.

132 | CHAPTER 5: THE MAGNETIC FIELD INTERFACES

DOMAINS
Select the domains where you want to define the velocity.

COORDINATE SYSTEM SELECTION

The Global coordinate system is selected by default. The Coordinate system list contains
any additional coordinate systems that the model includes.

VE L O C I T Y ( L O R E N T Z TE R M )
Enter components of the Velocity vector v (SI unit: m/s).

Force Calculation
See Force Calculation as described for the Electrostatics interface.

Infinite Elements
See Infinite Elements as described for the Electrostatics interface.

Multi-Turn Coil Domain

The Multi-Turn Coil Domain feature is available for 2D and 2D axisymmetric models. It
adds an externally generated current density to the right-hand side of the equation that
the Magnetic Fields interface defines. This feature sets the conductivity of the domain
to zero because the induced current in the coil windings is handled in a homogenized
manner. The external current density is calculated in different ways, depending on
whether you specify a total current or a total voltage.

DOMAINS
Select the domains where you want to define the multi-turn coil domain.

MODEL INPUTS
This section contains field variables that appear as model inputs, if the current settings
include such model inputs. By default, this section is empty.

COORDINATE SYSTEM SELECTION

The Global coordinate system is selected by default. The Coordinate system list contains
any additional coordinate systems that the model includes.

THE MAGNETIC FIELDS INTERFACE | 133

 M U L T I - TU R N C O I L D O M A I N
• Enter a Coil name.
• The default Relative permeability r (unitless) and Relative permittivity er (unitless)
are taken From material. If User defined is selected for either variable, choose
Isotropic, Diagonal, Symmetric, or Anisotropic based on the characteristics of the coil
and then enter values or expressions in the field or matrix.
• Enter a Coil conductivity coil (SI unit: S/m). The default value is approximately the
conductivity for copper, 6·107 S/m.
• Enter the Number of turns N. the default is 10.
• Enter a Coil wire cross-section area acoil (SI unit: m2). The default value is 106 m2.
• Select a Coil excitation—Circuit, Voltage, or Current. See below for details.
- If Current is selected, also enter a Coil current Icoil (SI unit: A). The default value
is 1 A.
- If Voltage is selected, also enter a Coil potential Vcoil (SI unit: V). The default value
is 1 V.

Current-Driven Coil
When specifying a total current Icoil, the out-of plane component of the current
density is defined as:

NI coil
J e = ---------------
A

where N is the number of turns which you have specified and A is the total
cross-section area of the coil domain.

Voltage-Driven Coil
When specifying a total voltage Vcoil, the out-of plane component of the current
density is defined as:

N  Vcoil + V ind 
J e = ---------------------------------------
AR coil

where Vcoil is the applied voltage which you have specified, A is the total
cross-sectional area of the coil domain, N is the number of turns that you have
specified, Rcoil is the total resistance of the coil calculated as

NL coil
 --------------------
a coil
A

134 | CHAPTER 5: THE MAGNETIC FIELD INTERFACES

and Vind is the induced voltage calculated by integrating the electric field along the
coil.

Circuit Connection
By selecting Circuit from the Coil excitation list, you can drive the Multi-Turn Coil Domain
feature by a voltage defined in a component in the Electrical Circuit interface.

INDUCTANCE CALCULATION (2D AXISYMMETRIC MODELS)

For 2D axisymmetric models the Multi-Turn Coil Domain feature calculates the
inductance for the coil. This value is stored in a global variable Lc_x_mf (available for
evaluation in Results), where x is the name given to the coil in the Coil Name edit field.

Single-Turn Coil Domain

The Single-Turn Coil Domain feature is available for 2D and 2D axisymmetric models. It
adds an externally generated current density to the right-hand side of the equation that
the Magnetic Fields interface defines. This current density is calculated in two different
ways, depending on whether the user specifies a total current or a total voltage.

DOMAINS
Select the domains where you want to define the single-turn coil domain.

S I N G L E - TU R N C O I L D O M A I N
Enter a Coil name.

Select a Coil excitation—Voltage, Current, or Circuit. See below for details.

• If Voltage is selected, also enter a Coil potential Vcoil (SI unit: V). The default value
is 1 V.
• If Current is selected, also enter a Coil current Icoil (SI unit: A). The default value is
1 A.

Voltage-Driven Coil
When specifying a total voltage Vcoil, the out-of plane component of the current
density is defined as:

e V coil
J = ----------------
L

THE MAGNETIC FIELDS INTERFACE | 135

 where Vcoil is the applied voltage that you have specified, and L is equal to the physics
interface’s thickness d for 2D models and equal to 2r for 2D axially symmetric
models.

Current-Driven Coil
When specifying a total current Icoil, the out-of plane component of the current
density is defined as:

e V
J = --------
L

where L is equal to the physics interface thickness d for 2D models and 2r for 2D
axially symmetric models, and V is an unknown applied potential. The potential V is
solved for using an additional algebraic equation, which constrains the total integrated
current to be equal to the current value Icoil that you have specified.

Circuit Connection
By selecting Circuit from the Coil excitation list, you can drive the Single-Turn Coil
Domain feature by a voltage defined in a component in the Electrical Circuit physics
interface.

INDUCTANCE CALCULATION (2D AXISYMMETRIC MODELS)

For 2D axially symmetric models the Single-Turn Coil Domain feature calculates the
inductance for the coil. This value is stored in a global variable Lc_x_mf (available for
evaluation in Results), where x is the name given to the coil in the Coil name edit field.

Coil Group Domain

The Coil Group Domain feature is available for 2D and 2D axisymmetric models. It adds
an externally generated current density to the right-hand side of the equation that the
Magnetic Fields interface defines. This current density is calculated in three different
ways, depending on whether you specify a fixed current in each coil turn, a total
voltage drop across the coil, or a fixed power into the coil.

DOMAINS
Select the domains where you want to define the coil group domain.

COIL GROUP DOMAIN

Enter a Coil name.

136 | CHAPTER 5: THE MAGNETIC FIELD INTERFACES

Select a Coil excitation—Voltage, Current, Circuit, or Power. See below for details.

• If Voltage is selected, also enter a Coil potential Vcoil (SI unit: V). The default value
is 1 V.
• If Current is selected, also enter a Coil current Icoil (SI unit: A). The default value is
1 A.
• If Power is selected, also enter a Coil power Pcoil (SI unit: W). The default value is
1 W.

Voltage-Driven Coil
When specifying a total voltage Vdrop, the out-of plane component of the current
density is defined as:

V i
J e = ---------
L

where Vi is an unknown applied potential on the ith turn of the coil, and L is equal to
the physics interface thickness d for 2D models and equal to 2r for 2D axially
symmetric models. The applied potentials are computed through the following
integral constraint:

 Je dS = Icoil
Unlike the fixed current option, the coil current Icoil is unknown. The coil current is
computed using the following constraint:

V drop =  Vi
i=1

where Vdrop is the user-defined voltage drop across the coil, Vi are the individual
applied potentials, and N is the number of turns in the coil group.

Current-Driven Coil
When specifying a total coil current Icoil, the out-of plane component of the current
density is defined as:

V i
J e = ---------
L

where L is equal to the physics interface thickness d for 2D models and equal to 2r
for 2D axially symmetric models, and Vi is an unknown applied potential on the ith

THE MAGNETIC FIELDS INTERFACE | 137

 turn of the coil. The potential Vi is solved for using an additional algebraic equation,
which constrains the total integrated current to be equal to the current value Icoil that
you have specified:

 J dS = Icoil
Power
When specifying a total current Icoil, the out-of plane component of the current
density is defined as:

V i
J e = ---------
L

where L is equal to the physics interface thickness d for 2D models and equal to 2r
for 2D axially symmetric models, and Vi is an unknown applied potential on the ith
turn of the coil. The applied potentials are computed through the following integral
constraint:

 Je dS = Icoil
Unlike the fixed current option, the coil current, Icoil is unknown. The coil current is
computed using the following constraint:

1
--- realdot  V drop I coil  = P coil
2

where N is the number of turns in the coil group and Vdrop is defined as:

V drop =  Vi
i=1

For more information on the realdot operator, see The realdot Operator of the
COMSOL Multiphysics User’s Guide or Where Do I Access the Documentation and
Model Library?. The Power option results in a highly nonlinear system of equations
that requires special solver settings in order to converge. The program adds these
solver settings automatically when you solve a model using this setting.

Circuit Connection
By selecting Circuit from the Coil excitation list, you can drive the Coil Group Domain
feature by a current defined in a component in the Electrical Circuit physics interface.

138 | CHAPTER 5: THE MAGNETIC FIELD INTERFACES

LUMPED PARAMETER CALCULATIONS (2D AXISYMMETRIC MODELS)
For 2D axially symmetric models the Coil Group Domain feature calculates the
impedance, resistance, reactance, inductance, and admittance for the coil. In the
following definitions, Vdrop is defined as the sum of the applied potentials:

V drop =  Vi
i=1

Impedance
This value is stored in a global variable mf.Z_cg<name> (available for evaluation in
Results) where <name> is the name given to the coil in the Coil name edit field. The coil
impedance is computed using the formula:

V drop
Z = --------------
I coil

Resistance
This value is stored in a global variable mf.Rcoil_cg<name> (available for evaluation
in Results) where <name> is the name given to the coil in the Coil name edit field. The
coil resistance is computed using the formula:

V drop
R coil = Re  ---------------
I coil

Reactance
This value is stored in a global variable mf.X_cg<name> (available for evaluation in
Results) where <name> is the name given to the coil in the Coil name edit field. The coil
reactance is computed using the formula:

V drop
X = Im  ---------------
 I coil 

Inductance
This value is stored in a global variable mf.Lc_cg<name> (available for evaluation in
Results) where <name><name> is the name given to the coil in the Coil name edit field.
The coil inductance is computed using the formula:

V drop
L c = ---- Im  --------------
1
  I coil 

THE MAGNETIC FIELDS INTERFACE | 139

 where  is the angular frequency.

Admittance
This value is stored in a global variable mf.Y_cg<name> (available for evaluation in
Results) where <name> is the name given to the coil in the Coil name edit field. The coil
admittance is computed from the coil impedance using the formula:

–1
Y = Z

Initial Values
The Initial Values feature adds an initial value for the magnetic vector potential A that
can serve as an initial value for a transient simulation or as an initial guess for a
nonlinear solver.

BOUNDARIES
Select the domains where you want to define an initial value.

INITIAL VALUES
Enter a value or expression for the initial value of the Magnetic vector potential A (SI
unit: Wb/m). The default 0.

Boundary Conditions for the Magnetic Fields Interface

With no surface currents present the interface conditions

n2   A1 – A2  = 0
n2   H1 – H2  = 0

need to be fulfilled. As we are solving for A, the tangential component of the magnetic
potential is always continuous, and thus the first condition is automatically fulfilled.
The second condition is equivalent to the natural boundary condition and is hence also
fulfilled unless surface currents are explicitly introduced.

Exterior Boundaries
The following exterior boundary conditions are available:

• Magnetic Insulation - the default boundary condition

• Magnetic Field
• Surface Current

140 | CHAPTER 5: THE MAGNETIC FIELD INTERFACES

• Magnetic Potential
• Impedance Boundary Condition
• Perfect Magnetic Conductor
• Periodic Condition

Interior Boundaries
In addition, the following interior boundary conditions are available:

• Magnetic Insulation
• Magnetic Potential
• Surface Current
• Perfect Magnetic Conductor
• Transition Boundary Condition
• Thin Low Permeability Gap

For axisymmetric models, COMSOL Multiphysics takes the axial symmetry

boundaries (at r = 0) into account and automatically adds an Axial Symmetry feature to
the model that is valid on the axial symmetry boundaries only.

Pairs
These conditions are available on boundary pairs and selected from the Pairs submenu.

• Sector Symmetry
• Magnetic Field
• Surface Current
• Magnetic Potential
• Perfect Magnetic Conductor
• Thin Low Permeability Gap
• Continuity

Magnetic Insulation
The Magnetic Insulation feature is the default boundary condition for the Magnetic Fields
interface and adds a boundary condition that sets the tangential components of the
magnetic potential to zero at the boundary:

nA = 0

THE MAGNETIC FIELDS INTERFACE | 141

 It is a special case of the magnetic potential boundary condition that sets the tangential
component of the magnetic potential to zero. It is used for the modeling of a lossless
metallic surface, for example a ground plane or as a symmetry type boundary
condition. It imposes symmetry for magnetic fields and “magnetic currents.” In the
transient and time harmonic formulations it also imposes antisymmetry for electric
fields and electric currents. It supports induced electric surface currents and thus any
prescribed or induced electric currents (volume, surface, or edge currents) flowing into
a perfect electric conductor boundary is automatically balanced by induced surface
currents.

Js
J
I'
I

Js

The magnetic insulation boundary condition is used on exterior and interior boundaries
representing the surface of a lossless metallic conductor or (on exterior boundaries)
representing a symmetry cut. The shaded (metallic) region is not part of the model but still
carries effective mirror images of the sources. Note also that any current flowing into the
boundary is perfectly balanced by induced surface currents. The tangential vector
potential (and electric field) vanishes at the boundary.

The term magnetic insulation comes from the fact that this boundary condition
makes the normal component of the magnetic field zero.

BOUNDARIES
No user selection is required. All boundaries are automatically selected.

Magnetic Field
The Magnetic Field feature adds a boundary condition for specifying the tangential
component of the magnetic field at the boundary:

n  H = n  H0

BOUNDARIES
Select the boundaries where you want to specify the magnetic field.

142 | CHAPTER 5: THE MAGNETIC FIELD INTERFACES

COORDINATE SYSTEM SELECTION
The Global coordinate system is selected by default. The Coordinate system list contains
any additional coordinate systems that the model includes.

PAIR SELECTION
If Magnetic Field is selected from the Pairs submenu, select the boundary pair where you
want to define this feature. First an identity pair may have to be created.

MAGNETIC FIELD
Enter the value or expression for the Magnetic Field H0 (SI unit: A/m) coordinates.

Surface Current
The Surface Current feature adds a boundary condition for a surface current density
Js0:

–n  H = Js
n   H1 – H2  = Js

BOUNDARIES
Select the boundaries where you want to specify a surface current.

COORDINATE SYSTEM SELECTION

The Global coordinate system is selected by default. The Coordinate system list contains
any additional coordinate systems that the model includes.

PAIR SELECTION
If Surface Current is selected from the Pairs submenu, select the boundary pair where
you want to define this feature. First an identity pair may have to be created.

SURFACE CURRENT
Enter values or expressions for the Surface current density Js0 (SI unit A/m)
coordinates.

THE MAGNETIC FIELDS INTERFACE | 143

 Magnetic Potential
The Magnetic Potential feature adds a boundary condition for the magnetic vector
potential:

n  A = n  A0

BOUNDARIES
Select the boundaries where you want to specify the magnetic potential.

COORDINATE SYSTEM SELECTION

The Global coordinate system is selected by default. The Coordinate system list contains
any additional coordinate systems that the model includes.

PAIR SELECTION
If Magnetic Potential is selected from the Pairs submenu, select the boundary pair where
you want to define this feature. First an identity pair may have to be created.

MAGNETIC POTENTIAL
Enter a value or expression for the Magnetic vector potential A0 (SI unit: Wb/m)
coordinates.

Impedance Boundary Condition

The Impedance Boundary Condition provides a boundary condition that is useful at
boundaries where the electromagnetic field penetrates only a short distance outside the
boundary.

0 r
-n  H + E –  n  E n =  n  E s n – E s
-----------------------------
 0  r – j  

The boundary condition approximates this penetration to avoid the need to include
another domain in the model. The material properties that appear in the equation are
those for the domain outside the boundary.

The skin depth (that is, the distance where the electromagnetic field has decreased by
a factor e1) is for a good conductor

2
 = -----------


144 | CHAPTER 5: THE MAGNETIC FIELD INTERFACES

The impedance boundary condition is a valid approximation if the skin depth is small
compared to the size of the conductor. The source electric field Es can be used to
specify a source surface current on the boundary.

Js
J
I'
I

Js

The impedance boundary condition is used on exterior boundaries representing the surface
of a lossy domain. The shaded (lossy) region is not part of the model. The effective induced
image currents are of reduced magnitude due to losses. Any current flowing into the
boundary is perfectly balanced by induced surface currents as for the perfect electric
conductor boundary condition. The tangential electric field is generally small but non zero
at the boundary.

BOUNDARIES
Select the boundaries where you want to specify the impedance boundary condition.

COORDINATE SYSTEM SELECTION

The Global coordinate system is selected by default. The Coordinate system list contains
any additional coordinate systems that the model includes.

IMPEDANCE BOUNDARY CONDITION

The following material properties are available to be defined for the domain outside
the boundary, which this boundary condition approximates. The default setting takes
the values From material. Or select User defined to enter different values or expressions.

• Relative permeability, r (unitless)

• Relative permittivity, er (unitless)
• Electric conductivity,  (SI unit: S/m)

Enter the values of expressions for the Source electric field Es (SI unit: V/m)
coordinates.

THE MAGNETIC FIELDS INTERFACE | 145

 Perfect Magnetic Conductor
The Perfect Magnetic Conductor boundary condition

nH = 0

is a special case of the surface current boundary condition that sets the tangential
component of the magnetic field and thus also the surface current density to zero. On
external boundaries, this can be interpreted as a “high surface impedance” boundary
condition or used as a symmetry type boundary condition. It imposes symmetry for
electric fields and electric currents. Electric currents (volume, surface, or edge
currents) are not allowed to flow into a perfect magnetic conductor boundary as that
would violate current conservation. On interior boundaries, the perfect magnetic
conductor boundary condition literally sets the tangential magnetic field to zero which
in addition to setting the surface current density to zero also makes the tangential
magnetic vector potential (and in dynamics the tangential electric field) discontinuous.

Js=0

I'
I
J=0

The perfect magnetic conductor boundary condition is used on exterior boundaries

representing the surface of a high impedance region or a symmetry cut. The shaded (high
impedance) region is not part of the model but nevertheless carries effective mirror images
of the sources. Note also that any electric current flowing into the boundary is forbidden as
it cannot be balanced by induced electric surface currents. The tangential magnetic field
vanishes at the boundary. On interior boundaries, the perfect magnetic conductor
boundary condition literally sets the tangential magnetic field to zero which in addition
to setting the surface current density to zero also makes the tangential magnetic vector
potential (and in dynamics the tangential electric field) discontinuous.

BOUNDARIES
Select the boundaries that you want to model as perfect magnetic conductors.

PAIR SELECTION
If Perfect Magnetic Conductor is selected from the Pairs submenu, select the boundary
pair where you want to define this feature. First an identity pair may have to be created.

146 | CHAPTER 5: THE MAGNETIC FIELD INTERFACES

Transition Boundary Condition
The Transition Boundary Condition is used on interior boundaries to model a sheet of a
medium that should be geometrically thin but it has not to be electrically thin. It
represents a discontinuity in the tangential electric field. Mathematically it is described
by a relation between the electric field discontinuity and the induced surface current
density:

 Z S E t1 – Z T E t2 
J s1 = --------------------------------------------
2 2
-
ZS – ZT
 Z S E t2 – Z T E t1 
J s2 = --------------------------------------------
2 2
-
ZS – ZT
– j 1
Z S = ------------- ----------------------
k tan  kd 
– j 1
Z T = ------------- ---------------------
k sin  kd 
k =    +     j   

Where indices 1 and 2 refer to the different sides of the layer.

BOUNDARIES
Select the boundaries where you want to specify the transition boundary condition.

TR A N S I T I O N B O U N D A R Y C O N D I T I O N
The Transition Boundary Condition section contains the following material properties
for the thin layer which this boundary condition approximates:

The default setting takes the values From material. Or select User defined to enter
different values or expressions.

• Relative permeability, r (unitless)

• Relative permittivity, er (unitless)
• Electric conductivity,  (SI unit: S/m)
• Thickness, d (Si unit: m)

THE MAGNETIC FIELDS INTERFACE | 147

 Thin Low Permeability Gap
Use the Thin Low Permeability Gap boundary condition

d
n   H 1 – H 2  = t  ------------  t  A
0 r

to model gaps filled with a material with zero conductivity such as air. This boundary
condition is only applicable on interior boundaries and pair boundaries. You can also
right-click to add a Gauge-Fixing for A-Field feature.

BOUNDARIES
Select the boundaries where you want to model a thin low permeability gap.

MODEL INPUTS
This section contains field variables that appear as model inputs, if the current settings
include such model inputs. By default, this section is empty.

COORDINATE SYSTEM SELECTION

The Global coordinate system is selected by default. The Coordinate system list contains
any additional coordinate systems that the model includes.

TH IN L OW PERMEABILITY GAP
The default Relative permeabilityr (unitless) is taken From material.

If User defined is selected, choose Isotropic, Diagonal, Symmetric, or Anisotropic based on

the characteristics of the relative permeability, and then enter a value or expression in
the field or matrix.

Enter a Surface thickness ds (SI unit: m) for the gap.

Periodic Condition
The Periodic Condition feature can be used to define periodicity or antiperiodicity
between two boundaries. You can also activate the feature on more than two
boundaries, in which case the feature tries to identify two separate surfaces which can
each consist of several connected boundaries.

For more complex geometries it may be necessary to use a Destination Selection

subnode. This subnode makes it possible to manually specify which boundaries
constitute the source and destination surfaces. To add this subnode, right-click the
Periodic Condition node and select Destination Selection.

148 | CHAPTER 5: THE MAGNETIC FIELD INTERFACES

BOUNDARIES
Select the boundaries where you want to model a thin low permeability gap.

PERIODIC CO ND ITIO N
Select a Type of periodicity—Continuity or Antiperiodicity.

Select a Constraint type—Bidirectional, symmetric or Unidirectional. If required, select

the Use weak constraints check box.

Sector Symmetry
Select sector symmetry at interfaces between rotating objects where sector symmetry
is used. It is only available for pairs. Also see Defining an Identity Pair in the COMSOL
Multiphysics User’s Guide or Where Do I Access the Documentation and Model
Library?.

BOUNDARIES
Select individual boundaries in an existing identity pair. This pair first has to be created.

PAIR SELECTION
When Sector Symmetry is selected from the Pairs submenu, select the boundary pair
where you want to define this feature. First an identity pair may have to be created.

SECTOR SETTINGS
Enter the Number of sectors (must be <50).

Select a Type of periodicity—Continuity or Antiperiodicity.

Continuity
The Continuity feature provides continuity in the field variables across a boundary
between parts in an assembly where you have created a pair.

BOUNDARIES
Select individual boundaries in an existing identity pair. This pair first has to be created.

PAIR SELECTION
When Continuity is selected from the Pairs submenu, select the boundary pair where
you want to define this feature. First an identity pair may have to be created.

THE MAGNETIC FIELDS INTERFACE | 149

 Line Current (Out of Plane)
The Line Current (Out of Plane) feature allows you to specify a line current out of the
modeling plane. In axially symmetric geometries this is the rotational direction, in 2D
geometries this is the z-direction. Select this from the Points menu.

POINTS
Select the points where you want to add a line current.

LINE CURRENT (OUT OF PLANE)

Enter a value or expression for the Out of plane current I0.

Electric Point Dipole

Electric point dipoles are available with 2D and 3D models. To add this feature,
right-click the Magnetic Fields node and select Points>Electric Point Dipole. Apply a
point dipole P (SI unit: Am) to points. This represents the limiting case of when the
length d of a current filament carrying uniform current I approaches zero at while
maintaining the product between I and d. The dipole moment is a vector entity with
the positive direction set by the current flow.

POINTS
Select the points where you want to add an electric point dipole.

DIPOLE SPECIFICATION
Select a Dipole specification—Magnitude and direction or Dipole moment.

SETTINGS

If Magnitude and direction is selected under Dipole Specification, enter coordinates for
the Electric dipole moment direction np and the Electric dipole moment, magnitude p (SI
unit: Cm).

If Dipole moment is selected under Dipole Specification, enter coordinates for the Electric
dipole moment p (SI unit: Cm).

150 | CHAPTER 5: THE MAGNETIC FIELD INTERFACES

Magnetic Point Dipole
Magnetic point dipoles are available for 2D and 3D models. To add this feature,
right-click the Magnetic Fields node and select Points>Magnetic Point Dipole. Apply a
point dipole M (SI unit: Am2) to points. This represents the limiting case of when the
cross-section area a of a circular current loop carrying uniform current I approaches
zero at while maintaining the product between I and a. The dipole moment is a vector
entity with the positive direction set by the curl of the current.

PO IN TS
Select the points where you want to add an electric point dipole.

DIPOLE SPECIFICATION
Select a Dipole specification—Magnitude and direction or Dipole moment.

SETTINGS

If Magnitude and direction is selected under Dipole Specification, enter coordinates for
the Magnetic dipole moment direction np and the Magnetic dipole moment, magnitude p
(SI unit: Cm).

If Dipole moment is selected under Dipole Specification, enter coordinates for the
Magnetic dipole moment p (SI unit: Cm).

THE MAGNETIC FIELDS INTERFACE | 151

 The Magnetic Fields, No Currents
Interface
The Magnetic Fields, No Currents interface ( ) has the equations, boundary
conditions, and point features for modeling magnetostatics, solving for the magnetic
scalar potential. The main feature is the Magnetic Flux Conservation feature, which adds
the equation for the magnetic potential and provides an interface for defining the
material properties and the constitutive relation.

For a more extensive introduction to the physics and equations implemented by this
interface, see the Theory for the Magnetic Fields, No Currents Interface.

When you add this interface, these default nodes are also added to the Model Builder—
Magnetic Fields, No Currents, Magnetic Flux Conservation, Magnetic Insulation (the default
boundary condition), and Initial Values. Right-click the Magnetic Fields, No Currents
node to add other features that implement additional boundary conditions and point
conditions.

Note: Except where described below, some of the Settings windows are the same as
described for the Magnetic Fields and Electrostatics interfaces as indicated.

INTERFACE IDENTIFIER
The interface identifier is a text string that can be used to reference the respective
physics interface if appropriate. Such situations could occur when coupling this
interface to another physics interface, or when trying to identify and use variables
defined by this physics interface, which you use to reach the fields and variables in
expressions, for example. You can change it to any unique string in the Identifier edit
field.

The default identifier (for the first interface in the model) is mfnc.

DOMAINS
Select the domains where you want to define the magnetic scalar potential and the
equations that describe the potential field for magnetostatics without currents. The
default setting is to include all domains in the model.

152 | CHAPTER 5: THE MAGNETIC FIELD INTERFACES

EQUATION
The default Study types are listed in the Equation Form list. Study controlled is the
default selection. The availability of the Equation display options are based on how
each model is constructed. Select options as required and see Physics Interface
Nodes—Equation Section in the COMSOL Multiphysics User’s Guide or Where Do
I Access the Documentation and Model Library? for more information.

OUT-OF-PLANE THICKNESS (2D MODELS ONLY)

Define the out-of-plane thickness d by entering a value or expression (SI unit: m) in
the Thickness edit field. The default value of 1 m is typically not representative for a thin
domain. Instead it describes a unit thickness that makes the 2D equation identical to
the equation used for 3D models.

DEPENDENT VA RIA BLES

The dependent variable (field variable) is for the Magnetic scalar potential Vm. You can
change the name in the corresponding edit field, but the names of fields and dependent
variables must be unique within a model.

ADVANCED SETTINGS
To display this section, select Show More Options from the View menu in the Model
Builder. Normally these settings do not need to be changed. See Show More Options:
Advanced Settings in the COMSOL Multiphysics User’s Guide or Where Do I Access
the Documentation and Model Library?.

DISCRETIZATION
To display this section, select Show More Options from the View menu in the Model
Builder. Select Quadratic (the default), Linear, Cubic, or Quartic for the Magnetic scalar
potential.

Magnetic Flux Conservation

The Magnetic Flux Conservation feature adds Equation 5-5 above (or a similar equation
depending on the selected constitutive relation).

DOMAINS
Select the domains where you want to define the magnetic potential and the equation
that describes the magnetic potential field.

THE MAGNETIC FIELDS, NO CURRENTS INTERFACE | 153

 MODEL INPUTS
This section contains field variables that appear as model inputs, if the current settings
include such model inputs. By default, this section is empty. If you add a linear
temperature relation for the conductivity, you can then define the source for the
temperature T. From the Temperature list, select an existing temperature variable (from
another physics interface) if available, or select User defined to define a value or
expression for the temperature (SI unit: K) in the edit field that appears underneath
the list.

COORDINATE SYSTEM SELECTION

The Global coordinate system is selected by default. The Coordinate system list contains
any additional coordinate systems that the model includes.

MAGNETIC FIELD
See the settings for Magnetic Field under Ampère’s Law for the Magnetic Fields
interface. Note these differences:

• Magnetic losses is not an option for this interface.

• Select BH curve (instead of HB curve) to use a curve that relates magnetic flux density
B and the magnetic field H as BfH. To define B, select From material (the
default) to use the value from the material or select User defined to specify a value or
expression for the magnitude of the magnetic flux density in the edit field that
appears.

Initial Values
The Initial Values feature adds an initial value for the magnetic scalar potential Vm that
can serve as an initial guess for a nonlinear solver.

DOMAINS
Select the domains where you want to define an initial value.

INITIAL VALUES
Enter a value or expression for the initial value of the magnetic potential Vm in the
Magnetic scalar potential edit field. The default value is 0 A.

154 | CHAPTER 5: THE MAGNETIC FIELD INTERFACES

Domain Settings
Except for Magnetic Flux Conservation and Initial Values see The Electrostatics
Interface for the Force Calculation and Infinite Elements features.

Boundary Conditions for the Magnetic Fields, No Currents Interface

Exterior Boundaries
The following exterior boundary conditions are available as described in this section:

• Magnetic Flux Density

• Zero Magnetic Scalar Potential
• Magnetic Insulation (the default boundary condition)
• Magnetic Shielding
As described for the Magnetic Fields interface:

• Magnetic Potential
• Periodic Condition

In magnetostatics the relevant interface condition between two domains 1 and 2 is

n2   B1 – B2  = 0

This condition provides continuity of the normal component of the magnetic flux
density and is automatically satisfied by the natural boundary condition for interior
boundaries, which is

n     0 V m – M  1 –   0 V m – M  2  = – n   B 1 – B 2  = 0

Interior Boundaries
The following interior boundary conditions are available as described in this section:

• Thin Low Permeability Gap

• Magnetic Shielding

See The Magnetic Fields Interface for the following boundary conditions, which are
available on boundary pairs:

• Magnetic Shielding
• Sector Symmetry
• Continuity

THE MAGNETIC FIELDS, NO CURRENTS INTERFACE | 155

 Magnetic Flux Density
The Magnetic Flux Density feature adds a boundary condition for the magnetic flux
density. The following equation defines the normal component of the magnetic flux
density using a magnetic flux vector B0:

n  B = n  B0 (5-1)

Using this boundary condition you can specify the normal component of the magnetic
flux density at the boundary.

Alternatively, you can specify an inward (or outward) flux density using the following
equation:

–n  B = Bn (5-2)

Using this formulation, it is possible to specify the normal component of the magnetic
flux density as a scalar.

BOUNDARIES
Select the boundaries where you want to define a magnetic flux density.

MAGNETIC FLUX DENSITY

From the Type list, select which formulation of the boundary condition to use:

• Select Magnetic flux density to define the boundary condition according to

Equation 5-1. You enter a value or expression for each component of the magnetic
flux density B0 in the corresponding edit fields.
• Select Inward flux density to define the boundary condition according to
Equation 5-2. You enter a scalar value or expression for the normal component of
the magnetic flux density in the Bn edit field. A positive value represents an inward
flux.

Zero Magnetic Scalar Potential

The Zero Magnetic Scalar Potential feature provides a boundary condition that specifies
a zero magnetic potential on the boundary V m = 0 .

BOUNDARIES OR POINTS
Select the boundaries or points where you want to define a zero magnetic potential.

156 | CHAPTER 5: THE MAGNETIC FIELD INTERFACES

Magnetic Insulation
The Magnetic Insulation feature for the Magnetic Fields, No Currents interface provides
magnetic insulation using the following boundary condition, which sets the normal
component of the magnetic flux density to zero:

nB = 0

This boundary condition is useful at boundaries confining a surrounding region of air.

Magnetic insulation is the default boundary condition.

BOUNDARIES
Select the boundaries where you want to define magnetic insulation.

Magnetic Shielding
The Magnetic Shielding feature adds a boundary condition for magnetic shielding. It
describes a thin layer of a permeable medium that shields the magnetic field. The
Magnetic Shielding boundary condition uses the following equation:

n   B1 – B2  = – t    0  r ds t V m 

In this equation, t represents a tangential derivative (gradient), and ds is the surface

thickness.

BOUNDARIES
Select the boundaries where you want to define magnetic shielding.

PAIR SELECTION
If Magnetic Shielding is selected from the Pairs> menu, select the boundary pair where
you want to define this feature. First an identity pair may have to be created. Ctrl-click
to deselect.

MAGNETIC FIELD
Define the Relative permeability r. The default uses values From material. If User
defined is selected, choose Isotropic, Diagonal, Symmetric, or Anisotropic and enter other
values or expressions. For anisotropic material, the relative permeability is a tensor.

THIN LAYER
Enter a value or expression for the surface Thickness ds (SI unit: m).

THE MAGNETIC FIELDS, NO CURRENTS INTERFACE | 157

 Thin Low Permeability Gap
The Thin Low Permeability Gap feature for the Magnetic Fields, No Current interface adds
a boundary condition on an internal boundary which allows for a discontinuity in the
magnetic scalar potential. You can enter a relative magnetic permeability r for the thin
layer material as well as a thickness ds. The magnetic flux through this boundary is
given by

d u
 V m – V m
 0  r  -----------------------
 ds 

where Vmu is the magnetic scalar potential on the upside of the boundary selection and

Vmu is the magnetic scalar potential on the downside.

PAIR SELECTION
If Thin Low Permeability Gap is selected from the Pairs submenu, select the boundary
pair where you want to define this feature. First an identity pair may have to be created.

Use the thin low permeability gap boundary condition

   r-
 n  B  1 = -----------  V m1 – V m2 
d
   r-
 n  B  2 = -----------  V m2 – V m1 
d

to model a thin gap of a low permeable material such as air. The layer has the thickness
d and the relative permeability r.

BOUNDARIES
Select the boundaries where you want to define a thin low permeability gap.

TH IN L OW PERMEABILITY GAP
Enter the surface thickness (SI unit: m) as a value or expression in the ds edit field. Also
define the relative permeability using the r list:

• Select From material to user the value of the relative permeability for the material.
• Select User defined to enter a value or expression for the relative permeability in the
edit field that appears.

158 | CHAPTER 5: THE MAGNETIC FIELD INTERFACES

Point Conditions
To obtain a unique solution, you must provide the magnetic potential at (at least) one
point. If you use the magnetic insulation boundary condition everywhere, the
potential has to be fixed using a point condition.

The following point conditions are available:

• Magnetic Potential
• Zero Magnetic Scalar Potential

THE MAGNETIC FIELDS, NO CURRENTS INTERFACE | 159

 The Rotating Machinery, Magnetic
Interface
The Rotating Machinery, Magnetic interface ( ) is available in 2D models only. It
combines an out-of-plane magnetic fields (magnetic vector potential) formulation with
a selection of predefined frames for prescribed rotation or rotation velocity. Thus, it
shares most of its features with the magnetic fields interface; see The Magnetic Fields
Interface.

In this section, only unique features of the Rotating Machinery, Magnetic interface are
described. The interface only works properly if the geometry was created as an
assembly pair from individual composite objects for the rotor and stator parts
respectively. Also an identity pair must be defined for the rotor-stator interface
boundaries under the Model/Definitions node in the model tree. See Defining an
Identity Pair in the COMSOL Multiphysics User’s Guide or Where Do I Access the
Documentation and Model Library?.

INTERFACE IDENTIFIER
The interface identifier is a text string that can be used to reference the respective
physics interface if appropriate. Such situations could occur when coupling this
interface to another physics interface, or when trying to identify and use variables
defined by this physics interface, which you use to reach the fields and variables in
expressions, for example. You can change it to any unique string in the Identifier edit
field.

The default identifier (for the first interface in the model) is rmm.

DOMAINS
Select the domains where you want to define. The default setting is to include all
domains in the model.

EQUATION
The default Study types are listed in the Equation Form list. Study controlled is the
default selection. The availability of the Equation display options are based on how
each model is constructed. Select options as required and see Physics Interface
Nodes—Equation Section in the COMSOL Multiphysics User’s Guide or Where Do
I Access the Documentation and Model Library? for more information.

160 | CHAPTER 5: THE MAGNETIC FIELD INTERFACES

SETTINGS
Out-of-plane vector is the default and only allowed selection in the Components list.

OUT-OF-PLANE THICKNESS
Define the out-of-plane Thickness d by entering a value or expression (SI unit: m). The
default value of 1 m is typically not representative for a thin domain.

DEPENDENT VA RIA BLES

The dependent variable (field variable) is for the Magnetic vector potential A. You can
change the name in the corresponding edit field, but the names of fields and dependent
variables must be unique within a model.

ADVANCED SETTINGS
To display this section, select Show More Options from the View menu in the Model
Builder. Normally these settings do not need to be changed. See Show More Options:
Advanced Settings in the COMSOL Multiphysics User’s Guide or Where Do I Access
the Documentation and Model Library?.

DISCRETIZATION
To display this section, select Show More Options from the View menu in the Model
Builder. Select a Magnetic vector potential—Linear, Quadratic (the default), or Cubic.

Initial Values
The Initial Values feature adds an initial value for the magnetic vector potential.

DOMAINS
Select the domains where you want to define an initial value.

IN IT IA L VA LUES
Enter a value or expression for the initial value of the Magnetic vector potential A.

Electric Field Transformation

The Electric Field Transformation feature imposes suitable transformations to the
electric field definitions in all domains depending on rotational velocity.

DOMAINS
Hard coded to all domains.

T H E R O T A T I N G M A C H I N E R Y, M A G N E T I C I N T E R F A C E | 161
 COORDINATE SYSTEM SELECTION
The Global coordinate system is selected by default. The Coordinate system list contains
any additional coordinate systems that the model includes.

Prescribed Rotation
The Prescribed Rotation feature imposes a coordinate transformation to the selected
domain that effectively rotates it a prescribed angle. It is used for the modeling of a
rotating part.

DOMAINS
Select the domains where you want to use prescribed rotation.

PRESCRIBED ROTATION
Enter the Rotation angle (in radians) and the Rotation axis base point rbpcomponents
in the associated edit fields.

Prescribed Rotational Velocity

The Prescribed Rotational Velocity feature imposes a coordinate transformation to the
selected domain that effectively rotates it a prescribed angle that grows linearly with
time. It is used for the modeling of a rotating part.

DOMAINS
Select the domains where you want to use prescribed rotational velocity.

PRESCRIBED ROTATION
Enter the Revolutions per second rps (SI unit: 1/s)and the Rotation axis base point
rbpcomponents in the associated edit fields.

Other Features
See The Magnetic Fields Interface.

162 | CHAPTER 5: THE MAGNETIC FIELD INTERFACES

Theory of Magnetic and Electric
Fields
Quasi-static analysis of magnetic and electric fields is valid under the assumption that
Dt0.

Maxwell’s Equations
This implies that it is possible to rewrite Maxwell’s equations in the following manner:

  H = J =   E + v  B  + Je

B
E = –
t
B = 0
D = 
J = 0

Here Je is an externally generated current density, and v is the velocity of the

conductor. The crucial criterion for the quasi-static approximation to be valid is that
the currents and the electromagnetic fields vary slowly. This means that the dimensions
of the structure in the problem need to be small compared to the wavelength.

Magnetic and Electric Potentials

Using the definitions of the potentials,

B = A

E = – V –  A
t

and the constitutive relation B0(HM), Ampère’s law can be rewritten as

A –1
 +     0   A – M  – v     A  +  V = J e (5-3)
t

The equation of continuity, which is obtained by taking the divergence of the above
equation, adds the following equation:

THEORY OF MAGNETIC AND ELECTRIC FIELDS | 163

 A
   –  ------- + v     A  –  V + J e = 0 (5-4)
 t 

Equation 5-3 and Equation 5-4 form a system of equations for the two potentials A
and V.

Gauge Transformations
The electric and magnetic potentials are not uniquely defined from the electric and
magnetic fields through

A
E = – ------- – V
t
B = A

Introducing two new potentials

˜
A = A + 
˜ 
V = V – -------
t

gives the same electric and magnetic fields:

˜ ˜
A  A –   ˜  A
E = – ------- – V = – --------------------------- –   V + ------- = – ------- – V
˜
t t  t  t
˜ ˜
B =   A =    A –   =   A

The variable transformation of the potentials is called a gauge transformation. To

obtain a unique solution you need to choose the gauge, that is, put constraints on 
that make the solution unique. Another way of expressing this additional condition is
to put a constraint on  · A. A vector field is uniquely defined up to a constant if both
 · A and A are given. This is called Helmholtz’s theorem.

One particular gauge is the Coulomb gauge given by the constraint:

A = 0

164 | CHAPTER 5: THE MAGNETIC FIELD INTERFACES

Selecting a Particular Gauge
Important observations are that in the dynamic case A and V are coupled via the
selected gauge. For a dynamic formulation, it is also possible to select a  such that the
scalar electric potential vanishes and only the magnetic vector potential has to be
considered. The dynamic formulations (frequency domain and time dependent study
types) of the Magnetic Fields interface are operated in this gauge as it involves only A.
The Magnetic and Electric fields interface in the AC/DC Module involves both A and
V and is inherently ungauged for all study types. In the static limit, A and V are not
coupled via the gauge selection and thus any gauge can be chosen for A when
performing magnetostatic modeling.

The Gauge and the Equation of Continuity for Dynamic Fields

After eliminating the electric potential by choosing the appropriate gauge and
disregarding the velocity term. The equation of continuity obtained by taking the
divergence of Ampère’s law reads:

A
   –  ------- + J e = 0
t

It is clear that unless the electrical conductivity is uniform, the particular gauge used
to eliminate V cannot be the Coulomb gauge as that would violate the equation of
continuity and would thereby also violate Ampère’s law.

Explicit Gauge Fixing/Divergence Constraint

The AC/DC Module offers a gauge fixing feature that is imposed by adding an extra
scalar field variable  (not to be confused with used in the gauge transformation in
the preceding section). The field is used to impose a divergence constraint. In the
most simple case, that is for magnetostatics, Ampère’s law for the magnetic vector
potential reads:

–1
   0   A – M  = Je

The equation for  is used to impose the Coulomb gauge and reads:

A = 0

However, to get a closed set of equations,  must be able to affect the first equation
and this is obtained by modifying the first equation to:

THEORY OF MAGNETIC AND ELECTRIC FIELDS | 165

 –1
    0   A – M  = J e + 

The additional term on the right-hand side can be seen as a Lagrange multiplier that
not only imposes the Coulomb gauge but also eliminates any divergence in the
externally generated current density, Je and makes it comply with the current
continuity inherent in Ampère’s law.

The gauge fixing feature similarly imposes the Coulomb gauge also for the dynamic
(frequency domain) study type in the Magnetic and Electric Fields interface.

For the dynamic (frequency domain and time dependent) study types for the Magnetic
Fields interface the gauge is already determined so the gauge fixing feature is not
allowed to impose the Coulomb gauge but reduces to help imposing current
conservation. The first one is for the frequency domain study and the second one is for
the time dependent study type.

J = 0
   A  = 0

The main benefit of using this kind of divergence constraint is improved numerical
stability, especially when approaching the static limit when the inherent gauge
deteriorates.

Ungauged Formulations and Current Conservation

Current conservation is inherent in Ampère’s law and it is known that if current is
conserved, explicit gauge fixing is not necessary as iterative solvers converge towards a
valid solution. However, it is generally not sufficient for the source currents to be
divergence free in an analytical sense as when interpolated on the finite element
functional basis, this property is not conserved.

When using the Magnetic and Electric Fields interface the electric potential is used to
state current conservation so unless nonphysical current sources are specified inside the
computational domain current conservation is fulfilled.

When using the Magnetic Fields interface, current conservation is usually imposed
either by the solver (for magnetostatics) or in the transient or time harmonic case by
the induced current density. The explicit gauge or divergence constraint can also help
imposing current conservation as described in the preceding section.

166 | CHAPTER 5: THE MAGNETIC FIELD INTERFACES

Time-Harmonic Magnetic Fields
In the time-harmonic case, there is no computational cost for including the
displacement current in Ampère’s law (then called Maxwell-Ampère’s law):

e
  H = J =   E + v  B  + jD + J

In the transient case the inclusion of this term would lead to a second-order equation
in time, but in the harmonic case there are no such complications. Using the definition
of the electric and magnetic potentials, the system of equations becomes

2 e
–     j –   0 A – v     A  +   + j 0 V –  J + jP   = 0
2 –1 e
 j –   0 A +     0   A – M  – v     A  +   + j 0 V = J + jP

The constitutive relation D0EP has been used for the electric field.

You obtain a particular gauge that reduces the system of equation by choosing
jV in the gauge transformation. This gives

˜ j ˜
A = A – ---- V V = 0

˜
When V vanishes from the equations, you only need the second one,

2 ˜ –1 ˜ ˜ e
 j –   0 A +     0   A – M  – v     A  = J + jP
˜
Working with A is often the best option when it is possible to specify all source
currents as external currents Je or as surface currents on boundaries. This leads to the
Magnetic Fields interface described in the next section.

THEORY OF MAGNETIC AND ELECTRIC FIELDS | 167

 Theory for the Magnetic Fields
Interface
Simulation of magnetic fields is of interest when studying magnets, motors,
transformers, and conductors carrying static or alternating currents.

You can use the Magnetic Fields interface for 3D, 2D in-plane, and 2D axisymmetric
models. Unless you have a license for the AC/DC Module, only 2D modeling
involving out-of-plane currents and axisymmetric modeling involving azimuthal
currents are supported. For a deeper theoretical background to the magnetic vector
potential used below, refer to the section starting with Maxwell’s Equations.

Magnetostatics Equation
To derive the magnetostatic equation, start with Ampère’s law for static cases,

H = J

The current is

e
J = v  B + J

where Je is an externally generated current density, and v is the velocity of the

conductor.

Using the definitions of magnetic potential,

B = A

and the constitutive relationship, B0 HM, you can rewrite Ampère’s law as

–1 e
    0   A – M  – v     A  = J

which is the equation used in magnetostatics. The term involving the velocity only
applies in the 2D and axisymmetric formulations.

168 | CHAPTER 5: THE MAGNETIC FIELD INTERFACES

Frequency Domain Equation
To derive the time harmonic equation this physics interface solves, start with Ampère’s
law including displacement currents (then called Maxwell-Ampère’s law) as these do
not involve any extra computational cost in the frequency domain,

D e D
  H = J + ------- = E + v  B + J + -------
t t

Now assume time-harmonic fields and use the definitions of the fields,

B = A
E = – j A
and combine them with the constitutive relationships B0HM and D0E to
rewrite Ampère’s law as

2 –1 e
 j –   0 A +     0   A – M  – v     A  = J

The term involving the velocity only applies in the 2D and axisymmetric formulations.

Transient Equation
The transient equation this physics interface solves is Ampère’s law, here illustrated
with the constitutive relation B0(HM). The term involving the velocity only
applies in the 2D and axisymmetric formulations.

A –1
 +     0   A – M  – v     A  = J e
t

THEORY FOR THE MAGNETIC FIELDS INTERFACE | 169

 Theory for the Magnetic Fields, No
Currents Interface
In magnetostatic problems where no electric currents are present, it is possible to
formulate and solve the problem using a scalar magnetic potential. In a current-free
region you have

H = 0

This implies that you can define the magnetic scalar potential Vm from the relation

H = – V m

This is analogous to the definition of the electric potential for static electric fields.

Using the constitutive relation B0HM, the equation

B = 0

becomes

–     0 V m –  0 M  = 0 (5-5)

The Magnetic Fields, No Currents interface uses this equation for modeling of
magnetostatics in the absence of electric currents.

In planar 2D the dynamic formulations also involves the thickness d in the z direction:

–   d   0 V m –  0 M  = 0 (5-6)

170 | CHAPTER 5: THE MAGNETIC FIELD INTERFACES

 6

The Magnetic and Electric Fields

Interface
In this section:

• The Magnetic and Electric Fields Interface

The underlying theory for the interface is also discussed:

• Theory for the Magnetic and Electric Fields Interface

171
 The Magnetic and Electric Fields
Interface
The Magnetic and Electric Fields interface ( ) has the equations, boundary conditions,
and external currents for modeling electric and magnetic fields, solving for the electric
potential and magnetic vector potential.

For a more thorough introduction to the equations solved by this physics interface, see
the Theory for the Magnetic and Electric Fields Interface.

The main feature is the Ampère’s Law and Current Conservation feature, which adds the
equation for the electric potential and magnetic vector potential and provides an
interface for defining the constitutive relations and their associated properties such as
the relative permeability, relative permittivity and electric conductivity.

When you add this interface, these default nodes are also added to the Model Builder—
Ampère’s Law and Current Conservation, Magnetic Insulation (the default boundary
condition for the magnetic vector potential), and Initial Values.

Right-click the Magnetic and Electric Fields node to add other features that implement,
for example, boundary conditions and external currents.

Note: Except where described below, the majority of the Settings windows are the
same as for the Magnetic Fields, Electrostatics, and Electric Currents interfaces as
indicated.

INTERFACE IDENTIFIER
The interface identifier is a text string that can be used to reference the respective
physics interface if appropriate. Such situations could occur when coupling this
interface to another physics interface, or when trying to identify and use variables
defined by this physics interface, which you use to reach the fields and variables in
expressions, for example. You can change it to any unique string in the Identifier edit
field.

The default identifier (for the first interface in the model) is mef.

172 | CHAPTER 6: THE MAGNETIC AND ELECTRIC FIELDS INTERFACE

DOMAINS
Select the domains where you want to define the electric potential, the magnetic vector
potential, and the equations that describe the Magnetic and Electric Fields. The default
setting is to include all domains in the model.

EQUATION
The default Study types are listed in the Equation Form list. Study controlled is the
default selection. The availability of the Equation display options are based on how
each model is constructed. Select options as required and see Physics Interface
Nodes—Equation Section in the COMSOL Multiphysics User’s Guide or Where Do
I Access the Documentation and Model Library? for more information.

SETTINGS (2D MODELS ONLY)

Select Components—Out-of-plane vector (the default), In-plane vector, or
Three-component vector for the magnetic vector potential. From the practical viewpoint
this choice is equivalent to deciding in what directions the electric current is allowed
to flow (out-of-plane currents, in-plane currents or currents flowing in all three
coordinate directions).

OUT-OF-PLANE THICKNESS (2D MODELS ONLY)

Enter a value or expression for the out-of-plane Thickness d (SI unit: m). The default
value of 1 m is typically not representative for a thin domain. Instead it describes a unit
thickness that makes the 2D equation identical to the equation used for 3D models.

PO R T SWEEP SETTINGS
Select the Activate port sweep check box to invoke a parametric sweep over the ports/
terminals in addition to the automatically generated frequency sweep. The generated
lumped parameters are in the form of an impedance or admittance matrix depending
on the port/terminal settings which consistently must be of either fixed voltage or
fixed current type. The Port parameter name input field assigns a specific name to the
variable that controls the port number solved for during the sweep. The lumped
parameters are subject to Touchstone file export. File name and path are entered in an
input field. Also see Lumped Parameters for more information.

Solving for a Port Sweep

An additional step is required when solving for a port sweep. You need to right-click
the Study node in the model tree and add a Parametric Sweep. In the new Parametric
Sweep node, you enter for Parameter names, the Port parameter name specified when
activating the port sweep and for Parameter values, you enter the desired list with

THE MAGNETIC AND ELECTRIC FIELDS INTERFACE | 173

 terminal numbers. You then need to right-click the Study node and select Other and
Generate Sequences from Study before solving.

DEPENDENT VARIABLES
The dependent variables (field variables) are for the Electric potential V and Magnetic
vector potential A. You can change the name in the corresponding edit field, but the
names of fields and dependent variables must be unique within a model.

ADVANCED SETTINGS
To display this section, select Show More Options from the View menu in the Model
Builder. Normally these settings do not need to be changed. See Show More Options:
Advanced Settings in the COMSOL Multiphysics User’s Guide.

DISCRETIZATION
To display this section, select Show More Options from the View menu in the Model
Builder. Select Quadratic (the default), Linear, Cubic, or Quartic for the Electric potential
and Magnetic vector potential.

Ampère’s Law and Current Conservation

The Ampère’s Law and Current Conservation feature adds the equations presented in the
Theory for the Magnetic and Electric Fields Interface.

DOMAINS
Select the domains where you want to define the magnetic vector potential and the
equation based on Ampère’s law that defines the potential.

MODEL INPUTS
This section contains field variables that appear as model inputs, if the current settings
include such model inputs. By default, this section is empty. If you add a linear
temperature relation for the conductivity, you can then define the source for the
temperature T. From the Temperature list, select an existing temperature variable (from
another physics interface) if available, or select User defined to define a value or
expression for the temperature (SI unit: K) in the edit field that appears underneath
the list.

COORDINATE SYSTEM SELECTION

The Global coordinate system is selected by default. The Coordinate system list contains
any additional coordinate systems that the model includes.

174 | CHAPTER 6: THE MAGNETIC AND ELECTRIC FIELDS INTERFACE

CONDUCTION CURRENT
See the settings for Conduction Current under Ampère’s Law for the Magnetic Fields
interface.

ELECTRIC FIELD
See the settings for Electric Field under Charge Conservation for the Electrostatics
interface.

MAGNETIC FIELD
See the settings for Magnetic Field under Ampère’s Law for the Magnetic Fields
interface.

Initial Values
The Initial Values feature adds an initial value for the magnetic vector potential and
electric potential that can serve as an initial value for a transient simulation or as an
initial guess for a nonlinear solver.

BOUNDARIES
Select the boundaries where you want to define an initial value.

IN IT IA L VA LUES
Enter a value or expression for the initial value of the Magnetic vector potential A (SI
unit: Wb/m) and initial value of the Electric potential V (SI unit: V). The default values
are 0.

Domain Settings
Except for Ampère’s Law and Current Conservation and Initial Values the other
Settings windows are the same as for the Magnetic Fields, Electrostatics, and Electric
Currents interfaces as indicated.

See The Magnetic Fields Interface for these features:

• Ampere’s Law with a default Gauge Fixing for A-Field node

• Velocity (Lorentz Term)
• Multi-Turn Coil Domain (2D and 2D axisymmetric models)
• Single-Turn Coil Domain (2D and 2D axisymmetric models)
• Coil Group Domain (2D and 2D axisymmetric models)

THE MAGNETIC AND ELECTRIC FIELDS INTERFACE | 175

 See The Electrostatics Interface for these features:

• Force Calculation
• Infinite Elements. A default Ampere’s Law and Current Conservation feature is added.
Also right-click to add Charge Conservation (described for the Electrostatics
interface) or Ampere’s Law features.

See The Electric Currents Interface for these features:

• External Current Density

Boundary Conditions for the Magnetic and Electric Fields Interface

In the Magnetic and Electric Fields Interface, the boundary conditions are applied in
a two-step procedure. The reason is that only certain combinations of electric and
magnetic boundary conditions are physically relevant whereas others may lead to
nonphysical models violating current conservation. The procedure is to first select the
magnetic boundary conditions. Those are available directly by right-clicking the
physics interface node. In a second step the electric boundary conditions are selected,
as subfeatures to the magnetic ones, by right-clicking each of the magnetic boundary
condition feature nodes. For each boundary feature or subfeature all of the Settings
windows are the same as for the Magnetic Fields, Electrostatics, and Electric Currents
interfaces as indicated.

MAGNETIC BOUNDARY CONDITIONS

With no surface currents present the interface conditions

n2   A1 – A2  = 0
n2   H1 – H2  = 0

need to be fulfilled. Because the physics interface solves for A, the tangential
component of the magnetic potential is always continuous, and thus the first condition
is automatically fulfilled. The second condition is equivalent to the natural boundary
condition and is hence also fulfilled unless surface currents are explicitly introduced.

See The Magnetic Fields Interface for all of the following features:

Exterior Boundaries
• Magnetic Insulation (the default boundary condition)

176 | CHAPTER 6: THE MAGNETIC AND ELECTRIC FIELDS INTERFACE

Note: For the Magnetic and Electric Fields interface, a default Electric Insulation feature
is also added to Magnetic Insulation. You can also right-click to add other nodes.

• Surface Current
• Impedance Boundary Condition
• Magnetic Field
• Magnetic Potential
• Perfect Magnetic Conductor

Interior Boundaries
• Magnetic Insulation
• Surface Current
• Magnetic Potential
• Transition Boundary Condition
• Thin Low Permeability Gap

See The Electric Currents Interface for Contact Resistance.

For axisymmetric models, COMSOL Multiphysics takes the axial symmetry

boundaries (at r = 0) into account and automatically adds an Axial Symmetry feature to
the model that is valid on the axial symmetry boundaries only.

ELECTRIC BOUNDARY CONDITIONS

The relevant interface condition at interfaces between different media and interior
boundaries is continuity; that is,

n2   J1 – J2  = 0

which is the natural boundary condition.

Exterior Boundaries
When you right-click a magnetic boundary condition feature, some of the following
are available for the electric exterior boundary conditions as described for the interface
indicated.

See The Electrostatics Interface for these features:

• Electric Potential - also available for points (2D and 3D)

THE MAGNETIC AND ELECTRIC FIELDS INTERFACE | 177

 • Ground - also available for points (2D and 3D)
• Floating Potential
• Terminal
• Periodic Condition - right-click to add a Destination Selection feature
See The Electric Currents Interface for

• Electric Insulation (this feature is added to the Magnetic Insulation feature by

default)
• Normal Current Density.

Interior Boundaries
The interior electric boundary conditions that are available depend on the magnetic
boundary condition that has been selected. See The Electric Currents Interface for the
Ground, Electric Potential, and Terminal features.

For axisymmetric models, COMSOL Multiphysics takes the axial symmetry

boundaries (at r = 0) into account and automatically adds an Axial Symmetry feature to
the model that is valid on the axial symmetry boundaries only.

GENERAL BOUNDARY CONDITIONS

Periodic Condition, Sector Symmetry, and Continuity are all available. See The
Magnetic Fields Interface.

Point and Edge Conditions

All of the Settings windows (except for Edge Current) are the same as for other interfaces
as indicated.

• Edge Current - as described below

• Magnetic and Electric Point Dipole—see The Magnetic Fields Interface

Edge Current
The Edge Current feature allows you to specify a line current along one or more edges.

EDGES
Select the edges that you want to an edge current.

EDGE CURRENT
Specify the Edge current.

178 | CHAPTER 6: THE MAGNETIC AND ELECTRIC FIELDS INTERFACE

Theory for the Magnetic and Electric
Fields Interface
The Magnetic and Electric Fields interface can be used for modeling full coupling
between electric and magnetic fields. You can use the interface for 3D, 2D in-plane,
and 2D axisymmetric models. For a deeper theoretical background to the magnetic
vector potential and electric scalar potential used below, please refer to the section
Theory of Magnetic and Electric Fields. Note that the Magnetic and Electric Currents
physics interface only supports the stationary and frequency domain study types, that
is there is no transient formulation available.

Magnetostatics Equations
To derive the magnetostatics equations, start with Ampère’s law for static cases,

H = J

Define the potentials,

B = A
E = – V
and the current

e
J = v  B –  V + J

where Je is an externally generated current density, and v is the velocity of the

conductor.

Add the constitutive relationship, B0 HM, and you can rewrite Ampère’s law
as

–1 e
    0   A – M  – v     A  +  V = J

The equation of continuity is obtained by taking the divergence of Ampère’s law. It is

the equation solved for the electric potential. Thus the following equations for V and
A apply:

THEORY FOR THE MAGNETIC AND ELECTRIC FIELDS INTERFACE | 179

 e
–    – v     A  + V – J  = 0
–1 e
    0   A – M  – v     A  +  V = J

Frequency Domain Equations

To derive the time harmonic equation this physics interface solves, start with
Maxwell-Ampère’s law including displacement current (then called Maxwell-Ampère’s
law). Including this does not involve any extra computational cost in the frequency
domain. Assume time-harmonic fields

e
  H = J =   E + v  B  + jD + J

and use the definitions of the fields,

B = A
E = –V –j A
and combine them with the constitutive relationships B0HM and D0E to
rewrite Ampère’s law as

2 –1 e
 j –   0 A +     0   A – M  – v     A  +   + j 0 V = J

The equation of continuity is again obtained by taking the divergence of Ampère’s law.
It is the equation solved for the electric potential. Thus the following equations for V
and A apply:

2 e
–     j –   0 A – v     A  +   + j 0 V –  J + jP   = 0
2 –1 e
 j –   0 A +     0   A – M  – v     A  +   + j 0 V = J

180 | CHAPTER 6: THE MAGNETIC AND ELECTRIC FIELDS INTERFACE

 7

The Electrical Circuit Interface

This interface has the equations for modeling electrical circuits with or without
connections to a distributed fields model, solving for the voltages, currents and
charges associated with the circuit elements.

In this section:

• The Electrical Circuit Interface

The underlying theory for the interface is also discussed:

• Theory for the Electrical Circuit Interface

181
 The Electrical Circuit Interface
The Electrical Circuit interface ( ) provides the equations for modeling electrical
circuits with or without connections to a distributed fields model, solving for the
voltages, currents and charges associated with the circuit elements.

For more details on the equations solved by this physics interface, see the Theory for
the Electrical Circuit Interface.

When you add this interface, it adds a default Ground Node feature and associates that
with node zero in the electrical circuit.

Note: Circuit nodes are nodes in the electrical circuit and should not be confused
with nodes in the model tree of COMSOL Multiphysics. Circuit node names are not
restricted to numerical values but can be arbitrary character strings.

Ground Node
The Ground Node node adds a ground node with the default node number zero to the
electrical circuit. This is the default feature in the Electrical Circuit interface.

GROUND CONNECTION
Set the Node name for the ground node in the circuit. The convention is to use zero
for the ground node.

Resistor
The Resistor node connects a resistor between two nodes in the electrical circuit.

NODE CONNECTIONS
Set the two Node names for the connecting nodes for the resistor. If the ground node
is involved, the convention is to use zero for this.

DEVICE PARAMETERS
Enter the Resistance of the resistor.

182 | CHAPTER 7: THE ELECTRICAL CIRCUIT INTERFACE

Capacitor
The Capacitor node connects a capacitor between two nodes in the electrical circuit.

NODE CONNECTIONS
Set the two Node names for the connecting nodes for the capacitor. If the ground node
is involved, the convention is to use zero for this.

DEVICE PARAMETERS
Enter the Capacitance of the capacitor.

Inductor
The Inductor node connects an inductor between two nodes in the electrical circuit.

NODE CONNECTIONS
Set the two Node names for the connecting nodes for the inductor. If the ground node
is involved, the convention is to use zero for this.

DEVICE PARAMETERS
Enter the Inductance of the inductor.

Voltage Source
The Voltage Source node connects a voltage source between two nodes in the electrical
circuit.

NODE CONNECTIONS
Set the two Node names for the connecting nodes for the voltage source. The first node
represents the positive reference terminal. If the ground node is involved, the
convention is to use zero for this.

DEVICE PARAMETERS
Enter the Source type that should be adapted to the selected study type. It can be
DC-source, AC-source, or a time-dependent Sine source. Depending on the choice of
source, you also specify the Voltage, Vsrc; the offset Voltage, Voff; the Frequency; and the
Source phase. All values are peak values rather than RMS. Note that for the AC source,
the frequency is a global input set by the solver so do not use the Sine source unless the
model is time dependent.

THE ELECTRICAL CIRCUIT INTERFACE | 183

 Current Source
The Current Source node connects a current source between two nodes in the electrical
circuit.

NODE CONNECTIONS
Set the two Node names for the connecting nodes for the current source. The first node
represents the positive reference terminal from which the current flows through the
source to the second node. If the ground node is involved, the convention is to use
zero for this.

DEVICE PARAMETERS
Enter the Source type which should be adapted to the selected study type. It can be
DC-source, AC-source or a time-dependent Sine source. Depending on the choice of
source, you also specify the Current, Isrc, the offset Current, Ioff, the Frequency and the
Source phase. All values are peak values rather than RMS. Note that for the AC source,
the frequency is a global input set by the solver so do not use the Sine source unless the
model is time-dependent.

Voltage-Controlled Voltage Source

The Voltage-Controlled Voltage Source node connects a voltage-controlled voltage
source between two nodes in the electrical circuit. A second pair of nodes define the
input control voltage.

NODE CONNECTIONS
Specify four Node names: the first pair for the connection nodes for the voltage source
and the second pair defining the input control voltage. The first node in a pair
represents the positive reference terminal. If the ground node is involved, the
convention is to use zero for this.

DEVICE PARAMETERS
Enter the voltage Gain. The resulting voltage is this number multiplied by the control
voltage.

184 | CHAPTER 7: THE ELECTRICAL CIRCUIT INTERFACE

Voltage-Controlled Current Source
The Voltage-Controlled Current Source node connects a voltage-controlled current
source between two nodes in the electrical circuit. A second pair of nodes define the
input control voltage.

NODE CONNECTIONS
Specify four Node names: the first pair for the connection nodes for the current source
and the second pair defining the input control voltage. The first node in a pair
represents the positive voltage reference terminal or the one from which the current
flows through the source to the second node. If the ground node is involved, the
convention is to use zero for this.

DEVICE PARAMETERS
Enter the voltage Gain. The resulting current is this number multiplied by the control
voltage. Thus it formally has the unit of conductance.

Current-Controlled Voltage Source

The Current-Controlled Voltage Source node connects a current-controlled voltage
source between two nodes in the electrical circuit. The input control current is the one
flowing through a named device that must be a two-pin device.

NODE CONNECTIONS
Set two Node names for the connection nodes for the voltage source. The first node in
a pair represents the positive reference terminal. If the ground node is involved, the
convention is to use zero for this.

DEVICE PARAMETERS
Enter the voltage Gain and the Device (any two-pin device) name. The resulting voltage
is this number multiplied by the control current through the named Device (any
two-pin device). Thus it formally has the unit of resistance.

Current-Controlled Current Source

The Current-Controlled Current Source node connects a current-controlled current
source between two nodes in the electrical circuit. The input control current is the one
flowing through a named device that must be a two-pin device.

THE ELECTRICAL CIRCUIT INTERFACE | 185

 NODE CONNECTIONS
Specify two Node names for the connection nodes for the current source. The first node
in a pair represents the positive reference terminal from which the current flows
through the source to the second node. If the ground node is involved, the convention
is to use zero for this.

DEVICE PARAMETERS
Enter the current Gain and the Device (any two-pin-device) name. The resulting current
is this number multiplied by the control current through the named Device (any
two-pin device).

Subcircuit Definition
The Subcircuit Definition node is used to define subcircuits. By right-clicking a
subcircuit definition node, you can add all circuit features available except for the
subcircuit definition feature itself. By right-clicking a subcircuit definition node, you
can also Rename it to something more descriptive than its default name.

SUBCIRCUIT PINS
Define the Pin names at which the subcircuit connects to the main circuit or to other
subcircuits when referenced by a Subcircuit Instance feature. The Pin names refer to
circuit nodes in the subcircuit. The order in which the Pin names are defined is the
order in which they are referenced by a Subcircuit Instance feature.

Subcircuit Instance
The Subcircuit Instance node is used to refer to defined subcircuits.

NODE CONNECTIONS
Select the Name of subcircuit link from the list of defined subcircuits in the circuit model
and the circuit Node names at which the subcircuit instance connects to the main circuit
or to another subcircuit if used therein.

NPN BJT
The NPN BJT device model is a large-signal model for an NPN bipolar junction
transistor (BJT). It is an advanced device model and no thorough description and
motivation of the many input parameters is attempted here. The interested reader is
referred to Ref. 2 for more details on semiconductor modeling within circuits. Many

186 | CHAPTER 7: THE ELECTRICAL CIRCUIT INTERFACE

device manufacturers provide model input parameters for this BJT model. For any
particular make of BJT, the device manufacturer should be the primary source of
information.

NODE CONNECTIONS
Specify three Node names for the connection nodes for the NPN BJT device. These
represent the collector, base, and emitter nodes, respectively. If the ground node is
involved, the convention is to use zero for this.

MODEL PARAMETERS
Specify the Model Parameters. Reasonable defaults are provided but for any particular
BJT, the device manufacturer should be the primary source of information. For an
explanation of the Model Parameters see NPN Bipolar Transistor.

n-Channel MOSFET
The n-Channel MOSFET device model is a large-signal model for an n-channel MOS
transistor (MOSFET). It is an advanced device model and no thorough description
and motivation of the many input parameters is attempted here. The interested reader
is referred to Ref. 2 for more details on semiconductor modeling within circuits. Many
device manufacturers provide model parameters for this MOSFET model. For any
particular make of MOSFET, the device manufacturer should be the primary source of
information.

NODE CONNECTIONS
Specify four Node names for the connection nodes for the n-Channel MOSFET device.
These represent the drain, gate, source, and bulk nodes, respectively. If the ground
node is involved, the convention is to use zero for this.

MODEL PARAMETERS
Specify the Model Parameters. Reasonable defaults are provided but for any particular
MOSFET, the device manufacturer should be the primary source of information. For
an explanation of the Model Parameters see n-Channel MOS Transistor.

Diode
The Diode device model is a large-signal model for a diode. It is an advanced device
model and no thorough description and motivation of the many input parameters is
attempted here. The interested reader is referred to Ref. 2 for more details on

THE ELECTRICAL CIRCUIT INTERFACE | 187

 semiconductor modeling within circuits. Many device manufacturers provide model
parameters for this diode model. For any particular make of diode, the device
manufacturer should be the primary source of information.

NODE CONNECTIONS
Specify two Node names for the positive and negative nodes for the Diode device. If the
ground node is involved, the convention is to use zero for this.

MODEL PARAMETERS
Specify the Model Parameters. Reasonable defaults are provided but for any particular
diode, the device manufacturer should be the primary source of information. For an
explanation of the Model Parameters see Diode.

External I vs. U
The External I vs. U node connects an arbitrary voltage measurement, for example a
circuit terminal or circuit port boundary or a coil domain from another physics
interface, as a source between two nodes in the electrical circuit. The resulting circuit
current from the first node to the second node is typically coupled back as a prescribed
current source in the context of the voltage measurement.

NODE CONNECTIONS
Specify the two Node names for the connecting nodes for the voltage source. The first
node represents the positive reference terminal. If the ground node is involved, the
convention is to use zero for this.

EXTERNAL DEVICE
Enter the source of the Voltage. If you have circuit or current excited terminals or
circuit ports defined on boundaries or a multiturn coil domains in other physics
interfaces, these display as options in the Voltage list. You can also select the User defined
option and type in your own voltage variable, for example, using a suitable coupling
operator (see Model Couplings in the COMSOL Multiphysics User’s Guide or Where
Do I Access the Documentation and Model Library?). For inductive or
electromagnetic wave propagation models, the voltage measurement must be
performed as an integral of the electric field as the electric potential only does not
capture induced EMF. Also the integration must be performed over a distance that is
short compared to the local wavelength. Note that except for when coupling to a
circuit terminal or circuit port, you must manually couple back the current flow
variable in the electrical circuit to the context of the voltage measurement. This applies

188 | CHAPTER 7: THE ELECTRICAL CIRCUIT INTERFACE

also when coupling to a current excited terminal. The name of this current variable
follows the convention cirn.IvsUm_i, where cirn is the tag of the Electrical Circuit
interface node and IvsUm is the tag of the External I vs. U node. The mentioned tags
are typically displayed within curly braces {} in the model tree.

External U vs. I
The External U vs. I node connects an arbitrary current measurement, for example,
from another physics interface, as a source between two nodes in the electrical circuit.
The resulting circuit voltage between the first node and the second node is typically
coupled back as a prescribed voltage source in the context of the current measurement.

NODE CONNECTIONS
Specify the two Node names for the connecting nodes for the current source. The
current flows from the first node to the second node. If the ground node is involved,
the convention is to use zero for this.

EXTERNAL DEVICE
Enter the source of the Current. Voltage excited terminals or lumped ports defined on
boundaries in other physics interfaces are natural candidates but do not appear as
options in the Voltage list because those do not have an accurate built-in current
measurement variable. You must select the User defined option and type in you own
current variable, for example, using a suitable coupling operator (see Model Couplings
in the COMSOL Multiphysics User’s Guide or Where Do I Access the Documentation
and Model Library?). Note that you must manually couple back the voltage variable in
the electrical circuit to the context of the current measurement. This applies also when
coupling to a voltage excited terminal or lumped port. The name of this voltage
variable follows the convention cirn.UvsIm_v, where cirn is the tag of the Electrical
Circuit interface node and UvsIm is the tag of the External U vs. I node. The mentioned
tags are typically displayed within curly braces {} in the model tree.

External I-Terminal
The External I-Terminal node connects an arbitrary voltage-to-ground measurement,
for example, a circuit terminal boundary from another physics interface, as a
voltage-to-ground assignment to a node in the electrical circuit. The resulting circuit
current from the node is typically coupled back as a prescribed current source in the
context of the voltage measurement.

THE ELECTRICAL CIRCUIT INTERFACE | 189

 This feature does not apply when coupling to inductive or electromagnetic wave
propagation models as then voltage must be defined as a line integral between two
points rather than a single point measurement of electric potential. For such couplings,
use the External I vs. U feature instead.

NODE CONNECTIONS
Set the Node name for the connecting node for the voltage assignment.

E X T E R N A L TE R M I N A L
Enter the source of the Voltage. If you have circuit- or current-excited terminals
defined on boundaries in other physics interfaces, these display as options in the Voltage
list. You can also select the User defined option and type in your own voltage variable,
for example, using a suitable coupling operator (see Model Couplings in the COMSOL
Multiphysics User’s Guide or Where Do I Access the Documentation and Model
Library?). Note that, except for when coupling to a circuit terminal, you must
manually couple back the current flow variable in the electrical circuit to the context
of the voltage measurement. This applies also when coupling to a current excited
terminal. The name of this current variable follows the convention cirn.termIm_i,
where cirn is the tag of the Electrical Circuit interface node and termIm is the tag of
the External I-Terminal node. The mentioned tags are typically displayed within curly
braces {} in the model tree.

SPICE Circuit Import

By right-clicking the Electrical Circuit node you can import an existing SPICE netlist
by selecting Import Spice Netlist. A window opens where you can enter a file location
or browse your directories to find one. The default file extension for a SPICE netlist is
.cir. The SPICE circuit import translates the imported netlist into Electrical Circuit
interface nodes so these define the subset of SPICE features that can be imported.

190 | CHAPTER 7: THE ELECTRICAL CIRCUIT INTERFACE

Theory for the Electrical Circuit
Interface
Electrical circuit modeling capabilities are useful when simulating all sorts of electrical
and electromechanical devices ranging from heaters and motors to advanced plasma
reactors in the semiconductor industry. There are two fundamental ways that an
electrical circuit model relates to a physical field model. Either the field model is used
to get a better, more accurate description of a single device in the electrical circuit
model or the electrical circuit is used to drive or terminate the device in the field model
in such a way that it makes more sense to simulate both as a tightly coupled system.

The Electrical Circuit interface makes it is possible to add nodes representing circuit
elements directly to the model tree in a COMSOL Multiphysics model. The circuit
variables can then be connected to a physical device model to perform co-simulations
of circuits and multiphysics. The model acts as a device connected to the circuit so that
you can analyze its behavior in larger systems.

The fundamental equations solved by the electrical circuit interface are Kirchhoff’s
circuit laws, which in turn can be deduced from Maxwell’s equations. The supported
study types are Stationary, Frequency Domain, and Time Dependent.

The circuit definition in COMSOL Multiphysics adheres to the SPICE format

developed at University of California, Berkeley (Ref. 1) and SPICE netlists can also be
imported, generating the corresponding features in the COMSOL Multiphysics
model. Most circuit simulators can export to this format or some dialect of it.

Semiconductor Device Models

There are three more advanced large-signal semiconductor device features available in
the Electrical Circuit interface. Below, the equivalent circuits and the equations
defining their non-ideal circuit elements are given. For a more detailed account on
semiconductor device modeling, see Ref. 2.

N P N B I P O L A R TR A N S I S T O R
Figure 7-1 illustrates the equivalent circuit for the bipolar transistor. Equation 7-1 is
used to compute the relations between currents and voltages in the circuit.
Equation 7-2 shows two capacitances that use the same formula as the junction
capacitance of the diode model. In the parameter names in Equation 7-2 and listed

THEORY FOR THE ELECTRICAL CIRCUIT INTERFACE | 191

 inTable 7-1, replace x with C for the base-collector capacitance and E for the
base-emitter capacitance.
TABLE 7-1: BIPOLAR TRANSISTOR MODEL PARAMETERS

PARAMETER DEFAULT DESCRIPTION

BF 100 Ideal forward current gain

BR 1 Ideal reverse current gain
2
CJC 0 F/m Base-collector zero-bias depletion capacitance
2
CJE 0 F/m Base-emitter zero-bias depletion capacitance
FC 0.5 Breakdown current
IKF Inf (A/m2) Corner for forward high-current roll-off
IKR Inf (A/m2) Corner for reverse high-current roll-off
2
IS 1e-15 A/m Saturation current
2
ISC 0 A/m Base-collector leakage saturation current
ISE 0 A/m2 Base-emitter leakage saturation current
MJC 1/3 Base-collector grading coefficient
MJE 1/3 Base-emitter grading coefficient
NC 2 Base-collector ideality factor
NE 1.4 Base-emitter ideality factor
NF 1 Forward ideality factor
NR 1 Reverse ideality factor
2
RB 0 m Base resistance
RBM 0 m2 Minimum base resistance
2
RC 0 m Collector resistance
2
RE 0 m Emitter resistance
TNOM 298.15 K Device temperature
VAF Inf (V) Forward Early voltage
VAR Inf (V) Reverse Early voltage
VJC 0.71 V Base-collector built-in potential
VJE 0.71 V Base-emitter built-in potential

192 | CHAPTER 7: THE ELECTRICAL CIRCUIT INTERFACE

Figure 7-1: A circuit for the bipolar transistor.

THEORY FOR THE ELECTRICAL CIRCUIT INTERFACE | 193

 R B – R BM
v rb = ----  R BM – -------------------------- i b
1
A f bq 

 v be
 – --------------
v bc
– --------------  
  – 1
NF VT NR VT
= -----------------------------------------------  1 + 1 + 4I S  -------------------------- + -------------------------- 
1 e –1 e
f bq
v bc v be  I KF A I KR A 
2  1 – ----------- – -----------    
 V AF V AR 
v be v be (7-1)
 I S  – -------------
N V
-   – --------------
N V 
i be = A  -------  e F T – 1 + I SE  e E T – 1 
 BF    
v bc v bc
 I S  – --------------
N V   – --------------
N V 
i bc = A  --------  e R T – 1 + I SC  e C T – 1 
B
 R   
v be v bc
 I S  – -------------
N V
- – -------------- 
N V
i ce = A  -------  e F T + e C T 
 f bq  

(7-2)
 v bx  – MJx
 1 – ---------
 -
 V Jx v bx  F C V Jx
C jbx 
= AC Jx  
v bx  v bx  F C V Jx
  1 – F  – 1 – M Jx  1 – F  1 + M  + M ---------
 C  C Jx Jx V -
Jx

N - C H A N N E L M O S TR A N S I S T O R
Figure 7-2 illustrates an equivalent circuit for the MOS transistor. Equation 7-3 is used
to compute the relations between currents and voltages in the circuit. There are also
several capacitances between the terminals as illustrated in Equation 7-4. The model
parameters are as in Table 7-2:
TABLE 7-2: MOS TRANSISTOR MODEL PARAMETERS

PARAMETER DEFAULT DESCRIPTION

CBD 0 F/m Bulk-drain zero-bias capacitance

CGDO 0 F/m Gate-drain overlap capacitance
CGSO 0 F/m Gate-source overlap capacitance
FC 0.5 Capacitance factor
IS 1e-13 A Bulk junction saturation current
KP 2e-5 A/V2 Transconductance parameter
L 50e-6 m Gate length

194 | CHAPTER 7: THE ELECTRICAL CIRCUIT INTERFACE

TABLE 7-2: MOS TRANSISTOR MODEL PARAMETERS

PARAMETER DEFAULT DESCRIPTION

MJ 0.5 Bulk junction grading coefficient

N 1 Bulk junction ideality factor
PB 0.75 V Bulk junction potential
RB 0 Bulk resistance
RD 0 Drain resistance
RDS Inf () Drain-source resistance
RG 0 Gate resistance
RS 0 Source resistance
TNOM 298.15 K Device temperature
VTO 0V Zero-bias threshold voltage
W 50e-6 m Gate width
(GAMMA) 0 V0.5 Bulk threshold parameter
 (PHI) 0.5 V Surface potential
 (LAMBDA) 0 1/V Channel-length modulation

THEORY FOR THE ELECTRICAL CIRCUIT INTERFACE | 195

 Figure 7-2: A circuit for the MOS transistor.

196 | CHAPTER 7: THE ELECTRICAL CIRCUIT INTERFACE

  K
 W - ------P-  1 + v ds v ds  2v th – v ds  v ds  v th
 ----
L 2

i ds =  W KP 2
 ----- -------  1 + v ds v th v ds  v th
 L 2
 0 v ds  v th  0

(7-3)
v th = v gs –  V TO +    – v bs –   
v bd
 – -----------
NV T
- 
i bd = IS  e – 1
 
v bs
 – -----------
NV T
- 
i bs = I S  e – 1
 

(7-4)
C gd = C gd0 W
C gs = C gs0 W

1 – v
–MJ
 bd
--------
-
  PB  v bx  F C P B
C jbd = C BD  
 v bx v bx  F C P B
  1 – F  – 1 – M J  1 – F  1 + M  + M -------
-
 C  C J JP 
B

DIODE
Figure 7-3 illustrates equivalent circuit for the diode. Equation 7-5 is used to compute
the relations between currents and voltages in the circuit and where we need the model
parameters in Table 7-3
TABLE 7-3: DIODE TRANSISTOR MODEL PARAMETERS

PARAMETER DEFAULT DESCRIPTION

BV Inf (V) Reverse breakdown voltage

CJ0 0F Zero-bias junction capacitance
FC 0.5 Forward-bias capacitance coefficient
IBV 1e-09 A Current at breakdown voltage
IKF Inf (A) Corner for high-current roll-off
IS 1e-13 A Saturation current
M 0.5 Grading coefficient
N 1 Ideality factor

THEORY FOR THE ELECTRICAL CIRCUIT INTERFACE | 197

 TABLE 7-3: DIODE TRANSISTOR MODEL PARAMETERS

PARAMETER DEFAULT DESCRIPTION

NBV 1 Breakdown ideality factor

NR 2 Recombination ideality factor
RS 0 Series resistance
TNOM 298.15 K Device temperature
VJ 1.0 V Junction potential

Figure 7-3: A circuit for the diode.

198 | CHAPTER 7: THE ELECTRICAL CIRCUIT INTERFACE

 i d = i dhl + i drec + i db + i c
vd
 – -----------
NV T
-
 1
i dhl = IS  e – 1 ------------------------------------------------------
  vd
I S  – -----------
NV T
-

1 + ---------  e – 1
I KF  
vd
 – --------------
N V 
i drec = I SR  e R T – 1
  (7-5)
vd + BV
– ------------------
N BV V T
i db = I BV e

 vd  –M
  1 – ------
- vd  FC VJ
  V J
C j = C J0  
 – 1 – M vd
  1 – FC   1 – F C  1 + M  + M ------- v d  F C V J
 VJ

REFERENCES
1. http://bwrc.eecs.berkeley.edu/Classes/IcBook/SPICE/

2. P. Antognetti and G. Massobrio, Semiconductor Device Modeling with Spice, 2nd

ed., McGraw-Hill, Inc., 1993.

THEORY FOR THE ELECTRICAL CIRCUIT INTERFACE | 199

200 | CHAPTER 7: THE ELECTRICAL CIRCUIT INTERFACE
 8

The Induction Heating Interface

The Heat Transfer branch included with the AC/DC Module license has The
Induction Heating Interface interface available, which combines magnetic
fields with heat transfer.

201
 The Induction Heating Interface
The Induction Heating interface ( ) combines all features from the Magnetic Fields
interface in the time harmonic formulation with the Heat Transfer interface for
modeling of induction and eddy current heating. The interface has the equations,
boundary conditions, and sources for modeling. The predefined interaction adds the
electromagnetic losses from the magnetic field as a heat source. This interface is based
on the assumption that the magnetic cycle time is short compared to the thermal time
scale (adiabatic assumption). Thus, it is associated with two predefined study types:

Frequency-Stationary -Time-harmonic magnetic fields and Stationary heat transfer

Frequency-Transient -Time-harmonic magnetic fields and Transient heat transfer

For more information about the underlying theory for this interface, see Theory of
Magnetic and Electric Fields in this guide and the Theory for the Heat Transfer
Interfaces in the COMSOL Multiphysics User’s Guide or Where Do I Access the
Documentation and Model Library?.

When you add this interface, these default nodes are also added to the Model Builder—
Induction Heating Model, Electromagnetic Heat Source, Thermal Insulation, Magnetic
Insulation, and Initial Values.

Right-click the Induction Heating node to add other features that implement boundary
conditions and sources.

INTERFACE IDENTIFIER
The interface identifier is a text string that can be used to reference the respective
physics interface if appropriate. Such situations could occur when coupling this
interface to another physics interface, or when trying to identify and use variables
defined by this physics interface, which you use to reach the fields and variables in
expressions, for example. You can change it to any unique string in the Identifier field.

The default identifier (for the first interface in the model) is ih.

DOMAINS
Select the domains where you want to define the induction heating. The default setting
is to include all domains in the model.

202 | CHAPTER 8: THE INDUCTION HEATING INTERFACE

EQUATION
The default Study types are listed in the Equation Form list. Study controlled is the
default selection. The availability of the Equation display options are based on how
each model is constructed. Select options as required and see Physics Interface
Nodes—Equation Section in the COMSOL Multiphysics User’s Guide or Where Do
I Access the Documentation and Model Library? for more information.

DEPENDENT VA RIA BLES

The dependent variables (field variables) are for the Temperature T and the Magnetic
Vector potential A. You can change the name in the corresponding edit field, but the
names of fields and dependent variables must be unique within a model.

ADVANCED SETTINGS
To display this section, select Show More Options from the View menu in the Model
Builder. Normally these settings do not need to be changed. See Show More Options:
Advanced Settings in the COMSOL Multiphysics User’s Guide or Where Do I Access
the Documentation and Model Library?.

DISCRETIZATION
To display this section, select Show More Options from the View menu in the Model
Builder. Select Quadratic, Linear, Cubic, or Quartic for the Temperature, Surface radiosity,
and Magnetic vector potential.

CONSISTENT STABILIZATION
To display this section, select Show More Options from the View menu in the Model
Builder. Also see Show More Options: Consistent and Inconsistent Stabilization in the
COMSOL Multiphysics User’s Guide for information about these settings.

INCONSISTENT STABILIZATION
To display this section, select Show More Options from the View menu in the Model
Builder. Also see Show More Options: Consistent and Inconsistent Stabilization in the
COMSOL Multiphysics User’s Guide for information about these settings.

Shared Features
The Induction Heating interface shares most of its Settings windows with the Magnetic
Fields (see The Magnetic Fields Interface) and the Heat Transfer interfaces.

THE INDUCTION HEATING INTERFACE | 203

 The Heat Transfer in Solids, Heat Transfer in Fluids (general convection and conduction,
non-isothermal flow, and conjugate heat transfer), and Joule Heating interfaces all
belong to the COMSOL Multiphysics base package. See The Heat Transfer Interface
and The Joule Heating Interface in the COMSOL Multiphysics User’s Guide or
Where Do I Access the Documentation and Model Library? for more information.

To locate and search all the documentation, in COMSOL, select Help>Documentation

from the main menu and either enter a search term or look under a specific module in
the documentation tree.

Induction Heating Model

The Induction Heating Model feature has settings to define the Conduction Current,
Electric Field, Magnetic Field, Heat Conduction, and Thermodynamics.

MODEL INPUTS
This section contains field variables that appear as model inputs, if the current settings
include such model inputs. By default, this section is empty. If you add a linear
temperature relation for the conductivity, you can then define the source for the
temperature T. From the Temperature list, select an existing temperature variable (from
another physics interface) if available, or select User defined to define a value or
expression for the temperature (SI unit: K) in the edit field that appears underneath
the list.

CONDUCTION CURRENT
See the settings for Conduction Current under Ampère’s Law for the Magnetic Fields
interface.

ELECTRIC FIELD
See the settings for Electric Field under Charge Conservation described for the
Electrostatics interface.

MAGNETIC FIELD
See the settings for Magnetic Field under Ampère’s Law for the Magnetic Fields
interface. Note the following difference:

• HB curve This option is not relevant for time harmonic modeling so it should not be
selected when using the Induction Heating interface.

204 | CHAPTER 8: THE INDUCTION HEATING INTERFACE

HEAT CONDUCTION
The default Thermal conductivity k (SI unit: W/(m·K)) uses values From material. If
User defined is selected, choose Isotropic, Diagonal, Symmetric, or Anisotropic based on
the characteristics of the thermal conductivity and enter other values or expressions in
the field or matrix. The thermal conductivity k describes the relationship between the
heat flux vector q and the temperature gradient T as in

q = – k T

which is Fourier’s law of heat conduction. Enter this quantity as power per length and
temperature.

THERMODYNAMICS
The default uses the Heat capacity at constant pressure Cp (SI unit: J/(kg·K)) and
Density (SI unit: kg/m3) values From material. Select User defined to enter other
values or expressions for one or both variables.

Electromagnetic Heat Source

The Electromagnetic Heat Source feature maps the electromagnetic losses as a heat
source in the heat transfer part of the model. It appears as a default feature.

DOMAINS
Select the domains where you want to apply the model. The default feature setting is
hard-coded to include all domains in the model.

Initial Values
The Initial Values feature adds initial values for the temperature, surface radiosity and
magnetic vector potential.

DOMAINS
Select the domains where you want to apply the initial values. The default setting is to
include all domains in the model.

IN IT IA L VA LUES
Enter values or expressions for the Temperature T (SI unit: K), Surface radiosity J (SI
unit W/m2) and Magnetic vector potential A (SI unit: Wb/m). The default
temperature is 293.15 K.

THE INDUCTION HEATING INTERFACE | 205

206 | CHAPTER 8: THE INDUCTION HEATING INTERFACE
 9

Materials

This section describes the materials databases included with the AC/DC Module.
• About the Material Databases
• About Using Materials in COMSOL
• Opening the Material Browser
• Using the AC/DC Material Database

207
 Material Library and Databases
About the Material Databases

Note: See Materials in the COMSOL Multiphysics User’s Guide or Where Do I

Access the Documentation and Model Library? for details about the material database
and the separately purchased Material Library.

Material Browser—select predefined

materials in all applications.
Recent Materials—Select from recent
materials added to the model.

Material Library—Purchased
separately. Select from over 2500
predefined materials.

Built-In database—Available to all

users and contains common materials.

Application specific material databases

—Available with specific modules.

User defined material database library.

All COMSOL modules have predefined material data available to build models. The
most extensive material data is contained in the separately purchased Material Library,
but all modules contain commonly used or module-specific materials. For example, the
Built-In database is available to all users but the MEMS database is included with the
Acoustics Module, MEMS Module, and Structural Mechanics Module. You can also
create your own materials and material libraries by researching and entering material
properties yourself.

You access all the material databases (including the Material Library) from the Material
Browser. These databases are briefly described below.

208 | CHAPTER 9: MATERIALS

RECENT MATERIALS
From the Recent Materials folder ( ), you can select from a list of recently used
materials, with the most recent at the top. This folder is available after the first time
you add a material to a model.

MATERIAL LIBRARY
An optional add-on database, the Material Library ( ), contains data for over 2500
materials and 20,000 property functions.

BUILT-IN
Included with COMSOL Multiphysics, the Built-In database ( ) contains common
solid materials with electrical, structural, and thermal properties. See Predefined
Built-In Materials for all COMSOL Modules in the COMSOL Multiphysics User’s
Guide for a list.

AC/DC
Included in the AC/DC Module, the AC/DC database ( ) has electric properties for
some magnetic and conductive materials.

LIQUIDS AND GASES

Included in the Acoustics Module, Chemical Reaction Engineering Module, Earth
Science Module, Heat Transfer Module, and MEMS Module, the Liquids and Gases
database ( ) includes transport properties and surface tension data for liquid/gas
and liquid/liquid interfaces.

MEMS
Included in the Acoustics Module, MEMS Module, and Structural Mechanics
Module, the MEMS database ( ) has properties for MEMS materials—metals,
semiconductors, insulators, and polymers.

PIEZOELECTRIC
Included in the Acoustics Module, MEMS Module, and Structural Mechanics
Module, the Piezoelectric database ( ) has properties for piezoelectric materials.

USER DEFINED LIBRARY

The User Defined Library folder ( ) is where you create user-defined materials
databases (libraries). When you create any new database, this also displays in the
Material Browser. See Creating Your Own User Defined Libraries in the COMSOL
Multiphysics User’s Guide.

MATERIAL LIBRARY AND DATABASES | 209

 Note: All materials databases (including the Material Library) shipped with
COMSOL Multiphysics and the optional modules are read-only.

About Using Materials in COMSOL

USING THE MATERIALS IN THE PHYSICS SETTINGS

The physics set-up in a model is determined by a combination of settings in the
Materials and physics interface pages. When you add the first material to a model,
COMSOL automatically assigns that material to the entire geometry. The power of
COMSOL is that you can select different geometric entities to have different materials.
The following example uses the heat_sink.mph model file contained in the Heat
Transfer Module Model Library.

Figure 9-1: Assigning materials to a heat sink model. Air is assigned as the material to
the box surrounding the heat sink, and aluminum to the heat sink itself.

If a geometry consists of a heat sink in a container, you can assign Air as the material in
the container surrounding the heat sink and Aluminum as the heat sink material itself
(see Figure 9-1). The Conjugate Heat Transfer physics interface, selected during model
set-up, has a Fluid flow model, defined in the box surrounding the heat sink, and a Heat
Transfer model, defined in both the aluminum heat sink and in the air box. The Heat
Transfer in Solids 1 settings use the material properties associated to the Aluminum
3003-H18 materials node, and the Fluid 1 settings define the flow using the Air material

210 | CHAPTER 9: MATERIALS

properties. The other nodes under Conjugate Heat Transfer define the initial and
boundary conditions.

All physics interface properties automatically use the correct Materials properties when
you use the default From material setting. This means that you can use one node to
define the physics across several domains with different materials; COMSOL then uses
the material properties from the different materials to define the physics in the
domains. If material properties are missing, the Material Contents section on the
Materials page displays a stop icon ( ) to warn you about the missing properties or
values. See About the Material Page in the COMSOL Multiphysics User’s Guide or
Where Do I Access the Documentation and Model Library?.

EVALUATING AND PLOTTING MATERIAL PROPERTIES

You can access the material properties like other variables in a model using the variable
naming conventions and scoping mechanisms. To access a material property in a plot
or evaluation, you need to know the tags for the material and the property group.
Typically, for the first material (Material 1) the tag is mat1 and most properties reside
in the default Basic property group with the tag def. The variable names appear in the
Variable column in the table under Output properties in the Settings window for the
property group; for example, Cp for the heat capacity at constant pressure. The syntax
for the heat capacity at constant pressure is then mod1.def.Cp. Some properties are
anisotropic tensors, and you can then access each of the components, such as
mat1.def.k11, mat1.def.k12, and so on, for the thermal conductivity. For material
properties that are functions, you need to call them with input arguments such as
mat1.def.rho(pA,T) where pA and T are numerical values or variables representing
the absolute pressure and the temperature, respectively. You can also plot the functions
directly from the function nodes’ Settings window by first specifying suitable ranges for
the input arguments.

MATERIAL LIBRARY AND DATABASES | 211

 Working with the Material Browser

Note: When you are using the Material Browser, the words window and page are
interchangeable. For simplicity, the instructions refer only to the Material Browser.

Opening the Material Browser

1 Open or create a model file.
2 From the Options menu select Material Browser or right-click the Materials node and
select Open Material Browser.
The Material Browser opens by default to the right of the Settings window.
1 Open the Material Browser.
2 Under Material Selection, search or browse for materials.
- Enter a Search term to find a specific material by name, UNS number (Material
Library materials only), or DIN number (Material Library materials only). If the
search is successful, a list of filtered databases containing that material displays
under Material Selection.

Note: To clear the search field and browse, delete the search term and click Search to
reload all the databases.

- Click to open each database and browse for a specific material by class (for
example, in the Material Library) or physics module (for example, MEMS
Materials).

Note: Always review the material properties to confirm they are applicable for the
model. For example, Air provides temperature-dependent properties that are valid at
pressures around 1 atm.

212 | CHAPTER 9: MATERIALS

3 When you locate the material you want, right-click to Add Material to Model.
A node with the material name is added to the Model Builder and the Material page
opens.

Using the AC/DC Material Database

All physics interfaces in the AC/DC Module support the use of the COMSOL
Multiphysics material databases. The electromagnetic material properties that you can
store in the material databases are:

• Electric conductivity and resistivity

• Relative permittivity
• Relative permeability
• Nonlinear BH-curves
• Refractive index

The AC/DC database is included with the AC/DC Module and contains
electromagnetic and other material properties for these materials:

PREDEFINED MATERIALS

Copper
Soft Iron (without losses)
Soft Iron (with losses)
Quartz
Graphite
Graphite felt
Silicon Carbide

Some properties depend on the magnetic flux density, location, or temperature. The
database contains, depending on the material and in addition to the more common
material properties, the following properties:

PREDEFINED PROPERTIES

Remnant flux density

Reference temperature
Temperature coefficient
Nonlinear BH-curves
Resistivity at reference temperature

WO R K I N G W I T H T H E M A T E R I A L B R O W S E R | 213
214 | CHAPTER 9: MATERIALS
 10

Glossary

This glossary contains finite element modeling terms in an electromagnetics

context. For mathematical terms as well as geometry and CAD terms specific to the
COMSOL Multiphysics software and documentation, please see the glossary in the
COMSOL Multiphysics User’s Guide. For references to more information about a
term, see the index.

215
 Glossary of Terms
anisotropy Variation of material properties with direction.

constitutive relation The relation between the D and E fields and between the B and
H fields. These relations depend on the material properties.

eddy currents Induced currents normal to a time-varying magnetic flux in a

ferromagnetic material.

edge element See vector element.

electric dipole Two equal and opposite charges +q and q separated a short distance
d. The electric dipole moment is given by p = qd, where d is a vector going from q
to +q.

gauge transformation A variable transformation of the electric and magnetic potentials

that leaves Maxwell’s equations invariant.

magnetic dipole A small circular loop carrying a current. The magnetic dipole
moment is m = IAe, where I is the current carried by the loop, A its area, and e a unit
vector along the central axis of the loop.

Nedelec’s edge element See vector element.

phasor A complex function of space representing a sinusoidally varying quantity.

quasi-static approximation The electromagnetic fields are assumed to vary slowly, so

that the retardation effects can be neglected. This approximation is valid when the
geometry under study is considerably smaller than the wavelength.

vector element A finite element often used for electromagnetic vector fields. The
tangential component of the vector field at the mesh edges is used as a degree of
freedom. Also called Nedelec’s edge element or just edge element.

216 | CHAPTER 10: GLOSSARY

I N D E X
A adiabatic assumption 27 C capacitance 192
admittance, lumped parameters 73 electrical circuit 192, 194, 197
Ampère’s law 52, 129 lumped parameters 35, 73
current conservation 174 matrix 36–37, 79, 94
frequency domain theory 180 quantity 74
gauge fixing 132 Cartesian coordinates 19, 29
gauge fixing theory 165, 167 Cauchy’s equation 61, 69
magnetostatics equation, theory 168 cementation exponent 98, 125
quasi-statics 58 characteristic impedance 73
anisotropic material 58, 157 charges, constant 71
anisotropic tensors 211 circuit import, SPICE 190
Archie’s law 97, 125 coil group 136
averaging techniques, porous media 97 coils
axial symmetry 25, 177 multi-turn 133
single-turn 135
B bipolar transistor 191–193
conductance, lumped parameters 73
bond wires 44, 46
conduction
boundary conditions
current 96, 123, 126, 131
electric currents interface 100
Fourier’s law 205
electric currents, shell interface 113
heat 205
electrodes 118
conductive media 111, 126
electromagnetics 59
conductivity 53
electrostatics interface 83
contact impedance 108
forced voltage, port 36
electric shielding 104
impedance 144–145
impedance boundary condition 145,
magnetic and electric fields interface
147
176
joule heating 96
magnetic field 142
temperature-dependent 96
magnetic fields interface 140
thermal 205
magnetic fields, no currents interface
constitutive relations
155
charge relaxation theory 116
magnetic potential 144
electric fields 80
magnetic shielding 157
magnetic fields 130, 167
minimizing problem size 25
material properties 58
surface charge 85
theory 53–54
transition 147
contact resistance 107
built-in materials database 209

INDEX| 217
 contacting COMSOL 14 drill files 43
continuum mechanics 61, 65, 69
E ECAD import 39
Coulomb gauge 164–166
options 45
current conservation
troubleshooting 48
Ampère’s law 174
effective conductivity, porous media 122
current source 99
effective relative permittivity 124
electric currents 95
elastic material 61, 70
perfect magnetic conductor 146
electric
theory 121
conductivity 53
ungauged formulations 166
dipole moment 53
current density
energy 56
elastic pure conductor and 67
force 71
electromagnetic energy and 57
point dipole 110
external 98, 132–133
polarization 53
Lorentz force equation and 58
power 56
normal 102
scalar potential 16, 55
quantity 74
susceptibility 53
surface 59, 143, 146
torque 71
theory 121, 126, 168
electric conductivity, porous media 97,
current source 99, 184
125
boundary 101
electric currents interface 93
current-controlled 185
theory 121
line 109
electric currents, shell interface 111
point 109
theory 126
surface 101
electric fields theory 115
theory 117, 121, 123
electric point dipole 150
voltage-controlled 185
electrical circuit interface 182
currents, constant 71
theory 191
cylindrical coordinates 19, 24
electrical size 23
D dielectric effect 68 electromagnetic
dipole moment energy 56
electric 110, 150 energy, virtual work 70
electrostatic 92 fields 23
magnetic 53, 151 force 34, 61, 68
dispersive materials 58 force and torque 33
distributed capacitance 89 heat source 205
distributed impedance 103 quantities 74
documentation, location 13 sources 26

218 | I N D E X
 stress tensor 65 frequency-stationary study 27
theory 52 frequency-transient study 27
torque 64, 71
G Galilei 68–69
volume force 34
gauge fixing 132, 164–166
electromotive intensity 69
gauge transformation 164, 167
electrostatics interface 78
Gauss’ law 52, 80, 115–116, 119
theory 119
GDS-II file format 40
emailing COMSOL 14
geometry, simplifying 23
energy density 57
Gerber layer files 43
energy loss, resistive and reactive 56
gradient, air pressure 64
equation of continuity 52, 57
gradient, temperature 62, 205
external current 54
H heat capacity 205
F Faraday’s law 52, 55, 58
heat flux 205
field variables in 2D 28
Helmholtz’s theorem 164
file formats
hysteresis effects 59
GDS-II 40
I impedance
NETEX-G 42
boundary condition 144–145
file, Touchstone 38
distributed 103
fixed current, port 36
lumped parameters 35, 38, 73
floating potential 88, 118
quantity 74
fluid saturation 98
reference 94
flux density
surface 104
magnetic 33, 75
inductance, lumped parameters 35, 73
materials 213
induction heating interface 202
remanent magnetic 54, 130
infinite elements 81
force
inhomogeneous materials 58
computations 33
internet resources 12
distributed in a volume 34
invariant field, Galilei 68
electric 71
electromagnetic 33, 61 J Joule heating 96
in a pure conductor 66, 69
K knowledge base, COMSOL 13
in moving objects 68
L line charge 91
Lorentz 58
line source 109
magnetic 71
linear material 61, 68
total 34, 63
Lorentz force 33–34, 58
forced voltage, port 36
Lorentz magnetization 69
formation factor 125
Lorentz term 132
Fourier’s law of heat conduction 205

INDEX| 219
 loss, resistive and reactive 56 databases 209
lumped parameters linear 61, 68
calculating 35–38 properties 211
electric currents interface 94 Maxwell stress tensor 33–34, 65
electrostatics interface 79 Maxwell’s equations 52, 191
magnetic and electric fields interface quasi-static approximation 163
173 Maxwell-Ampère’s law 52, 55, 58, 99, 167,
169
M magnetic
mechanical stress tensor 62
dipole moment 53
mesh resolution 28
energy 56
method of virtual work 70
flux, constant 71
model library 13
force 71
model M-file 12
insulation 142
MOS transistor 194
losses 130
moving geometry 58
point dipole 151
MPH-files 13
power 56
multi-turn coils 133
scalar potential 16
shielding, boundary condition 157 N NETEX-G file format 42
susceptibility 53 netlists, SPICE 190–191
torque 71 nonlinear material 58, 68
magnetic and electric fields interface 172
O ODB++(X) files 39
theory 179
Ohm’s law 115, 117, 121
magnetic field
P PDE, reduced potential 55
boundary condition 142, 146
perfect conductor 59, 66
magnetic fields interface 128
perfect magnetic conductor 146
theory 168
permanent magnet 34, 53, 66
magnetic fields, no currents interface 152
permeability and permittivity
theory 170
relative 54
magnetic potential
vacuum 53
boundary condition 144
permittivity, volume average 124
scalar 16, 55
phasor 60
vector 16, 55
piezoelectric and piezomagnetic effects
magnetization 53
68
magnetization effect 68
PMC 146
magnetomotive intensity 69
point charge 91
mapped infinite elements 29, 72
point dipole 92, 110
materials
point source 109
AC/DC module 213

220 | I N D E X
 polarization 53, 68–70, 75, 80 saturation exponent 98
porous media 122 scalar magnetic potential 16, 55
porous media and mixtures 94 semiconductor device models 191
potentials, constant 71 SI units 74
power law, porous media 123–124 single-turn coils 135
Poynting 57, 75 skin depth 144
pure conductor 66, 69 skin effect 28
pyroelectric and pyromagnetic effects 68 solver settings 28
SPICE 190–191
Q quasi-static approximation 57, 163
stress tensor
quasi-static modeling 23
electromagnetic 65
quasi-static time-harmonic 55, 167
Maxwell 34, 65
R radiative energy 56
mechanical 62
radiative loss 57
symmetric 68
reciprocal permittivity, volume average
surface
124
charge 85
reduced potential 55
charge density 59
refractive index 213
current 59, 143
relative
current source 101
permeability 128, 145, 147, 213
impedance 104
permittivity 93, 145, 147, 213
susceptibility, electric and magnetic 53
permittivity, porous media 97
T technical support, COMSOL 14
repair tolerance 47
temperature
remanent displacement 54, 80
coefficient 96, 105, 131
remanent magnetic flux density 54
gradient 62, 205
resistance
temperature-dependent conductivity 96
coil 134
tensors
contact 107
anisotropic 211
electrical circuit resistor 182
Maxwell stress 33–34
electromagnetic quantity 75
theory
lumped parameters 35, 73
electric currents 121
model parameters 192
electric currents, shell interface 126
surface 104
electric fields 115
resistive energy 56
electrical circuit 191
resistive heating 96
electromagnetics 52
rotating machinery, magnetic interface
electrostatics 119
160
magnetic and electric fields 163
S saturation coefficient 125
magnetic and electric fields interface

INDEX| 221
 179
magnetic fields, no currents interface
170
thermal conductivity 205
thin low permittivity gap 90
thin shells, conductive media 126
time-dependent analysis 27
time-harmonic quasi-statics 167
tolerance, relative repair 47
torque computations 33
torque, electromagnetic 33, 64, 71
total force 34, 63
touchstone export 38
transformation, Galilei 69
transient analysis 27
transistor, bipolar 191–193
transition boundary condition 147
typographical conventions 14

U unbounded domains, modeling 29

units, SI 74
user community, COMSOL 14

V vector magnetic potential 16, 55

vector, Poynting 57, 75
virtual displacement 70
virtual work 34, 70
volume averages, porous media 122
volume force 34, 61–62
volume fraction 96

W wavelength 28, 75, 118, 163

web sites, COMSOL 13
wire cross-section 106
wirebonds, importing 44, 46

222 | I N D E X