Course Outline

RONGO UNIVERSITY
SCHOOL OF EDUCATION

DEPARTMENT OF MANAGEMENT AND FOUNDATIONS

COURSE OUTLINE

COURSE CODE: EDU 300 TITLE: INTRODUCTION TO EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH

YEAR: 2 SEMESTER: 1 UNITS: 3

LECTURER: DR. RODAH ODHIAMBO Tel: 0723823561

Email [email protected]/ [email protected]

Academic Year:
AIM To enable learners understand and appreciate the
importance of research and give a report of their
findings
COURSE PURPOSE To introduce learners to research in education

COURSE OBJECTIVES 1. Introduce learners to research: types of

research: its typologies and data collection
techniques
2. To develop in the learners an understanding of
terminologies used in research
3. Outline various sources of information
4. Enable learners to evaluate research in
education
5. To equip learners with the skills to write a
research proposal and a research report

EXPECTED LEARNING OUTCOME 1. Define term research, highlight the importance

of research; identify types of research
2. Develop in learners an understanding of basic
terminologies used in research
3. Identify research problems, variables, establish
research background, state the objectives of the

i
 study, research questions and the research
problem
4. Achieve a basic understanding of rationale,
justification, scope, limitations of a research
study, theoretical framework, and definition of
terms
5. Critically evaluate the importance of
conducting literature review
6. Achieve a basic understanding on skills of
writing the methodology section in educational
research
7. Write a research proposal and research report

COURSE DESCRIPTION Define the term research, highlight the importance of

research; identify types of research, develop in learners
an understanding of basic terminologies used in
research
Identify research problems, variables, establish
research background state the objectives of the
study, research questions and the research problem,
achieve a basic understanding of rationale,
justification, scope, limitations of a research study,
theoretical framework, and definition of terms.
Critically evaluate the importance of conducting
literature review, achieve a basic understanding on
skills of writing the methodology section in
educational research and to write a research proposal
and research report
COURSE CONTENT/ TOPICS

WEEK Lecture Topic

1 1 DEFINITION, IMPORTANCE AND CHARACTERISTICS OF

RESEARCH

1.1 Define the term research,

1.2 Importance of research
1.3 Characteristics of research

2 2 TYPES OF RESEARCH

2.1 Quantitative research

2.2 Types of quantitative research
2.3 Ways of conducting qualitative research
2.4 Characteristics of qualitative research
2.5 Comparison of quantitative and qualitative research

ii
 3 3 3.0 TYPES OF RESEARCH AND RESEARCH
PROBLEM

3.1 Basic research

3.2 Applied research
3.3 Comparison of basic and applied research
3.4 Research problem

4 CAT 1

4 VARIABLES, BACKGROUND, OBJECTIVES

AND RESEARCH QUESTIONS
5
5.1 Types of variables
5.2 Background to the study
5.3 objectives of the study
5.4 research questions

6 5 STAMENT OF THE PROBLEM, SCOPE,

LIMITATION, THEORATICAL FRAMEWORK AND
DEFINITION OF TERMS

6.1 Statement of the problem

6.2 Scope the study,
6.3 Limitations of a research study,
6.4 theoretical framework,
6.5 Definition of terms.

7 6 LITERATURE REVIEW

7.1 Meaning of literature review

7.2 Importance of literature review
7.3 Qualities of a good literature review

8 CAT 2

9 7 RESEARCH DESIGN

7. 1 Research design
7.2 Types of research design
7.3 Factors to consider in the choice of a research
design

10. &11 8&9 SAMPLE AND SAMPLING TECHNIQUES

iii
 10.1. Probability sampling techniques
10.2. Non probability sampling techniques
10.3 Sample frame

12 DATA COLLECTION INSTRUMENTS

10 11.1 Observation
11.2 Interview schedule
11.3 Questionnaire

13 11 11.2 Piloting of research instruments

11.3 Purpose of piloting
11.4 Measuring of reliability
11.5 Types of validity
11.6 Data analysis
11.7 Organization and management of data

14&15 12&13 RESEARCH REPORT

13.1 Types of reports

13.2 Steps involved in report writing
13.3 Content of research report
13.4 Interpretation of results
13.5Tenses used in report writing

TEACHING METHODOLOGIES Lectures (face to face and online), Discussions,

Assignments, Tutorials, Class Presentations, Handouts,
Internet Research.

EVALUATION CAT 1, CAT 2 and assignments 30%

End of semester exam 70%

TOTAL 100%

INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS Textbooks, whiteboard, LCD, Chalkboard, handouts

iv
REFERENCES

Creswell, J. W. (2012). Educational research: planning, conducting and evaluating quantitative and
qualitative research. (4th ed.). Boston: Pearson Education.

John, B. Steve, S. & Patricia, O. (2011): Research Methodology in Political Science. Oxford: Oxford
University Press

Kombo, D. K. & Tromp, D. L. A. (2006). Proposal and thesis writing: An introduction. Nairobi:
Pauline Publications Africa.

Kothari, C. (2004): Research Methodology: Methods and Techniques. New Delhi: WishwaPriskashan.

Mugenda, A. (2013). Qualitative Research Methods: Introduction. Nairobi: ARTS Press

Mukherji, P. N. (2000): Methodology in Social Research: Dilemmas and Perspsctives. New Delhi:
Sage Publication.

Nachmias, C.F and Nachiamas, D. (1996): Research Methods in the Social Sciences. (5th Edition).
London: Arnold Publishers.

Nachmias, C.F and Nachiamas, D. (1996): Research Methods in the Social Sciences. (5th Edition).
London: Arnold Publishers.

Walizer, M. and Wiener, P. L. (1999): Research Methods and Analysis: Searching for Relationships.
New York: Harper and Row Publishers.

v
LECTURE ONE: INTRODUCTION TO RESEARCH
1.1 Introduction
This lecture will focus on the definition of the term research. Further it will describe the
importance and characteristics of research.
1.2 Objectives
By the end of this lecture, the learner should be able to;

1. Define the term research

2. Highlight the importance of conducting research
3. Identify Characteristics of research

1.3 Definition of Research

It is the science of seeking, organizing, analyzing and interpreting data.
Keringer(1993) defined scientific research as systematic control, empirical and critical
investigation of hypothetical propositions about the presumed relations among natural
phenomena.
According to Bless and Achola (1988) scientific research is a systematic investigation of a
question, a phenomenon, and or a problem following some principle
According to UNESCO (2015) and Orodho (2009, 2012), research can be identified as a set of
systematic and investigative activities designed to survey, observe and clearly potray the status
quo of education and other social settings. These activities also bring out the need and way of
working towards a continuous improvement of the educational or social process (Aarkrong,
2011)

6
Importance of Research in education

A Research helps teachers, sociologists and other

educators to know the process of learning by helping
test theoretical concepts in problem situations

b) Knowledge generated in research can be applied for

improvement of classroom practice

It helps to improve practices and also helps to improve

those individuals who really wish to bring improvements
in those practices

c) It is a systematic analysis

It gives a systematic analysis of the topic. The objectives

are also clearly defined in the research process. One
needs to study in a systematic manner and this is exactly
what the research work provides on individuals

d) It leads to great observation

Research helps in coming to one conclusion, that

conclusion can be achieved by observing the facts and
figures in-depth

e) It results in predictions, theories and many principles

The researcher can come up with valid predictions,

theories and great results through observation,
hypothesis and the research queries. This helps a
researcher to come up with great conclusions

f) It develops a new understanding related to learning

and teaching process

7
Educators are benefited through various researchers as it
helps to develop greater understanding related to
teaching and learning

g) Helps in initiating action

The research done should result in performing some

action or practice so that research should aim to produce
the highest result which complements the study. It helps
one to perform well and also sheds away all the problems

Helps in decision making

Good research requires proper time and effort. It

prepares the person for taking essential decisions which
further necessitates the same from all the participants
involved in the process

It brings Consistency

At work when research is done with full in depth analysis,

it tends to be right and accurate. The process of research
help bring consistency in the work which lessons flows
and mistakes is final outcome of the process

It motivates others

It builds patience as it is a lengthy process and in order to

get fruitful results you need to build patience slowly then
you will be able to motivate others.

Accurate research assists in enhancing the readers

knowledge which might not be possible for any other
person.

8
Through research teachers are able to develop or
generate knowledge i.e one can establish whether girls
are articulate in languages than boys. A research in this
area would produce generalization of principles upon
which ideas can be based. This kind of research is
referred to as fundamental research.

Helps to improve the process of learning by helping test

theoretical concepts in problem situations i.e teaching
through a student centered approach or teacher centred
approach or a mixture of both approaches and then find
out which among the approaches enhances better
academic performance. This constitutes applied research.

Knowledge generated in research can be applied for the

improvement of classroom practice i.e policy makers can
utilize recommendations by practitioners in curriculum
developments and come up with a new curriculum in
areas where it is lacking. This constitutes action research.
Basic characteristics of research
a) A systematic approach must be followed for accurate data. Rules and procedures are an
integral part of the process that set the objective. Researchers need to practice ethics and
a code of conduct while making observations or drawing conclusions.
b) Research is based on logical reasoning and involves both inductive and deductive
methods.
c) The data or knowledge that is derived is in real time from actual observations in natural
settings.
d) There is an in-depth analysis of all data collected so that there are no anomalies
associated with it.
e) Research creates a path for generating new questions. Existing data helps create more
opportunities for research.
f) Research is analytical in nature. It makes use of all the available data so that there is no
ambiguity in inference.
g) Accuracy is one of the most important aspects of research. The information that is
obtained should be accurate and true to its nature. For example, laboratories provide a
controlled environment to collect data. Accuracy is measured in the instruments used, the
calibrations of instruments or tools, and the final result of the experiment.
There are 4 types of research knowledge in this case i.e

9
 I. Description
It involves the description of natural or human made phenomenon
II. Prediction
This is the ability to predict or interpret or anticipate a phenomenon that will
occur at time Y from information available at an earlier time Y
III. Explanation
This type subsumes the other three as the researcher can explain a set of
phenomena meaning he/she can describe, predict and then control the
phenomenon with a high level certainty and accuracy

Summary
The lecture has covered the meaning of research, importance of conducting research and
characteristics of research
Review questions
1. Explain what the term research means
2. Explain why research is important in education
3. Identify characteristics of research

Activity

Further reading

Bhattacherjee, A. (2012). Social Science Research: Principles, Methods, and Practices (2 nd ed.).
Florida: University of South Florida.

Kombo, D. K. & Tromp, D. L. A. (2006). Proposal and thesis writing: An introduction. Nairobi:
Pauline Publications Africa.

Kothari, C. (2004): Research Methodology: Methods and Techniques. New Delhi:

WishwaPriskashan.

Mugenda, A. (2013). Qualitative Research Methods: Introduction. Nairobi: ARTS Press

LECTURE TWO: TYPES OF RESEARCH

2.1 Introduction
This lecture will focus on the types of research. Further it will describe the characteristics of both
qualitative and quantitative research and give a comparison of the two types of research

10
2.2 Objectives
By the end of this lecture, the learner should be able to identify;
1. Identify types of quantitative research
2. Explain how to conduct qualitative research
3. Outline qualities of qualitative research
4. Give a comparison between quantitative and qualitative research methods

2.3 Qualitative Research Methods

Are normally used when researchers want to obtain a large body
of data or to perform statistical analysis in order to produce
results that can be generalized to the larger population. Data
collection tools include questionnaire, and achievement tests

Main features of Quantitative Research

 Quantitative data yields data that are quantifiable. It
normally seeks to know the frequencies of occurrence of an
event and percentage of people involved
 They require large samples of individuals
 Quantitative researchers tend to analyze data deductively

Types of quantitative research

 Descriptive research
It is concerned with the conditions of relationships that exist. Such
methods are designed to investigate the current status and nature of
the phenomenon such as discipline in schools. There are many
different types of descriptive research which include survey,
evaluation, developmental, case study, and correlational studies.

11
 Survey – Is used to gather data from a large number of samples at a
particular time so as to describe the nature of the problem being
investigated
There are many ways of conducting surveys namely
1. Longitudinal- In which the researcher uses the same people at
different points in time for example 1992, 1994, 1996 etc.
2. Cross-sectional survey- In which the researcher uses different
categories of people at the same time for example boys, girls,
teachers, peasants at the same time i.e 2013
3. Trend survey- In which the researcher uses different people at
different points in time i.e.
- 1995 – traders in Nakuru
- 1996 – teachers in Nakuru
- `1997 – boys in Nakuru
4. Panel survey In which the researcher gathers information from
people through debate or public discussion i.e the Kenya
constitutional commission
 Development survey – This is a type of descriptive method which
attempts to establish the pattern of changes of a certain
phenomenon such of behaviour of students in form 1-4. There are
two ways of conducting survey research i.e.
1. Longitudinal - in which data is obtained from the same people at
different points in time such as 1990, 1992, 1994
2. Cross- sectional- In which the researcher uses subjects of
different age groups at the same time. Fr example take students
who are 10, 15, 20 etc
 Correlational studies- This type of method is used to establish the
relationship among phenomenon so as to describe, predict or
control their occurrences. For instance, the relationship between
religion and party. This method of research is interested in finding
out if there is a relationship, the magnitude and the direction of the
relationship between two or more variables. The nature of relation

12
 can be determined by co-efficient of correlation which ranges from
low to very high. This method can also be used to predict trends in
the future
There are many types of correlation e.g
1. Simple correlation- Determines the degree of relationship two
variables
2. Multiple correlation – Determines the degree of relationship
between two of more variables
3. Partial correlation – Aims at establishing the degree of relationship
between variables after the influence of the third has been
controlled or partialled out
 Casual comparative (ex-post facto) – This method is used to
determine the cause or consequences that exist between variables
by observing an existing condition or state of affairs and such back
in time for the plausible causal factors. It is the method in which
the independent variables have already occurred and start with
observation of dependent variables and able to select, control or
manipulate

2.4. Qualitative Research Methods

According to Miles and Hubberman (1994) when a study is
qualitative, it means the data to be obtained are not ordinarily
expressed in numerical terms, description is emphasized.
It explores attitudes, behaviours and experiences through such
methods as interviews or focus groups
It attempts to get an in-depth opinion from participants.
As it is attitudes, behaviours and experiences which are important,
fewer people take part in the research but the contact with these
people tends to last a lot longer.

13
Under the umbrella of qualitative research, there are many different
methodologies.
Qualitative research uses data which is descriptive in nature. Tools
that can be used in collecting qualitative data also include
observation. Document analysis and analyzing participant products
such as journals, diaries images etc.
Qualitative research can be conducted through:
 Observation – data can be obtained by observing how
many things are, for example discipline during break time.
 Case study – sometimes we obtain data by studying one
individual or one set i.e may be Rongo University, Limuru
girls alone. Such methods involve a detailed study
 Documentation – This method involves deriving
information by carefully studying written documents, or
visual information from documents. These could be text
books, newspapers, articles, speeches, advertisements,
pictures etc.
 Historical – This method involves studying information
about past events such as 1966 free education. Historical
information can be obtained primary sources like those
who witnessed the event and secondary sources like who
did not witness the event but heard about it through
reading from text books, newspapers and hearing stories.
It deals with data that already exists. It can both be
qualitative and qualitative
Four major factors that a researcher historical research
should consider
 Knowledge and competence of the source
 Time lag
 Bias and motive of the source
 Consistency of information
14
  Ethnographic research – It involve interacting with the participants
in their real life situations for a long time ‘becoming part of them.
It involves participation, talking and doing things
 Simulation (Role play) – This method involves participants acting
certain roles such as being chief, environmentalist etc. Information
is then coded and inferences obtained.
2.5 Characteristics of Qualitative Research
1. Provides description and accounts of the processes of social
interaction in a natural setting. Qualitative researches are more
interested in describing the process than outcomes
2. It aims at generating theories and hypothesis from the data that
emerge. It does not aim at testing pre-conceived hypothesis. It
begins with specific observations an builts towards general
patterns
3. Uses observational techniques and interview method on small
samples of target groups to gain in-depth understanding of a
programmed or educational activity
4. Qualitative researches are purposive sampling
5. Researches using qualitative research method strive to
understand the programme, project or situations as a whole
6. Qualitative research yields data that are not readily quantifiable
in statistical analysis
7. Qualitative information describes what the social event or social
artifact is like and gives an indication of why it is the way it is
8. Qualitative researches analyze data deductively

2.6 Comparing quantitative and qualitative research methods

Similarity

15
 a. Both methods use observation as their tool of sampling is done and
data must be authentic

DIFFERENCES

QUANTITATIVE QUALITATIVE

1. Information is numerical 1. Information is descriptive

2. Tools are usually structured 2. Tools usually unstructured
3. Generalization of information 3, Concerned with the individual
4. Possible with one tool 4. Better with many tools
5. Artificial setting 5. Natural setting
6. Concerned with product 6. Concerned with product and process
7. Deductive analysis of data 7. Inductive analysis of data
8. Sample is key instrument 8. Researcher is fundamental
9. Interpretation done according to researcher 9. Interpretation done according to
participant
10. Summarized picture 10. holistic picture
11. Understand information from researchers interpretation 11. Understand behavior from
inside
Perspective lived
12. Objective information 12. Uses emergent design

Review questions
1. Identify types of quantitative research
2. Explain how to conduct qualitative research
3. Outline qualities of qualitative research
4. Give a comparison between quantitative and qualitative research

Summary
The lecture has covered the types of research, how to conduct qualitative
research, qualities of qualitative research and compared qualitative and
quantitative research methods

16
Further reading

1. Creswell, J. W. (2012). Educational research: planning, conducting and

evaluating quantitative and qualitative research. (4 th ed.). Boston: Pearson
Education.
2. John, B. Steve, S. & Patricia, O. (2011): Research Methodology in Political
Science. Oxford: Oxford University Press
3. Kombo, D. K. & Tromp, D. L. A. (2006). Proposal and thesis writing: An
introduction. Nairobi: Pauline Publications Africa.
4. Creswell, J. W. (2012). Educational research: planning, conducting and
evaluating quantitative and qualitative research. (4 th ed.). Boston: Pearson
Education.
5. John, B. Steve, S. & Patricia, O. (2011): Research Methodology in Political
Science. Oxford: Oxford University Press
6. Kombo, D. K. & Tromp, D. L. A. (2006). Proposal and thesis writing: An
introduction. Nairobi: Pauline Publications Africa.

LECTURE THREE; TYPES OF RESEARCH AND RESEARCH PROBLEM

3.1 Introduction
This lecture will focus on basic and applied research
3.2 Objectives
By the end of this lesson, the learner should be able to describe:
1.Basic research
2. Applied research
3. Research problem

3.3 Basic Research

- It is the research conducted for the sake of generating and expanding knowledge.
- Such kind of research attempts to explain and describe the status of things i.e if a
researcher wants to find out about administrative structure of schools
- It is driven purely by curiosity and a desire to expand knowledge
-This type of research enriches our understanding of the world around us
- It focuses on advancing scientific knowledge for the complete understanding of a topic
or certain natural phenomenon, primarily in the natural sciences

17
 - It is completely the theoratical, that focuses on basic principles and testing theories
- It deals with generalization and formulation of theory about human behavior.
- It is aligned towards collecting information that has universal applicability. Therefore,
basic research helps in adding new knowledge to the already existing knowledge

3.4. Applied Research

It is research that encompasses real life application of the natural science.
- It is directed towards providing a solution to specific problem
- It is a research that can be applied for real life situations.
- It studies a particular set of circumstances so as to relate the results to its
corresponding circumstances
3.5 Key Differences Between Basic and Applied Reseach
 Basic research can be explained research that tries to expand the already existing
scientific knowledge base while applied is used to mean the scientific study that is
helpful in solving real life problems
 While basic research is purely theoretical, applied research has a practical
approach
 The applicability of basic research is greater than the applied research in the sense
that the former is universally applicable whereas the latter can be applied only to
the specific problem for which it was carried out
 The primary concern of basic research is to develop scientific knowledge and
predictions while in applied research it stresses on the development of technology
with the help of basic science
The fundamental goal of basic research is to add some knowledge to the already existing
one while applied research is directed towards finding a solution to the problem under
consideration

3.6 Research Problem

It is a statement about an area of concern, a condition to be improved, a difficulty to be
eliminated or a troubling question that exists in a scholarly literature, in theory or in
practice that points to the need for meaningful understanding and deliberate investigation.
It is a perplexing situation translated into a series of questions that help to determine the
direction òf the subsequent research. It is an explicit statement to be undertaken

In some social science disciplines the research problem is typically posed in the form of
a question

18
 A research problem is a specific issue, difficulty, contradiction or gap in knowledge that a
researcher will aim to address in his research

3.7 Factors to consider when selecting research problem

1. Bear in mind some of the possible outcome of the research effort in preparing you for
your profession i. e a student who plans to be a professional in guidance and
counselling will profit a lot from a research in an area such as child development
2. The research project would provide one with an opportunity to do significant
independent work in a problem area that will better prepare one for his or her
professional work and will incidentally make one a more desirable prospect for
employment
3. A topic you are curious about
Choose a research topic that you know a little about but still you have a quest to know
more about it. If you are choosing a research topic that you already know everything
you will bring up everything that you already knew onto a piece of paper. This is not
the aim of writing a research paper. Your research paper is your journey to know the
answers to a question that you are curious about.
4. A topic that interests you
Choose a topic that seems interesting to you this is very obvious. If you do not have
any interest in a topic you will not be able to do it in the best possible manner. Even
professionals and researchers in advance level conduct research on topics that they
are curious about. They do not take any random question and start a research on it.
Your interest in the topic means that you will happily work and have better end result.

To know what interests you, you should consider over the course of studies what
topics did you study with passion. Ask yourself what are the most interesting topics in
your course that you want to explore. Apart from your interest it is also a good idea to
think that the topic you have chosen is one that interests students in your class.
Having interest in the topic you are studying is important but the topic should be still
objective, directional and researchable.
5. A topic that is manageable

19
 Every researcher has limited resources, especially, time and the research project
should finish before the deadline. Choose a topic that you can easily justify within the
given time frame. Oftentimes delay in the submission of research makes it hard for
the student to get their degree. Sometimes our interest in a topic drives us to select a
topic that is hard to manage in available resources. If you select a topic that is very
interesting and inspiring to you, you should narrow it down so that it is workable.
6. A topic that is significant
Ask yourself what change the research on your chosen topic can bring to the world
around you. Your preference should be a topic that can solve some problem in real
life. Everyone enjoys reading a research paper that has a lot of practical implications.
Such topics are all time favorites of the teachers as well as other readers. A significant
topic is the best topic to do in research. However, this does not mean that you can
choose any topic that promises a solution. There are sometimes such topics that are
very engaging, promising, and have significance but you cannot manage them in the
given time. So this should be your secondary preference when writing a research
paper as a student.
7. Avoid over-exhausted topics
Do not get compelled by popular topics that have been over exhausted. Popular topics
have a lot of information available that you can quote in your research paper. On the
other hand, popular topics do not catch the attention of the teachers and the readers. If
you choose such topic you might end up writing duplicate content even if you did not
aim to do so.
8. A topic that is challenging
Some people enjoy writing on challenging topics that are also demanding. Picking a
topic that is challenging can be daunting as it requires more of your resources. Select
a topic that presents good challenge but weigh available literature on that topic so that
you do not have problems later. You are bound by the time requirement so select if it
is appropriate for you.
9. Availability of sources
There should have to have enough sources available so that you can quote in your
research paper. Selecting a topic on which there is not any source material available

20
 can make your writing very difficult. Ample reference material is necessary as you
will be at ease to finish the research on time. You can ask the librarian about the
source material before you finalize your topic. It is easier to make any changes to the
topic you have selected but as you have started writing the research paper it will be
difficult to change the topic.
10. Finally, make sure that you narrow down your topic several times before you have the
final topic that you want to write a research paper. Make any changes at this step and
you will thank yourself later. Ask the help of your teacher if you are not sure whether
the topic you have chosen will work or not.

3.8 Locating research problem

Locating a research problem goes through the cycle of sensing, selecting, shifting and
stating the problem
a. Sensing; This involves getting started to identify the knowledge, literature or the
part of idea you want to focus, aiming at locating your research problem
b. Selecting; This involves identifying the real aspects you would wish to investigate
c. Shifting; At this stage the researcher looks at the selected issues keenly. Out of
those issues, there are a number of problems that can be identified. At this point
you need to filter these problems to come up with the specific problem you wish
to study
d. Stating the problem; At this point you state the problem. One would say “the
central problem of this study is that the critical factors influencing students
performance in science in Rongo Sub-county”

Summary

The lecture has covered basic research, applied research, research problem, factors to consider in
selecting a research problem and how to locate a research problem

Activity
Review questions
1. Explain the differences between basic and applied research
2. Identify factors to consider in the choice of a research problem

21
 3. Explain how a research can locate a research problem
LECTURE FIVE

Data structure
We generally collect data from a number of individuals or ‘units’. These units are most often the children
or adults that we are working with. However, our units could also be hospitals or schools, for example.
The different measurements, questions or pieces of information that we collect from these individuals are
the variables.
Once the research problem has been identified and reduced to a workable size, the problem needs to be
reformulated in such a way that it relates to two or more variables
Variables
A variable is an empirical property that is capable of taking two or more values.
It is something that changes or that can be changed, something that varies.: a quantity that can have any
one of a set of values or a symbol that represents such a quantity.

According to Leedy (1980) a variable is a factor or a characteristic of interest that a researcher would like
to handle, observe or manipulate in the research
A variable is a type of quantity that may take one or more than one value.

There are many types of variables in research but in our case we will focus on those we relevant to our
study of research. These are: independent variable (IV) and dependent variable (DV)

Dependent and Independent Variables

Dependent variable

Many research studies are aimed at unrevealing and understanding the causes of underlying phenomena
or problems with the ultimate goal of establishing a causal relationship between them.

A dependent variable (DV) is the factor in an experiment which is influenced by changes in the IV/and
which is observed and measured by the researcher.

They are subject to other causes so that their values are influenced by the values of other variables.
They are the variable that depend on other factors that are measured. These variables are expected
to change as a result of an experimental manipulation of the independent variable or variables. It is
the presumed effect.

Look at the following statements:

22
 Low intake of food causes underweight.
 Smoking enhances the risk of lung cancer.
 Level of education influences job satisfaction.
 Advertisement helps in sales promotion.
 The drug causes the improvement of a health problem.
 Nursing intervention causes more rapid recovery.
 Previous job experiences determine the initial salary.
 Blueberries slow down aging.
 The dividend per share determines share prices.

In each of the above queries, we have two variables: one independent and one dependent. In the first
example, ‘low intake of food’ is believed to have caused the ‘problem of underweight.’

Similarly, smoking, dividend, and advertisement all are independent variables, and lung cancer, job
satisfaction, and sales are dependent variables.

In general, an independent variable is manipulated by the experimenter or researcher, and its effects on
the dependent variable are measured.

Independent Variable

The variable that is stable and unaffected by the other variables you are trying to measure. It refers
to the condition of an experiment that is systematically manipulated by the investigator. It is the
presumed cause.

An independent variable (IV) is the influencing factor/which a researcher manipulates in an experiment

or identifies in a research, in order to observe its effect on a DV – for example, in a study of the effect of
lack of learning materials on performance ability, the IV would be the type and availability of teaching
and a learning materials used by the teachers.

They may influence other variables, thereby determining the values of the affected variables

The independent variable is that factor which is measured, manipulated or selected by the researcher to
determine its relationship to an observerd phenomenon, which constitutes the dependent variable

The variable that is used to describe or measure the factor that is assumed to cause or at least to influence
the problem or outcome is called an independent variable.

The definition implies that the experimenter uses the independent variable to describe or explain the
influence or effect of it on the dependent variable.

Variability in the dependent variable is presumed to depend on variability in the independent variable.

Depending on the context, an independent variable is sometimes called a predictor variable, regressor,
controlled variable, manipulated variable, explanatory variable, exposure variable (as used in reliability
theory), risk factor (as used in medical statistics), feature (as used in machine learning and pattern
recognition) or input variable.

23
If the independent variable is referred to as an explanatory variable, then the term response variable is
preferred by some authors for the dependent variable.

Dependent Variable

The variable that is used to describe or measure the problem or outcome under study is called
a dependent variable.

In a causal relationship, the cause is the independent variable, and the effect is the dependent variable. If
we hypothesize that smoking causes lung cancer, ‘smoking’ is the independent variable and cancer the
dependent variable.

A business researcher may find it useful to include the dividend in determining the share prices. Here
dividend is the independent variable, while the share price is the dependent variable.

The dependent variable usually is the variable the researcher is interested in understanding, explaining, or
predicting.

In lung cancer research, it is the carcinoma that is of real interest to the researcher, not smoking behavior
per se. The independent variable is the presumed cause of, antecedent to, or influence on the dependent
variable.

Depending on the context, a dependent variable is sometimes called a response variable, regress and,
predicted variable, measured variable, explained variable, experimental variable, responding variable,
outcome variable, output variable, or label.

An explained variable is preferred by some authors over the dependent variable when the quantities
treated as dependent variables may not be statistically dependent.

DEVELOPMENT OF A RESEARCH PROPOSAL

a) Title Identification of the problem
b) Abstract
c) Preliminaries (declaration, abstract, dedication, acknowledgement, table of content, list of
tables, list of figures, abbreviations used in the study)
Chapter One
d) Introduction
e) Background to the study
f) Statement of the problem
g) Purpose of the Study
h) Research objectives
i) Research questions
j) Scope and limitations of the study
k) Significance of the study
Chapter Two
l) Literature review
Chapter Three
m) Study design and methodology

24
 Data analysis and presentation
n) Ethical considerations
o) References
p) Appendices

What is a proposal?

 It is a format and detailed statement of intent of the researcher

o It tells on why, how, where, and to whom the research will be done and shows what
benefits are to be derived from it

 It presents and justifies a plan of action and shows the investigation plan
 It is a blue print of future activities of a research project
 It is some sort of preconceived framework for starting the activities
 It is a work plan, prospectus, outline, and statement of intent ahead.
 “… suggests looking forward, to what the researcher plans to do in the future. … The proposal
lays out the problem for research, describes exactly how the research will be conducted, and
outlines in precise detail the resources – both factual and instrumental – the researcher will use to
achieve the desired results.”
 In short, a proposal of a work frame for completing the research

5.5 Background to the study in a research paper

Research background is a brief outline of the most important studies that have been conducted so far
presented in a chronological order. Research background should also include a brief discussion of major
theories and models related to the research problem. When writing research background, you also need to
demonstrate how your research relates to what has been done so far in this research area.
It provides a context to the information that a researcher is discussing in his or her paper, therefor it
generates the readers interest in one’s research
question and helps them understand why his/her study is important.
Background of the study includes a review of the existing literature on the area of your research leading
up to your topic. Once you have discussed the contributions of other researchers in the field you can
identify gaps in understanding, that is, areas that have not been addressed in this studies. You can then
explain how your study will address this gaps and how it will contribute to the existing knowledge In the
field.
Background of the study is a compilation of adequate information that is based on the analysis of the
problem or proposed argument, the steps and methods needed to arrive at the design and the
implementation of the results achieved and feasible solutions.
It explains why a research topic is worth a time of the readers.
It provides the readers with context to the information talked about throughout the research paper.
It Is done to prove that the research question is relevant
5.5 The purpose of having background to the study

25
 1. Demonstrates and critics works of other researchers hence your current research. In other
words, how does your work build on the previous work.
2. It clearly shows what other researchers have committed in their studies.
3. It convinces readers of the contributions of your research theme.
4. It gives the impression that the researcher should read widely and do an intensive work.
a) Purpose of the study
 In a research study, a researcher must Set their goals of carrying out the study/investigation.
 The researcher must have a purpose of the study and objectives derived from the purpose.
 The purpose is usually the main goal/aim of the study stated in objective form derived from the
title of the study.
 The study variables IV and DV must be identified and the relationship between the two clearly
stated.

5.6 Objectives of the study

 Are finer and specific statements that come from the purpose of the study.
 They are indicators of what the researcher is going to do.
 A research objective is a clear, concise, declarative statement, which provides direction to
investigate the variables under the study/they give direction to the research.
 Research objective is a concrete statement describing what the research is trying to achieve.
 These are statements of what you intend to achieve
 The objective of research project summarizes what is to be achieved by the study
 They can also be used to assess outcomes
 They are usually expressed in point form for clarity (numbered)
 All objectives must start off with ‘to …’
 These objectives should be in the region between three to five at most
 The research objectives are the specific accomplishments the researcher hopes to achieve by the
study.
 A well-known objective will be SMART
S – SPECIFIC
M – MEASURABLE
A – ATTAINABLE
R – REALISTIC
T – TIME BOUND
 Research objective should be RELEVANT, FEASIBLE, LOGICAL, OBSERVABLE,
UNEQUIVOCAL & MEASURABLE.
 Objective is an intention that can be reasonably achieved within the expected timeframe and with
the available resources.

Need for Research Objectives

The formulation of research objectives will help the researcher as follows:

 FOCUS
o A clearly defined research objective will help the researcher to focus on the study
o The formulation of research objectives helps in narrowing down the study to its
essentials.
o It will avoid unnecessary findings, which otherwise lead to wastage of resources.
 AVOID UNECESSARY DATA
o The formulation of research objectives helps the researcher to avoid unnecessary
accumulation of data that is not needed for the chosen problem.

26
 o For example, when the researcher is interested in in identifying the presence or absence
of chosen variables but not in detailed description he can avoid collection of unwanted
information.
 ORGANIZATION
The formulation of objectives organizes the study into a clearly defined parts or phases. • Thus
the objectives help organize the study results in to main parts as per the pre-set objectives.
 GIVES DIRECTION
A well formulated objective will facilitate the development of research methodology and will
help to orient the collection, analysis, interpretation & utilization of data.

Generally, what is the importance of well stated research objectives?

 In order to get the right solution a clearly defined objectives are very important.
 A clearly defined objective directs a researcher in the right direction.
 A clearly defined objectives are important feature of a good research study.
 Without a clear objective a researcher is aimless and directionless in conducting the study.
 Without focused objectives, no replicable scientific findings can be expected.
Method of Stating Objective
 The following guideline must be taken into account while stating the objectives:
 The objective should be presented briefly and concisely.
 The objective should cover the different aspects of the problem and its contributing factors in a
coherent way and in a logical sequence.
 The objectives should be clearly phrased in operational terms, specifying exactly what the
researcher is going to do, where and for what purpose.
 The objectives are realistic considering the local conditions.
 The objectives use action verbs that are specific enough to be evaluated. The list of action verbs
are as follows:
o KNOWLEDGE DOMAIN – Count, Define, Describe, Draw, Identify, Label, List, Match,
Name, Outline, Point out, Quote, Recite, Recognize, Record, Repeat, Reproduce, Select,
State etc.
o APPLICATION DOMAIN – Add, Apply, Calculate, Change, Complete, Compute,
Demonstrate, Discover, Examine, Graph, Interpolate, Manipulate, Operate, Prepare,
Produce, Show, Subtract, Translate, Use, Solve, Classify, Divide, Modify etc.
o COMPREHENSION – Associate, Compute, Convert, Defend, Discuss, Distinguish,
Estimate, Explain, Extend, Extrapolate, Generalize, give example, Infer, Paraphrase,
Predict, Rewrite, Summarize etc.
o ANALYSIS DOMAIN – Analyse, Arrange, Breakdown, Combine, Design, Detect,
Develop, Diagram, Differentiate, Discriminate, Illustrate, Infer, Outline, Relate, Select,
Separate, Subdivide, Utilize etc.
o SYNTHESIS DOMAIN – Categorize, Combine, Compile, Compose, Create, Drive,
Design, Devise, Explain, Generate, Integrate, Modify, Order, Organize, Plan, Prescribe,
Propose, Rearrange, Reconstruct, Revise, Summarize, Specify etc.
o EVALUATION DOMAIN – Appraise, Assess, Compare, Conclude, Contrast, Criticize,
Critique, Determine, Grade, Interpret, Judge, Justify, Measure, Rank, Support, Test etc.
What is a research Question?
 It is a question that is derived from the purpose and objectives of the study
 Turning the purpose/objectives into questions.

27
  It is possible to have more research questions than objectives/but good to maintain an equal
number
 The objectives include obtaining answers to the research questions or testing the research
hypotheses.

5.7 Characteristics of a good research question

1. Needs to be well grounded in current theoretical and empirical knowledge (know the
literature)
2. It sets the context of the of the research and enabling the researcher to determine the subject
matter, the focus, what research evidence is needed so as to produce an answer nd the
conclusion.
3. The question must be do-able within the given limitations of time, money, capacities,
resources as well as be worth undertaking.
4. Good question must lead to the formulation of clear hypothesis and operational definitions.
5. A researcher should have several reasons for going after a specific research question.
6. A good research question should be important in terms of theory and application.
7. It should not attempt to address large issues. Remember it is not a topic but a particular
question in a topic. Remember it is not a topic but a particular question in a topic. It needs to
be clear, well defined into the point. It should allow one to better understand the topic.
8. It should lead to a new information. A question doesn’t have to be completely original. It
may ask whether an earlier observation could be replicated etc.
9. It builds on, but also offers something new to previous research.
10. It is a purpose or question that the researcher is sincerely interested in
11. It addresses directly or indirectly some real problem in the world
12. Takes ethical issues in consideration
13. It clearly states the variables to be examined.
Summary
This lecture has covered types of variables in research, background to the study. Further it has covered the
objectives and research questions

Review questions
i. Identify types of variables
ii. Explain the purpose of background to the study in research
iii. Identify what an objective is, terms used in stating objectives
iv. Characteristics of research questions

Activity

Further reading

Creswell, J. W. (2012). Educational research: planning, conducting and evaluating quantitative and
qualitative research. (4th ed.). Boston: Pearson Education.

John, B. Steve, S. & Patricia, O. (2011): Research Methodology in Political Science. Oxford: Oxford
University Press

28
Kombo, D. K. & Tromp, D. L. A. (2006). Proposal and thesis writing: An introduction. Nairobi: Pauline
Publications Africa.

LECTURE SIX
Significance of the Study

 It refers or describes the importance of the study

 It states why this study is significant
 Why do it now?
 What will it contribute to the existing research literature?
 First express the significance of the study in terms of its academic contribution. What
knowledge gap (new knowledge) is your research trying to fill?
 Thereafter bring out the importance of the research in terms professional practice
 Ask yourself:
o Who is going to benefit from the research and how?
o What implications your findings may have?
o Who will benefit from it?

Scope and delimitations of the study

Set the delimitation or boundaries of your proposed research in order to provide a clear focus.

It establishes the boundaries, exceptions, qualifications, and reservations of the study

It indicates the boundaries of the study in terms of content and the geographical spread. It should
be stated and justified in the study. It describes the limits or the scope of the study.

How the study will be narrowed in scope?

Limitations of the study

This refers to the constraints that the researcher has no control over. Examples of such
limitations are;
a. Inadequate time and funds
b. Inability of some respondents to express themselves fluently in the language used in
communication

Factors that will affect the study, Not controlled by the researcher

29
6.7 Conceptual framework/theoretical framework

This is usually a diagram which summarises the variables involved in the research and the
relationship between them.

Here the researcher is required to describe the main dependent and independent variables in the
study and the relationship between them
6.8 Definition of terms
All the variables that will be manipulated in the study must be defined by the researcher so that
the readers may know the meanings.
Any term or phrase, central or key to the study that may be unfamiliar to the reader must be
defined in this section. You may derive these terms from the research topic, research objectives
or conceptual framework. While dictionary may define these terms literary, you are required to
define them operationally, implying the way they are being used in the study. These terms are
arranged in alphabetical order.
Also terms which may convey different meanings to different people also need to be defined.
Summary
The lecture has covered Significance of the study, Scope and delimitations of the study,
limitation of the study, conceptual framework in research and definition of terms

Review questions
4. Explain the following as used in research
a. Significance of the study
b.Scope of the study
c. Limitation of the study
d. Conceptual framework in research
e. Definition of terms in research

Activity

Further reading

1. Creswell, J. W. (2012). Educational research: planning, conducting and evaluating

quantitative and qualitative research. (4th ed.). Boston: Pearson Education.

30
 2. John, B. Steve, S. & Patricia, O. (2011): Research Methodology in Political Science.
Oxford: Oxford University Press
3. Kombo, D. K. & Tromp, D. L. A. (2006). Proposal and thesis writing: An introduction.
Nairobi: Pauline Publications Africa.

LITERATURE REVIEW

A literature review is a comprehensive summary of previous research and documentation on a

topic. The literature review surveys scholarly articles, books, and other sources relevant to a
particular area of research.

• It is a critical analysis of the existing literature (reading materials available)

• Done to bring out knowledge gaps (what is not yet known that your study will fill
in/provide/It provides a context for the proposed study)
• 3-4 pages long for research project at undergraduate
• It places your study within the context of the other studies already done so that you do
not repeat what has already been done. The review should enumerate, describe,
summarize, objectively evaluate and clarify this previous research.
• The literature review acknowledges the work of previous researchers, and in so doing,
assures the reader that your work has been well conceived. It is assumed that by
mentioning a previous work in the field of study, that the author has read, evaluated, and
assimilated that work into the work at hand.
• A literature review creates a "landscape" for the reader, giving her or him a full
understanding of the developments in the field. This landscape informs the reader that
the author has indeed assimilated all (or the vast majority of) previous, significant works
in the field into her or his research.
• In writing the literature review, the purpose is to convey to the reader what knowledge
and ideas have been established on a topic, and what their strengths and weaknesses are.
• The literature review must be defined by a guiding concept (e.g. your research objective,
the problem or issue you are discussing, or your argumentative thesis). It is not just a
descriptive list of the material available, or a set of summaries
• It is a comprehensive summary of the previous research on a topic
• It surveys scholarly articles, books and other sources relevant to a particular area of
research.
• It should give a theoretical base for research and help researchers to determine the nature
of his/her research
• It is the systematic identification and analysis of documents containing information
related to the study.

31
 • It should point out how the problem of the study is related to the previous research
findings
• It should demonstrate how the approach of the study is likely to differ from the others
• It should justify the need for the study especially if similar studies have been done before
• It should point out the methodological errors and any opposition among various findings
• It should start with the broad and narrow down to specific ideas and logically lead to a
conclusion
• It should not be mere listing of researches but rather it should stress important points
• It should be critical
• It should only concern variables in the study as stated in the objectives of the study

Functions of Literature Review in Research

 It demonstrates that one knows the field i.e one needs to read it
critically and to write in such a way that shows that he has a feel
for the area, that you know what the most issues are and their
relevance to your study
 It justifies the reason for your study- This is closely connected with
demonstrating that you know the field. It is the knowledge of your
field which allows one to identify the gap which your study could
fill
 It allows a researcher to establish his theoretical and
methodological focus. Even if you are proposing a new theory or a
new method, you do so in relation to what has been done
 It creates a rapport with your audience or readers so that they can
trust that you have done your work. As a result they can give you
credit for your due diligence
 It helps the researcher to avoid incidental plagiarism. Imagine a
situation where you have written a research paper only to realise
later that someone has already published a paper on a topic very
similar to yours. One could have used the time, money and other
resources that are already wasted on something else
 It sharpens one research focus--. As you assemble sources that you
will condense, evaluate, synthesize and paraphrase the gist of
outside sources in your own word. Through this process of

32
 winnowing you will be able to place the relevance of your research
in the large context of what other researchers have already done on
your topic in the past
 To place each work on the context of its contribution to
understanding the research problem being studied.
 It describes the relationship of each work to the others under
consideration
 It identifies new ways to interprate prior research
 To reveal any gaps that exist in the previous literature
 To help resolve conflict among seemingly contradictory previous
studies
 Points the way in fulfilling a need for additional research

7.5 Qualities Of An Effective Literature Review

The following are qualities expected from an effective literature
review
 It is critical, organized and analytic in orientation
 It justifies the need for the study i.e
 It identifies the gaps in the studies mentioned based on the
identified gaps
 Points out how the current study will contribute positively towards
filling the identified gap
 Points out how the current study will contribute positively towards
filling the identified gaps
 It highlights the relationship between the current and past study i.e
 It links the current study with the past studies
 It evaluates and shows the relationship between the work
already by other scholars and other researcher’s work
 The link brings consistency and continuity in relation to the
identified topic
 It puts the research problem into perspective i.e

33
  By Quoting And Analyzing Various Studies Related To The
Selected Topic, The Literature Review Helps To Define The
Research Problem
 It Also Acts As A Guideline In Assessment Of Research
Problem
 It should be an informed argument that leads the reader to a deeper
understanding of the problem under investigation, that is the
guiding organizational rule for doing a literature review
It should be a well -integrated section of the researcher’s study in which
the material is organized under headings and sub-headings which follow
one another in a logical manner

9.3 Methods of Investigation

The methodology section constitutes chapter three of a proposal and it
consists of the following: research design, area of study, subjects,
instruments of data collection, the procedure, proposed data analysis.
RESEARCH DESIGN
- It spells out what type of methods to use and shows where and how the
study is going to be done
- It helps to decide on issues like what, when, where, how much, by
what means etc with regard to an inquiry or a research study
- It is an arrangement of conditions for collection and analysis of data in
a manner that aims to combine relevance to the research purpose with
economy in procedure
-It constitutes the blueprint for collection and analysis of data
34
- Specifically research design highlights decisions which include
 The nature of the study
 The purpose of the study
 The location where the study would be conducted
 The nature of data required
 From where the required data will be collected
 What time period the study would cover
 The type of sample design that would be used
 The methods of data analysis that would be adopted
 The manner in which the report would be prepared

9.4 Types of Design

There are different types of research design i.e
A. Descriptive research design-
 It is concerned with describing the characteristics of a particular
individual or group
 Descriptive research design helps to provide answers to the
questions of what, when, where and how associated with particular
research problem
 It is used to obtain information concerning the current status of the
phenomenon and to describe what exists with respect to variables
or conditions in a situation
 Descriptive studies can yield rich data that leads to important
recommendations in practice
 The approach collects a large amount of data for detailed analysis
B. Exploratory
C. Case study

35
It is an in-depth study of a particular research problem. It is a method
used to narrow down a very broad field of research into one easily
researchable topic
D. Experimental research design
It establishes a relationship between the cause and the effect of a
situation. It is a causal design where one observes the impact caused by
the independent variable on the dependent variable. In doing so the
researcher attempts to determine or predict what may occur based on
experimental models,
E. Correlational research
It aims to establish a relationship between two variables. It tries to
monitor changes between variables. It tries to look for associations and
similarities between them
F. Explanatory
It aims to explain the researchers findings and ideas to expound the
theory. Using this design, the researcher explores the limits and
boundaries of a subject in order to present the reader with results that
answer the what, how and why of the researchers central thesis

The choice and preparation of a research design appropriate for a

particular research problem involves the consideration of the following
 The means of obtaining the information
 The skills of the researcher
 Explanation of the ways which the selected means of obtaining
information will be organized and the re-assurance leading to the
selection
 Time available for the research
 Cost factor related to the research

36
9.5 Study population
It is any group of institution, people or subjects that have at least one
characteristic in common.
It can also be defined as a complete set of individuals, cases or subjects
with some common observable characteristics. Example – secondary
schools, form 2 students, teachers of maths etc.
9.6 Sampling
If one wants to collect information about a group of persons or things
that will give an accurate picture, the best thing is to examine every
single member or elements of the group. It is also possible to reach
accurate conclusion by examining only a small part of the group
Sampling is the process of selecting a number of individuals for a study
in such a way that the individuals selected represent the larger group
from which they were selected. The individuals selected form the
sample.
- It is the assessment of only a small section or group to represent the
larger group.
- Since the aim of research is to determine some characteristics of a
certain population, one objective of research is to draw inferences about
the unknown population parameters from the known sample statistics
which are obtained by collecting data from the sample. The process of
generalizing from findings based on the sample to the population is
called statistical inferences or inferential statistics
ADVANTAGES OF SAMPLING ARE
 It less time consuming
 It is less costly

37
  It may be the only practical method of data collection like where
the investigation necessitates destruction of the item to test its
strength
 It is the practical way of collecting data when the population is
infinite or extremely large
One of the major issues in sampling is to determine samples that best
represent a population which is least biased so as to allow for an
accurate generalization of results
- A sample is said to be representative if certain known percentage
frequency
-When time and resources allow, a researcher should take as big a
sample as possible with a large sample, the researcher is confident that
the findings will be accurate.
The discrepancy between the sample characteristics and the population
characteristics is known as sampling error.
- The smaller the sample, the bigger the sampling error
-The assumption behind samples is that
 They are representative of the population
 They are alike i.e they will have the same characteristics
 They assist in quality control

10.3 Sampling Techniques

There are two main types of samples i.e
 Probability sampling technique
 Non probability sampling technique

38
 a. Probability sampling technique
It is a method of drawing a portion of a population so that each member
of the target population has a known or non-zero chance of being
selected into a sample
It involves selection of a reasonable number of objects of cases that
represent the target population
It can provide us with an accurate information about groups that are
large to study in their entity

10.3 Probability Sampling

It is a drawing a portion of a population so that each member of the
target population has a known and non-zero chance of being selected
into a sample. There are many ways of in which probability sample may
be drawn from a population i.e
1. Simple random sampling
It is a process of selecting from the population that provides every
sample of a given size an equal probability of being selected
It is the type of sampling which provides equal chance to every member
in the population to be included in the study
2. Stratified sampling
It involves identifying groups in the population, for example if the
population was form 3, then the various groups would be form 3 A, form
3B, form 3C, form 3D. The samples from each group are then randomly
selected on the basis of equal number from each group. Stratification
ensures that different groups of the population are represented in the
sample.

39
The sample can be propotionally selected on the basis of equal number
from each group. Also the population is divided into strata such as boys
and girls, rural and urban etc. from which random samples are drawn
3.Cluster sampling
This is the type of sampling in which a researcher randomly selects a
group and every member in the group participates in the research. For
example in F2 where there are 3 streams: A,B and C, the researcher
might select might selectF2B and then use every student in that stream
4.Purposive Sampling
This is the type of sampling in which the researcher selects samples
based on certain purposes. This sampling technique helps to increase
utility of findings i.e the researcher may want to use inly class prefects
to establish the reasons of indiscipline in schools
5.The multi-stage random sample
A typical example of multi-stage sampling would be:
 Randomly select a given number of states/counties/sub-counties
from the list of all states/counties/sub-counties
 Randomly select from within each chosen state/county/sub-county
schools from the list of all schools of the defined type
 Randomly select from within chosen school individuals from the
list of all individuals of the defined types

LECTURE ELEVEN: RESEARCH INSTRUMENTS USED IN EDUCATION

11.1 Introduction This lecture will focus on the instruments for data collection

40
11.2 Objectives

By the end of this lesson, the learner should be able to:

1. Explain the advantages and disadvantages of using the following research
instruments in data collection
i. Observation
ii. Interview
iii. Questionnaire

11.3 Research Instruments Used In Education

A researcher cannot collect data without tools. A tool is a technique or method of data
collection. It makes it easy for a researcher to collect information. The task of a
researcher is therefore to select dependable tool. The tools to be used may depend on the
type of research design, costs, nature of the research problem e.t.c
There are many different tools which can be used in research namely observation,
interview, questionnaire, inventories, tests etc.

11.4 Research Instruments

A. Observation
According to (Cohen 1980) one way of obtaining information about the progress or
outcome of an educational program is to observe directly selected aspects of its
development and implementation as they occur
Observation may be used as a primary method of data collection or to collect
supplementary data
Observation generally describes data that are collected, regardless of the technique used
in the study.
Observation relies on the researcher seeing, hearing, testing and smelling things
It depends on personal intuition
The role of the researcher varies from passive detached, complete observer to the active
participant in the group being observed
Observation uses a few subjects and can be used in all studies
The researcher must know what to look for, what to observe and record for future
analysis

There are three ways in which observation can be used in research i.e

41
 a) Naturalistic observation- In which the subjects are not aware that they are being observed
for example children playing among themselves
b) Participant observation- in which the researcher participates together with the
participants. For example a researcher who is observing students at a physical education
class also performs the activities
c) Non participant observation- In which the researcher is passive and merely takes notes of
what he observes.

The following procedure is normally followed when designing an observation instrument

 Specify the behavior of interest
 Specify actors of interest e.g teachers
 Define and break-down the focal behaviors so that scoring is reliable
 Field test and revise the format

Situation That May Be Served By Observation Data

a) Measuring classroom process available
 How the classroom is divided into a variety of activities?
 Students participation
 Does the lesson arouse the interest of the learners?
 Use of teaching learning resources
 Unexpected outcome

b) Measurement of attainment of program objectives

c) Measuring program implementation
 How instructions are being carried out. Not all teachers and even members of the
program carry out program instructions in the way intended by the program
director
d) Identifying difficulties in program use
 Difficulties may emerge as a result of misunderstanding of some content element
by the teacher. Program staff and students also encounter difficulties
e) Identifying changes introduced by the program staff and teacher
f) Support for data from other sources such as tests, interviews and questionnaire
g) Identifying unintended outcome
 A program may decrease students interest

Advantages of Observation
i. It is direct. The researcher is able to study behavior as it occurs
ii. It is possible to obtain data about people who are unable to give verbal reports
Shortcoming of Observation

42
 i. It is a more expensive way of collecting information than questionnaires
ii. It is time consuming
iii. Coverage is limited to a number of trained personnel
iv. It cannot be applied to many aspects of social life i.e one cannot observe attitude and
beliefs
v. There are many biases due to subjectivity of the observer
vi. Observation tells what happened but not why it happened
vii. It is highly subjective when it comes to analyzing data and arriving at conclusions

b. Interview

It involves the oral or vocal questioning technique or discussion

The researcher becomes the interviewer and the respondent and the respondent from sample is
the interviewee
It involves face to face interaction between individuals leading to self-report. Responses from the
interviewee are recorded and can then be analyzed
The method requires the researcher to ask questions
A personal interview helps the researcher to measure what a person knows, what he likes and
dislikes. The information obtained can be transformed into a number of quantitative data by
using attitude sculling or rating scaling techniques.
The interview must serve two purposes i.e
a) It must translate research objectives into specific questions whose answers will provide
the necessary information
b) It must aid the interviewer in motivating the respondents
Questions asked in an interview can be in three forms namely:
1. Structured- which provides limited response; for example “Do you think learning is
effective?”
2. Semi-structured- Which is open and allows individual response i.e “what has been the
most striking in your life at the university
3. Unstructured- Which provides the researcher with an opportunity to ask broad questions.
It provides a high degree of objectivity, probing and classification i.e “why do most
students perform poorly in Mathematics examinations?”
It is most useful to combine semi-structured and structured forms of questions
Types of Interviews
There are two types of interviews i.e
1. Scheduled structured interview

43
 2. Focused or no-scheduled structured interview

1. Scheduled Structured Interviews

The researcher develops a schedule in which the questions, their wording and their sequence
are fixed and are identical for every respondent
The schedule may have either open ended or fixed alternative questions. The interview guide
is usually structured to require a minimum of writing by the interviewer. Questions are asked
as they appear in the guide
Example
Interviewers explanation to the respondents: we are interested in finding out your involvement in
the education of your child. We have a checklist here of some of the things that parents do. Think
about your on situation and indicate your response
Never sometimes often Very often
Do you
encourage your
child to do his
assignment?
Do you assist
your child to do
his assignments?
Do you check
your chids class
work?

2. Focused Interview
This type of interview is normally used when it is known that the subjects have been involved in
the situations under study and consequently focuses on their experiences regarding the situations.
The interviewer does not employ a detailed interview guide but has a general plan and usually
asks questions or makes comments which are intended to lead the respondent towards giving
data to meet the objectives of the research. Examples of questions asked are:
What difficulties do you experience when teaching integrated social studies curriculum? What
steps have you taken to solve these problems? Do all teachers experience the problems you have
mentioned?
Procedure For Interviews
1. Introduce yourself to respondent(s) avoiding titles unless it is necessary

44
 2. Explain to the respondent the purpose of the study and how it will contribute to the
improvement of educational practices in the country. Assure him that the information he
provides will be treated with confidence
3. Be friendly and make the respondent feel comfortable and relaxed in your presence
4. Ask your questions, probe, probe the respondent to obtain more data
5. Avoid negative comments and criticisms
6. Avoid negative facial expressions like frowning
7. Avoid interrupting the flow of information when the respondent is talking
8. Interview the respondent in a place with minimum disruptions from the environment
9. Ask your questions simply and in a gentle manner
10. Listen carefully to the answers
11. Never hit either by specific comments or non-verbal clues to suggest a particular
response
12. In case you apprehend that the informant is not giving you the correct information, cross
examine him. If sensitive questions are to be asked, remind the respondent that the
answer will be held in strict confidence
13. Write down the answer, interact with the respondent as an equal
14. At the end of the interview, thank the informant

c. Questionnaire

It is a carefully designed instrument (written, typed or printed) for collecting data direct from
people
A typical questionnaire consists of questions and statements
Two types of questions are normally asked closed ended questions and open ended questions
Closed ended questions are normally questions that are structured in such a way that the
respondent is provided with a list of responses from which to select an appropriate answer
It involves the use of written down items to which the respondent individually responds in
writing or interview. The items are in the form of statements or questions

They are based on the researcher’s specific objectives

The following guidelines are essential in providing effective questions/statements:
a. Items or questions should be clear so that respondents interpret them in the same way.
Spelling and grammar should be correct
b. Avoid double barreled items i.e questions or statements should contain only one idea or
concept i.e “do you think Multi partyism is the cause of tribalism in Kenya or lack of
peace in Kenya”
c. Avoid long complicated items because they are difficult to understand

45
 d. Avoid biased items because they may encourage certain responses
Questionnaires can be constructed in two main forms i.e
a. Open form (unstructured) This is when the respondent is required to write what he wants
b. Closed ended form (structured) This restricts the respondent to predetermined responses
Look at the following
a. How many hours do you read every day? This is the open type. The answers can be
2,3,4,6 etc
b. How many hours do you read in a day?
a. 2hours b.3 hours c. 4 hours d. 5 hours
Questionnaires can also be constructed in scales. A scale is a series of grade level or values that
describe various degrees of something. The use of scales therefore involves a question or a
statement being followed by different levels of potential responses. The respondents will then
indicate the scales that reflect the degree of their opinions. The most widely used is the Likert
scale.
Example
1. Technology is vital for development
a) Very true b) True c) Untrue d) Very Untrue
2. Technology is:
a) Very important b) Important c) Somewhat important d) Unimportant

Advantages of Mail Questionnaire

1. Questionnaires can reach a large group of respondents within a short time and with less
expense
2. The biases that might result from the personal characteristics of an interview are avoided
or reduced
3. Since The Respondents Do Not Indicate Their Names, they tend to give honest answers.
The absence of an interviewer also makes respondents to give honest answers without
fear of giving answers that they think interviewers may not want to hear
4. Respondents have adequate time to consult documents or other people if questions
require doing so
5. Respondents have enough time to reflect on before answering questions
Disadvantages
3. The researcher has no control over the person who fills out the questionnaire
4. There is no opportunity for the respondent to seek and obtain clarification about
ambiguous questions. Similarly, there is no opportunity for probing beyond the answers
given by the respondents
5. It is normally difficult to obtain an adequate response rate

46
 6. There is a tendency by the respondents to skip questions they consider difficult, sensitive
or controversial
Steps in Conducting a Questionnaire Survey
A. Define objectives
The first step in designing a questionnaire is to list specific objectives to be achieved by
the questionnaire
i. Read the research proposal
ii. Define the population to whom the questionnaire is to be directed
iii. Decide on the nature of the sample to be drawn
B. Writing questionnaire items
After you have defined your problem of investigation precisely, construct questions or
items to deal with each aspect in turn. Consider the following
i. The questions must be clearly worded so that the respondent can comprehend
them
ii. Item should be short because short items are easier to understand
iii. Avoid double barreled items which require the subjects to respond to two separate
ideas
iv. Avoid leading questions which suggests that one response may be more
appropriate than the other
v. Do not use words that the respondent may not understand
vi. Avoid biased or leading questions
vii. Don’t ask questions that assumes a fact not necessary in evidence e.g have you
stopped giving birth. How can a woman who has never given birth respond?
viii. Avoid touchy questions to which the respondent may not respond honestly

C. Development Of Questions
The following is the likely sequence for the development of questions to be included in
the questionnaire
 Define the information that is required from the question
 Formatting draft questions
 Discussing the questions with other members of the research team and other
experts
 Preparation of the first draft of the questionnaire for pilot testing
 Pilot testing of the questionnaire on a small sample of the respondents
 Analysis of the data collected and the experience in the pilot survey
 Reformulating and finalization of the questionnaire
 Preparation of an interview manual
Questionnaire Format.

a. questionnaire should have a suitable title

b. Instructions should be clear and unambiqous

47
 c. The questionnaire should be attractive and brief and as easy to respond to as possible
d. Arrange the questionnaire in content sub-sections e.g background data, objectives,
implementation of curriculum etc
e. No item should be included which does not directly relate to the objectives of the study
f. Divide the questionnaire into meaningful components
g. The first section is personal data. The major consideration is a variable that influences
what you are investigating. The questions you should ask is, what are the major variables
that are likely to influence peoples response?
h. Include brief, clear instructions printed in bold type
i. The questionnaire should start with simple factual questions, so that the person
completing it gets off on a good start
j. Avoid negative items
k. Avoid biased items and terms
l. Do not use one item to select multiple answers
m. Open ended general questions should be at the end to allow expression of points which
the respondent thinks important
n. Questionnaires may include attitude scales, rating and check list provided that they are
brief and straight forward
Pretesting The Questionnaire
The provisional draft of the questionnaire should be pre tested on a pilot group similar to the
sample to whom the questionnaire will be given.. A pilot run will provide a check on the
feasibility of the proposed procedure for coding data and show up flaws and ambiguities. It also
yields suggestions for improvement
Administering The Questionnaire
There are three main methods of administering the questionnaire to respondents i.e
1. Self-administered questionnaire
A researcher can deliver questionnaires to may be teachers and leave them for teachers to
complete and then pick them back later. When this method is used, the completion rate is very
high
2. By mailing the questionnaire to the respondents
In this method, it should be accompanied by a letter of explanation and self-addressed envelope
for returning the questionnaire. The return rate is sometimes low in this method
It is advisable to send non-respondents a new copy of the questionnaire. If funds are available,
the interviewers are sent to ask the subjects questions orally and record respondents answers and
if the respondents have telephones, it is possible for the researcher to get their responses the
questionnaire items by phone

Summary
48
Instruments for data collection like observation, interview and questionnaire have been covered
Review questions
1. Explain the advantages and disadvantages of using the following research instruments in
data collection
i. Observation
ii. Interview
iii. Questionnaire

Activity

Further reading

1. Creswell, J. W. (2012). Educational research: planning, conducting and evaluating

quantitative and qualitative research. (4th ed.). Boston: Pearson Education.

2. John, B. Steve, S. & Patricia, O. (2011): Research Methodology in Political Science. Oxford:
Oxford University Press

3. Kombo, D. K. & Tromp, D. L. A. (2006). Proposal and thesis writing: An introduction.

Nairobi: Pauline Publications Africa.

4. Kothari, C. (2004): Research Methodology: Methods and Techniques. New Delhi:

WishwaPriskashan.

5. Mugenda, A. (2013). Qualitative Research Methods: Introduction. Nairobi: ARTS Press

6. Mukherji, P. N. (2000): Methodology in Social Research: Dilemmas and Perspsctives. New

Delhi: Sage Publication.
7. Nachmias, C.F and Nachiamas, D. (1996): Research Methods in the Social Sciences. (5th
Edition). London: Arnold Publishers.

8. Nachmias, C.F and Nachiamas, D. (1996): Research Methods in the Social Sciences. (5th
Edition). London: Arnold Publishers.

9. Walizer, M. and Wiener, P. L. (1999): Research Methods and Analysis: Searching for
Relationships. New York: Harper and Row Publishers.

49
50