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 This copy of the TypeScript handbook was
created on Friday, June 24, 2022 against commit
e538f6 with TypeScript 4.7.
Table of Contents

The TypeScript Handbook Your first step to learn TypeScript

The Basics Step one in learning TypeScript: The basic types.
Everyday Types The language primitives.
Understand how TypeScript uses JavaScript knowledge
Narrowing
to reduce the amount of type syntax in your projects.
More on Functions Learn about how Functions work in TypeScript.
How TypeScript describes the shapes of JavaScript
Object Types
objects.
An overview of the ways in which you can create more
Creating Types from Types
types from existing types.
Generics Types which take parameters
Keyof Type Operator Using the keyof operator in type contexts.
Typeof Type Operator Using the typeof operator in type contexts.
Indexed Access Types Using Type['a'] syntax to access a subset of a type.
Create types which act like if statements in the type
Conditional Types
system.
Mapped Types Generating types by re-using an existing type.
Generating mapping types which change properties via
Template Literal Types
template literal strings.
Classes How classes work in TypeScript
How JavaScript handles communicating across file
Modules
boundaries.
The TypeScript Handbook

About this Handbook

Over 20 years after its introduction to the programming community, JavaScript is now one of the
most widespread cross-platform languages ever created. Starting as a small scripting language for
adding trivial interactivity to webpages, JavaScript has grown to be a language of choice for both
frontend and backend applications of every size. While the size, scope, and complexity of programs
written in JavaScript has grown exponentially, the ability of the JavaScript language to express the
relationships between different units of code has not. Combined with JavaScript's rather peculiar
runtime semantics, this mismatch between language and program complexity has made JavaScript
development a difficult task to manage at scale.

The most common kinds of errors that programmers write can be described as type errors: a
certain kind of value was used where a different kind of value was expected. This could be due to
simple typos, a failure to understand the API surface of a library, incorrect assumptions about
runtime behavior, or other errors. The goal of TypeScript is to be a static typechecker for JavaScript
programs - in other words, a tool that runs before your code runs (static) and ensures that the types
of the program are correct (typechecked).

If you are coming to TypeScript without a JavaScript background, with the intention of TypeScript
being your first language, we recommend you first start reading the documentation on either the
Microsoft Learn JavaScript tutorial or read JavaScript at the Mozilla Web Docs. If you have
experience in other languages, you should be able to pick up JavaScript syntax quite quickly by
reading the handbook.

How is this Handbook Structured

The handbook is split into two sections:

The Handbook

The TypeScript Handbook is intended to be a comprehensive document that explains TypeScript

to everyday programmers. You can read the handbook by going from top to bottom in the left-
hand navigation.

You should expect each chapter or page to provide you with a strong understanding of the given
concepts. The TypeScript Handbook is not a complete language specification, but it is intended to
be a comprehensive guide to all of the language's features and behaviors.
 A reader who completes the walkthrough should be able to:

Read and understand commonly-used TypeScript syntax and patterns

Explain the effects of important compiler options

Correctly predict type system behavior in most cases

In the interests of clarity and brevity, the main content of the Handbook will not explore every
edge case or minutiae of the features being covered. You can find more details on particular
concepts in the reference articles.

Reference Files

The reference section below the handbook in the navigation is built to provide a richer
understanding of how a particular part of TypeScript works. You can read it top-to-bottom, but
each section aims to provide a deeper explanation of a single concept - meaning there is no aim
for continuity.

Non-Goals

The Handbook is also intended to be a concise document that can be comfortably read in a few
hours. Certain topics won't be covered in order to keep things short.

Specifically, the Handbook does not fully introduce core JavaScript basics like functions, classes, and
closures. Where appropriate, we'll include links to background reading that you can use to read up
on those concepts.

The Handbook also isn't intended to be a replacement for a language specification. In some cases,
edge cases or formal descriptions of behavior will be skipped in favor of high-level, easier-to-
understand explanations. Instead, there are separate reference pages that more precisely and
formally describe many aspects of TypeScript's behavior. The reference pages are not intended for
readers unfamiliar with TypeScript, so they may use advanced terminology or reference topics you
haven't read about yet.

Finally, the Handbook won't cover how TypeScript interacts with other tools, except where
necessary. Topics like how to configure TypeScript with webpack, rollup, parcel, react, babel, closure,
lerna, rush, bazel, preact, vue, angular, svelte, jquery, yarn, or npm are out of scope - you can find
these resources elsewhere on the web.

Get Started
Before getting started with The Basics, we recommend reading one of the following introductory
pages. These introductions are intended to highlight key similarities and differences between
TypeScript and your favored programming language, and clear up common misconceptions
specific to those languages.

TypeScript for New Programmers

TypeScript for JavaScript Programmers

TypeScript for OOP Programmers

TypeScript for Functional Programmers

Otherwise, jump to The Basics or grab a copy in Epub or PDF form.

The Basics
Each and every value in JavaScript has a set of behaviors you can observe from running different
operations. That sounds abstract, but as a quick example, consider some operations we might run
on a variable named message .

// Accessing the property 'toLowerCase'

// on 'message' and then calling it
message.toLowerCase();

// Calling 'message'
message();

If we break this down, the first runnable line of code accesses a property called toLowerCase and
then calls it. The second one tries to call message directly.

But assuming we don't know the value of message - and that's pretty common - we can't reliably
say what results we'll get from trying to run any of this code. The behavior of each operation
depends entirely on what value we had in the first place.

Is message callable?

Does it have a property called toLowerCase on it?

If it does, is toLowerCase even callable?

If both of these values are callable, what do they return?

The answers to these questions are usually things we keep in our heads when we write JavaScript,
and we have to hope we got all the details right.

Let's say message was defined in the following way.

const message = "Hello World!";

As you can probably guess, if we try to run message.toLowerCase() , we'll get the same string
only in lower-case.
What about that second line of code? If you're familiar with JavaScript, you'll know this fails with an
exception:

TypeError: message is not a function

It'd be great if we could avoid mistakes like this.

When we run our code, the way that our JavaScript runtime chooses what to do is by figuring out
the type of the value - what sorts of behaviors and capabilities it has. That's part of what that
TypeError is alluding to - it's saying that the string "Hello World!" cannot be called as a
function.

For some values, such as the primitives string and number , we can identify their type at runtime
using the typeof operator. But for other things like functions, there's no corresponding runtime
mechanism to identify their types. For example, consider this function:

function fn(x) {
return x.flip();
}

We can observe by reading the code that this function will only work if given an object with a
callable flip property, but JavaScript doesn't surface this information in a way that we can check
while the code is running. The only way in pure JavaScript to tell what fn does with a particular
value is to call it and see what happens. This kind of behavior makes it hard to predict what code
will do before it runs, which means it's harder to know what your code is going to do while you're
writing it.

Seen in this way, a type is the concept of describing which values can be passed to fn and which
will crash. JavaScript only truly provides dynamic typing - running the code to see what happens.

The alternative is to use a static type system to make predictions about what code is expected
before it runs.

Static type-checking
Think back to that TypeError we got earlier from trying to call a string as a function. Most
people don't like to get any sorts of errors when running their code - those are considered bugs!
And when we write new code, we try our best to avoid introducing new bugs.
If we add just a bit of code, save our file, re-run the code, and immediately see the error, we might
be able to isolate the problem quickly; but that's not always the case. We might not have tested the
feature thoroughly enough, so we might never actually run into a potential error that would be
thrown! Or if we were lucky enough to witness the error, we might have ended up doing large
refactorings and adding a lot of different code that we're forced to dig through.

Ideally, we could have a tool that helps us find these bugs before our code runs. That's what a static
type-checker like TypeScript does. Static types systems describe the shapes and behaviors of what
our values will be when we run our programs. A type-checker like TypeScript uses that information
and tells us when things might be going off the rails.

const message = "hello!";

message();

This
This expression
expression is
is not
not callable.
callable.
Type
Type 'String'
'String' has
has no
no call
call signatures.
signatures.

Running that last sample with TypeScript will give us an error message before we run the code in
the first place.

Non-exception Failures
So far we've been discussing certain things like runtime errors - cases where the JavaScript runtime
tells us that it thinks something is nonsensical. Those cases come up because the ECMAScript
specification has explicit instructions on how the language should behave when it runs into
something unexpected.

For example, the specification says that trying to call something that isn't callable should throw an
error. Maybe that sounds like "obvious behavior", but you could imagine that accessing a property
that doesn't exist on an object should throw an error too. Instead, JavaScript gives us different
behavior and returns the value undefined :

const user = {
name: "Daniel",
age: 26,
};

user.location; // returns undefined

Ultimately, a static type system has to make the call over what code should be flagged as an error in
its system, even if it's "valid" JavaScript that won't immediately throw an error. In TypeScript, the
following code produces an error about location not being defined:

const user = {
name: "Daniel",
age: 26,
};

user.location;

Property
Property 'location'
'location' does
does not
not exist
exist on
on type
type '{
'{ name:
name: string;
string; age:
age: number;
number;
}'. }'.

While sometimes that implies a trade-off in what you can express, the intent is to catch legitimate
bugs in our programs. And TypeScript catches a lot of legitimate bugs.

For example: typos,

const announcement = "Hello World!";

// How quickly can you spot the typos?

announcement.toLocaleLowercase();
announcement.toLocalLowerCase();

// We probably meant to write this...

announcement.toLocaleLowerCase();

uncalled functions,

function flipCoin() {
// Meant to be Math.random()
return Math.random < 0.5;

Operator
Operator '<'
'<' cannot
cannot be
be applied
applied to
to types
types '()
'() =>
=> number'
number' and
and 'number'.
'number'.

or basic logic errors.

 const value = Math.random() < 0.5 ? "a" : "b";
if (value !== "a") {
// ...
} else if (value === "b") {

This
This condition
condition will
will always
always return
return 'false'
'false' since
since the
the types
types '"a"'
'"a"' and
and '"b"'
'"b"'
have nohave
overlap.
no overlap.

// Oops, unreachable
}

Types for Tooling

TypeScript can catch bugs when we make mistakes in our code. That's great, but TypeScript can
also prevent us from making those mistakes in the first place.

The type-checker has information to check things like whether we're accessing the right properties
on variables and other properties. Once it has that information, it can also start suggesting which
properties you might want to use.

That means TypeScript can be leveraged for editing code too, and the core type-checker can
provide error messages and code completion as you type in the editor. That's part of what people
often refer to when they talk about tooling in TypeScript.

import express from "express";

const app = express();

app.get("/", function (req, res) {

res.sen
send
}); sendDate

sendfile
app.listen(3000);
sendFile

TypeScript takes tooling seriously, and that goes beyond completions and errors as you type. An
editor that supports TypeScript can deliver "quick fixes" to automatically fix errors, refactorings to
easily re-organize code, and useful navigation features for jumping to definitions of a variable, or
finding all references to a given variable. All of this is built on top of the type-checker and is fully
cross-platform, so it's likely that your favorite editor has TypeScript support available.
 tsc , the TypeScript compiler
We've been talking about type-checking, but we haven't yet used our type-checker. Let's get
acquainted with our new friend tsc , the TypeScript compiler. First we'll need to grab it via npm.

npm install -g typescript

This installs the TypeScript Compiler tsc globally. You can use npx or similar tools if you'd prefer to
run tsc from a local node_modules package instead.

Now let's move to an empty folder and try writing our first TypeScript program: hello.ts :

// Greets the world.

console.log("Hello world!");

Notice there are no frills here; this "hello world" program looks identical to what you'd write for a
"hello world" program in JavaScript. And now let's type-check it by running the command tsc
which was installed for us by the typescript package.

tsc hello.ts

Tada!

Wait, "tada" what exactly? We ran tsc and nothing happened! Well, there were no type errors, so
we didn't get any output in our console since there was nothing to report.

But check again - we got some file output instead. If we look in our current directory, we'll see a
hello.js file next to hello.ts . That's the output from our hello.ts file after tsc compiles
or transforms it into a plain JavaScript file. And if we check the contents, we'll see what TypeScript
spits out after it processes a .ts file:

// Greets the world.

console.log("Hello world!");
In this case, there was very little for TypeScript to transform, so it looks identical to what we wrote.
The compiler tries to emit clean readable code that looks like something a person would write.
While that's not always so easy, TypeScript indents consistently, is mindful of when our code spans
across different lines of code, and tries to keep comments around.

What about if we did introduce a type-checking error? Let's rewrite hello.ts :

// This is an industrial-grade general-purpose greeter function:

function greet(person, date) {
console.log(`Hello ${person}, today is ${date}!`);
}

greet("Brendan");

If we run tsc hello.ts again, notice that we get an error on the command line!

Expected 2 arguments, but got 1.

TypeScript is telling us we forgot to pass an argument to the greet function, and rightfully so. So
far we've only written standard JavaScript, and yet type-checking was still able to find problems
with our code. Thanks TypeScript!

Emitting with Errors

One thing you might not have noticed from the last example was that our hello.js file changed
again. If we open that file up then we'll see that the contents still basically look the same as our
input file. That might be a bit surprising given the fact that tsc reported an error about our code,
but this is based on one of TypeScript's core values: much of the time, you will know better than
TypeScript.

To reiterate from earlier, type-checking code limits the sorts of programs you can run, and so there's
a tradeoff on what sorts of things a type-checker finds acceptable. Most of the time that's okay, but
there are scenarios where those checks get in the way. For example, imagine yourself migrating
JavaScript code over to TypeScript and introducing type-checking errors. Eventually you'll get
around to cleaning things up for the type-checker, but that original JavaScript code was already
working! Why should converting it over to TypeScript stop you from running it?

So TypeScript doesn't get in your way. Of course, over time, you may want to be a bit more
defensive against mistakes, and make TypeScript act a bit more strictly. In that case, you can use the
noEmitOnError compiler option. Try changing your hello.ts file and running tsc with that
flag:

tsc --noEmitOnError hello.ts

You'll notice that hello.js never gets updated.

Explicit Types
Up until now, we haven't told TypeScript what person or date are. Let's edit the code to tell
TypeScript that person is a string , and that date should be a Date object. We'll also use the
toDateString() method on date .

function greet(person: string, date: Date) {

console.log(`Hello ${person}, today is ${date.toDateString()}!`);
}

What we did was add type annotations on person and date to describe what types of values
greet can be called with. You can read that signature as " greet takes a person of type
string , and a date of type Date ".

With this, TypeScript can tell us about other cases where greet might have been called incorrectly.
For example...

function greet(person: string, date: Date) {

console.log(`Hello ${person}, today is ${date.toDateString()}!`);
}

greet("Maddison", Date());

Argument
Argument of
of type
type 'string'
'string' is
is not
not assignable
assignable to
to parameter
parameter of
of type
type 'Date'.
'Date'.

Huh? TypeScript reported an error on our second argument, but why?

Perhaps surprisingly, calling Date() in JavaScript returns a string . On the other hand,
constructing a Date with new Date() actually gives us what we were expecting.

Anyway, we can quickly fix up the error:

function greet(person: string, date: Date) {

console.log(`Hello ${person}, today is ${date.toDateString()}!`);
}

greet("Maddison", new Date());

Keep in mind, we don't always have to write explicit type annotations. In many cases, TypeScript can
even just infer (or "figure out") the types for us even if we omit them.

let msg = "hello there!";

let msg: string

Even though we didn't tell TypeScript that msg had the type string it was able to figure that out.
That's a feature, and it's best not to add annotations when the type system would end up inferring
the same type anyway.

Note: The message bubble inside the previous code sample is what your editor would show if you had
hovered over the word.

Erased Types
Let's take a look at what happens when we compile the above function greet with tsc to output
JavaScript:

"use strict";
function greet(person, date) {
console.log("Hello ".concat(person, ", today is ").concat(date.toDateS
}
greet("Maddison", new Date());
Notice two things here:

1. Our person and date parameters no longer have type annotations.

2. Our "template string" - that string that used backticks (the ` character) - was converted to
plain strings with concatenations.

More on that second point later, but let's now focus on that first point. Type annotations aren't part
of JavaScript (or ECMAScript to be pedantic), so there really aren't any browsers or other runtimes
that can just run TypeScript unmodified. That's why TypeScript needs a compiler in the first place -
it needs some way to strip out or transform any TypeScript-specific code so that you can run it.
Most TypeScript-specific code gets erased away, and likewise, here our type annotations were
completely erased.

Remember: Type annotations never change the runtime behavior of your program.

Downleveling
One other difference from the above was that our template string was rewritten from

`Hello ${person}, today is ${date.toDateString()}!`;

to

"Hello " + person + ", today is " + date.toDateString() + "!";

Why did this happen?

Template strings are a feature from a version of ECMAScript called ECMAScript 2015 (a.k.a.
ECMAScript 6, ES2015, ES6, etc. - don't ask). TypeScript has the ability to rewrite code from newer
versions of ECMAScript to older ones such as ECMAScript 3 or ECMAScript 5 (a.k.a. ES3 and ES5).
This process of moving from a newer or "higher" version of ECMAScript down to an older or
"lower" one is sometimes called downleveling.

By default TypeScript targets ES3, an extremely old version of ECMAScript. We could have chosen
something a little bit more recent by using the target option. Running with --target es2015
changes TypeScript to target ECMAScript 2015, meaning code should be able to run wherever
ECMAScript 2015 is supported. So running tsc --target es2015 hello.ts gives us the
following output:
Another Random Scribd Document
with Unrelated Content
average 16 feet, and it might happen that as much as 35,000,000
tons of that amount would have to be raised in one month.
The North Sea Canal was constructed for the purpose of
facilitating the navigation of the Zuyder Zee, which, by reason of its
numerous shallows, was very intricate and difficult, and in order that
vessels might avoid the Pampus—a bank that rises where the Y joins
the Zuyder Zee, and formerly compelled large vessels to load and
unload a part of their cargoes in the roads. These obstacles
frequently detained vessels for as much as three weeks.[89]
M’Cullough spoke of this canal as “the greatest work of its kind in
Holland, and probably in the world.”[90] It was begun in 1819, and
completed in 1825. The length of the canal is about 50½ miles; the
breadth at the surface, 124½ English feet, and at the bottom 30
feet, while the depth is 20 feet 9 inches. It is a tide-level canal, and
is provided with two tide-locks at each end. Intermediately, there are
two sluices, with flood-gates. The locks and sluices are double. The
canal is crossed by about eighteen drawbridges. The cost of the
undertaking was about million sterling.
At the further end of the canal, at Niewdiep, a harbour was
constructed, which has been very much frequented by the shipping
of Amsterdam. About eighteen hours were formerly occupied in
towing ships from Niewdiep to Amsterdam.
The Amsterdam Ship Canal.—The Amsterdam Ship Canal,
designed by Mr. Hawkshaw, and Heer J. Dirks, of Holland, is a
gigantic example of engineering compressed within a limited extent.
The burgesses of Amsterdam had spent millions in improving the
access to that great commercial port—first, on long previous
operations in the Zuyder Zee, and, subsequently, on the North
Holland Ship Canal, which stretches nearly due north from their city
to the Helder, between which point and the Texel Island opposite is
the entrance from the North Sea, which was then the only available
channel for large vessels.
 The exigiencies of their trade calling imperatively for further
improvements, the engineers furnished them with the design for a
new ship canal, which reduces the navigable distance to 15½ miles,
on a course about west from Amsterdam to the North Sea, available
for larger vessels than formerly entered the port—and has provided
a new harbour on the coast, with an area of 250 acres, bounded by
breakwaters formed of concrete blocks set in regular courses, with
853 feet of entrance between the pier heads, and 26¼ feet
minimum depth of water. The width of the sea canal is 197 feet at
the surface, and 88 feet at the bottom; minimum depth, 23 feet; the
locks are 59 feet wide, and of proportionate length.
There are three locks or entrances at the north end of the canal
from the new harbour. Eastward, and below the city and wharves of
Amsterdam, there is an enormous dyke to shut out the Zuyder Zee,
pierced with three locks, besides sluices. These are built upon such a
lake of mud as to require nearly 10,000 piles in their foundation.
Thus the canal is approached by locks at each end, not for the
purpose of locking up, but for locking down, as the surface water of
the canal has to be kept twenty inches under low-water mark. To
accomplish this, in addition to the locks and sluices, that can only
avail at low tides, pumping power was required at the dyke, which
bars out the Zuyder Zee. The three large centrifugal pumps by
Messrs. Eastons, Amos, and Anderson, were constructed to lift
together 440,000 gallons of water per minute. The works on this
canal took nearly ten years to complete. They included the
construction of branch canals to the several towns and ports on the
borders of the lakes, which, although of smaller sectional area,
exceeded the sea canal in their total extent. Mr. Vignoles, in his
Presidential Address to the Institution of Civil Engineers,[91] from
which most of the above particulars are taken, has stated that the
Amsterdam Ship Canal resembled the Suez Canal, in passing through
large muddy lakes, similar to Lake Menzaleh. (See Suez Canal).
The ship canals communicating with Rotterdam are described by
a recent writer[92] on the subject as follows:—
 1. The Voorne Canal running from Helvoetsluis through
the island of Voorne to the river Maas. The resolution of
March 9th, 1880, resettled the police regulations for this
route; the maximum dimensions of vessels using it being
—length, 110; beam, 13·70; draught, 6 metres.
2. The Niewe-waterweg, or direct entrance from the
North Sea to the Maas, which is without sluices, and is cut
through the Hoek van Holland, thus forming a new outlet
to the Maas.
Besides these approaches, there is another route to Rotterdam,
to which great attention has been paid of late years, but the railway
bridge across the river at Rotterdam causes a certain inconvenience
to vessels using it. Vessels coming from the sea by the
Hollandschdiep, enter the narrow passage of the Kil near the great
Moerdyke railway bridge, and passing Dordrecht, the Maas is
reached above the Rotterdam railway bridge. The Nieuwe-Haven,
just above this bridge, is a most convenient port for small steam-
yachts visiting Rotterdam.
There are two other important ship canals, giving access from
the river Schelde to the inland waters of Holland:—
1. The Walcheren Canal, about seven miles long, from
the new port of Flushing to Veere, which place, formerly
known as Campvere, was a free port of the Scotch, who
had a factory or trade station there for 300 years, from
the year 1506. The maximum dimensions for vessels using
this canal are:—Length, 120; breadth, 19·75; and draught,
7·10 metres.
2. The South Beveland Canal, from the West Schelde
at Hansweert to the East Schelde at Wemeldinge, is five
miles in length. The regulations of this canal, fixed by the
resolution of May 28th, 1880, allow vessels of the
following dimensions to use it, viz. length, 100; breadth,
15·75; draught, 7·10 metres.
 The former of these two canals is not much used, but there is a
great traffic of the large Rhine arks, and the inland steam barges
and sailing vessels of Holland, going to and from Antwerp, Brussels,
Ghent, and other towns of Belgium. The locks, like the others in the
more important canals, take in thirty to forty of these vessels at
once, all masters having to show their papers before passing. These
ship canals are all State property, and are under the management of
the Minister of the Waterstaat, Trade, and Industry. Many of the
smaller inland navigations are under State control, but others belong
to the communes through which they pass. The water-level, which is
so all-important in the Netherlands, is regulated by the Amsterdam
mark, called the A.P. (Amsterdamsche Peil).
The following navigations, with some others, are also regulated
by police rules, fixed by resolutions of the State:—
1. The Afwaterings Kanaal, from the Noordervaart and
the Neeritter, near Venlo, for vessels—length, 24; breadth,
3·70; draught, 1 metre. The use of steam is forbidden.
2. The canalised river Ijssel, from the river Lek,
opposite to Ijsselmonde, to Gouda, whence there is canal
communication with the river Amstel, to Amsterdam, and
also by the old Rhine, viâ Leiden and Haarlem, to
Spaandam, to the North Sea Canal. There is a great traffic
in the former of these two routes, there being always a
great collection of craft at the sluices at Gouda, waiting
their turns to pass. Large and improved locks are said to
be urgently required at this place. The depth of water on
this route is at least six feet.
3. The Keulsche Vaart, from Vreeswijk, on the river
Lek, viâ Utrecht, the Vecht, and Weesp, to the river
Amstel and Amsterdam. Vessels of a breadth of 7·50
metres, and draught of 2·10 metres, can use the route.
The sluices take in the very long Rhine craft. The pace
allowed for steamers is 130 metres a minute for those of
 1·50 draught, to 180 a minute for those of 1 metre
draught.
4. The Meppelerdiep, Zwaartsluis to Meppel, for
vessels of length, 60; breadth, 7·80; draught, 1·80
metres.
5. The Drentsche, Hoofdvaart, and Kolonievaart, from
Meppel to Assen, for vessels drawing 1·60 metres,
between Paradijssluis and Veenebrug; in other parts
vessels of only 1·25 metres are allowed.
6. The Willemsvaart, from the town canal at Zwolle to
the river Ijssel, by the Katerveer, for vessels of the
following dimensions—length 100, breadth 11·80, and
draught 3 metres.
7. The Apeldoorn Canal, from the Ijssel at the sluis
near Dieren to the same river at Hattem, for vessels of the
following dimensions—length 30, breadth 5·90, and
draught 1·56 metres.
8. The Noordervaart, between the Zuid Willemsvaart at
sluis No. 15 and the provincial canal at Beringen, in the
commune Helden, for vessels having a length of 51, a
breadth of 6, and a draught of 1·50 to 1·65 metres.
9. The Dokkum Canal, from Dokkum (in Friesland) to
Stroobos, and the Casper Roblesdiep or Kolonelsdiep,
being the inland route from Friesland to Gröningen.
A deep-water canal communicates between Gröningen and
Delfzijl, in the estuary of the river Ems, whereby the inland
navigation of Germany may be entered, and, finally, the Baltic.
The Elbing Highland Canals.—This system of canals, constructed
between the years 1844 and 1860, connects the group of lakes
around Mohrungen and Preussische Holland, at a height of about
328 feet above the Baltic, with the Drausen Lake, whence flows the
river Elbing, emptying itself into the Frische Haff, on the Gulf of
Dantzic. The whole length of the canal navigation and branches is
123½ miles, of which 28 miles is artificial, and the remainder lake
and stream.
The Puniau lakes are situated at a distance of 10 miles from, and
its waters were originally at a level of 343 feet 9 inches (104·8
metres) above, the Drausen lakes. When the canal was first
constructed, the water-level of the Puniau lake was lowered to the
extent of 17 feet 5 inches, thereby reducing the difference in level
between the two lakes to 326 feet 4 inches. Commencing from the
Drausen Lake, the canal continues level for a length of 1¼ miles,
and in the next 2·17 miles, rises a height of 45 feet 3 inches. This
difference of level was surmounted in the first instance, by five
locks, which have recently been abolished and replaced by an
inclined plane. In the following 4·66 miles the remaining height of
281 feet is attained by four inclined planes.
The cost of original construction was 212,325l. (4,246,500
marks), and, assuming it to have been spent entirely upon the
artificial portion of the canal navigation, which is 28 miles in length,
would amount to 7,583l. per mile (94,376 marks per kilometre). Of
this outlay 70,000l. was expended on the four inclined planes,
exclusive of the earthwork, which latter cost 27,000l., or an average
of 24,250l. for each incline. The total height surmounted by these
five locks and the four inclined planes being 326⅓ feet, the cost of
each foot of rise for the whole length of the canal amounts to

212,325l.
───── = 650l. 12s.
326·33l.

The cost of maintenance of the whole system (including the lake

portion) of the canal and works between the years 1861 and 1875
averaged annually 27l. 2s. per mile for the lake portion, and 120l.
4s. per mile for the artificial canal portion.
The Dutch canals, like those of Belgium and Germany, provide
exceptionally low transport. The butter of Friesland is conveyed by
canals in small boats to the home markets, whence it is carried twice
a week to Harlingen and shipped to London and other large places
of consumption.
One of the most remarkable features in the landscape of Holland
is the large number of windmills that are everywhere to be seen. In
one province not more than 60 miles long, there are said to be more
than 200 of these primitive appliances. The windmills are largely
employed in spring time to drain the water from the low lying lands
and raise it into the canals, but they are “contrived the double debt
to pay” of drainage and agricultural work.
The Dutch canals, which are for the most part elevated above the
surrounding country, in order that they may the better carry off the
water that inundates the land, are provided with strong dams or
banks, which it is the care of the inhabitants to keep in good order. A
system of militia was long maintained for the purpose of keeping the
banks in repair. The ringing of a bell, or some other signal, brought
the members of this force together, and, when the waters
threatened danger, every man was found at his post, ready to repair
any possible damage to the dykes. It is still the custom to assign to
every family a certain length of embankment, which they are
required to maintain.
It is, of course, essential that a system of water communication
so complete and so important to the well-being of the country as
that of Holland should be subject to very strict regulation. There are
two principal sets of regulations—the first adopted on the 5th
February, 1879, for the Government canals generally; and the
second adopted on the 6th August, 1880, applying specially to the
North Holland Canal. There is also a series of special regulations for
the Walcheren Canal, which communicates between Flushing and
Veere. These regulations have been translated into English, and may
be easily acquired by any one who desires to possess them.[93]
 FOOTNOTES
CHAPTER X
[87] ‘History of Inland Navigation.’
[88] The Suez Canal gives this return.
[89] M’Cullough’s ‘Commercial Dictionary,’ Art., Amsterdam.
[90] M’Cullough’s ‘Commercial Dictionary,’ Art., Canals.
[91] ‘Proceedings,’ vol. xxix., p. 289.
[92] Report of the Conference on Inland Navigation at the Society
of Arts, 1888.
[93] They are appended to a work which has recently been
published, entitled ‘On Dutch Waterways,’ by G. C. Davies.
 CHAPTER XI.
THE WATERWAYS OF ITALY.

“Though Tiber’s streams immortal Rome behold,

Though foaming Hermus swells with tides of gold,
From Heaven itself, though sevenfold Nilus flows,
And harvests on a hundred realms bestows,
These now no more shall be the Muse’s themes,
Lost in my fame as in the sea their streams.”
—Pope.

There is no characteristic of the ancient Roman Empire that is

more striking at the present day, after the lapse of nearly twenty
centuries, than the proficiency that the people had attained in the
arts and sciences, and more especially in the arts of architecture and
engineering. The aqueducts which they built for the supply of water
for domestic purposes were vast structures that have hardly been
equalled in any subsequent period, and the canals which they
constructed for the drainage of morasses, or the transport of armies,
were hardly less remarkable.
Early Canals.—Among the earlier navigation works, perhaps the
most remarkable was the canal which the Romans constructed for
the drainage of Lake Fucino, illustrated on p. 154.
This canal, which was commenced by order of the Emperor
Claudius, is said by Pliny to have occupied 30,000 men for ten years.
The lake is surrounded by a high ridge of mountains called Celano,
which are stated to be nearly fifty miles in circuit. The passage of
the waters from the lake into the canal was witnessed by a vast
number of persons, when the undertaking was completed, but the
canal was not sufficiently deep to allow the water from the lower
part of the lake to drain off, and although it was sought to correct
this defect in Nero’s reign, the project was never really finished. As
far as it went, the work is described by Tacitus,[94] while Virgil
speaks of the lake—now no longer covered with water—as well
known.[95]
Hydraulic engineering formed so important a part of the business
of the ancient Romans that the pro-consuls were charged to lay
before the emperors the best methods of changing the course of
rivers, for the purpose of facilitating the approaches from the sea to
the centres of the various provinces. Thus, we find that Lucius
Verus, General of the Roman army in Gaul, undertook to unite the
Saône and the Moselle by a canal. He is also said to have
undertaken to connect the Mediterranean Sea and the German
Ocean by means ofthe Rhone, the Saône and the Moselle, but the
project was never completed. Emilius Scaevius, more successful,
united the waters of the Po, near Placentia, for the purpose of
draining the marshes round about. Other rivers in Italy were
straightened, deepened, widened, or otherwise improved, while
Rome was still “the mistress of the world.”
 Canal on Lake Fucino.

SECTION THROUGH SIDE.

Some twelve centuries later the Italians were the canal makers of
Europe. Alberto Pittentino, in 1188, converted the Mincio, from
Mantua to the Po, into a canal, thus restoring it to the course from
which the Romans had diverted it in the time of Quintus Curtius
Hostilius.
 The use of locks on canals may be said to date from this time. It
is related that in the canalisation of the Mincio, Pittentino so
regulated the rise and fall of the river that boats could ascend to
Mantua and descend to Po, the depth being so equally maintained
that the river was navigable for about twelve miles. This must have
involved the employment of locks, however rude.[96]
The Lake Maggiore is the source of the Tesino, which in its
course is divided into several streams, which, however, are reunited
before it enters the Po, near Pavia. For the whole distance it is
navigable, although at Pan Perduto, where the fall is considerable, it
is sometimes hazardous. Immediately below this spot commences
the canal to Milan, which at Abbiate divides into two channels. The
entire length of the excavation is about 32 Italian miles, and its
breadth 70 Milanese cubits.
The Canal della Martesana, by some supposed to have been
executed by Leonardi da Vinci, was made in the year 1460, under
the Duke Francis Sforza. Leonardi da Vinci joined the two canals
some time during the reign of Francis I. The Canal della Martesana,
which is drawn from the Adda, is 24 miles in length, and in width
about 18 cubits; but when constructed at first, the water it
contained was barely sufficient for navigation for more than two
days in the week, and this only when all the openings for the
purposes of irrigation were closed.
One of the branches of this canal was carried for several miles by
a stone dyke, and afterwards passed through a deep cutting. The
other branch had its course through the rock, after which it was
supported on one side by a lofty embankment, where it crossed the
Molgara river by an aqueduct of three stone arches.
Early in the thirteenth century, Bassanallo had a canal 11 miles
long, which was navigated by the vessels that brought building
stones to Venice. One of the several canals in the lagunes, on which
the latter city is built, is 36 miles long. Between Padua and Venice,
again, there is a canal some twenty miles in length, which has a fall
of 50 feet, to overcome which four locks are provided.
 Milan, like Venice, is the centre of a network of canals. Here unite
the great canal of Tesino and the branch from Pavia; the Muzza
Canal, which commences at Cassano and ends at Castiglione, after
traversing a distance of 40 miles; the canal of Abiato, made in the
thirteenth century, which has a top breadth of 130 feet, and a
bottom breadth of 46 feet; and the canal which connects Buffolaro,
Biagrasso, and Arsago with Milan.
Nor is Piedmont less rich in monuments and resources of the
same description, having more than half a dozen canals which
communicate with the Po at different points. Most of these canals
are, however, of limited extent, the longest, called the Naviglio
d’Inea, being 38 miles in length.
The canals, large and small, in the Papal States, are so numerous
that it would be wearisome to enumerate them. None are of great
length, and most of them have been constructed rather with a view
to drainage or irrigation than to navigation.
Pagnani has left us an account of the levels and other operations
of art, undertaken by former engineers, to ascertain whether some
navigable canals might not be projected in Lombardy; and, above
all, to determine the practicability of joining the Lake of Como with
the neighbouring lakes. In the first place they found that the surface
of the lake of Como was 48 braces lower than the surface of the lake
of Cevate, 62 braces lower than that of the lake of Pusiano, and
about 100 braces below that of the lake of Lugano; further, that the
lakes of Como and Lugano are, at the point of their nearest
approximation, in the valley of Porlezza, about six miles distant from
each other; and that they are separated by a very high ridge, which
would render any attempt at a navigable canal very arduous, even
independently of the very great difference in the levels. The general
map of Lombardy will, on a slight inspection, show these several
places.
The same engineers found that the scheme of running a canal
from the lake of Lugano by the valley of the Olona to Milan was
impracticable. It might, however, be possible to render the Olona
navigable below Tredate, provided the waters were retained in the
last trunk by means of some well-situated locks, and the upper mills
were so placed as not to interrupt the bed of the river. In the project
to render navigable the Tresa, which is the outlet by which the lake
of Lugano discharges itself into the Lago Maggiore, these engineers
found difficulties from the deficiency in the body of the water, and
from the too great slope of the Tresa; to which it may be added that
several torrents which enter it carry into it stones and gravel. It has
been considered strange that these engineers never thought of
another project, of which the execution would be easy, as well as
convenient and useful—namely, to make navigable the Boza, which
is the outlet of the little lake of Varese into the Lago Maggiore.
The scheme of conducting a navigable canal from Milan to Pavia
is of a much older date, having been designed for the purpose of
joining the two canals of Milan with the Tesino, the Po, and the sea.
Galeazzo Visconte, the father of Azzon, began its excavation. In
1564, the completion of the work was made the subject of
considerable discussion. It was imagined that the expense could not
be very great; and that by giving the sluices the common height, a
great number would not be required. The enterprise was abandoned
afterwards, because the canal of Bereguardo, although it did not
reach the Tesino, was found sufficient to keep up the commerce
between the two cities of Milan and Pavia. Pagnani, in the Treatise
already referred to, mentions some other projects of a similar
nature.
The Tiber.—In Italy another great undertaking has been agitated,
namely, to render the Tiber navigable from Ponte Nuovo, below
Perugia, to the entrance of the Nera, from which the navigation
begins to be free and without interruption, to the sea. MM. Boltari
and Manfredi reported on an inspection which they made of the
Tiber in 1732. In this report they laid it down as a first principle,
derived from experience, that to navigate any river with facility,
particularly against the stream, it is requisite that the slope should
not exceed 3 Roman palms per mile (a Roman palm is about 8½
English inches).
 Now, as the fall of the Tiber is 8 or 9 palms, they calculated that
it would be very difficult to steer the boats down the river, and still
more difficult to conduct them up against so rapid a stream,
especially in some places where the fall was even greater, and
where, consequently, the stream must, they held, remain
impassable. They, moreover, pointed out the difficulties and the
dangers which must be encountered in adopting the different
expedients that had been proposed for reducing the excessive slope
by weirs, for removing the detached stones by manual labour, for
blowing up the obstructing rocks by mines, and for removing the
bed, in certain places, by changing its course, or by contracting or
enlarging its dimensions.
The schemes proposed for rendering the bed of the Tiber
navigable having been thus discredited, the same engineers inquired
whether a canal for boats of a moderate size and suitable burden
might not be formed parallel with the river; observing the nature of
the soil through which the canal must pass, the different crossings
that would be required from one side to the other, the number of
dykes and sluices that would be wanted, and the other works that
would be necessary to secure the navigation against all accidents,
and particularly those from floods. This undertaking they regarded
as very difficult of execution, and they advised that it should not be
attempted. They next examined the plan of making the Tiber
navigable to Rome, proposed by the engineer Chiesa, in a report
printed in 1745, but nothing came of these proposals.
Within the last two years, a new project has been brought
forward with the view of rendering the Tiber navigable to the sea,
and it is possible that this work will before long be attempted.
The Villoresi Canal.—The water for this canal is derived from the
Ticino, at a place called “Rapida del Pamperduto,” by means of a
weir thrown across the river. This weir is 290 metres (951·2 feet)
long, and 24 metres (78·72 feet) broad, and of sufficient height to
raise the water in the Ticino 3·75 metres (12·30 feet) above the
ordinary low-water level. Below the right abutment the river-bank is
protected by a wall for a distance of 50 metres (164 feet), whilst up
stream, on the same side, an embankment, partly in masonry and
partly in earthwork faced with stone pitching, has been constructed
for a distance of 600 metres (1968 feet), in order to confine the river
to its present bed. At right angles to the weir is a lock, with a drop
of 6 metres (19·68 feet), the largest in Italy, which serves for the
passage of boats from a channel below, 10 metres (32·8 feet) wide,
and about one kilometre (0·62 mile) long, from the canal to the
Ticino. The channel is supplied with water from the basin below the
measuring weir by means of four sluices 0·80 metre by 1·20 metre
(2·62 feet by 3·93 feet) placed in the wall which separates the basin
from the canal. On the side of the basin, opposite the weir, are two
buildings, the first containing the sluices, which admit 8 cubic metres
(282·52 cubic feet) per second of water into a canal belonging to the
Visconti family; and the second, which forms the entrance to the
Villoresi Canal, serves to regulate and maintain the level of the water
in the basin constantly at 0·90 metre (2·95 feet) above the crest of
the weir. It consists of a three-storied building, in the lower part of
which are six sluices, 2·30 metres (7·45 feet) wide, and 3 metres
(9·84 feet) deep, with iron gates, worked by suitable mechanism
from the floor above. The headworks, which are on the left bank,
consist of a building 67 metres (219·76 feet) long, 6 metres (19·68
feet) wide, and 12·80 metres high, provided with thirty sluices, each
of 1·50 metre (4·92 feet) clear width, and 3·25 metres (10·66 feet)
high, the cills of which are placed at 2·75 metres (9·02 feet) below
the level of the crest of the weir. These sluices are capable of
admitting 190 cubic metres (6710·13 cubic feet) per second into the
canal from the river, of which 70 cubic metres (2472·15 cubic feet)
per second is the amount granted by the concession to the Villoresi
Canal. The remaining 120 cubic metres (4237·98 cubic feet) per
second have to be returned to the Ticino by a specially constructed
measuring weir established at 600 metres below the headworks, in
order to respect the existing rights of others further down the
stream. The passage of boats from the Ticino to the canal is
provided for by means of a channel with a lock 8 metres (26·24 feet)
wide.
 The Canals of Venice.—In speaking of the canals of Italy, it would
be unpardonable to omit due reference to those which give to
Venice, the “mistress of the Adriatic,” her peculiar and pre-eminent
position. Founded in the year 452, soon after Attila invaded Italy,
Venice is built upon a number of small islands, and is divided into
two nearly equal parts by the “Grand Canal,” 1200 yards in length,
and 100 feet in breadth. Many smaller canals branch off from the
Grand Canal. These are crossed by some five hundred bridges, many
of them of considerable architectural pretensions.
The construction of the canals of Venice was a work that would
be naturally unlike that of laying out a canal in the ordinary course.
The whole city, built on a number of small islands, is more or less
constructed on piles; there is an almost dead level throughout; and
the waterways would, no doubt, in the majority of cases, be
naturally formed, at least to a partial extent. There is, however, very
little information extant as to the circumstances under which the
work of adapting the canals to the requirements of the population
was carried out.
Irrigation Canals.—It would hardly be proper to pass from the
canal system of Italy without making some remarks on the excellent
system of irrigation canals that has been provided in Lombardy and
Piedmont. Navigation canals take priority over irrigation canals in
Lombardy in point of origin, but not to a great extent. The Vettabbia
Canal, which is supposed to have been used for navigation previous
to the eleventh century, is claimed as the oldest existing canal in
Lombardy. In the latter part of the twelfth century, the Cistercian
monks of Chiaravalle obtained possession of this canal, and applied
its waters to irrigation purposes. Not very long afterwards the same
order of monks constructed the Ticinello, a canal derived from the
Ticino at Tornavento, and it was used exclusively for irrigation until
1177, when it was enlarged and partly opened for navigation. In
1257, the same canal was so far enlarged as to connect Milan with
Lake Maggiore, and the waterway is now known as the Naviglio
Grande.
 One of the most important irrigation canals in Italy, which may
be briefly described as illustrative of the system generally, is that of
the Cavour Company, in Piedmont, which is derived from the left
bank of the Po, near the town of Chivasso, and was constructed for
the purpose of irrigating the provinces of the Vercellese, Novarese,
and Lomellina. It was Francesco Rossi, a land surveyor of Vercelli,
who, in 1844, first proposed to employ the waters of the Po for
irrigation purposes. It was a good many years later, however, before
the project was undertaken. The head works of the Canal Cavour are
situated about 400 metres below the bridge over the river, on the
road which connects Chivasso with the military road from Turin to
Casale. The full discharge of this canal is 110 cubic metres per
second, and its supply is obtained by means of a temporary dam of
timber carried across the river. The sluice-house for regulating the
supply of water to the canal is built across the canal, which is 40
metres in width, and consists of twenty-one openings separated by
granite piers. Each opening is provided with three sluice-gates,
which work in grooves cut in the granite piers, and can be easily
raised or lowered by the sluice-keeper by means of a lever. The
remainder of the building is constructed principally of dressed stone
and bricks, and the contrast between the granite used for the quoins
and the red brickwork has an excellent effect. Another sluice-house,
placed at right angles to that of the main canal, communicates with
that of the “Scaricatore,” or discharge channel, by means of which
the surplus waters in times of floods may be discharged into the Po,
and any deposit of gravel and sand on the floors in front of the
entrance to the main canal can be effectually swept away by the
velocity of the water discharged into the “Scaricatore,” which has a
rapid fall, and enters the Po again, about 2 kilometres below the
headworks.
The quantity of material used in the construction of this
important work was:—
Excavation 695,000 cubic metres.
Bricks 2,000,000.
 Dressed stone 3000 cubic metres.
Stone for revetment 3000 square metres.
Lime 3500 tons.
Oak piles 2200.
Oak sheet piles 8100 square metres.
Ironwork 39,780 kilos.
The width of the canal, which is 40 metres wide at the
commencement, is gradually lessened until it reaches the aqueduct
over the Dora Baltea near the 10th kilometre of its course, when its
width becomes 20 metres. The sides, when not protected by
retaining walls, have an inclination of 45°. Crossing the valley of the
Dora, which is about 2 kilometres in width, on a high embankment,
and the actual bed of the same river, by means of an aqueduct
consisting of nine arches of 16 metres span each, the canal takes a
north-easterly direction nearly parallel to the railway from Turin to
Milan, which it crosses near the station of San Germano. At the 40th
kilometre the canal passes in syphon under the torrent Elvo. This
syphon is built in brickwork, and consists of five elliptical openings, 5
metres in width and 2·30 metres in height.
The next work of importance is the embankment and aqueduct
over the torrent Cervo, and differs but little from that over the Dora.
The most important work on the whole canal, with the exception of
the headworks, is the syphon for passing underneath the torrent
Sesia. It is similar in section to that previously described for the Elvo,
but considerably longer, and is probably one of the largest works of
this class in Italy.
The next works in importance are the aqueducts for crossing the
torrents Roasenda and Marchiazza, and syphons under the torrents
Agogna and Terdoppio, near Novara. The width of the canal up to
the 62nd kilometre is 20 metres, and as, at this point, a considerable
quantity of water is introduced from it into the Roggia, Busca and
Rizzo-Biraga, the canal is reduced to 12·50 metres in width to the
74th kilometre, when its section is again reduced, and after passing
under the Terdoppio—at which point the new branch canal “Quintino
Sella” is derived—its width is only 7·50 metres. The fall of the canal
between the headworks at Chivasso and the Dora Baltea varies from
0·50 to 0·25 in 1000, and over the remainder—with the exception of
aqueducts and syphons, when in some cases it is greater—the
gradient is 0·25 per 1000. The total fall is 21·73. Besides the works
just described, 480 of less importance, consisting of bridges for
roads, aqueducts, syphons for the passage of existing water-courses
and canals of irrigation, watchhouses, &c., were constructed.
The River Po.—The Po, which takes its rise at Mont Viso, crosses
the whole plain of Upper Piedmont, a plain formed of a deep alluvial
soil, very fertile, and well cultivated. Passing through territory of
Turin, it receives the drainage of the rich meadows, as also the
sewage of that town, and before reaching Chivasso it receives the
rivers Dora Riparia, Stura, Orco, and Malone. The waters of the Po in
floods are dense with rich alluvial matter, of the fertilising properties
of which evident proofs may be observed throughout the course of
this river. After great floods, as if by magic, bare shoals of gravel
become covered with a deep strata of alluvial soil, on which the
seeds of trees and shrubs carried down by the waters soon take
root, and in a very short time they are covered with a luxuriant
vegetation. The waters of the Po on this account are highly valued
for irrigation, as also from the fact of its temperature being higher
than that of its tributaries. The fertilising properties of this water are
now fully appreciated in Lomellina, where large tracts of land which
were formerly bare and arid wastes, are now converted into rich
meadows and rice fields, through the agency of the waters which
have been brought to bear upon them by the Canal Cavour, already
alluded to.
Even in the Vercellese, where the want of water is not so much
felt, the waters of the Po, introduced into the existing canals, and
mingling with those of the Dora, tend to modify the extreme
coldness of the latter river, due to its origin in the glaciers of the Val
d’Aosta and the siliceous-magnesian sands that its waters contain in
suspension. It is, therefore, with just pride that Italians have named
the Po the “Nile of Italy.”
 Although the Po is the only extensive river basin in Italy, there
are many other rivers in that country that are more or less
navigable, some of them inclined to the Tyrrhenian Sea, and some to
the Ionian Sea, but most of them, including the Po, to the Adriatic.
Projected Canals.—Among the proposals recently put forward for
extending, by artificial means, the commerce and navigation of Italy,
one of the most important is designed to provide for the
construction of a ship canal to connect the Tyrrhenian Sea, and the
Adriatic, near Fano and Castro. The distance to be traversed by this
canal would be 175 miles, and the cost has been estimated at about
20 millions sterling. It is claimed that the proposed canal would be of
great advantage to the navigation between the east and the west
coasts of the Peninsula.
In 1889 a company was formed in London for the purpose of
establishing a system of canal, lake, and river navigation in the north
of Italy. This company expects to carry a very large share of the
traffic at lower rates than those quoted by the railways.

FOOTNOTES
CHAPTER XII
[94] Ann., lib. xii. cap. 56.
[95] Æn., t.v. 563.
[96] “Before the introduction of locks, contrivances called conches
were in use to moderate the too great declivity of the rivers, and
which were opened to allow vessels to pass through. These
openings were 16 or 18 feet in width; a balance lever, loaded at
the end, was made to turn on a pivot, and with it three hanging
posts, united by an iron bar, which crossed them immediately
above the sill; besides these three perpendicular hanging posts
were two others, let some inches into the side walls. These five
posts were all on the same face, and the spaces between them
were all equal. When the balance beam turned upon its pivot, the
three middle posts alone opened, and allowed the boats to pass,
after which the balance beam was turned back to its former
position. At a little distance was placed another balance beam,
having attached to it a wide plank, to allow the lock keeper to
pass over, as well as to place in the grooves of the hanging posts
the small planks which served to exclude the water, by closing up
the intervals; these were on the side opposed to the current, and
in number sufficient to keep the water at the required level. Such
gates, or contrivances for damming up the waters of a river, were
in use at a very early time in Italy, and two such were constructed
at Governolo, in the twelfth century, to pen up the waters of the
Mincio on the side of Mantua.”—Cresy’s ‘Cyclopædia of
Engineering.’
 CHAPTER XII.
THE WATERWAYS OF SWEDEN.

“From his side two rivers flowed,

The one winding, the other straight, and left between
Fair champaign, with less rivers intervened.”
—Milton.

Although Sweden is possessed of an admirable system of lakes,

which facilitates transport over a wide area, and although the
commerce of the country is limited, and the population sparse, the
canal navigations are by no means unimportant. On the contrary,
they have been carried out over a wide area, with great enterprise
and skill, and at a very considerable expenditure. The two principal
canal systems are those of Gotha and Dalsland—the former
constructed for the purpose of connecting the two most important
towns in the kingdom, Stockholm and Gothenburg; the latter
intended to afford a means of communication between the province
of Dalsland, with its productive forests and admirable command of
water-power, and the rest of Sweden.
The Gotha Canal is one that has a very interesting history, and its
ultimate completion may be said to make an epoch in the history of
canal engineering, the obstacles to be surmounted being of a
character that engineers had had but little experience of up to the
commencement of the present century.
In Sweden, Gustavus Vasa fulfilled the same destiny in regard to
artificial waterways, as Peter the Great did in Russia. The ambitious
but generally utilitarian plans of the sovereign included that of
connecting Gothenburg with Stockholm, by means of the Wenner,
Hielmar, and Mælar. Eric XIV., the son of Gustavus Vasa, after his
father’s decease, caused a survey of the waters connecting with
those lakes to be made, in order that they might be joined for
purposes of navigation. Nothing further was done during his reign,
but the design was revived by Gustavus Adolphus, who, however,
could not find persons capable of carrying it out, and Charles XI.
was advised by some Dutch engineers that the project was
impracticable.
It was reserved for Charles XII. to commence the serious
undertaking of rendering navigable the Gotha and the falls of
Trolhätten, but the work was not completed in his lifetime. The
projected work, as proposed by the engineer Polhem, was to
connect the Mælar and the Hielmar, the Hielmar and the Wenner,
and the Wenner with the German Ocean.
Difficulties occurred in the way of completing the connection
between Lake Wenner, or Wenmon, and the Baltic; and in 1806
Thomas Telford was consulted, at the instance of the King of
Sweden, as to the best means of carrying out the communication.
Telford[97] made a complete survey, and prepared plans which were
adopted. In 1810, he again visited Sweden for the purpose of
inspecting the excavations then begun, and took with him a number
of English navvies and lockmakers, in order that the Swedes might
be instructed in the work. As designed by Telford, the Gotha canal
was 120 miles in length, including the lakes, of which 55 miles were
artificial navigation. The locks are 120 feet long, and 24 feet broad.
The width of the canal at the bottom is 42 feet, and the depth of the
water is 10 feet.
The completion of the Gotha canal was justly regarded at the
time as one of the most important and able engineering works of the
day. Previous to Telford’s time, an artificial waterway, called the
Carlsgraf Canal had been constructed in the time of Charles IX., and
under his direction, to connect the Wenner with that part of the river
Gotha where it is first navigable. From the end of this canal to the
village of Trolhätta, a distance of five miles, the navigation of the
river was uninterrupted, but when the cataracts of Trolhätten—
locally spoken of as the “Gulf of Hell”—were approached, all farther
navigation became impracticable through a space of about two
miles. The river is here divided into four principal cataracts,
separated by whirlpools and eddies, and descending through a
perpendicular height of 100 feet. Several attempts having been
made to construct a canal here, some of which ended in complete
failure, while others, including that made in the time of Gustavus
III., threatened to involve so much expense, that that monarch,
after visiting the works, ordered them to be suspended, a wooden
road was constructed alongside the river, from the beginning to the
end of the cataracts, in order to facilitate the conveyance of
merchandise to Gothenburg.
The following data relative to the Gotha Canal are extracted from
the large atlas of plates published along with the life of that engineer
for the purpose of illustrating the principal works of Telford.

Details of the Gotha Canal.

Distance. Lockage.
Canal. Lake. Fall. Rise.
miles yards miles yards ft. in.
Canal from Lake
Wenern
to the Wiken 22 1039 .. .. .. 158 0
west
end
Lake Wiken .. .. 12 318 ..
of
summit
Canal at Edet .. 534
Lake .. .. .. 535
Canal .. 581 .. ..
East end
Lake .. .. .. 117 of
summit.
Canal near Forsvik .. 496 ft. in.
 Distance. Lockage.
Canal. Lake. Fall. Rise.
Lake Boltensjön .. .. 4 803 9 9
Canal at Rödesund .. 486
Lake Wettern .. .. 19 1136
Canal between
Wettern 2 841 .. .. 49 9
and Lake Boren
Lake Boren .. .. 6 1140
Canal from thence to
14 63 .. .. 130 9
Roxen
Lake Roxen .. .. 15 1423
Canal from thence to
4 446 .. .. 19 6
Asplangen
Lake Asplangen. .. .. 3 208
Canal from thence to
the
10 494 .. .. 86 6
Baltic near
Soderkoping
Total length of canal 54 1460 .. .. 296 3
Total length of lake
.. .. 62 400 296 3
navigation
454 3
Total length of canal
miles yards
and
lakes in English
117 100
miles

About a mile below the cataracts, the course of the Gotha was
again interrupted by a fall called Akerstræum; and at the end of last
century a canal 182 feet long, and 36 feet broad, was constructed
here, through a bed of rock, until, at the other end of the cataract,
the river is clear to Gothenburg. Before the construction of the
Gotha Canal, the traffic for Gothenburg was unloaded at the
cataracts, carried over the wooden road to the end of the falls by
horses, and again put on board vessels which carried it through the
Akerstræum Canal to its ultimate destination.[98]
At Trolhätta, about 1¼ mile below the point where the river
Göta-Elf leaves the Wenner Lake, there occurs a series of falls and
rapids, the river descending 108 feet in a length of about 4590 feet.
The works which were commenced at this place early in the last
century, were well advanced in 1755, when an unusually heavy flood
caused much destruction and loss of life, and the abandonment of
the works, never since resumed. The intention was to surmount the
difference of level, viz., 108 feet, at the falls above mentioned, by
three locks only, with a rise of 36 feet each. In the canal, as
constructed in 1800, there is a chain of eight locks (still in service),
but these being insufficient for the traffic, a second set of eleven
were constructed alongside the former in 1844. These are cut in the
solid granite. There are sixteen locks in all, with a fall of 142 feet on
this canal (Trolhätta), which is 22 miles long. The breadth of the
canal-bottom is 39 feet in soil and 23 feet 5 inches in rock, with a
depth at mean water-level of 12 feet 8 inches. The number of
vessels passing annually is about 7000.
The West Göta Canal, connecting the Wenner and Wetter lakes,
rises from the former by a series of nineteen locks, or a height of
154 feet 6 inches, to the summit level, which is 300 feet above the
sea, and the descent from here to the Baltic, viâ the East Göta canal,
is by thirty-nine locks. The breadth of the bottom of these canals is
46 feet 9 inches with a mean depth of 9 feet 9 inches. These two
canals were completed in 1832 at a cost of 887,500l. The length of
navigation is 116⅔ miles, of which 54⅓ miles are artificial canal,
and 62⅓ miles lake channel. The traffic is from 4000 to 5000 vessels
per annum.
The Dalsland Canal.—The eastern spurs of the high range
dividing Norway from Sweden run in the south through the small
province of Dalsland towards Lake Wenern, and from numerous
valleys, which descend more or less abruptly to the shore, and serve
as channels for many torrents from the mountain ridges. There are
often considerable falls, which supply a vast motive power to works
of various kinds, chiefly bar-iron forges and saw-mills. There was
one serious drawback to this industry. Lake Wenem afforded the only
means of communication between Dalsland and the outer world;
and to reach that lake from the various works, a long and costly land
transport was the sole resource. This became more and more an
obstacle as increased facilities were developed in other parts of the
world. Hence, some forty years ago, the question of utilising the
Dalsland water-courses as a means of transport was broached, and
this was accomplished in the year 1868. Along the Norwegian
frontier, northward, in the province of Wermland, there is a lake, the
Stora Lee, 20 miles long, with an extreme width of 3 miles, which
joins Lake Wenem by a water-course, having eleven continually
descending basins, together constituting a fall of 200 feet. At the
northern extremity of the Stora Lee are the Toksfor works. At a
distance of 12 miles southward, where there is a fall of 28 feet, are
the iron works of Lennartsfors. At this point the Stora Lee is joined
by Lake Leelângen; and lower down, at the junction with Las Lake,
motive power is supplied by a fall to the Billingsfors works. Farther
on, towards Lake Wenem, there are the Gustafsfors Ironworks and
the Skapfors Sawmills, where several falls occur, the highest being a
fall of about 30 feet at Upperud Ironworks.
The Dalsland Canal Company having been formed, with the
governor of the province, Count Sparre, as president, the directors in
1864 succeeded in engaging the assistance of the late Baron Nils
Ericson, Colonel of Engineers. His plan to some extent varied from
former projects, and comprised the following main conditions:—The
construction of a canal at Hofverud, near Upperud, instead of a
railway, so as to avoid unloading and reloading; a route from Las
Lake, past the Billingsfors works to Leelângen; the adoption of the
same dimensions for the whole length of the canal from Upperud to
Stora Lee, viz., a depth of 5½ feet, a width of 13 feet at the bottom,
and a length of 100 feet between the lock gates; and an increase in
the number of locks between Lake Wenem and Stora Lee to twenty-
five instead of fifteen, as proposed. The contract for constructing the
canal according to this plan, including excavations round the fall at
Hofverud and an aqueduct over the stream at that place, was taken
at about 76,000l. sterling, raised chiefly by shares and, to some
extent, by state subventions. It was stipulated that the dimensions
of the canal should be such that vessels of 75 feet in length, 13 feet
beam, and drawing 5 feet of water should be able to navigate it.
Consequently the locks were mainly of the following dimensions:—
Ft. In.
Minimum length between the gates 100 0
” width in the flood gate 14 0
” depth of water on the sill 5 2
” height of the gate wall over the sill 6 7
” width of the sill 6 0
” length of the gate wall 7 0
Radius of the sill and of the left wall 16 0
Length of gate recess 17 0
Radius 50 0
Slope of the lock chamber sides 5 to 1.
Versed sine of the exterior of the inner wall 2 0
” ” outer ” 3 0
The gate-walls and recesses were all constructed with Wargo
cement. The sides of the lock-chambers are of masonry in cement,
supported by an earthen embankment. The gates are single, and
have wooden bolts; the sills are formed of wooden beams 10 inches
by 12 inches. Timber drawbridges are employed throughout, placed
in front of a lock immediately before the recess or entrance.
The canal is of the following dimensions:—
Ft. In.
Minimum width at bottom 13 0
” depth 5 6
 Height of the bank above water level 2 0
Width of the bank at top 8 0
” towing path 5 0
At the Waterfalls of Hofverud, the most interesting point of this
canal, the rock on one side is almost perpendicular for 150 feet,
while the other side of the stream is occupied by the ironworks of
Hofverud. For this reason Ericson constructed an iron aqueduct over
the fall of 110 feet span. This aqueduct has the form of an open
box. The two sides for carrying the weight are wrought-iron bow
girders, 10 feet deep at the middle and 6½ feet at the ends, of
English iron plate ¼ inch. The bottom and top flanges are ½ inch
and ⅛ inch thick respectively, formed of three layers of plates bolted
together. The top flange serves as a pathway as well.
The Dalsland canal rises 192 feet 6 inches by twenty-five locks,
the summit level being 338 feet above the sea. The length of the
navigation is 155 miles; but the actual length of the works that were
needed to complete the system is only 4·8 miles.
The locks on this canal are each about 98 feet 6 inches long, with
a breadth of 13 feet 8 inches, and a depth over the sill of 5 feet 4
inches. The breadth of the bottom is 14 feet 6 inches and 15 feet 7
inches, in soil and rock, respectively. The canal is navigated by
vessels of 70 tons, and steamers of 45 tons and 25 h.p. The traffic
amounts to about 4000 vessels per annum. It was completed in
1868 at a cost of 81,500l.
The Kinda Canal rises 171 feet by fifteen locks to a level of 277
feet above the sea. The length of the navigation is 49½ miles, of
which 22¾ is either artificial canal or trained river. The length of the
locks is 90 feet 6 inches, breadth 18 feet 4 inches, and depth over
sill 4 feet 10½ inches. The traffic is from 3000 to 4000 vessels per
annum. It was completed in 1871 at a cost of 72,500l.
The Orebro Canal.—One of the most recent canal undertakings in
Sweden is the Orebro Canal, which is designed to bring down to the
town of that name the traffic from the Mälar and Hjelmar Lakes,
instead of being compelled to cart it from the old harbour of
Skebäck, two or three miles distant. There is no special engineering
feature about the canal, which was commenced in June 1886, and
opened in 1888. For some distance it follows the bed of the Svarta,
and is subsequently divided into two branches, one of which, the
main branch, to the south, has a length of 4600 feet, and the other,
to the north, is 2600 feet long. The former is designed for passenger
and lighter traffic, and the other is specially arranged for the
transport of grain, coal, timber, &c. The main canal has a width of 80
to 90 feet at the water line, and has 8½ feet depth. The lock at the
commencement of the canal is 125 feet long and 25 feet broad, and
at the northern end of the canal, where there is a high granite quay,
1200 feet long, the canal is 150 feet wide. The water on the canal is
enclosed by a dam of 200 feet long, and the total cost of the
undertaking is about 40,000l. The enterprise is mainly interesting as
an example of the local application of water power with a view to
economy of local transport.
Projected Canals.—At the present time a canal is projected
whereby it is intended to connect the Kattegat with the Lake of
Wenern, thus bringing into direct water communication the towns of
Uddevalla and Genersborg. The length of this canal will be about
twelve miles, some four miles of that distance being through lakes.
The level of the canal will be raised above that of Lake Wenern by
three sluices. The depth of water in the Uddevalla harbour and in
the Venersborgvik would limit the depth of the canal to about 21
feet, but this would be sufficient to admit vessels of about 3000
tons. The sluices proposed would be 350 feet long and about 45 feet
in width. The canal would be a natural outlet for a large traffic in
timber, iron, and wood pulp, now so largely employed in the
manufacture of paper.

FOOTNOTES
CHAPTER XII
[97] Thomas Telford, born in Dumfries-shire, Scotland, in humble
circumstances, was, next after Brindley, the greatest English canal
engineer. He constructed the Caledonian, Ellesmere, Gloucester
and Berkeley, Grand Trunk, Birmingham, Macclesfield,
Birmingham and Liverpool Junction, and other canals. He also
constructed a number of harbours, docks, roads, and bridges,
including the Menai Bridge and St. Katherine’s Docks. He died in
1834, and was buried in Westminster Abbey.
[98] Cox’s ‘Travels,’ vol. iv.
 CHAPTER XIII.
THE WATERWAYS OF RUSSIA.
“The servitude of rivers is the noblest and most
important victory which man has obtained over the
licentiousness of Nature.”—Gibbon.
The Russian Empire is, in many respects, the most remarkable in
the world. With an area of more than eight and a half million of
square miles, and a population of 110 millions, it is larger than the
whole of the British Empire, including India, Canada, and Australia,
and is about seventy times the size of the British Islands alone. It is
natural that the internal transport of such a vast territory should
present problems of deep interest, and should tax the resources of
the engineers that have been from time to time occupied with their
determination. This has been more than ordinarily difficult because
of the vast distances to be traversed, and the inclement character of
the climate, which practically seals up navigation entirely over a
great part of the Empire for about six months of the year. Happily,
the Empire is provided with a very ample river system, having,
indeed, longer and deeper rivers than any other country in Europe,
which means, of course, that water transport is available over long
distances, without making any special or costly provision for that
purpose.
The enormous distances over which merchandise has been
carried in pre-railway times, throughout the Russian Empire is justly
regarded as one of the most remarkable chapters in the history of
transportation. For many years previous to the commencement of
the present century, large quantities of iron, salt, gold and silver, furs
and skins, tallow, leather, marble and precious stones, in addition to
the special products of China, were carried from the latter country to
St. Petersburg, a distance of fully 2000 miles. The route adopted
appears to have been by the Selenga to the Baikal Lake, and thence
by the Angara to the Yenisey, where the merchandise was unloaded