COMPUTER

NETWORKS
PRESENTED BY
DEEPA
 INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER NETWORKS

• A computer network is a group of devices connected with each other through a

transmission medium such as wires, cables etc. These devices can be computers,
printers, scanners, Fax machines etc.
• The aim of the computer network is the sharing of resources among various devices.
• The purpose of having computer network is to send and receive data stored in other
devices over the network. These devices are often referred as nodes.
CONTINUATION…….

• Message: It is the data or information which needs to be transferred from one device
to another device over a computer network.
• Sender: Sender is the device that has the data and needs to send the data to other
device connected to the network.
• Receiver: A receiver is the device which is expecting the data from other device on
the network.
Transmission media: In order to transfer data from one device to another device we
need a transmission media such as wires, cables, radio waves etc.
CONTINUATION…….

• Protocol: A protocol is a set of rules that are agreed by both sender and receiver,
without a protocol two devices can be connected to each other but they cannot
communicate. In order to establish a reliable communication or data sharing
between two different devices we need set of rules that are called protocol. For
example, http and https are the two protocols used by web browsers to get and post
the data to internet, similarly smtp protocol is used by email services connected to
the internet.
BASIC COMPONENTS OF COMPUTER NETWORKS

• REPEATER – A repeater operates at the physical layer.

• Its job is to regenerate the signal over the same network before the signal
becomes too weak or corrupted so as to extend the length to which the signal can
be transmitted over the same network.
• An important point to be noted about repeaters is that they do not amplify the
signal. When the signal becomes weak, they copy the signal bit by bit and
regenerate it at the original strength.
• It is a 2 port device.
BASIC COMPONENTS OF COMPUTER NETWORKS

• HUB
• A hub is basically a multiport repeater. A hub connects multiple wires coming from
different branches, for example, the connector in star topology which connects
different stations.
• Hubs cannot filter data, so data packets are sent to all connected devices.
• Also, they do not have intelligence to find out best path for data packets which
leads to inefficiencies and wastage.
BASIC COMPONENTS OF COMPUTER NETWORKS

• BRIDGE:
• A bridge operates at data link layer.
• A bridge is a repeater, with add on the functionality of filtering content by reading
the MAC addresses of source and destination.
• It is also used for interconnecting two LANs working on the same protocol.
• It has a single input and single output port, thus making it a 2 port device.
BASIC COMPONENTS OF COMPUTER NETWORKS

• SWITCHES
• A switch is a multiport bridge with a buffer and a design that can boost its efficiency(a
large number of ports imply less traffic) and performance.
• A switch is a data link layer device.
• The switch can perform error checking before forwarding data, that makes it very
efficient as it does not forward packets that have errors and forward good packets
selectively to correct port only.
• In other words, switch divides collision domain of hosts, but broadcast domain remains
same.
BASIC COMPONENTS OF COMPUTER NETWORKS

• ROUTER
• A router is a device like a switch that routes data packets based on their IP
addresses.
• Router is mainly a Network Layer device.
• Routers normally connect LANs and WANs together and have a dynamically
updating routing table based on which they make decisions on routing the data
packets.
• Router divide broadcast domains of hosts connected through it.
BASIC COMPONENTS OF COMPUTER NETWORKS

• GATEWAY:
• A gateway, as the name suggests, is a passage to connect two networks together
that may work upon different networking models.
• They basically work as the messenger agents that take data from one system,
interpret it, and transfer it to another system.
• Gateways are also called protocol converters and can operate at any network layer.
• Gateways are generally more complex than switch or router.
 WHAT IS TOPOLOGY?

• Topology defines the structure of the network of how all the

components are interconnected to each other. There are two types of
topology.
BUS TOPOLOGY

• In bus topology there is a main cable and all

the devices are connected to this main cable
through drop lines.
• There is a device called tap that connects
the drop line to the main cable.
• Since all the data is transmitted over the
main cable, there is a limit of drop lines and
the distance a main cable can have.
BUS TOPOLOGY

• Advantages of bus topology

• 1. Easy installation, each cable needs to be connected with backbone cable.
2. Less cables required than Mesh and star topology
• Disadvantages of bus topology
• 1. Difficultly in fault detection.
2. Not scalable as there is a limit of how many nodes you can connect with
backbone cable.
RING TOPOLOGY

• There are two dedicated point to point

links a device has with the devices on the
either side of it.

• This structure forms a ring thus it is

known as ring topology. If a device wants
to send data to another device then it
sends the data in one direction, each
device in ring topology has a repeater, if
the received data is intended for other
device then repeater forwards this data
until the intended device receives it.
RING TOPOLOGY

• Advantages of Ring Topology

• 1. Easy to install.
2. Managing is easier as to add or remove a device from the topology only two links
are required to be changed.
• Disadvantages of Ring Topology
• 1. A link failure can fail the entire network as the signal will not travel forward due
to failure.
MESH TOPOLOGY

• In mesh topology each device is

connected to every other device on the
network through a dedicated
point-to-point link. When we say
dedicated it means that the link only
carries data for the two connected
devices only. Lets say we have n devices
in the network then each device must be
connected with (n-1) devices of the
network. Number of links in a mesh
topology of n devices would be n(n-1)/2.
MESH TOPOLOGY

• Advantages of Mesh topology

• 1. No data traffic issues as there is a dedicated link between two devices which
means the link is only available for those two devices.
2. Mesh topology is reliable and robust as failure of one link doesn’t affect other
links and the communication between other devices on the network.
3. Mesh topology is secure because there is a point to point link thus unauthorized
access is not possible.
4. Fault detection is easy.
•
MESH TOPOLOGY

• Disadvantages of Mesh topology

• 1. Amount of wires required to connected each system is tedious and headache.
2. Since each device needs to be connected with other devices, number of I/O ports
required must be huge.
STAR TOPOLOGY

• In star topology each device in the

network is connected to a central device
called hub.
• Star topology doesn’t allow direct
communication between devices, a device
must have to communicate through hub.
• If one device wants to send data to other
device, it has to first send the data to hub
and then the hub transmit that data to
the designated device.
STAR TOPOLOGY

• Advantages of Star topology

• 1. Less expensive because each device only need one I/O port and needs to be connected with hub
with one link.
2. Easier to install
3. Less amount of cables required because each device needs to be connected with the hub only.
4. Robust, if one link fails, other links will work just fine.
5. Easy fault detection because the link can be easily identified.
• Disadvantages of Star topology
• 1. If hub goes down everything goes down, none of the devices can work without hub.
2. Hub requires more resources and regular maintenance because it is the central system of star
topology.
HYBRID TOPOLOGY

• A combination of two or more topology is known as hybrid topology. For example a

combination of star and mesh topology is known as hybrid topology.
• Advantages of Hybrid topology
• 1. We can choose the topology based on the requirement for example, scalability is our
concern then we can use star topology instead of bus technology.
2. Scalable as we can further connect other computer networks with the existing networks
with different topologies.
• Disadvantages of Hybrid topology
• 1. Fault detection is difficult.
2. Installation is difficult.
3. Design is complex so maintenance is high thus expensive
HYBRID TOPOLOGY
CATEGORIES OF NETWORKS

• A computer network can be

categorized by their size.
A computer network is mainly
of four types

• LAN(Local Area Network)

• PAN(Personal Area Network)
• MAN(Metropolitan Area Network)
• WAN(Wide Area Network)
LOCAL AREA NETWORKS

• Local Area Network is a group of computers

connected to each other in a small area such as
building, office.

• LAN is used for connecting two or more personal

computers through a communication medium such
as twisted pair, coaxial cable, etc.

• It is less costly as it is built with inexpensive

hardware such as hubs, network adapters, and
ethernet cables.

• The data is transferred at an extremely faster rate

in Local Area Network.

• Local Area Network provides higher security.

PERSONAL AREA NETWORKS

• Personal Area Network is a network arranged

within an individual person, typically within a
range of 10 meters.
• Personal Area Network is used for connecting
the computer devices of personal use is
known as Personal Area Network.
• Wireless Personal Area Network: Wireless
Personal Area Network is developed by
simply using wireless technologies such as
Wi-Fi, Bluetooth. It is a low range network.
• Wired Personal Area Network: Wired
Personal Area Network is created by using
the USB.
METROPOLITAN AREA NETWORK)

• A metropolitan area network is a network

that covers a larger geographic area by
interconnecting a different LAN to form a
larger network.
• Government agencies use MAN to connect
to the citizens and private industries.
• In MAN, various LANs are connected to
each other through a telephone exchange
line.
• It has a higher range than Local Area
Network(LAN).
METROPOLITAN AREA NETWORK)

• Uses Of Metropolitan Area Network:

• MAN is used in communication between the banks in a city.
• It can be used in an Airline Reservation.
• It can be used in a college within a city.
• It can also be used for communication in the military.
WIDE AREA NETWORK

• A Wide Area Network is a network that

extends over a large geographical area
such as states or countries.
• A Wide Area Network is quite bigger
network than the LAN.
• A Wide Area Network is not limited to a
single location, but it spans over a large
geographical area through a telephone
line, fiber optic cable or satellite links.
• The internet is one of the biggest WAN
in the world.
• A Wide Area Network is widely used in
the field of Business, government, and
education.
WIDE AREA NETWORK

• Examples Of Wide Area Network:

• Mobile Broadband: A 4G network is widely used across a region or
country.
• Private network: A bank provides a private network that connects the
44 offices. This network is made by using the telephone leased line
provided by the telecom company.
INTERNETWORK

• An internetwork is defined as two or more computer network LANs or WAN or

computer network segments are connected using devices, and they are
configured by a local addressing scheme. This process is known
as internetworking.
• An interconnection between public, private, commercial, industrial, or
government computer networks can also be defined as internetworking.
• An internetworking uses the internet protocol.
• The reference model used for internetworking is Open System
Interconnection(OSI).
TYPES OF INTERNETWORKS

• Extranet: An extranet is a communication network based on the internet

protocol such as Transmission Control protocol and internet protocol. It is
used for information sharing. The access to the extranet is restricted to only
those users who have login credentials. An extranet is the lowest level of
internetworking. It can be categorized as MAN, WAN or other computer
networks. An extranet cannot have a single LAN, at least it must have one
connection to the external network.
• Intranet: An intranet is a private network based on the internet protocol
such as Transmission Control protocol and internet protocol. An intranet
belongs to an organization which is only accessible by the organization's
employee or members. The main aim of the intranet is to share the
information and resources among the organization employees. An intranet
provides the facility to work in groups and for teleconferences.
TRANSMISSION MODES

• The way in which data is transmitted from one device to another device
is known as transmission mode.
• The transmission mode is also known as the communication mode or
directional mode.
SIMPLEX MODE

• In Simplex mode, the communication is unidirectional, i.e., the data flow in

one direction
• The radio station is a simplex channel as it transmits the signal to the
listeners but never allows them to transmit back.
• Keyboard and Monitor are the examples of the simplex mode as a keyboard
can only accept the data from the user and monitor can only be used to
display the data on the screen.
• The main advantage of the simplex mode is that the full capacity of the
communication channel can be utilized during transmission.
HALF DUPLEX MODE

• In a Half-duplex channel, direction can be reversed, i.e., the station can

transmit and receive the data as well.
• Messages flow in both the directions, but not at the same time.
• The advantage of half-duplex mode, both the devices can send and receive
the data and also can utilize the entire bandwidth of the communication
channel during the transmission of data.
• The disadvantage of half-duplex mode, when one device is sending the data,
then another has to wait, this causes the delay in sending the data at the
right time.
FULL DUPLEX MODE

• In Full duplex mode, the communication is bi-directional, i.e., the data flow
in both the directions.

• Both the stations can send and receive the message simultaneously.
• The Full-duplex mode is the fastest mode of communication between
devices.
• The most common example of the full-duplex mode is a telephone network
• If there is no dedicated path exists between the devices, then the capacity of
the communication channel is divided into two parts.
 COMPUTER NETWORK MODELS

• A computer network consists software and hardware that is used to send and receive
data from one device to another. The role of hardware is to prove the physical
equipment that are required in order to send and receive data while software
defines the set of instructions that uses the hardware equipment for data
transmission. A simple transmission of data consists several steps at various layers
of computer network

• The most important computer network models are:

1. OSI Model
2. TCP/IP Model
OPEN SYSTEM INTERCONNECTION(OSI)

• OSI stands for Open System Interconnection is a

reference model that describes how information from a
software application in one computer moves through a
physical medium to the software application in another
computer.
• OSI consists of seven layers, and each layer performs a
particular network function.
• OSI model was developed by the International Organization
for Standardization (ISO) in 1984, and it is now considered
as an architectural model for the inter-computer
communications.
• OSI model divides the whole task into seven smaller and
manageable tasks. Each layer is assigned a particular task.
• Each layer is self-contained, so that task assigned to each
layer can be performed independently.
 PHYSICAL LAYER

• The lowest layer of the OSI reference model is the physical layer.
• It is responsible for the actual physical connection between the devices.
• The physical layer contains information in the form of bits. It is responsible for transmitting
individual bits from one node to the next.
• When receiving data, this layer will get the signal received and convert it into 0s and 1s and
send them to the Data Link layer, which will put the frame back together.
• Hub, Repeater, Modem, Cables are Physical Layer devices
 PHYSICAL LAYER

• Functions of a Physical layer:

• Line Configuration: It defines the way how two or more devices can be connected physically.

• Data transmission : It defines the transmission mode whether it is simplex, half-duplex or

full-duplex mode between the two devices on the network.

• Topology : It defines the way how network devices are arranged.

• Signals : It determines the type of the signal used for transmitting the information.
 DATA LINK LAYER

• This layer is responsible for the error-free transfer of data frames.

• It defines the format of the data on the network.

• It provides a reliable and efficient communication between two or more devices.

• Packet in Data Link layer is referred as Frame.
• Switch & Bridge are Data Link Layer devices.
• It is mainly responsible for the unique identification of each device that resides on a local network.

• It contains two sub-layers:

• Logical Link Control Layer
• Media Access Control Layer
 DATA LINK LAYER

• Functions of the Data-link layer

• Framing: The data link layer translates the physical's raw bit stream into packets known as Frames. The
Data link layer adds the header and trailer to the frame. The header which is added to the frame contains
the hardware destination and source address.

• Physical Addressing: The Data link layer adds a header to the frame that contains a destination address.
The frame is transmitted to the destination address mentioned in the header.

• Flow Control: Flow control is the main functionality of the Data-link layer. It is the technique through
which the constant data rate is maintained on both the sides so that no data get corrupted. It ensures
that the transmitting station such as a server with higher processing speed does not exceed the receiving
station, with lower processing speed.
 DATA LINK CONTROL

• Error Control: Error control is achieved by adding a calculated value CRC (Cyclic Redundancy
Check) that is placed to the Data link layer's trailer which is added to the message frame
before it is sent to the physical layer. If any error seems to occur, then the receiver sends the
acknowledgment for the retransmission of the corrupted frames.

• Access Control: When two or more devices are connected to the same communication
channel, then the data link layer protocols are used to determine which device has control
over the link at a given time.
 NETWORK LAYER

• Network layer works for the transmission of data from one host to the other located in
different networks.

• It also takes care of packet routing i.e. selection of the shortest path to transmit the packet,
from the number of routes available.

• The sender & receiver’s IP address are placed in the header by the network layer.
• Segment in Network layer is referred as Packet
• Network layer is implemented by networking devices such as routers.
 NETWORK LAYER

The functions of the Network layer are :

1. Routing: The network layer protocols determine which route is suitable from
source to destination. This function of network layer is known as routing.
2. Logical Addressing: In order to identify each device on internetwork uniquely,
network layer defines an addressing scheme. The sender & receiver’s IP address
are placed in the header by network layer. Such an address distinguishes each
device uniquely and universally.
 TRANSPORT LAYER

• The Transport layer is a Layer 4 ensures that messages are transmitted in the order in which
they are sent and there is no duplication of data.

• The main responsibility of the transport layer is to transfer the data completely.

• It receives the data from the upper layer and converts them into smaller units known as
segments.

• This layer can be termed as an end-to-end layer as it provides a point-to-point connection

between source and destination to deliver the data reliably.
 TRANSPORT LAYER

• Functions of Transport Layer:

• Service-point addressing: Computers run several programs simultaneously due to this reason, the
transmission of data from source to the destination not only from one computer to another computer
but also from one process to another process. The transport layer adds the header that contains the
address known as a service-point address or port address. The responsibility of the network layer is to
transmit the data from one computer to another computer and the responsibility of the transport layer
is to transmit the message to the correct process.
• Segmentation and reassembly: When the transport layer receives the message from the upper layer, it
divides the message into multiple segments, and each segment is assigned with a sequence number
that uniquely identifies each segment. When the message has arrived at the destination, then the
transport layer reassembles the message based on their sequence numbers.
 TRANSPORT LAYER

• Connection control: Transport layer provides two services Connection-oriented service and
connectionless service. A connectionless service treats each segment as an individual packet,
and they all travel in different routes to reach the destination. A connection-oriented service
makes a connection with the transport layer at the destination machine before delivering the
packets. In connection-oriented service, all the packets travel in the single route.

• Flow control: The transport layer also responsible for flow control but it is performed
end-to-end rather than across a single link.

• Error control: The transport layer is also responsible for Error control. Error control is
performed end-to-end rather than across the single link. The sender transport layer ensures
that message reach at the destination without any error.
 SESSION LAYER

• This layer is responsible for establishment of connection, maintenance of sessions,

authentication and also ensures security.
• The functions of the session layer are :
1. Session establishment, maintenance and termination: The layer allows the two
processes to establish, use and terminate a connection.
2. Synchronization : This layer allows a process to add checkpoints which are considered
as synchronization points into the data. These synchronization point help to identify the
error so that the data is re-synchronized properly, and ends of the messages are not cut
prematurely and data loss is avoided.
3. Dialog Controller : The session layer allows two systems to start communication with
each other in half-duplex or full-duplex.
PRESENTATION LAYER

• A Presentation layer is mainly concerned with the syntax and semantics of the information
exchanged between the two systems.

• It acts as a data translator for a network.

• This layer is a part of the operating system that converts the data from one presentation
format to another format.

• The Presentation layer is also known as the syntax layer.

PRESENTATION LAYER

• Functions of Presentation layer:

• Translation: The processes in two systems exchange the information in the form of character strings,
numbers and so on. Different computers use different encoding methods, the presentation layer
handles the interoperability between the different encoding methods. It converts the data from
sender-dependent format into a common format and changes the common format into
receiver-dependent format at the receiving end.

• Encryption: Encryption is needed to maintain privacy. Encryption is a process of converting the

sender-transmitted information into another form and sends the resulting message over the network.

• Compression: Data compression is a process of compressing the data, i.e., it reduces the number of bits
to be transmitted. Data compression is very important in multimedia such as text, audio, video.
 APPLICATION LAYER

• At the very top of the OSI Reference Model stack of layers, we find Application
layer which is implemented by the network applications.
• These applications produce the data, which has to be transferred over the
network.
• This layer also serves as a window for the application services to access the
network and for displaying the received information to the user.
Ex: Application – Browsers, Skype Messenger etc.
• Application Layer is also called as Desktop Layer.
 APPLICATION LAYER

• Functions of Application layer:

• File transfer, access, and management (FTAM): An application layer allows a user to access
the files in a remote computer, to retrieve the files from a computer and to manage the files
in a remote computer.

• Mail services: An application layer provides the facility for email forwarding and storage.
• Directory services: An application provides the distributed database sources and is used to
provide that global information about various objects.
TCP/IP MODEL
 NETWORK ACCESS LAYER

• This layer corresponds to the combination of Data Link Layer and Physical Layer of
the OSI model.
• It looks out for hardware addressing and the protocols present in this layer allows
for the physical transmission of data.
 INTERNET LAYER

• This layer parallels the functions of OSI’s Network layer. It defines the protocols which are
responsible for logical transmission of data over the entire network. The main protocols residing at
this layer are :
1. IP – stands for Internet Protocol and it is responsible for delivering packets from the source host to
the destination host by looking at the IP addresses in the packet headers. IP has 2 versions:
IPv4 and IPv6. IPv4 is the one that most of the websites are using currently. But IPv6 is growing as
the number of IPv4 addresses are limited in number when compared to the number of users.
2. ICMP – stands for Internet Control Message Protocol. It is encapsulated within IP datagrams and is
responsible for providing hosts with information about network problems.
3. ARP – stands for Address Resolution Protocol. Its job is to find the hardware address of a host from
a known IP address. ARP has several types: Reverse ARP, Proxy ARP, Gratuitous ARP and Inverse
ARP.
 TRANSPORT LAYER

• This layer is analogous to the transport layer of the OSI model.

• It is responsible for end-to-end communication and error-free delivery of data.
• It shields the upper-layer applications from the complexities of data.
• The two main protocols present in this layer are
• Transmission Control Protocol (TCP)
• User Datagram Protocol (UDP)
 APPLICATION LAYER

• This layer performs the functions of top three layers of the OSI model: Application,
Presentation and Session Layer.
• It is responsible for node-to-node communication and controls user-interface
specifications.
• Some of the protocols present in this layer are: HTTP, HTTPS, FTP, TFTP, Telnet,
SSH, SMTP, SNMP, NTP, DNS, DHCP, NFS, X Window, LPD.
PHYSICAL LAYER
 DIGITAL TRANSMISSION

• Data can be represented either in analog or digital form. The computers used the
digital form to store the information. Therefore, the data needs to be converted in
digital form so that it can be used by a computer.
DIGITAL TO DIGITAL CONVERSION

• Digital-to-digital encoding is the representation of digital information by a digital

signal. When binary 1s and 0s generated by the computer are translated into a
sequence of voltage pulses that can be propagated over a wire, this process is
known as digital-to-digital encoding.
 UNIPOLAR

• Digital transmission system sends the voltage pulses over the medium
link such as wire or cable.

• In most types of encoding, one voltage level represents 0, and another

voltage level represents 1.

• The polarity of each pulse determines whether it is positive or negative.

• In this, 1s are represented as a positive value and 0s are represented as
a zero value.

• Unipolar encoding is simpler and inexpensive to implement.

 POLAR

• Polar encoding is an encoding scheme

that uses two voltage levels: one is
positive, and another is negative.
NON RETURN TO ZERO(NRZ)

• In NRZ encoding, the level of the signal can be represented either positive or negative.
• The two most common methods used in NRZ are:
• NRZ-L: In NRZ-L encoding, the level of the signal depends on the type of the bit that it
represents. If a bit is 0 or 1, then their voltages will be positive and negative respectively.
Therefore, we can say that the level of the signal is dependent on the state of the bit.
• NRZ-I: NRZ-I is an inversion of the voltage level that represents 1 bit. In the NRZ-I
encoding scheme, a transition occurs between the positive and negative voltage that
represents 1 bit. In this scheme, 0 bit represents no change and 1 bit represents a change
in voltage level.
 RETURN TO ZERO(RZ)

• There must be a signal change for each bit to

achieve synchronization. However, to change
with every bit, we need to have three values:
positive, negative and zero.
• RZ is an encoding scheme that provides
three values, positive voltage represents 1,
the negative voltage represents 0, and zero
voltage represents none.
• In the RZ scheme, halfway through each
interval, the signal returns to zero.
• In RZ scheme, 1 bit is represented by
positive-to-zero and 0 bit is represented by
negative-to-zero.
 BIPHASE

• Biphase is an encoding scheme in which signal changes at the middle of the bit
interval but does not return to zero. Biphase encoding is implemented in two
different ways:
• Manchester
• It changes the signal at the middle of the bit interval but does not return to zero for
synchronization.
• In Manchester encoding, a negative-to-positive transition represents binary 1, and
positive-to-negative transition represents 0.
 BIPHASE

• Differential Manchester
• It changes the signal at the middle of
the bit interval for synchronization,
but the presence or absence of the
transition at the beginning of the
interval determines the bit. A
transition means binary 0 and no
transition means binary 1.
 BIPOLAR

• Bipolar encoding scheme represents three voltage levels: positive, negative, and
zero.
• In Bipolar encoding scheme, zero level represents binary 0, and binary 1 is
represented by alternating positive and negative voltages.
• If the first 1 bit is represented by positive amplitude, then the second 1 bit is
represented by negative voltage, third 1 bit is represented by the positive amplitude
and so on. This alternation can also occur even when the 1bits are not consecutive.
ANALOG TO DIGITAL CONVERSION

• When an analog signal is digitalized, this is called an analog-to-digital conversion.

• In analog-to-digital conversion, the information contained in a continuous wave form is
converted in digital pulses
• PAM(Pulse Amplitude Modulation)
• PAM is a technique used in analog-to-digital conversion.
• PAM technique takes an analog signal, samples it, and generates a series of digital pulses
based on the result of sampling where sampling means measuring the amplitude of a
signal at equal intervals.
• PAM technique is not useful in data communication as it translates the original wave form
into pulses, but these pulses are not digital. To make them digital, PAM technique is
modified to PCM technique.
ANALOG TO DIGITAL CONVERSION

• Pulse Code Modulation(PCM)

• PCM technique is used to modify the pulses created by PAM to form a digital signal. To
achieve this, PCM quantizes PAM pulses. Quantization is a process of assigning integral
values in a specific range to sampled instances.
• PCM is made of four separate processes: PAM, quantization, binary encoding, and
digital-to-digital encoding.
 MULTIPLEXER

• Multiplexing is a technique used to combine and send the multiple data streams
over a single medium.
• The process of combining the data streams is known as multiplexing and hardware
used for multiplexing is known as a multiplexer.
• Multiplexing is achieved by using a device called Multiplexer (MUX) that combines n
input lines to generate a single output line. Multiplexing follows many-to-one, i.e., n
input lines and one output line.
• Demultiplexing is achieved by using a device called Demultiplexer (DEMUX)
available at the receiving end. DEMUX separates a signal into its component signals
(one input and n outputs).
 NEED OF MULTIPLEXER

• The transmission medium is used to send the signal from sender to receiver. The
medium can only have one signal at a time.
• If there are multiple signals to share one medium, then the medium must be divided
in such a way that each signal is given some portion of the available bandwidth. For
example: If there are 10 signals and bandwidth of medium is100 units, then the 10
unit is shared by each signal.
• When multiple signals share the common medium, there is a possibility of collision.
Multiplexing concept is used to avoid such collision.
MULTIPLEXING AND DEMULTIPLEXING

• The 'n' input lines are transmitted through a

multiplexer and multiplexer combines the
signals to form a composite signal.
• The composite signal is passed through a
Demultiplexer and demultiplexer separates a
signal to component signals and transfers
them to their respective destinations.
• More than one signal can be sent over a
single medium.
• The bandwidth of a medium can be utilized
effectively
MULTIPLEXING TECHNIQUES
 FREQUENCY DIVISION MULTIPLEXING

• It is an analog technique.
• Frequency Division Multiplexing is a technique in which the available
bandwidth of a single transmission medium is subdivided into several
channels.
• The main aim of the FDM is to subdivide the available bandwidth into
different frequency channels and allocate them to different devices.
• Using the modulation technique, the input signals are transmitted into
frequency bands and then combined to form a composite signal.
• FDM is mainly used in radio broadcasts and TV networks.
 FDK(FREQUENCY DIVISION MULTIPLEXING)

• Advantages Of FDM:
• FDM is used for analog signals.
• FDM process is very simple and easy modulation.
• A Large number of signals can be sent through an FDM simultaneously.
• It does not require any synchronization between sender and receiver.
• Disadvantages Of FDM:
• FDM technique is used only when low-speed channels are required.
• It suffers the problem of crosstalk.
• A Large number of modulators are required.
• It requires a high bandwidth channel.
 WAVE DIVISION MULTIPLEXING(WDM)

• Wavelength Division Multiplexing is same as FDM except that the optical signals are
transmitted through the fiber optic cable.
• WDM is used on fiber optics to increase the capacity of a single fiber.
• It is used to utilize the high data rate capability of fiber optic cable.
• It is an analog multiplexing technique.
• Optical signals from different source are combined to form a wider band of light
with the help of multiplexer.
 WAVE DIVISION MULTIPLEXING(WDM)

• At the receiving end, demultiplexer separates

the signals to transmit them to their respective
destinations.
• Multiplexing and Demultiplexing can be
achieved by using a prism.
• Prism can perform a role of multiplexer by
combining the various optical signals to form a
composite signal, and the composite signal is
transmitted through a fiber optical cable.
• Prism also performs a reverse operation, i.e.,
demultiplexing the signal.
 TIME DIVISION MULTIPLEXING

• It is a digital technique.

• In Frequency Division Multiplexing Technique, all signals operate at the same time with
different frequency, but in case of Time Division Multiplexing technique, all signals operate
at the same frequency with different time.
• In Time Division Multiplexing technique, the total time available in the channel is
distributed among different users. Therefore, each user is allocated with different time
interval known as a Time slot at which data is to be transmitted by the sender.

• A user takes control of the channel for a fixed amount of time.

 TIME DIVISION MULTIPLEXING

• In Time Division Multiplexing technique, data is not transmitted simultaneously rather the
data is transmitted one-by-one.
• In TDM, the signal is transmitted in the form of frames. Frames contain a cycle of time slots
in which each frame contains one or more slots dedicated to each user.
• It can be used to multiplex both digital and analog signals but mainly used to multiplex
digital signals.
• There are two types of TDM:
• Synchronous TDM
• Asynchronous TDM
 TIME DIVISION MULTIPLEXING

• A Synchronous TDM is a technique in which time slot is preassigned to every device.

• In Synchronous TDM, each device is given some time slot irrespective of the fact
that the device contains the data or not.
• If the device does not have any data, then the slot will remain empty.
• An asynchronous TDM technique dynamically allocates the time slots to the devices.
• In Asynchronous TDM, total speed of the input lines can be greater than the capacity
of the channel