DATA

COMMUNICATION
AND NETWORKING

1
 OBJECTIVES
At the end of this chapter, you will be able to:
• Describe the basic components of a
telecommunication system
• Define and identify the components of a
successful communication
• Understand the various communications
technologies
• Describe the features of the various types of
communications networks and network
services.
2
 INTRODUCTION
When computers were first introduced, they
were stand-alone devices but as they became
widely used, hardware and software were
designed so that computers could exchange
data, information, and instructions with other
computers - a process called data
communication.
Computer communication (also called
telecommunication or Data communication)
describe a process in which one computer
transfers data, information and instructions to
another computer. 3
Today, even the smallest computers and
devices communicate directly with one
another, with hundreds of computers on a
company network, or with millions of
other computers around the globe—often
via the Internet. Computer
communication is accomplished through
the use of a Telecommunications
system.

4
A telecommunications system is a collection of
compatible hardware and software arranged to
communicate data, information and instructions from
one location to another.
Figure below illustrates a general model of a typical
telecommunications system

5
 THE TELECOMMUNICATIONS MODEL CONSISTS
OF THE FOLLOWING:
i. A sending device that initiates an instruction to
transmit data, information, or instructions. It can be a
computer system, a terminal, a cellular telephone, a
WebTV™, a GPS receiver, an Internet-enabled PDA, or
another device that originates the message.
ii. A communications device Eg a switch, hub or
router which connects the communications channel to
a receiving device/a sending device..
iii. A communications channel or transmission media,
are pathways on which the data, instructions, or
information travel. This can be wireless or wired
medium.
iv. A receiving device that accepts the transmission of
data, information, or instructions.
v. A communications software that controls and
manages the activities and functions of the
communications network7 eg web browsers.
 Assignment I
1. Which of the following describes a computer network?
A.Connection of computers C. Arrangement of computers
B. Collection of computers D. Laboratory of computers
2. Computers that are not connected to the computer
networks are referred to as?
A. Server computers C. Client computers
B. Standalone computers D. Workstations
3. Which of the following network topologies has its
nodes connected to a single cable?
A. Star topology C. Bus topology
B. Mesh topology D. Ring topology
4. Wireless media can also be referred to as
A. Guided media C. Bounded media
B. Unguided media D. Physical media
5. Outline any five elements of a telecommunication model
6. Describe any three advantages and disadvantages of using
Fiber optic cables in telecommunication
9
 COMPUTER NETWORKS
A Computer network is a collection of
computers and devices connected by
communication channels that facilitate communication
among users, and allow sharing of resources. In a
networked environment, any authorized user can use
a computer on a network to:-
i. Access data and information stored on other
computers in the network.
ii. Access hardware that is shared in the
network.
iii. Use software stored on a server's hard disk.
iv. Transfer funds
v. Communicate efficiently and easily via e-mail,
chat, and videoconferencing.
10
 Advantages/benefits of computer Networks
1. File Sharing: It allows file sharing and remote file
access. It is easy for a person sitting on one
networked computer to see and access files on
another networked computer.
2. Software sharing: Software can be installed on one
server computer that can be used by the different
client computers instead of purchasing a copy for
each computer.
3. Easy Communication: People on a computer
network can communicate easily with each other. For
example with the internet, network users can use
Emails, Instant messaging, etc.
4. Sharing of Hardware / Peripheral
devices: Computers on the network can share
devices such as printers, scanners.
5. Central storage for data: In a client-server
network, all the data can be stored in one
place(on the server) and this makes it easy to
manage it.
6. Makes data back up easy since all the data is
stored on the file server.
7. Enforcing security policies on data is easy,
since each and every user has his own set of
privileges to prevent them accessing restricted
files.
 Disadvantages of computer Networks
1. Expensive to set up: The initial set up cost can be high
depending on the number of computers to be connected.
Devices like switches, routers, and cables are always
expensive.
2. Failure of the server: In case the main file server of a
computer network breaks down, the whole system becomes
useless.
3. Rapid spread of computer virus: If any computer on a
network gets affected by a computer virus, there is a possible
threat of other computers getting affected too.
4. Insecurity of information: If a computer is on a network,
a computer hacker can get unauthorized access of
information by using different tools.
5. Managing a large network is complicated, requires training
and a network manager needs to be employed
 TYPES OF COMPUTER
NETWORKS
Computer networks can be classified
according to the size of area covered by that
network. This includes:
i. Personal Area Network(PAN)
ii. Local Area Network(LAN)
iii. Metropolitan Area Network(MAN)
iv. Wide area network (WAN)
The main difference among these
classifications is their area of coverage.

14
 PERSONAL AREA NETWORK
A personal area network (PAN) is a computer
network organized around an individual person.
Personal area networks typically involve a mobile
computer, a cell phone and/or a handheld computing
device such as a PDA or smart phone. You can use
these networks to transfer files including digital
photos, music and even email. PANs are mainly
wireless although some can be constructed with
cables. USB and FireWire technologies often link
together a wired PAN, while wireless PANs typically
use Bluetooth or sometimes infrared connections.
Bluetooth PANs are also sometimes called piconet.
NOTE: A piconet is a network of devices connected using
Bluetooth technology. The network ranges from two to eight
connected devices. 15
 LOCAL AREA NETWORK
A local area network (LAN) is a network
that connects computers over a relatively small
distance or limited geographical area, such as a
school computer laboratory, within a single
building or closely positioned group of
buildings. A LAN, the most common network,
consists of a communications channel,
networked computers and devices, a network
interface card, and a network operating system.
The most common use of LANs is for linking
personal computers within a building or office
to share information and expensive peripheral
device. 16
Another popular application of LANs is in
factories, in which they link computers and
computer-controlled machines. A local area
network can be a ring, bus, or star network. It
can be built around powerful personal
computers, minicomputers, or mainframe
computers. Each computer in the LAN usually
requires a network interface card, which is a
board that is placed in a computer's expansion
slot to allow it to communicate with the
network. A LAN uses the network gateway to
connect to public networks or other corporate
networks so that the LAN can exchange data
with networks external to it.
17
LOCAL AREA NETWORK

18
 Wireless Local Area Network
A wireless LAN (WLAN) is a LAN that uses no
physical wires, it works using wireless network
technology such as Wi-Fi. Computers and
devices that access a wireless LAN must have
built-in wireless capability or the appropriate
wireless network card, PC Card, Express Card
module, USB network adapter.Very often, a
WLAN communicates with a wired LAN for
access to its resources, such as software,
hardware, and the Internet.

19
Wireless Local Area Network
Wireless Local Area Network
METROPOLITAN AREA NETWORK
A metropolitan area network (MAN) is a network
designed for a city. It typically spans a town or city and is
owned by a single person or company, such as a local
council or a large company. It connects local area
networks in a metropolitan area. A MAN typically
includes one or more LANs but covers a smaller
geographic area than a WAN.
E.g, businesses such as banks can tap into fiber optic
network resources and extend their Local Area
Network (LAN) up to 160km, therefore enabling a
MAN. This type of network extension allows
organizations to continue using their Ethernet LAN
systems throughout multiple locations in a metropolitan
area. 22
 WIDE AREA NETWORK
A wide area network (WAN) is a network
that covers a very large geographical area such
as an entire country or the entire world. A
WAN can contain multiple LANs (smaller
networks) connected together by a router
which ensures that data is delivered to the
correct destination. The Internet is the best-
known example of a Wide Area Network

24
26
 APPLICATION OF
COMPUTER NETWORKS
The fundamental purpose of computer networks is to
provide access to shared resources, such as printers and
data storage.
Business Applications:
• Used for data/information and resource sharing.
Resources such as Printers, Scanners, CD drives
• Communication Medium among employees. For
example Email
• E-Commerce.This is doing business with people
over the internet

27
Home Applications:
• Mainly for Internet Access to:
i. Access to remote information
ii. Person-to-person communication
iii. Interactive entertainment
iv. Electronic Commerce
Mobile Users-laptops/notebooks and
PDAs
• Access internet regardless of location-wired
connection is limited in cars, airplanes
• Provides a portable office. One can carry out
office business even when not at the base.
Social Issues
• News groups and bulletin boards where people
can exchange messages
28
 NETWORK TOPOLOGY
Network Topology refers to the physical layout of a
network and how different nodes in a network are
connected to each other and how they
communicate. A node refers to any device
connected to a network, including the server,
computers, telephones, and other devices.
Below are some of the common types of network
topologies
i. Bus Network Topology
ii. Star Network Topology
iii. Ring Network Topology
iv. Mesh Network Topology
29
 BUS NETWORK TOPOLOGY
A bus network topology consists of a single central
cable, to which all the network nodes are attached.
The bus is the physical cable that connects the
computers and other devices. The bus in a bus
network transmits data, instructions, and information
in both directions.When a sending device transmits
data, address of the receiving device is included with
the transmission so that the data is routed to the
appropriate receiving device. All the signals are
broadcast in both directions to the entire network,
with special software to identify which nodes receive
each message.
NOTE: There is no central host computer to
control the network. Nodes can be attached to or
detached from the network without affecting the
network. 30
BUS NETWORK TOPOLOGY

31
 Advantages Of A Bus Topology
1) Easy to install.
2) Easy to connect nodes to a linear bus.
3) It works well for a small network.
4) Cheaper compared to other topologies since it requires less
cable lengths.
DISADVANTAGES
1) Entire network shuts down if there is a break in the main
cable.
2) Not suitable for large networks
3) Large Amount of packet collisions on the network, which
results in high amounts of packet loss.
4) There is a limit on central cable length and number of nodes
that can be connected
5) Terminators are required at both ends of the backbone cable
to absorb the signal.
 STAR NETWORK TOPOLOGY
This is a network topology where each node connected
directly to a central device such as a network switch or a
hub. Each node has a cable that goes from its network
card to a network switch, thus forming a star.
Two types of network devices that provide a common
central connection point for nodes on the network are a
hub and a switch. The hub/switch is responsible for
managing the network, ie all data that transfers from one
node to another node passes through the hub/switch.
Nodes can be added to and removed from the network
with little or no disruption to the network. On a star
network, if one node fails, only that node is affected. Any
connection failure between a node and the hub will not
affect the overall system.
33
STAR NETWORK TOPOLOGY

34
 Advantages Of A Star Topology
1. It gives far much better performance as compared to Bus
topology, because a sent signal reaches the intended destination
without necessarily get transmitted to all the nodes, especially if a
switch is used.
2. No disruptions to the network when connecting or removing
devices.
3. It offers centralized management thus making it easy in
monitoring the network.
4. Failure of one node doesn’t affect the rest of network.
5. Its easy to detect the failure and troubleshoot it.
DISADVANTAGES
1. The use of hub or a switch as central device increases the overall
cost of the network.
2. Too much dependency on central device (hub, switch) if it fails,
the whole network goes down.
3. Requires more cable length than a bus topology
 RING NETWORK TOPOLOGY
A ring network topology links all nodes together in a
circular chain. Each node is connected to two other
nodes on either side, and it communicates with these
two adjacent neighbours. Data messages travels in only
one direction from device to device around the entire
ring. The node examines any data that passes by to see if
it is the addressee; if not, the data is passed on to the
next node in the ring. If a node on a ring network fails, all
nodes before the failed node are unaffected, but those
after the failed nodes cannot function. Sending and
receiving of data takes place by the help of a TOKEN.
A ring network can span a larger distance than a bus
network, but it is more difficult to install. The ring
topology primarily is used for LANs, but can also be used
in wide area network 36
RING NETWORK TOPLOGY

37
 Advantages of a Ring topology
1) There is no data collision. Each node gets to send the data
when it receives an empty token.
2) Additional components do not affect the performance of
network. Thus one can create a much larger network.
3) Each computer on the network has equal opportunity to
transmit data.
Disadvantages
1) Each packet of data must pass through all the computers
between source and destination. This makes it slower than
Star topology.
2) If one workstation or port goes down, the entire network
gets affected.
3) Network is highly dependent on the wire which connects
different components.
4) MAU’s and network cards are expensive as compared to
Ethernet cards and hubs.
 MESH NETWORK TOPOLOGY
In mesh topology, every node has a direct point-to-
point connection to every other node. Because all
connections are direct, the network can handle very
high-volume traffic. It is also robust because if one
connection fails, the others remain intact. Security is
also high since data travels along a dedicated
connection.
This type of topology requires a lot of cables and is,
therefore, expensive. Many of the connections are
also redundant since there are several different
paths for data to travel from one node to another.
 MESH NETWORK TOPOLOGY

© 2004 Pearson Addison-

Wesley. All rights reserved 3-40
 Advantages of a Mesh Topology
1) Data can be transmitted from different devices
simultaneously. This topology can withstand high traffic
2) Even if one of the components fails there is always an
alternative present. So data transfer doesn’t get affected.
3) Expansion and modification in topology can be done
without disrupting other nodes
Disadvantages
1) There are high chances of redundancy in many of the
network connections.
2) Overall cost of this network is way too high due to the
redundant cables required.
3) Set-up and maintenance of this topology is very difficult.
All
 NETWORK HARDWARE & TRANSMISSION
(COMMUNICATION)MEDIA
Network Hardware
Network hardware also known as computer
networking devices, refers to the physical devices used
in setting up a computer network.
Networking devices include:-
1). Hub: Is a networking device used for connecting
multiple devices together in a Local Area Network. It
has multiple input/output (I/O) ports, in which a signal
introduced at the input of any port appears at the
output of every port except the original incoming.
Hubs are now largely out-dated, having been replaced
by network switches except in very old installations.
2). Switch: Is a computer networking device that
connects devices together on a computer network. It
uses packet switching to receive, process and forward
data to the destination device.
Unlike network hubs, a network switch forwards data
only to one or multiple devices that need to receive it,
rather than broadcasting the same data out of each of
its ports.
3). Router: Is a networking device that forwards data
packets between computer networks by determining
the best route to the receiving device/network.
Routers perform the "traffic directing" functions on
the Internet.
A data packet is typically forwarded from one router
to another until it reaches its destination node.
4). Gateway: A node on a computer network that
serves as an entrance to another network. The
gateway is associated with a router
5). Repeater: Is a networking device that receives a
signal and retransmits it at a higher level or higher
power so that the signal can cover longer distances
6). Bridge: Is a device that connects multiple network
segments in the same location
7). Modem: It is a device used to change digital
signals to analog signals and vice versa. Therefore it
connects a computer to a telephone line.
8).Network Interface Card(NIC): Is an expansion
board inserted into a computer so the computer can
be connected to a network
Transmission (Communications) Media
Various devices on the network are linked together by
means of communications or transmission media.
Transmission media, are pathways on which the data,
instructions, or information travel in a computer network.
The transmission media can either be guided/bounded
(wired) or unguided/unbounded(wireless)

Illustration
Guided or Bounded Transmission Media
It is a transmission media in which data signals are
confined to a specific path using a cable or wires. The
types of Bounded/Guided include:
a) Twisted Pair Cable
b) Coaxial Cable
c) Fiber Optic Cable
Twisted Pair Cable: Is a cable with a pairs of
copper wires, twisted together and wrapped with a
plastic coating. Twisted pair cables are of two types, i.e.
Shielded twisted pair and Unshielded twisted pair
1. Shielded twisted pair (STP) cable has a metal foil
covering which covers each pair of insulated
conductors.The metal covering prevents
electromagnetic noise penetration or interference.
2. Unshielded twisted pair (UTP) cable does not have
the metal foil cover for shielding cables against noise.
Advantages of twisted pair cables
1. It is inexpensive compared to coaxial and fiber
optic cables
2. They are easy to install
3. It has high mobility and flexible

Disadvantages of twisted pair cables

1) It offers poor noise/interference immunity
2) They have the lowest data carrying capacity
compared to coaxial and fiber optic cable.
3) Twisted pair is distance limited. As distance
between network element increases, attenuation
(signal loss) increases.
Coaxial cable
A type of wire that consists of a centre copper wire
surrounded by insulation and then a grounded shield of
braided wire. The shield minimizes electrical and radio
frequency interference.
Coaxial cabling is the primary type of cabling used by
the cable television industry.
Advantages
i. High resistance to electromagnetic interference
ii. Higher data transfer rate
iii. Can carry many different signals simultaneously
Disadvantages
i. It is more expensive than twisted pair cable.
ii. It is difficult to install
Fiber Optic cable: This cable consisted of dozens or
hundreds of thin strands of glass that are used to
transmit signals.
Advantages
i. Enables fast transmission of data since they use light
to transmit data.
ii. It has high data carrying capacity(larger bandwidth)
iii. Suffers low attenuation, therefore good for long
distances.
iv. More secure because they are less susceptible to
interference
v. Lighter than copper cable
Disadvantages
i. It is very expensive to acquire compared to twisted
pair and coaxial.
ii. They easily break being glass.
Fibre Optic Cable

50
Unguided or Unbounded Transmission Media
 It is a transmission media which doesn't use any
physical connectors between the two devices
communicating.
 It transmits data by sending the electromagnetic
signals through the atmosphere. The signals are not
confined in any specific medium.
 This type of communication is commonly referred to
as wireless communication.The types of unguided
media include:-
i. Radio waves
ii. Microwaves
iii. Infrared waves
Infrared
Infrared is a wireless transmission medium
that sends signals using infrared light waves.
Infrared signals can be used for short range
communication in a closed area using line of
sight propagation.
The infrared waves are relatively directional.
Example of Infrared wave is TV remote, DVD
remote
 Radio waves
This is a wireless transmission that is used for
multicast communications, such as radio and
television systems. They can penetrate through
walls. Use omnidirectional antennas, meaning
they can travel in all directions from the source
to the receiver.
 Microwave
 Microwaves is a wireless transmission that facilitates
point-to-point transmission of huge amounts of data
between remote communication sites without the need
to lay cables between them.
 The Microwaves propagation is line-of-sight which
means that waves travel in straight lines. Therefore, the
transmitting and receiving antennas must be accurately
aligned with each other.
 Before the advent of fiber optics, these microwaves
formed the heart of the long distance telephone
transmission system.
 Microwaves cannot penetrate walls.
 Microwave signals are used for both satellite and
ground-based communications.
 Exercise 2
1. Which of the following computer networks has network coverage of a
small city or suburb
A.LAN B. WAN C.MAN D. PAN
2. The physical layout of a computer network can be referred to as
A. Network architecture C. Network Topology
B. Network Structure D. Network Design
3.Which of the network topologies that if a node has data to send
to another node it broadcasts it to all other nodes
A. Ring network topology C. Mesh network topology
B. Bus network topology D. Star network topology
4. Which type of computer network that the Bluetooth standard
can be best used to enable transmission?
A. Wireless Personal network C. Wide Area network
B. Local Area Network Wireless D. Personal Area Network
5. Which type of computer network needs a device called Access
Point(Hotspot) in order to access information on the internet
A. WLAN B.WAN C. MAN
D. Internet and the World Wide Web
6. Which of the following types of computer
networks is having the highest data transfer
rate?
A. Local Area Network C. Wide Area Network
B. Metropolitan Area Network D. Internet
7. Write down any five components of a Local Area
Network
8. (a)Write the following in full
(i)BIOS
(ii)CMOS
(iii)ALU
(iv)ICT
(b)Give the function of each of the following
(i)ROM-BIOS (ii)CMOS
 more qtns
1. List three differences between a WAN and
a LAN
2. Mention three advantages and
disadvantages of wireless communication
in an organization.
 NETWORK ARCHITECTURE
The design of computers, devices, and media in a
network, sometimes called the network
architecture, is categorized as either
client/server or peer-to-peer. The major
difference between these two types of LANs lies
in how the data and information is stored.
 CLIENT/SERVER NETWORK
A client/server network is a network in which one
or more computers are designated as a server(s)
and other computers on the network, called
clients, can request services from the server. For
example providing database access or queuing
print jobs.
 A SERVER
A server, is a host or central computer that
controls access to the hardware and software on the
network and provides a centralized storage area for
programs, data, and information.
The other computers (clients) on the network rely
on the servers for these resources, such as files,
devices, and storage.
The major difference between the server and the
client computers is that the server ordinarily is faster
and has more storage capacity. Thus, the server
generally performs most of the processing tasks.
Sometimes the server and the client computers
share processing. 60
Some servers are dedicated to performing a
specific task. For example,
A file server stores and manages files
A print server manages printers and print jobs
A database server stores and provides access
to a database.
CLIENT/SERVER ARCHITECTURE

62
 Advantages of a client/server network
 Accessibility - Server can be accessed remotely
and across multiple platforms.
 Centralized - Resources and data security are
controlled through the server.
 Scalability - Any or all elements can be replaced
individually as needs increase.
 Flexibility - New technology can be easily
integrated into system.
 Interoperability - All components
(client/network/server) work together.
 Hardware and software sharing - This reduce
on costs since no individual copies/devices are
bought.
 Disadvantages of a client/server network

 Expense - Requires initial investment in

dedicated server.
 Maintenance - Large networks will require a
staff to ensure efficient operation hence
increasing the maintenance costs.
 Dependence - When server goes down,
operations will cease across the network.
 PEER –TO – PEER
 A peer-to-peer network is a simple, inexpensive
network.
It is a network in which all computers have equal
status, they all have the same abilities to use the
resources available on the network. in other
words, no one computer is in control.
 Each computer, called a peer in the network can share
the hardware, data, or programs located on any other
computer in the network.
 Each computer stores files on its own storage devices.
 Each computer in the network also must install an
operating system and application software.
65
However, only one computer on the
network needs to connect to peripherals;
the other computers in the network share
these hardware resources. Peer-to-peer
networks are typically used in very small
business and organizations.
PEER –TO – PEER ARCHITECTURE

67
 Advantages of a peer-to-peer network
 Less initial expense - No need for a dedicated
server.
 Setup – Easy and simple to set-up. An operating
system (such as Windows XP) already in place may
only need to be reconfigured for peer-to-peer
operations.

Disadvantages of a peer-to-peer network

 Decentralized - No central store for files and
applications.
 Security - Does not provide the security available
on a client/server network.
 Exercise 3
1. State the difference between a peer to
peer and client to server network
relationship.
2. Mention advantages and disadvantages of
running a client / server network
relationship.
3. Mention three factors you will consider
before setting up a computer network.
 Methods of Data Transmission
 When two devices exchange data, the data
flows between the devices as a continuous
stream of bits. There are two basic transmission
techniques for data exchange, i.e
i. Asynchronous transmission
ii. Synchronous transmission
 Asynchronous transmission
 Asynchronous transmission a method in which data
is transmitted one byte at a time with its particular
begin and stop bits. Each byte has a start bit for
marking the beginning of the byte and a stop bit for
marking the end of the byte, as well as a parity bit
for error checking.
 Synchronous transmission is a method of
transmission in which data is transmitted as groups
of bytes simultaneously at regular intervals.
 The beginning and ending of a block of bytes is
determined by the timing circuitry (clocking signal)
of the sending device and receiving devices.
 Transmission Modes In Computer Network
This refers to the way or mechanism in which data is
transmitted from one device to another. It is also
called communication mode. These modes indicate
the direction of flow of information. Sometimes, data
transmission modes are also called directional modes.
There are three types transmission modes, these are:
i. Simplex mode
ii. Half-duplex mode
iii. Full-duplex mode
Illustration
1). Simplex Mode
In simplex mode, data flows in only one direction. In
this mode, a sender can only send data and cannot
receive it. Similarly, a receiver can only receive data
but cannot send it.
NOTE: In this mode, it is not possible to confirm
successful transmission of data. It is also not possible
to request the sender to re-transmit information.
Examples of simplex mode:
i. Data sent from computer to printer
ii. Radio and T.V transmissions.
Illustration of simplex mode
2). Half-Duplex Mode
In half-duplex mode, data can flow in both directions
but only in one direction at a time. In this mode,
data is sent and received alternatively. It is like a one-
lane bridge where two-way traffic must give way in
order to cross the other. Examples
i. Radio call communication
ii. Internet browsing. The user sends a request to a
Web server for a web page. It means that
information flows from user's computer to the web
server. Web server receives the request and sends
data of the requested page. The data flows from the
Web server to the user's computer.
3)Full-Duplex Mode
In full duplex-mode, data can flow in both directions at
the same time. It is the fastest directional mode of data
communication.
For example
The telephone communication system where two
persons can talk at the same time.
Illustration of a Full-Duplex Mode
 NETWORK COMMUNICATION
SOFTWARE & PROTOCOLS
(a)Network Communication software
This is an application software used to establish a connection
to another computer or network, and manage the
transmission of data and information between them. This type
of software offers remote access to computers and transmits
files in many formats (such as text, audio and video formats )
between different computers or users. Examples of
communication software are:-
i. E-mail applications
ii. Live chat and instant messaging applications
iii. Chat room software
iv. Video conferencing software
v. Voice over Internet Protocol (VoIP) applications: VoIP
enables users to utilize the internet to make phone calls at an
affordable rate.
(b)Network Standards & Protocols
In order to ensure compatibility of hardware and
software components so that they can be integrated
into any network, organization such as ANSI and IEEE
propose, develop, and approve network standards.
A network standard defines guidelines that specify
the way computers access the medium to which they
are attached, the types of medium used, the speeds
used on different types of networks, and the types of
physical cable and/or the wireless technology used.
 ETHERNET NETWORKING STANDARD
 Ethernet is a standard for connecting computers on a
network over a wired connection. Ethernet is a local
area network (LAN)technology, with networks usually
operating within a single building, connecting devices in
close proximity.
 Ethernet is the most widely used local area network
(LAN) technology (standard).

81
 TOKEN RING
 Thisstandard specifies that computers and devices on
the network share or pass a special signal, called a
token, in a unidirectional manner and in a preset order.

82
 802.11 (WI-FI)
 This network standards that specifies how two
wireless devices communicate over the air with
each other.
 Using the 802.11 standard, computers or devices
that have the appropriate wireless capability
communicate via radio waves with other
computers or devices.

83
 BLUETOOTH
 Bluetooth is a network standard that defines how
two Bluetooth devices use short-range radio
waves to transmit data.
 A Bluetooth computer and device contain a small
chip that allows it to communicate with other
Bluetooth devices. For computers and devices not
Bluetooth-enabled, you can purchase a Bluetooth
wireless port adapter that will convert an existing
USB port or serial port into a Bluetooth port.
 To communicate with each other, Bluetooth
devices often must be within about 10 meters..

84
Different components in a network can communicate
by adhering to a common set of rules that enable them
communicate to each other.
• Network Protocol: This is a set of rules and
procedures governing transmission of data between
components in a network.
A protocol is a based on, agreed-upon and established
standard, and in this way all manufacturers of hardware
and software that are using the protocol do so in a
similar fashion to allow for interoperability.
Interoperability is the capability of two or more
computer systems to share data and resources, even
though they are made by different manufacturers.

85
The principal functions of protocol in a
telecommunications network include:-
1) Identifying each device in the
communication path.
2) Securing the attention of the other device.
3) Verifying correct receipt of the transmitted
message.
4) Determining that a message requires
retransmission if it is incomplete or has
errors.
5) Performing recovery when errors occur.
 TCP/IP
TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol / Internet
Protocol) is the internet communication protocol. It
is a standard that sets the rules computers must
follow in communicating with each other on a
network. Some refer TCP/IP as the Internet Protocol
Suite.
When you use any applications or programs to
access the Internet, these application will use TCP/IP
to achieve the task. For example, when you want
to surf a network, you will use the internet browser.
Your browser then uses TCP/IP to request services
from Internet servers. These servers will use TCP/IP
to send the web pages you requested back to your
browser. 87
88
The TCP/IP suite include some of the following
protocols:
Transmission Control Protocol(TCP) enables
two computers to establish a connection and
exchange streams of data. TCP guarantees delivery of
data and also guarantees that packets will be delivered
in the same order in which they were sent.

Internet Protocol (IP) – This important protocol is

responsible for providing logical addressing called IP
address to route information between networks.

File Transfer Protocol (FTP)

FTP is responsible for allowing files to be copied
between devices.
Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP): It allows
Web browsers and servers to send and receive Web
pages.
Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP)
This protocol is used for transferring e-mail between
computers.
Telnet Protocol: It provides terminal emulation that
allows a personal computer or workstation to act as a
terminal, or access device, for a server.
Simple Network Management Protocol
(SNMP): It allows the management of networked
nodes to be managed from a single point.
 EXERCISE ONE
Distinguish between data communication and computer
network?
State five benefits of networking
Give any four limitations of networking
Differentiate between a baseband and broadband signal
State the difference between a network server and
workstation.
What is a stand alone computer?
Why is a network more reliable than stand alone computers
Explain the three most common types of networks used today
What is bandwidth?
What is a “resource” in networking?
Differentiate between half duplex and full duplex
 EXERCISE TWO
Define the term transmission media
Differentiate between a router and gateway
Why is a switch preferred to hub on a network?
Describe five devices used in data communications.
What is the function of a repeater on a network?
Give one area of application of infrared transmission.
What is the importance of a gateway on a network?
State four advantages of satellite communications.
Mention five advantages of fibre optic media
State three advantages of coaxial cables
State the difference between STP and UTP
Explain the concept of line of sight in wireless comm.
 EXERCISE THREE
 What is meat by the term network software
 State two types of network software
 State any four examples of networking operating
systems.
 Outline the functions of network operating systems
 Give any three examples of protocols used in networking
 Define the term network topology
 Distinguish between logical and physical network
topologies
 Explain any five network topologies used in networking.
 What five factors would you consider before choosing a
topology for your network?
 Define the term protocol
 EXERCISE FOUR
Distinguish between asynchronous and synchronous
transmissions
What is noise?
Distinguish between peer-peer and client-server
architecture
Why would you install a server in a network?
What is a wireless network?
Mention five merits and demerits of wireless
networks.
State the advantages and of electronic transmission
over disadvantages manual transmissions
MR. DAVIDS BUJAASI LUKONGE@ICT DEPT
The Internet And The
World Wide Web
 The Internet

The world's largest network is the Internet which is defined

as:-
1. A global system of interconnected computer networks
that use the standard Internet protocol suite (often called
TCP/IP) to serve billions of users worldwide.
2. The network of all networks that connects computers all
over the world.
Each of these networks provides resources that add to the
abundance of goods, services, and information accessible
via the Internet.
 Terminologies used in relation to the
internet
 Intranet This is a private network that is not available to
the world outside of a given organisation. It is used by
members of the same company or organisation.
In its simplest form, an Intranet can be set up on a
networked PC without any PC on the network having
access to the Internet.
 Extranet This is a network that is partially accessible to
authorised outsiders.The actual server (the computer that
serves up the web pages) will reside behind a firewall.The
access can be based on a username and password or an IP
address
 Internet Connectivity Requirements

 NIC Network Interface Card: enables the computer to

connect and be able to communicate.
 An account with an Internet Service Provider (ISP)
ISP is a company that supplies connections to the Internet
for a fee.
 A computer: On which the internet is to be accessed
 A modem: to convert analog signals into digital signals
format for the computer to use.
 Transmission media: These are physical or wireless
pathways used for information transfer from one point to
another.
 Software:To access internet services, a computer must be
installed with a browser and/or e-mail client.
A browser is a program with a graphical user interface for
displaying HTML files. It is used to navigate the World Wide
Web.
 Internet Service Providers
An ISP is a licensed company that has a permanent Internet
connection and provide access for subscribers to the
internet for a fee.
Types of Internet Service Providers:
Access ISPs — Employ a variety of technologies to facilitate
consumers’ connection to their network. These technologies
may include broadband or dialup. Always-on types of
broadband connections comprise cable, fiber optic service
(FiOS), DSL (Digital Subscriber Line) and satellite. A number
of access providers also provide email and hosting services.
 Mailbox ISPs — Offer email mailbox hosting services and
email servers to send, receive and store email. Many
mailbox ISPs are also access providers.
 Hosting ISPs — Offer email, File Transfer Protocol (FTP),
web-hosting services, virtual machines, clouds and physical
servers.
 Virtual ISPs (VISP) — Purchase services from other ISPs to
allow customers Internet access.
 Free ISPs (freenets) – Provide service free of charge and
often display advertisements while users are connected.
 Services Offered by Internet Service
Providers
Internet Service Providers deliver a variety of services
to their customers. Some of these services include:
 Offers Internet access/connection.
 Web hosting services
 Domain name registration.
 Domain name hosting.
 Electronic mail services.
 Network installation, maintenance and
troubleshooting
 Advantages Of The Internet
(1.) Fast Communication:The internet provides the
fastest and very convenient way of communicating. For
example through the use of E-mail which allows one to send
and receive electronic massages.
(2.) E-news: The internet provides online news from various
news channels world wide. News events (videos and images)
can also be accessed from different sites as they happen.
(3.) Convenient way to advertise: Through the internet,
companies have widened their business opportunities.Today
companies own websites on which they provide information
regarding their products.
(4.) Research:- The Internet facilitates online research since
it has powerful search engines e.g. google.com that enable
users locate specific information in a short time.
(5.) Source of income:- With the internet, there are
several open opportunities of making money. For example
website authoring, internet cafes, Internet Service Providers,
etc.
(6.) Source of Entertainment

There is plenty of
entertainment on the
internet, such as the latest
music, movies, updates about
celebrities, numerous games
that can be downloaded,
either for a price or for free.
Therefore entertainment is
one of the foremost reasons
why people prefer surfing the
Web.
(7.) Social Networking and Staying oC nnected

Online social networks such

as Facebook, w T itter help
, 8.) Software downloads and
The internet enables

software is free). It also helps

 (9.) Online Learning

The internet facilitates Online learning where by

people from any part of the world can take up
courses with the course material available online,
learn, and do exams without physically being in a
classroom.

NB: Online learning is a method of delivering educational

information via the internet instead of in a physical classroom
(10.) Electronic Commerce (E-Commerce)

 E-commerce refers to buying and selling of goods and/or

services over the Internet.This has closed the geographical
gap between the seller and buyer hence a cheap and
convenient way to do shopping.
 Models or types e-commerce

E-commerce businesses can be grouped into three basic

models
 Business-to-consumer (B2C) e-commerce consists of
the sale of goods to the general public.
 Consumer-to-consumer (C2C) e-commerce occurs
when one consumer sells directly to another, such as in
an online auction.
 Business-to-business (B2B) e-commerce consists of
businesses providing goods and services to other
businesses.
 Advantages of e-commerce

 Transactions can occur immediately and globally, thus save

time for participants on both ends.
 Transactions can occur 24 hours per day.
 Businesses have access to millions of people with Internet
connections.
 Businesses have the ability to gather customer information,
analyze it, and react if appropriate.
 Customers can compare prices easily.
 Feedback can be immediate.
 Manufacturers can buy and sell directly, avoiding the cost of
the middleman.
DISADVANTAGES OF
THE INTERNET
 (1) Theft of Personal Information
(electronic fraud)
The internet makes it easy
for crackers gain personal
information through
unsecured connections by
planting phishing software.
Especially if services such as
online-banking, social
networking are used.

117
 (2.) Malware Threats
It’s

Computer virus corrupt important

118
 (3). Wrong/misleading information
 There is a lot of
wrong/misleading
information on the ?????????????
internet since anyone
can post anything, and
much of it is not
correct.
(4) Moral Decay due to pornographic
material

The internet has made it

very easy for young
children to access
pornographic content
which may lead to moral
decay .
This is because there is
no control over the
distribution and access
of such content to
children. 120
 (5.) Health Issues
Since everything on the
internet is addictive,
people tend to use the
computers for long
hours which results
into health problems,
such as sight problems
especially due to over
bright monitors.

121
 (6.) Social Isolation
Some people are
getting addicted to
the internet and thus
causing problems with
their interactions of
friends and loved
ones.

122
Trial Qtns
1. Internet is a harmful tool to man,
what is your opinion?
2. Explain the merits and demerits of
using the internet.
3. Explain the factors that affect
internet speeds

123
 How Data Travels Over The Internet

 The Internet operates with a technique called packet

switching.
 Packet switching is a method of slicing digital
messages into discrete units called packets before
they are sent over a network.
 Each packet is then transmitted individually and can
even follow different routes to its destination.
 Once all the packets forming a message arrive at the
destination, they are recompiled into the original
message
In packet-switched networks, messages are first broken
down into packets. Appended to each packet are digital
codes that indicate a source address and a destination
address, as well as sequencing information and error-
control information for the packet.
 The address information is used to route the packets
of data to their destination.
 The sequencing information is used to help reassemble
the packets into their original order for presentation to
the recipient.
 The packets travel from computer to computer until
they reach their destination. These computers are
called routers.
 A router is a device that interconnects the different
computer networks that make up the Internet and
routes packets along to their ultimate destination as
they travel. To ensure that packets take the best
available path toward their destination, routers use a
computer program called a routing table.
 Internet Addresses
An Internet address uniquely identifies a computer on the
internet.
1. IP(internet protocol) address. An Internet Protocol
address (IP address) is a unique number assigned to each
device participating in a computer network for easy
identification during communication.
 The IP address usually consists of four groups of
numbers, each separated by a period. For example,
192.168.1.223 is an IP address.
 In general, the first portion of each IP address identifies
the network and the last portion identifies the specific
computer.
 IP addresses can be assigned to computers manually
(static) or dynamically using a LAN server. The most
common IP assignment server is called DHCP (Dynamic
Host Configuration Protocol) server.
 2. Uniform resource locator (URL)

 URL is the global address for documents and other

resources on the World Wide Web.
 It is the name given to a particular website. Example:
www.google.com.
 A URL has two main parts
◦ The first part of the URL is called a protocol identifier
and it indicates what protocol to use.
◦ resource name and it specifies the IP address or the
domain name
Domain Name
 Domain name is text or words that stand-in for numeric IP
addresses. For example, in the URL http://www.google.com, the
domain name is google.com.
Top level domain (TLD)
 The highest level domain category in the Internet domain naming
system. The portion of a domain name that comes after the dot.
So, www.google.com, the top level domain is .com
 Every domain name has a TLD that identifies the type of
organization that operates the site.
Second-level domain (SLD)

 The portion of a domain name that comes before the dot.

So, www.google.com, the second level domain is google
 In other words, a second-level domain is often thought of
as the "name" of the domain.
 In addition to these common SLD, there is also the idea of
a country code second-level domain (ccSLD). Here, the
second-level domain is actually to the right of the dot.
 For example, in a domain like "google.co.uk," the country
code top-level domain is the "uk" portion, whereas the
ccSLD is the ".co"
 Examples of TLDs include:
i. gov - Government agencies
ii. edu - Educational institutions
iii. org - Organizations (nonprofit)
iv. mil - Military
v. com - commercial business
vi. net - Network organizations
 Internet Services
The most commonly used Internet services include;
I. World Wide Web
II. Instant messaging
III. Chat rooms
IV. Voice over IP (VoIP)
V. Video conference
VI. FTP
VII. Search engines
VIII. Message/discussion boards,
IX. Electronic mail (e-mail), etc
 World Wide Web (WWW)

WWW or Web refers to a virtual space on internet

that contains information. This information is made
available as:
 A website: A website is a group of related web pages or
other resources located on a web server. The first page
on a website is called a home page.
 TYPES of WEBSITES
 Web Portals is a website that brings information from
different sources into a single user interface. They
offer services such as searching, e-mail, sports updates,
financial, news and links to selected websites.
 A blog is a website that contains personal information
which can easily be updated.
 Multimedia sites contain photos, movies, music, web
TV and internet radio. They are meant for
entertainment.
Newsgroups
Newsgroups are organized groups of Internet users
who wish to share ideas and interests. Once you join
a Newsgroup, you can participate in discussion
forums, and debates.
E-learning
Learning on the net is becoming more popular with
courses for high school, colleges and universities
being conducted on-line or accessed from selected
files on the Internet
Search engines
Search engines are specialized programs that help the
user to easily search for any information on the internet.
Common search engines include Google, Bing, Yahoo,
Excite, AOL, etc. Here are a few tips on a good search
strategy:
 Identify a search engine.
 Enter the keywords in the search text box. Be precise
as possible.
 Use quotation marks to identify the keywords.
 From the displayed search result, identify the site that
contains the information you want.
E-mail

E-mail (electronic mail) is the transmission of messages and

files via a computer network.
E-mail software is software is used to create, send, receive,
forward, store & delete email messages
Depending on the hardware and software of both the sender
and recipient, users can embed images, sound and video in
the message and attach files that contain text documents,
spreadsheets, graphics, audio, video, or executable programs.
You use an e-mail program to create, send, receive, forward,
reply, print, delete and store messages. In order to use e-mail,
one needs an e-mail address.
 An e-mail address is a combination of a user name and a
domain name that identifies the user who will receive the
e-mail.
 A user name is a unique combination of characters that
identifies you.Your user name must be different from the
other user names in the same domain. An @ symbol
separates the user name from the domain name.
 Examples of email address [email protected],
[email protected]
 Terms To Note When Using Email
 Compose: Used creating(composing) a new email
 Subject. Subject is a description of the topic of the
message to be sent or received
 Sender (From). This is the sender's Internet email
address.
 Recipient (To:). First/last name of email recipient, as
configured by the sender.
 Recipient email address. The Internet mail address of
the recipient, or where the message was actually sent.
 Attachments. Files that are attached to the message.
 Mail System Folders

 Inbox: is a folder where new email messages are stored.

 Sent: Is where a copy of each message you send is saved.
 Drafts: Messages that you have composed but have not
yet sent can be saved in the Drafts folder.
 Junk: This is a folder in which any mail which is
restricted from reaching your in box is sent.
 Trash: To contain e-mails deleted from your inbox.
The e-mail will only be permanently deleted if you delete it
in the Trash folder or empty the trash .
 CC vs BCC

 CC and BCC are both ways of sending copies of an email to

additional people
 Carbon Copy(CC): is a way of sending additional copies of an email
to other people. When you CC people on an email, the CC list is
visible to all other recipients. For example, if you CC
[email protected] and [email protected] on an email, Bob and Jake will
both know that the other received the email, as well.
 Blind Carbon Copy(BCC): Unlike with CC, no one but the sender
can see the list of BCC recipients. For example, if you have
[email protected] and [email protected] in the BCC list, neither Bob nor
Jake will know that the other received the email. (the BCC list is
secret—no one can see this list except the sender)
 When to Use CC and BCC
CC is useful when:
 You want someone else to receive a copy of an email, but
they aren’t one of the primary recipients.
 You want the recipients of the message to know the other
people who have been sent the message.
BCC is useful when:
 You want someone else to receive an email, but you don’t
want the primary recipients of the email to see you’ve
sent this other person a copy.
 You want to send a copy of an email to a large number of
people.
Other terms
 A soft bounce is a condition where the email fails
to reach the destination because the inbox of the
receiver is full
 A hard bounce is a situation where the e-mail is
not sent because of an invalid email address
Advantages of e-mail communication over ordinary means of
sending postal mails

 It’s faster to send an e mail and it takes seconds to

reach the recipient compared to ordinary postal
mails.
 E-mail communication cheaper compared to postal
mails since no courier fees are involved.
 It is easier to send the same message to many
recipients at once by use of carbon copy and blind
carbon copy features compared to postal mails.
 Messages can be replied to or forwarded with speed
and ease because the software automatically inputs
the address of the sender.
 Other files can be sent as attachments which has
increased the popularity of email in business
unlike with postal mails.
 It is convenient because a message can be sent
anywhere in the world without having to leave
one’s desk.
 It is possible to send multimedia content as e-mail
 The sender is informed in case the email is not
sent so that is able to find other ways of delivering
the message.
 A copy of the message is kept for future reference unlike
postal mails
 Draw backs of using e-mail communication

 The sender and receiver both need internet

access and e-mail accounts which most people
lack.
 Some people are not keen on checking their mail
boxes. So an urgent message may not be read in
time.
 E-mails are prone to computer viruses. Most
viruses are spread via email as attachments.
 The privacy of an email message cannot be
guaranteed. So confidential messages ought not to
be sent via e-mail.
 Requires knowledge of computers and can only be
Instant Messaging
This is a more enhanced real time messaging service that
allows two or more people to communicate directly
while on-line.To get the services, you must first register
with an instant messenger.
Chat Rooms
A chat room is a facility on an Internet server that
enables two or more people to engage in interactive
"conversation" over the Internet. Anyone in the chat
room can participate in the conversation.
 WEBSITE
Qtns: What is a website?
What is a webpage?
What are the advantages/benefits of having a website?
What are the limitations of a website?
Explain the characteristics of a good website?
A website is a collection of related web pages that
contain information such as images, words and digital
media.

COMMON TERMS USED IN RELATION TO

WEBSITES
1) Web page:- This is a document written in HTML
that is suitable for the World Wide Web.
2) Home page:- This is the main page of any
website. It is the first page that appears when
ever a web site is accessed.
3) Sub page:- Is any other page that a website may
contain other than the home page 151
(4) Hyperlinks:- a hyperlink is an image or text on the
web page that when clicked connect a user to another web
page or website.
(5) HTML:- Is an acronym for Hypertext Mark-up
Language. This is a standard markup language used to create
web pages.
(6) Web browser:- This is a program used to surf the
internet. For example Internet explorer, Mozilla fire fox,
Opera, Safari, etc.
(7) File Server:- Is a network computer on which
websites are stored. The process of keeping a website on152a
server is called web hosting.
 World Wide Web (WWW) or Web

It is important to know that www is not another word for

Internet.
 Definition: The World Wide Web, is an Internet service
which consists of pages that can be accessed using a Web
browser.
 The Hyper-Text Transfer Protocol (HTTP) is the method
used to transfer Web pages to your computer. All Web
pages are written in the hyper-text mark-up language
(HTML), which works in conjunction with HTTP.
153
(9) Uniform Resource Locator (URL):- This is a
unique address of a web page.
It is the global address of documents and other resources
on the World Wide Web. E.g.

154
 Features /x-tics of Good Website

(1.) The layout should Be Consistent: This is

extremely important for usability. Use a consistent
layout and repeat certain elements throughout the
site.
(2.) Good use of color: An appropriate color
scheme will contain 2 or 3 primary colors that blend
well and create a proper mood or tone for your
business. Don't overdo the color, as it can distract
from the written content.

155
(3) Text that is easily read: The most easily read
combination is black text on a white background, but many
other color combinations are also acceptable. Use fonts that
are easy to read and are found on most of today's computer
systems. depending on your audience. Keep font size for
paragraph text between 10 and 12 pts.

(4) Meaningful graphics: Graphics are important, as they

lend visual variety and appeal to an otherwise boring page of
text. However, don't over-use them, and make sure it is
relevant to the written content. Don’t overload any one
page with more than 3 or 4 images.

156
(5) Should be Up to date:- Update your content
regularly. No one likes to read the same thing over and over
again. Dead or static content will not bring visitors back to
your site!
(7) Simplicity: The best way to keep visitors glued to your
site is through valuable content, good organization and
attractive design. Keep your site simple and well organized.

157
(9) Error-free copy: Remember the exposure your
website will get. Double-check your facts and figures.
Spelling mistakes and bad grammar are as unforgivable on a
website as they are in other company materials.
(10) Descriptive link text: Long link text makes it much
easier for visitors to find their way around a site. Back links
are important to give users a sense of direction and to keep
them from feeling lost.
(8) Minimal scroll: This is particularly important on the
first page. Create links from the main page to read more
about a particular topic.

158
Cross-platform/browser compatibility: Different
browsers often have different rules for displaying content.
At a minimum, you should test your site in the latest
versions of Internet Explorer (currently, versions 8 and 9),
as well as Firefox and Safari.
Quick Load Times
Slow speed is one of the top reasons visitors leave a
website. A load time of less than 6 seconds is good.Visitors
get frustrated with slow load times.
159
(14) Effective Navigation
Good navigation is an important aspect of website
usability. The navigation needs to be free of
confusion, and try to limit the number of menu
items. A drop-down menu or sub-navigation may
work better on a large site with many sections.
(15) Screen Resolution: Screen resolution for
the typical computer monitor continues to
increase. A good website must be same and work
nicely on different monitor sizes. Today, the
average web surfer uses a resolution of 1024 x
768 pixels. 160
 Benefits of having a website
(1) Increased Customer Base
A primary advantage of having a website means
your business will have a web presence. That means
you can now compete with those farms that also
have a website. It also means that you now have
access to a new customer base – those who prefer
to use the Internet to research and buy products
and services.
(2) Cheaper and Flexible way of
Advertising: 161

Internet advertising is extremely cheaper from print advertising.

 (3) Market Expansion:
Websites have allowed businesses to break through
the geographical barriers and become accessible
almost, from any country in the world by a potential
customer that has Internet access.
(4) Source of Revenue:
A website can be used as a form of media from
which everybody can acquire information.You can
use this media to sell advertising space to other
businesses. Website such as yahoo.com
(5) Increased Communication with
Customers 162

A website provides many new ways to interact with

 (6) Increased Presence
The website, which is an extension of your business, is open to
customers 24/7. That means information customers typically ask
for, such as contact information, address, directions, hours of
operation, and information about your company, and your
products and services is available even when the business is
closed.
(7) Offer Convenience
It is far more convenient for a person to research a product on
the Internet than going there physically and look for or ask
someone for information on a product. Potential customer can
visit your website whenever they like in their own privacy and
comfort
(8) Improve credibility
A website gives you the opportunity to tell potential customers
what you are about and why you deserve their trust and
confidence. Many people use the internet for pre-purchase
research so that they can determine for themselves whether 163a
particular supplier or brand is the best.
 (9) Two-Way Communicative Marketing
Customers can quickly and easily give feedback on
your product and/or marketing approach.
(12) Growth Opportunity
A website serves as a great place to refer potential
investors to, to show them what your company is
about, what it has achieved and what it can achieve
in future.
(13) Cheap Market Research
You can use features on your website such as visitor
polls, online surveys and your website statistics to
find out what your customers like more and how 164

they feel about certain aspects of your business to

LIMITATIONS OF A WEBSITE
(1) Cost:- Start-up and maintenance costs of a
websites are relatively high. Since it requires
constant updating of its content.
(2) Requires some expertise:- For example
knowledge of computers and the Internet in general.
This applies to both the potential clients and
website owners.
(3) Availability of internet:- Website services
may not be of any use in an area where there is no
internet connection. 165
(4) Security:- This can also be an issue with
online businesses, and can manifest itself as a
threat in several ways. For example security can
be compromised, allowing a cracker to
manipulate the information there.
(5) Copyright:- Online businesses that use
websites experience the threat of Internet law
which does not provide the same protection for
copyright violation as trade regulations do for
physical items. Such as, product ideas, logos,
slogans, written content, design, concept, are
vulnerable in an online business.
166
 Trial Qtns
1. Explain why a school should have a website

167