Computer Networks

Anshid Babu
What is CN?
• A computer network is a collection of computers, servers,
mainframes, network devices, and other physical devices
interconnected by communication links to share resources and data.
What is Topology

• Network topology refers to the physical or logical arrangement of

devices in a network.
• It defines how different nodes (devices like computers, printers,
routers) are connected and how data is transmitted.
They are
Bus
Features
• The bus topology is designed in such a way that all the stations are
connected through a single cable known as a backbone cable.
• Each node is either connected to the backbone cable by drop cable or
directly connected to the backbone cable.
• When a node wants to send a message over the network, it puts a
message over the network. All the stations available in the network
will receive the message whether it has been addressed or not.
• The bus topology is mainly used in 802.3 (ethernet) and 802.4
standard networks.
• The configuration of a bus topology is quite simpler as compared to
other topologies.
RING
• Ring topology is like a bus topology, but with connected ends.
• The node that receives the message from the previous computer will
retransmit to the next node.
• The data flows in one direction, i.e., it is unidirectional.
• The data flows in a single loop continuously known as an endless loop.
• It has no terminated ends, i.e., each node is connected to other node and
having no termination point.
• The data in a ring topology flow in a clockwise direction.
• The most common access method of the ring topology is token passing.
• Token passing: It is a network access method in which token is passed from one
node to another node.
• Token: It is a frame that circulates around the network.
Working of Token passing

• A token moves around the network, and it is passed from computer to

computer until it reaches the destination.
• The sender modifies the token by putting the address along with the
data.
• The data is passed from one device to another device until the
destination address matches. Once the token received by the
destination device, then it sends the acknowledgment to the sender.
• In a ring topology, a token is used as a carrier.
Star
• Star topology is an arrangement of the network in which every node is
connected to the central hub, switch or a central computer.
• The central computer is known as a server, and the peripheral devices
attached to the server are known as clients.
• Coaxial cable or RJ-45 cables are used to connect the computers.
• Hubs or Switches are mainly used as connection devices in a physical
star topology.
• Star topology is the most popular topology in network
implementation.
Tree
• Tree topology combines the characteristics of bus topology and star
topology.
• A tree topology is a type of structure in which all the computers are
connected with each other in hierarchical fashion.
• The top-most node in tree topology is known as a root node, and all
other nodes are the descendants of the root node.
• There is only one path exists between two nodes for the data
transmission. Thus, it forms a parent-child hierarchy.
Mesh
• Mesh technology is an arrangement of the network in which computers are
interconnected with each other through various redundant connections.
• There are multiple paths from one computer to another computer.
• It does not contain the switch, hub or any central computer which acts as a
central point of communication.
• The Internet is an example of the mesh topology.
• Mesh topology is mainly used for WAN implementations where
communication failures are a critical concern.
• Mesh topology is mainly used for wireless networks.
• Mesh topology can be formed by using the formula:
Number of cables = (n*(n-1))/2;
Mesh topology is divided into two categories:

• Full Mesh Topology: In a full mesh topology, each computer is

connected to all the computers available in the network.
• Partial Mesh Topology: In a partial mesh topology, not all but certain
computers are connected to those computers with which they
communicate frequently.
Hybrid
• The combination of various different topologies is known as Hybrid
topology.
• A Hybrid topology is a connection between different links and nodes
to transfer the data.
OSI / ISO Model
• The OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) model is a conceptual
framework used to understand and standardize network
communication between computer systems.
• It was developed by the International Organization for
Standardization (ISO) in 1984 and consists of seven layers, each with
a specific function in the process of transmitting and receiving data
across a network.
Host

• A host is any device or system connected to a network that can send,

receive, or process data.
• It usually has an IP address to uniquely identify it on the network.
• Hosts can include:
• Computers
• Servers
• Smartphones
• IoT devices (e.g., smart TVs, printers, etc.)
Key Characteristics of a Host

1.Uniqueness: Each host has a unique identifier (e.g., an IP address).

2.End Device: Hosts are the endpoints of data transmission in a
network.
3.Examples:
1. A web server hosting a website.
2. A laptop accessing the internet.
• Network
• A network refers to a collection of interconnected devices (hosts,
routers, switches, etc.) that communicate with each other to share
data, resources, and services.
• Networks can vary in size and scope, such as:
• Local Area Network (LAN): A small, local network (e.g., within a building).
• Wide Area Network (WAN): A large network spanning cities or countries
(e.g., the internet).
Key Characteristics of a Network

1.Interconnection: Consists of multiple devices (hosts, routers, etc.)

linked together.
2.Communication Medium: Uses physical or wireless media for data
transfer (e.g., Ethernet cables, Wi-Fi).
3.Examples:
1. A corporate office network connecting computers and printers.
2. The internet, which is a global network.
• Physical Layer
• Deals with the physical connection between devices.
• Focus: Transmission of raw bits over a medium (cables, signals,
hardware).
• Example: Ethernet cables, hubs.
• Data Link Layer
• Ensures reliable data transfer between nodes on the same network.
• Focus: Framing, error detection, and MAC addressing.
• Example: Switches, MAC addresses.
• Network Layer
 Manages data routing, addressing, and delivering packets across
networks.
 Focus: Logical addressing and path selection.
 Example: IP (Internet Protocol).
 Transport Layer
 Ensures reliable data transfer with error recovery and flow control.
 Focus: End-to-end communication.
 Example: TCP, UDP.
· Session Layer
 Manages sessions (connections) between applications.
 Focus: Opening, maintaining, and closing communication sessions.
 Example: Remote Procedure Call (RPC).
· Presentation Layer
 Translates data into a format understandable by the application layer.
 Focus: Data encryption, compression, and translation.
 Example: SSL/TLS, JPEG.
• Application Layer
• Closest to the user, it provides network services to applications.
• Focus: User interfaces and application services.
• Example: HTTP, FTP, SMTP.
Switching
• Switching refers to the process of directing data packets between
devices on a network.
• This is typically done by a network switch, a specialized device that
operates at the Data Link Layer (Layer 2) of the OSI model, although
some switches can also operate at Layer 3 (Network Layer).
Network Switch

• A network switch is a hardware device that connects devices

(computers, printers, servers, etc.) within a LAN.
• The switch operates by forwarding data packets between devices
based on their MAC (Media Access Control) addresses.
• The switch learns the MAC addresses of devices by observing the
traffic on its ports and builds a MAC address table to efficiently
forward packets to the correct destination.
Circuit Switching

• Circuit switching is used in traditional telephone networks (PSTN) and

involves establishing a dedicated communication path between two
devices for the duration of the call or session.
• In the context of computer networks, circuit switching is less common
but might be used in specific systems where a fixed communication
path is necessary.
• Circuit Switching: In this type of switching, a connection is
established between the source and destination beforehand.
This connection receives the complete bandwidth of the
network until the data is transferred completely.
• Packet Switching: This technique requires the data to be
broken down into smaller components, data frames, or packets.
• These data frames are then transferred to their destinations
according to the available resources in the network at a
particular time.
• This switching type is used in modern computers and even the
Internet. Here, each data frame contains additional information
about the destination and other information required for proper
transfer through network components.
• Datagram Packet Switching: In Datagram Packet switching,
each data frame is taken as an individual entity and thus, they
are processed separately.
• Here, no connection is established before data transmission
occurs.
• Although this approach provides flexibility in data transfer, it
may cause a loss of data frames or late delivery of the data
frames.
Message switching

• Message Switching is a type of communication technique used in

computer networks.
• It is one of the early methods of data transmission in networked
environments, where data is broken into smaller messages and sent
from one node to another.
• In message switching, the entire message is stored at each
intermediate node (router or switch) before it is forwarded to the
next node. This technique is called store-and-forward because the
message is temporarily stored until the next available communication
link is ready for transmission.
• Unlike packet switching (which breaks messages into smaller
packets), message switching sends the entire message as a single
unit. The message is not broken into smaller parts but is passed on as
a whole.
DTE and DCE
DTE (Data Terminal Equipment)

• Definition: Devices that serve as data source or destination in a

communication system.
• Purpose: Responsible for generating or consuming data in
communication. They are typically the end-user devices.
• Examples:
• Computers
• Terminals
• Printers
Characteristics
• Often connected to DCE for communication over a network.
• Interfaces with the communication link through a DCE device.
• Operates at the user’s side.
DCE
• Definition
Devices that provide the actual transmission or communication
capabilities.
• Purpose: Facilitates data transmission between the DTEs by acting as
a bridge.
• Examples:
• Modems
• Routers
• Switches
• Characteristics:Provides signal conversion, coding, and line clocking
functions.
• Operates at the communication network side.
• Establishes, maintains, and terminates data transfer between DTEs.
Connection and Interface

• DTE and DCE are often connected using a serial interface, such as RS-
232, with specific pin configurations.
• The DTE/DCE interface defines how the two devices communicate
and exchange data.
Comparison Table: DTE vs DCE

Feature DTE DCE

Role Data source or destination Data transmission enabler

Examples Computers, terminals Modems, routers

Function Generates/consumes data Facilitates transmission

Placement End-user side Network side

EIA-232
• The EIA-232 interface (commonly known as RS-232) is a standard
developed by the Electronic Industries Alliance (EIA) for serial
communication. It specifies the connection between Data Terminal
Equipment (DTE) and Data Communication Equipment (DCE) such as
modems.
• Communication Type:
• Serial communication (bit-by-bit transmission).
• Full-duplex communication is supported.
X.21 Modems

• X.21 is a digital communication interface standard developed by the

ITU-T for synchronous serial communication between DTE and DCE. It
is often used in digital leased line services.
• Supports high-speed transmission, ranging from 64 kbps to several
Mbps.
Thank you