*Fundamental of computer graphics-

Computer graphics encompasses a vast field dealing with the creation and
manipulation of visual content using computers. It's the magic behind the
visuals in movies, video games, animations, and even the design software used
by engineers and architects. Here's a breakdown of some fundamental
concepts:
*Product Cycle:
The product cycle refers to the different stages a product goes through, from
initial concept to production, marketing, and finally, disposal. In computer
graphics, the product cycle might involve:
1. Concept & Design: Brainstorming ideas, creating sketches and
storyboards for animations or video games.
2. Modeling & Animation (3D): Building 3D models of characters, objects,
and environments using specialized software.
3. Texturing & Shading: Adding textures and materials to the models to
make them look realistic.
4. Rigging & Animation (2D & 3D): Creating a skeletal structure for
characters and defining their movements (2D) or using animation tools
to create motion (3D).
5. Lighting & Rendering: Setting up lights and cameras to create the
desired visual effects and rendering the final images or animations.
6. Post-Processing: Applying color correction, special effects, and
compositing different elements together.
*Sequential vs Concurrent Engineering:
 Sequential Engineering: This traditional approach follows a linear path,
where each stage of the product cycle is completed before moving on to
the next. This can be slow and inflexible, as changes made later in the
process can require redoing earlier work.
 Concurrent Engineering: This approach involves multiple stages
happening simultaneously, with teams working together to identify and
address potential issues early on. This can lead to a faster development
process and a more efficient product.
*Computer-Aided Design (CAD):
CAD refers to the use of computers to design products. CAD software allows
engineers and designers to create 2D and 3D models of objects, simulate their
behaviour, and generate manufacturing documentation.
CAD (computer-aided design) is the use of computer-based software to aid in
design processes. CAD software is frequently used by different types of
engineers and designers. CAD software can be used to create two-dimensional
(2-D) drawings or three-dimensional (3-D) models.
The purpose of CAD is to optimize and streamline the designer's workflow,
increase productivity, improve the quality and level of detail in the design,
improve documentation communications and often contribute toward a
manufacturing design database. CAD software outputs come in the form of
electronic files, which are then used accordingly for manufacturing processes.
CAD is often used in tandem with digitized manufacturing processes.
CAD/CAM (computer-aided design/computer-aided manufacturing) is software
used to design products such as electronic circuit boards in computers and
other devices.
*CAD System Architecture:
A typical CAD system comprises several components:
 User Interface: Provides tools and commands for users to interact with
the software.
 Modelling Kernel: Handles the creation, manipulation, and storage of
geometric data.
 Database: Stores information about the design, such as materials,
dimensions, and part relationships.
 Graphics Subsystem: Responsible for displaying the design model on the
screen.
 Analysis Tools: Allows engineers to perform simulations to analyze the
behavior of the design under stress, heat, and other conditions.
*Coordinate Systems:
A coordinate system is a reference system used to specify the location of a
point in space. Common coordinate systems in computer graphics include:
 World Coordinate System (WCS): Defines the overall space of the scene.
 Object Coordinate System (OCS): Defines the local coordinate system of
an individual object.
 View Coordinate System (VCS): Defines the coordinate system from the
viewpoint of the camera.
 Screen Coordinate System (SCS): Defines the coordinate system of the
display screen.
*2D and 3D Transformations:
Transformations are operations that change the position, orientation, or size of
an object in a scene. Here are some basic transformations:
 Translation: Moves an object from one location to another without
changing its orientation or size.
 Rotation: Rotates an object around a specified axis.
 Scaling: Changes the size of an object uniformly or non-uniformly.
 Shearing: Distorts an object by skewing it along a specific axis.
*Viewing Transformation:
The viewing transformation defines how the scene is projected onto the screen
from the camera's perspective. It involves:
 Positioning the camera: Specifying the camera's location and orientation
in the world coordinate system.
 Defining the viewing volume: A frustum that defines the portion of the
scene that will be visible on the screen.
 Specifying the viewport: The rectangular area on the screen where the
scene will be displayed.
Module-2
*Geometric Modeling: Representing Curves
Geometric modeling is the foundation for creating digital representations of
objects in computer graphics, CAD (Computer-Aided Design), and other
applications. A crucial aspect of geometric modeling is representing curves,
which are the building blocks for more complex shapes and surfaces. Here's a
breakdown of some key concepts:
1. Straight Line:
The most fundamental curve is a straight line. It's defined by two points in
space, and every point on the line lies between those two points.
Mathematically, a line can be represented in various ways, such as point-slope
form or parametric equations.
2. Representing Curves:
There are two main approaches to represent more complex curves:
 Explicit (Non-Parametric): This approach defines the curve using an
equation where one coordinate (usually y) is explicitly expressed in
terms of the other (usually x). Circles, ellipses, and parabolas are
examples of curves defined explicitly.
 Parametric: Here, the curve is defined by a set of equations where both
coordinates (x and y) are expressed as functions of a single parameter
(often denoted as t). This parameterization allows for more flexible and
efficient representation of complex shapes.
3. Common Types of Parametric Curves:
 Hermite Curves: Defined by two end points and their tangents (slopes at
the end points). Hermite curves offer good control over the starting and
ending slopes but can be computationally expensive.
 Bezier Curves: Defined by a set of control points. The curve passes
through the first and last control points, but not necessarily the others.
Bezier curves are popular due to their ease of use and computational
efficiency. They are widely used in computer graphics and animation.
  B-Spline Curves: Similar to Bezier curves but use a concept called a knot
vector to define influence regions of control points. This allows for
creating curves with more complex shapes and local control over specific
segments. B-splines are powerful tools for representing smooth, high-
degree curves.
4. Rational Curves:
A special category of parametric curves where the x and y coordinates are
defined as the ratio of two polynomial functions of the parameter t. This allows
for representing shapes with weights that influence the curve's behavior.
Bezier and B-spline curves can be expressed as rational curves in some cases.
These are just some of the fundamental concepts in representing curves for
geometric modeling. Each type of curve has its advantages and disadvantages,
and the choice depends on the specific requirements of the application.
Module-3
*Techniques of Surface Modeling
Surface modeling is the process of creating digital representations of the
exterior surfaces of 3D objects. Unlike solid modeling, which defines the entire
volume of an object, surface modeling focuses on the visual appearance.
Here's a breakdown of some key techniques:
1. Basic Geometries:
 Plane Surface: The simplest type of surface, defined by three non-
collinear points or an equation (Ax + By + Cz + D = 0). Common examples
are walls, floors, and flat panels.
 Cylindrical Surface: Generated by sweeping a straight line (called the
generatrix) along a closed curve (called the directrix). Familiar examples
include pipes, tubes, and columns.
 Surface of Revolution: Created by rotating a 2D profile (curve) around
an axis. Examples include spheres, cones, and toruses.
2. Advanced Techniques:
 Surface Patch: A small, defined area of a larger surface. These patches
are often combined to create complex shapes. Common patch types
include:
o Rectangular Patch: Defined by four corner points and used for
simple flat or curved surfaces.
o Triangular Patch: Defined by three corner points and useful for
creating more complex shapes.
 Coons Patch: A surface generated by interpolating between two existing
curves in different planes. Useful for creating smooth transitions
between surfaces.
  Bicubic Patch: A surface defined by a 4x4 grid of control points, offering
precise control over the curvature and smoothness.
 Bezier and B-Spline Surfaces: Extensions of Bezier and B-spline curves to
create smooth, parametric surfaces. They offer similar advantages to
their curve counterparts, including ease of use and local control over
specific regions.
3. Additional Techniques:
 Extrude: Creates a new surface by extending an existing profile in a
specified direction.
 Sweep: Similar to extrusion but allows for sweeping a profile along a
curved path instead of a straight line.
 Loft: Creates a surface by blending multiple profiles along a defined
path.
 Revolve: Generates a surface of revolution by rotating a closed profile
around an axis.
Choosing the Right Technique:
The choice of surface modeling technique depends on the desired shape and
complexity. For simple objects, basic geometries like planes and cylinders
might suffice. For more intricate shapes, surface patches, Coons patches, or
Bezier/B-spline surfaces offer greater flexibility and control.
Benefits of Surface Modeling:
 Faster creation of organic shapes compared to solid modeling.
 Easier manipulation of complex surfaces.
 Efficient representation for visualization and animation purposes.
Limitations of Surface Modeling:
 Does not define the interior volume of an object.
 Cannot be directly used for engineering calculations requiring mass or
volume information.
Module-4
*Fundamentals of Solid Design
Solid design focuses on creating accurate digital representations of 3D objects
with well-defined volume, mass, and other physical properties. These digital
models find applications in various fields like engineering, manufacturing, and
product design. Here are some key aspects:
 Solid vs Surface Modeling: Solid models capture the complete
geometric information of an object, including its interior volume. Surface
models focus only on the exterior surfaces.
 Geometric Modeling Techniques: Solid models are built using various
geometric modeling techniques like:
 o Primitive shapes: Basic building blocks like cubes, spheres,
cylinders, etc.
o CSG (Constructive Solid Geometry): Operations like union,
difference, and intersection of primitive shapes to create complex
solids.
o B-rep (Boundary Representation): Defines a solid through its
boundary surfaces (faces), edges, and vertices.
*Parametric Space of a Solid
The parametric space of a solid refers to a set of parameters that control its
shape and size. These parameters can be:
 Geometric parameters: Dimensions like length, width, height, radius,
etc.
 Topological parameters: Number of holes, connectivity of faces, etc.
 Material properties: Density, elasticity, etc.
By modifying these parameters, you can create variations of the same solid
design without having to rebuild the entire model from scratch. This is a key
advantage of parametric modeling.
*Surfaces and Curves in a Solid
A solid is composed of surfaces, which are defined by curves. Here's the
breakdown:
 Curves: One-dimensional entities that define the boundaries of a
surface. Examples include lines, circles, ellipses, and splines.
 Surfaces: Two-dimensional entities that form the exterior "skin" of a
solid. Common surface types include planes, cylinders, spheres, and
parametric surfaces like Bezier and B-spline surfaces.
 Solid: Three-dimensional entity with a well-defined interior volume
enclosed by surfaces.
*Solid Modeling Techniques
There are two main approaches to solid modeling:
 CSG (Constructive Solid Geometry):
o Treats solids as a combination of simpler geometric primitives.
o Uses Boolean operations (union, difference, intersection) to
combine and modify these primitives.
o Offers a clear and intuitive way to define complex shapes.
o Can be computationally expensive for highly intricate models.
 B-rep (Boundary Representation):
o Defines a solid by its boundary information (faces, edges,
vertices).
o Easier to perform geometric calculations like volume and mass.
o More efficient for complex shapes with many topological features.
 o Can be challenging to ensure a watertight model (no gaps or self-
intersections).
*Choosing the Right Technique
The choice between CSG and B-rep depends on the specific needs of the
project:
1.For simple shapes with clear logical operations, CSG might be easier to use.
2.For complex shapes with intricate topologies, B-rep offers greater efficiency.
3.Modern CAD software often combines both approaches for flexibility.
Module-5
*Visual Realism in Computer Graphics
Visual realism is the pursuit of creating images and animations that closely
resemble the appearance of real-world objects and scenes. This involves
various techniques that simulate how light interacts with objects and how the
human eye perceives the resulting image. Here's a breakdown of some key
elements:
1. Hidden Line/Surface/Solid Removal Algorithms:
These algorithms address the issue of obscuring hidden parts of objects in a 3D
scene. They determine which surfaces are visible to the viewer and which are
occluded by other objects. Common approaches include:
 Z-buffer algorithm: Assigns a depth value to each pixel on the screen.
During rendering, objects are drawn back to front, and only the closest
object's fragment is displayed for each pixel.
 Painter's algorithm: Sorts objects based on their distance from the
viewer. Objects are then drawn back to front, potentially overwriting
previously drawn occluded parts.
 Ray tracing: Shoots rays from the camera's viewpoint into the scene.
The first intersection of a ray with an object determines the visible
surface at that pixel. It's computationally expensive but produces highly
realistic images with accurate shadows and reflections.
2. Shading:
Shading deals with how light interacts with the surface of an object, creating
variations in brightness and color. Common shading models include:
 Flat shading: Each face of an object has a constant color, resulting in a
flat and unrealistic appearance.
 Gouraud shading: Interpolates colors between vertices of a polygon,
creating smoother shading within each face.
 Phong shading: A more complex model that considers light source
position, material properties (ambient, diffuse, specular), and viewer
position to create realistic highlights, reflections, and shadows.
3. Coloring:
Coloring involves assigning colors to surfaces in the scene. Techniques include:
 Texture mapping: Applies images (textures) to surfaces to simulate
realistic textures like wood grain, brick walls, or skin.
 Procedural textures: Generates textures mathematically, allowing for
variations and dynamic control over the appearance.
 Material properties: Materials in the scene can have specific color
properties like diffuse color (base color), specular color (highlight color),
and roughness to reflect how light interacts with the surface.
4. Computer Animation:
Computer animation creates the illusion of movement by displaying a
sequence of images (frames) where objects change position and appearance
over time. Techniques include:
 Keyframe animation: Manually defining the positions of objects at key
points in time. In-between frames are automatically generated to create
smooth transitions.
 Motion capture (mocap): Recording real-world movements using
sensors and applying them to 3D characters or objects for animation.
 Inverse kinematics (IK): Specifying the desired end position of an object
(e.g., a character's hand) and solving for the joint rotations required to
achieve that pose.
Module-6
*Assembly of Parts in CAD
Assembly modeling is a crucial aspect of CAD (Computer-Aided Design) that
allows engineers and designers to digitally assemble and analyze various parts
before physical production. This offers numerous benefits, including:
 Identifying Interference Issues: Assembly modeling software can detect
clashes between components, helping to ensure proper fit and function
before manufacturing begins. This reduces costly rework and delays.
 Tolerance Analysis: Tolerances define the allowable variations in the
size and shape of parts. Assembly modeling tools can analyze how these
tolerances stack up and potentially cause interference or malfunction in
the final product.
 Mass Property Calculations: The software can calculate the mass, center
of gravity, and moments of inertia of the entire assembly. This
information is vital for tasks like structural analysis and dynamic
simulations.
 Mechanism Simulation: For assemblies with moving parts, simulations
can be conducted to analyze their motion, identify potential binding or
jamming issues, and optimize their design.
*CAD Standards
There are various standards for data exchange and communication within the
CAD world:
 Graphical Kernel System (GKS): A low-level standard that defines basic
graphics functions like drawing lines, circles, and text. It provides a
foundation for building higher-level graphics applications.
 Standards for Exchange of Product Model Data (STEP): A
comprehensive standard for exchanging product data between different
CAD systems. It defines a rich set of data entities for representing 3D
geometry, product topology, assembly structure, and other product
information.
 Initial Graphics Exchange Specification (IGES): An older standard for
exchanging geometric data between CAD systems. It's less
comprehensive than STEP but still widely used for certain applications.
 CALS (Continuous Acquisition and Life-cycle Support): A suite of
standards that promotes the seamless exchange of technical data
throughout the product lifecycle, from design and manufacturing to
maintenance and disposal.
 Open Graphics Library (OpenGL): Primarily a graphics API (Application
Programming Interface) used for rendering 2D and 3D graphics on
various platforms. While not directly related to data exchange, it plays a
role in communication by providing a standard way to visualize CAD
models.
*Communication Standards
Effective communication is essential in any engineering project. Here are some
key communication standards relevant to CAD:
 Clearly defined drawing conventions: Standardize how views,
dimensions, tolerances, and other annotations are represented on CAD
drawings. This ensures everyone involved interprets the drawings
consistently.
 Structured naming conventions: Implement a consistent system for
naming parts, assemblies, and files to improve organization and avoid
confusion.
 Version control systems: Maintain a record of changes made to CAD
models and drawings. This allows for tracking revisions, identifying
responsible parties, and reverting to previous versions if necessary.
 Project management tools: Utilize tools like shared folders,
collaboration platforms, and communication channels to facilitate
communication between designers, engineers, and other stakeholders
throughout the project.