CHAPTER ONE

UNITS AND MEASUREMENT

1.1 INTRODUCTION
Measurement of any physical quantity involves comparison
with a certain basic, arbitrarily chosen, internationally
accepted reference standard called unit. The result of a
1.1 Introduction measurement of a physical quantity is expressed by a
1.2 The international system of number (or numerical measure) accompanied by a unit.
units Although the number of physical quantities appears to be
1.3 Significant figures very large, we need only a limited number of units for
expressing all the physical quantities, since they are inter-
1.4 Dimensions of physical related with one another. The units for the fundamental or
quantities base quantities are called fundamental or base units. The
1.5 Dimensional formulae and units of all other physical quantities can be expressed as
dimensional equations combinations of the base units. Such units obtained for the
1.6 Dimensional analysis and its derived quantities are called derived units. A complete set
applications of these units, both the base units and derived units, is
known as the system of units.
Summary
Exercises 1.2 THE INTERNATIONAL SYSTEM OF UNITS
In earlier time scientists of different countries were using
different systems of units for measurement. Three such
systems, the CGS, the FPS (or British) system and the MKS
system were in use extensively till recently.
The base units for length, mass and time in these systems
were as follows :
• In CGS system they were centimetre, gram and second
respectively.
• In FPS system they were foot, pound and second
respectively.
• In MKS system they were metre, kilogram and second
respectively.
The system of units which is at present internationally
accepted for measurement is the Système Internationale
d’ Unites (French for International System of Units),
abbreviated as SI. The SI, with standard scheme of symbols,
units and abbreviations, developed by the Bureau
International des Poids et measures (The International
Bureau of Weights and Measures, BIPM) in 1971 were
recently revised by the General Conference on Weights and
Measures in November 2018. The scheme is now for

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2 PHYSICS

international usage in scientific, technical, industrial

and commercial work. Because SI units used decimal
system, conversions within the system are quite simple
and convenient. We shall follow the SI units in
this book.
In SI, there are seven base units as given in (a)
Table 1.1. Besides the seven base units, there are two
more units that are defined for (a) plane angle dθ as the
ratio of length of arc ds to the radius r and (b) solid
angle dΩ as the ratio of the intercepted area dA of the
spherical surface, described about the apex O as the
centre, to the square of its radius r, as shown in
Fig. 1.1(a) and (b) respectively. The unit for plane angle
(b)
is radian with the symbol rad and the unit for the solid
angle is steradian with the symbol sr. Both these are Fig. 1.1 Description of (a) plane angle dθ and
dimensionless quantities. (b) solid angle dΩ .
Table 1.1 SI Base Quantities and Units*
Base SI Units
quantity Name Symbol Definition
Length metre m The metre, symbol m, is the SI unit of length. It is defined by taking the
fixed numerical value of the speed of light in vacuum c to be 299792458
when expressed in the unit m s–1 , where the second is defined in terms of
the caesium frequency ∆ν cs.
Mass kilogram kg The kilogram, symbol kg, is the SI unit of mass. It is defined by taking the
fixed numerical value of the Planck constant h to be 6.62607015×10–34 when
expressed in the unit J s, which is equal to kg m2 s–1, where the metre and
the second are defined in terms of c and ∆ν cs.
Time second s The second, symbol s, is the SI unit of time. It is defined by taking the fixed
numerical value of the caesium frequency ∆ν cs, the unperturbed ground-
state hyperfine transition frequency of the caesium-133 atom, to be
9192631770 when expressed in the unit Hz, which is equal to s–1.
Electric ampere A The ampere, symbol A, is the SI unit of electric current. It is defined by
taking the fixed numerical value of the elementary charge e to be
1.602176634×10–19 when expressed in the unit C, which is equal to A s,
where the second is defined in terms of ∆ν cs.
Thermo kelvin K The kelvin, symbol K, is the SI unit of thermodynamic temperature.
dynamic It is defined by taking the fixed numerical value of the Boltzmann constant
Temperature k to be 1.380649×10–23 when expressed in the unit J K–1, which is equal to
kg m2 s–2 k–1, where the kilogram, metre and second are defined in terms of
h, c and ∆ν cs.
Amount of mole mol The mole, symbol mol, is the SI unit of amount of substance. One mole
substance contains exactly 6.02214076×1023 elementary entities. This number is the
fixed numerical value of the Avogadro constant, NA, when expressed in the
unit mol–1 and is called the Avogadro number. The amount of substance,
symbol n, of a system is a measure of the number of specified elementary
entities. An elementary entity may be an atom, a molecule, an ion, an electron,
any other particle or specified group of particles.
Luminous candela cd The candela, symbol cd, is the SI unit of luminous intensity in given direction.
intensity It is defined by taking the fixed numerical value of the luminous efficacy of
monochromatic radiation of frequency 540×1012 Hz, Kcd, to be 683 when expressed
in the unit lm W–1, which is equal to cd sr W–1, or cd sr kg–1m–2s3, where the
kilogram, metre and second are defined in terms of h, c and ∆ν cs.

* The values mentioned here need not be remembered or asked in a test. They are given here only to indicate the
extent of accuracy to which they are measured. With progress in technology, the measuring techniques get
improved leading to measurements with greater precision. The definitions of base units are revised to keep up
with this progress.

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UNITS AND MEASUREMENT 3

Table 1.2 Some units retained for general use (Though outside SI)

Note that when mole is used, the elementary the first uncertain digit are known as
entities must be specified. These entities significant digits or significant figures. If we
may be atoms, molecules, ions, electrons, say the period of oscillation of a simple
other particles or specified groups of such pendulum is 1.62 s, the digits 1 and 6 are
particles. reliable and certain, while the digit 2 is
We employ units for some physical quantities uncertain. Thus, the measured value has three
that can be derived from the seven base units significant figures. The length of an object
(Appendix A 6). Some derived units in terms of reported after measurement to be 287.5 cm has
the SI base units are given in (Appendix A 6.1). four significant figures, the digits 2, 8, 7 are
Some SI derived units are given special names certain while the digit 5 is uncertain. Clearly,
(Appendix A 6.2 ) and some derived SI units make reporting the result of measurement that
use of these units with special names and the includes more digits than the significant digits
seven base units (Appendix A 6.3). These are is superfluous and also misleading since it
given in Appendix A 6.2 and A 6.3 for your ready would give a wrong idea about the precision of
reference. Other units retained for general use measurement.
are given in Table 1.2.
The rules for determining the number of
Common SI prefixes and symbols for multiples
significant figures can be understood from the
and sub-multiples are given in Appendix A2.
following examples. Significant figures
General guidelines for using symbols for physical
indicate, as already mentioned, the precision
quantities, chemical elements and nuclides are
given in Appendix A7 and those for SI units and of measurement which depends on the least
some other units are given in Appendix A8 for count of the measuring instrument. A choice
your guidance and ready reference. of change of different units does not
change the number of significant digits or
1.3 SIGNIFICANT FIGURES figures in a measurement. This important
As discussed above, every measurement remark makes most of the following
involves errors. Thus, the result of observations clear:
measurement should be reported in a way that (1) For example, the length 2.308 cm has four
indicates the precision of measurement. significant figures. But in different units, the
Normally, the reported result of measurement same value can be written as 0.02308 m or 23.08
is a number that includes all digits in the mm or 23080 µm.
number that are known reliably plus the first All these numbers have the same number of
digit that is uncertain. The reliable digits plus significant figures (digits 2, 3, 0, 8), namely four.

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4 PHYSICS

This shows that the location of decimal point is negative exponent (or power) of 10. In order to
of no consequence in determining the number get an approximate idea of the number, we may
of significant figures. round off the number a to 1 (for a ≤ 5) and to 10
The example gives the following rules : (for 5<a ≤ 10). Then the number can be
• All the non-zero digits are significant. expressed approximately as 10b in which the
exponent (or power) b of 10 is called order of
• All the zeros between two non-zero digits
magnitude of the physical quantity. When only
are significant, no matter where the an estimate is required, the quantity is of the
decimal point is, if at all. order of 10b. For example, the diameter of the
• If the number is less than 1, the zero(s) earth (1.28×107m) is of the order of 107m with
on the right of decimal point but to the the order of magnitude 7. The diameter of
left of the first non-zero digit are not hydrogen atom (1.06 ×10–10m) is of the order of
significant. [In 0.00 2308, the underlined 10 –10 m, with the order of magnitude
zeroes are not significant]. –10. Thus, the diameter of the earth is 17 orders
of magnitude larger than the hydrogen atom.
• The terminal or trailing zero(s) in a
It is often customary to write the decimal after
number without a decimal point are not
the first digit. Now the confusion mentioned in
significant.
(a) above disappears :
[Thus 123 m = 12300 cm = 123000 mm has 4.700 m = 4.700 × 102 cm
three significant figures, the trailing zero(s) = 4.700 × 103 mm = 4.700 × 10–3 km
being not significant.] However, you can also
The power of 10 is irrelevant to the
see the next observation.
determination of significant figures. However, all
• The trailing zero(s) in a number with a zeroes appearing in the base number in the
decimal point are significant. scientific notation are significant. Each number
[The numbers 3.500 or 0.06900 have four in this case has four significant figures.
significant figures each.] Thus, in the scientific notation, no confusion
(2) There can be some confusion regarding the arises about the trailing zero(s) in the base
trailing zero(s). Suppose a length is reported to number a. They are always significant.
be 4.700 m. It is evident that the zeroes here (4) The scientific notation is ideal for reporting
are meant to convey the precision of measurement. But if this is not adopted, we use
measurement and are, therefore, significant. [If the rules adopted in the preceding example :
these were not, it would be superfluous to write
them explicitly, the reported measurement • For a number greater than 1, without any
would have been simply 4.7 m]. Now suppose decimal, the trailing zero(s) are not
we change units, then significant.
4.700 m = 470.0 cm = 4700 mm = 0.004700 km • For a number with a decimal, the trailing
zero(s) are significant.
Since the last number has trailing zero(s) in a
number with no decimal, we would conclude (5) The digit 0 conventionally put on the left of a
erroneously from observation (1) above that the decimal for a number less than 1 (like 0.1250)
number has two significant figures, while in is never significant. However, the zeroes at the
fact, it has four significant figures and a mere end of such number are significant in a
change of units cannot change the number of measurement.
significant figures.
(6) The multiplying or dividing factors which are
(3) To remove such ambiguities in neither rounded numbers nor numbers
determining the number of significant representing measured values are exact and
figures, the best way is to report every have infinite number of significant digits. For
measurement in scientific notation (in the
d
power of 10). In this notation, every number is example in r = or s = 2πr, the factor 2 is an
expressed as a × 10b, where a is a number 2
between 1 and 10, and b is any positive or exact number and it can be written as 2.0, 2.00

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UNITS AND MEASUREMENT 5

t decimal place. The final result should, therefore,

or 2.0000 as required. Similarly, in T = , n is be rounded off to 663.8 g.
n
Similarly, the difference in length can be
an exact number.
expressed as :
1.3.1 Rules for Arithmetic Operations with 0.307 m – 0.304 m = 0.003 m = 3 ×10–3 m.
Significant Figures
Note that we should not use the rule (1) applicable
The result of a calculation involving approximate for multiplication and division and write 664 g as
measured values of quantities (i.e. values with the result in the example of addition and
limited number of significant figures) must 3.00 × 10–3 m in the example of subtraction. They
reflect the uncertainties in the original do not convey the precision of measurement
measured values. It cannot be more accurate properly. For addition and subtraction, the rule
than the original measured values themselves
is in terms of decimal places.
on which the result is based. In general, the
final result should not have more significant 1.3.2 Rounding off the Uncertain Digits
figures than the original data from which it was The result of computation with approximate
obtained. Thus, if mass of an object is measured numbers, which contain more than one
to be, say, 4.237 g (four significant figures) and uncertain digit, should be rounded off. The rules
its volume is measured to be 2.51 cm3, then its for rounding off numbers to the appropriate
density, by mere arithmetic division, is significant figures are obvious in most cases. A
1.68804780876 g/cm3 upto 11 decimal places. number 2.746 rounded off to three significant
It would be clearly absurd and irrelevant to figures is 1.75, while the number 1.743 would
record the calculated value of density to such a be 1.74. The rule by convention is that the
precision when the measurements on which the preceding digit is raised by 1 if the
value is based, have much less precision. The
insignificant digit to be dropped (the
following rules for arithmetic operations with
underlined digit in this case) is more than
significant figures ensure that the final result
5, and is left unchanged if the latter is less
of a calculation is shown with the precision that
than 5. But what if the number is 2.745 in
is consistent with the precision of the input
measured values : which the insignificant digit is 5. Here, the
(1) In multiplication or division, the final convention is that if the preceding digit is
result should retain as many significant even, the insignificant digit is simply
figures as are there in the original number dropped and, if it is odd, the preceding digit
with the least significant figures. is raised by 1. Then, the number 2.745 rounded
Thus, in the example above, density should off to three significant figures becomes 1.74. On
be reported to three significant figures. the other hand, the number 2.735 rounded off
4.237g
to three significant figures becomes 1.74 since
-3
Density = 3
= 1.69 g cm the preceding digit is odd.
2.51 cm In any involved or complex multi-step
Similarly, if the speed of light is given as calculation, you should retain, in intermediate
3.00 × 108 m s-1 (three significant figure) and steps, one digit more than the significant digits
one year (1y = 365.25 d) has 3.1557 × 107 s (five and round off to proper significant figures at the
significant figures), the light year is 9.47 × 1015 m end of the calculation. Similarly, a number
(three significant figures). known to be within many significant figures,
such as in 1.99792458 × 108 m/s for the speed
(2) In addition or subtraction, the final result
should retain as many decimal places as are of light in vacuum, is rounded off to an
there in the number with the least approximate value 3 × 108 m/s , which is often
decimal places. employed in computations. Finally, remember
For example, the sum of the numbers that exact numbers that appear in formulae like
436.32 g, 227.2 g and 0.301 g by mere arithmetic L
addition, is 663.821 g. But the least precise 2 π in T = 2π , have a large (infinite) number
measurement (227.2 g) is correct to only one g

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6 PHYSICS

of significant figures. The value of π =

= 16.2 cm ± 0.6 %.
3.1415926.... is known to a large number of
significant figures. You may take the value as Similarly, the breadth b may be written as
3.142 or 3.14 for π, with limited number of b = 10.1 ± 0.1 cm
significant figures as required in specific = 10.1 cm ± 1 %
cases.
Then, the error of the product of two (or more)
Example 1.1 Each side of a cube is experimental values, using the combination of
⊳
measured to be 7.203 m. What are the errors rule, will be
total surface area and the volume of the
cube to appropriate significant figures? l b = 163.62 cm2 + 1.6%

= 163.62 + 2.6 cm2

Answer The number of significant figures in
the measured length is 4. The calculated area This leads us to quote the final result as
and the volume should therefore be rounded off l b = 164 + 3 cm2
to 4 significant figures.
Here 3 cm2 is the uncertainty or error in the
Surface area of the cube = 6(7.203)2 m2 estimation of area of rectangular sheet.
= 311.299254 m2 (2) If a set of experimental data is specified
= 311.3 m2 to n significant figures, a result obtained by
combining the data will also be valid to n
Volume of the cube = (7.203)3 m3
significant figures.
= 373.714754 m3
However, if data are subtracted, the number of
= 373.7 m3 ⊳ significant figures can be reduced.
⊳
Example 1.2 5.74 g of a substance For example, 12.9 g – 7.06 g, both specified to
occupies 1.2 cm3. Express its density by three significant figures, cannot properly be
keeping the significant figures in view. evaluated as 5.84 g but only as 5.8 g, as
Answer There are 3 significant figures in the uncertainties in subtraction or addition combine
measured mass whereas there are only 2 in a different fashion (smallest number of
decimal places rather than the number of
significant figures in the measured volume.
significant figures in any of the number added
Hence the density should be expressed to only
or subtracted).
2 significant figures.
5.74 (3) The relative error of a value of number
Density = g cm−3 specified to significant figures depends not
1.2 only on n but also on the number itself.
= 4.8 g cm--3 . ⊳ For example, the accuracy in measurement of
mass 1.02 g is ± 0.01 g whereas another
1.3.3 Rules for Determining the Uncertainty measurement 9.89 g is also accurate to ± 0.01 g.
in the Results of Arithmetic The relative error in 1.02 g is
Calculations = (± 0.01/1.02) × 100 %
The rules for determining the uncertainty or = ± 1%
error in the number/measured quantity in Similarly, the relative error in 9.89 g is
arithmetic operations can be understood from = (± 0.01/9.89) × 100 %
the following examples. = ± 0.1 %
(1) If the length and breadth of a thin Finally, remember that intermediate results in
rectangular sheet are measured, using a metre a multi-step computation should be
scale as 16.2 cm and, 10.1 cm respectively, there calculated to one more significant figure in
are three significant figures in each every measurement than the number of
measurement. It means that the length l may digits in the least precise measurement.
be written as These should be justified by the data and then
l = 16.2 ± 0.1 cm the arithmetic operations may be carried out;

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UNITS AND MEASUREMENT 7

otherwise rounding errors can build up. For mass, one dimension in length, and –2
example, the reciprocal of 9.58, calculated (after dimensions in time. The dimensions in all other
rounding off) to the same number of significant base quantities are zero.
figures (three) is 0.104, but the reciprocal of Note that in this type of representation, the
0.104 calculated to three significant figures is magnitudes are not considered. It is the quality
of the type of the physical quantity that enters.
9.62. However, if we had written 1/9.58 = 0.1044
Thus, a change in velocity, initial velocity,
and then taken the reciprocal to three significant average velocity, final velocity, and speed are
figures, we would have retrieved the original all equivalent in this context. Since all these
value of 9.58. quantities can be expressed as length/time,
This example justifies the idea to retain one their dimensions are [L]/[T] or [L T–1].
more extra digit (than the number of digits in
the least precise measurement) in intermediate 1.5 DIMENSIONAL FORMULAE AND
steps of the complex multi-step calculations in DIMENSIONAL EQUATIONS
order to avoid additional errors in the process The expression which shows how and which of
of rounding off the numbers. the base quantities represent the dimensions
of a physical quantity is called the dimensional
1.4 DIMENSIONS OF PHYSICAL QUANTITIES formula of the given physical quantity. For
example, the dimensional formula of the volume
The nature of a physical quantity is described is [M° L3 T°], and that of speed or velocity is
by its dimensions. All the physical quantities [M° L T-1]. Similarly, [M° L T–2] is the dimensional
represented by derived units can be expressed formula of acceleration and [M L–3 T°] that of
in terms of some combination of seven mass density.
fundamental or base quantities. We shall call An equation obtained by equating a physical
these base quantities as the seven dimensions quantity with its dimensional formula is called
of the physical world, which are denoted with the dimensional equation of the physical
square brackets [ ]. Thus, length has the quantity. Thus, the dimensional equations are
dimension [L], mass [M], time [T], electric current the equations, which represent the dimensions
[A], thermodynamic temperature [K], luminous of a physical quantity in terms of the base
intensity [cd], and amount of substance [mol]. quantities. For example, the dimensional
The dimensions of a physical quantity are the equations of volume [V ], speed [v], force [F ] and
powers (or exponents) to which the base mass density [ρ] may be expressed as
quantities are raised to represent that
[V] = [M0 L3 T0]
quantity. Note that using the square brackets
[v] = [M0 L T–1]
[ ] round a quantity means that we are dealing
[F] = [M L T–2]
with ‘the dimensions of’ the quantity.
[ρ] = [M L–3 T0]
In mechanics, all the physical quantities can
be written in terms of the dimensions [L], [M] The dimensional equation can be obtained
and [T]. For example, the volume occupied by from the equation representing the relations
an object is expressed as the product of length, between the physical quantities. The
breadth and height, or three lengths. Hence the dimensional formulae of a large number and
dimensions of volume are [L] × [L] × [L] = [L]3 = [L3]. wide variety of physical quantities, derived from
the equations representing the relationships
As the volume is independent of mass and time,
among other physical quantities and expressed
it is said to possess zero dimension in mass [M°],
in terms of base quantities are given in
zero dimension in time [T°] and three Appendix 9 for your guidance and ready
dimensions in length. reference.
Similarly, force, as the product of mass and
acceleration, can be expressed as 1.6 DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS AND ITS
Force = mass × acceleration APPLICATIONS
= mass × (length)/(time)2
The recognition of concepts of dimensions, which
The dimensions of force are [M] [L]/[T]2 = guide the description of physical behaviour is
[M L T–2]. Thus, the force has one dimension in of basic importance as only those physical

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8 PHYSICS

quantities can be added or subtracted which such as angle as the ratio (length/length),
have the same dimensions. A thorough refractive index as the ratio (speed of light in
understanding of dimensional analysis helps us vacuum/speed of light in medium) etc., has no
in deducing certain relations among different dimensions.
physical quantities and checking the derivation, Now we can test the dimensional consistency
accuracy and dimensional consistency or or homogeneity of the equation
homogeneity of various mathematical
expressions. When magnitudes of two or more x = x 0 + v0 t + (1/2) a t 2
physical quantities are multiplied, their units for the distance x travelled by a particle or body
should be treated in the same manner as in time t which starts from the position x0 with
ordinary algebraic symbols. We can cancel an initial velocity v0 at time t = 0 and has uniform
identical units in the numerator and
acceleration a along the direction of motion.
denominator. The same is true for dimensions
The dimensions of each term may be written as
of a physical quantity. Similarly, physical
[x] = [L]
quantities represented by symbols on both sides
of a mathematical equation must have the same [x0 ] = [L]
dimensions. [v0 t] = [L T–1] [T]
= [L]
1.6.1 Checking the Dimensional [(1/2) a t2] = [L T–2] [T2]
Consistency of Equations = [L]
As each term on the right hand side of this
The magnitudes of physical quantities may be equation has the same dimension, namely that
added together or subtracted from one another of length, which is same as the dimension of
only if they have the same dimensions. In other left hand side of the equation, hence this
words, we can add or subtract similar physical equation is a dimensionally correct equation.
quantities. Thus, velocity cannot be added to It may be noted that a test of consistency of
force, or an electric current cannot be subtracted dimensions tells us no more and no less than a
from the thermodynamic temperature. This test of consistency of units, but has the
simple principle called the principle of advantage that we need not commit ourselves
homogeneity of dimensions in an equation is to a particular choice of units, and we need not
extremely useful in checking the correctness of worry about conversions among multiples and
an equation. If the dimensions of all the terms sub-multiples of the units. It may be borne in
are not same, the equation is wrong. Hence, if mind that if an equation fails this consistency
we derive an expression for the length (or test, it is proved wrong, but if it passes, it is
distance) of an object, regardless of the symbols not proved right. Thus, a dimensionally correct
appearing in the original mathematical relation, equation need not be actually an exact
when all the individual dimensions are (correct) equation, but a dimensionally wrong
simplified, the remaining dimension must be (incorrect) or inconsistent equation must be
that of length. Similarly, if we derive an equation wrong.
of speed, the dimensions on both the sides of
equation, when simplified, must be of length/ ⊳
Example 1.3 Let us consider an equation
time, or [L T–1].
Dimensions are customarily used as a 1
m v2 = m g h
preliminary test of the consistency of an 2
equation, when there is some doubt about the where m is the mass of the body, v its
correctness of the equation. However, the velocity, g is the acceleration due to
dimensional consistency does not guarantee gravity and h is the height. Check
correct equations. It is uncertain to the extent whether this equation is dimensionally
of dimensionless quantities or functions. The correct.
arguments of special functions, such as the
trigonometric, logarithmic and exponential Answer The dimensions of LHS are
functions must be dimensionless. A pure [M] [L T–1 ]2 = [M] [ L2 T–2]
number, ratio of similar physical quantities, = [M L2 T–2]

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UNITS AND MEASUREMENT 9

The dimensions of RHS are string, that oscillates under the action of
[M][L T–2] [L] = [M][L2 T–2] the force of gravity. Suppose that the period
= [M L2 T–2] of oscillation of the simple pendulum
The dimensions of LHS and RHS are the same and depends on its length (l), mass of the bob
hence the equation is dimensionally correct. ⊳ (m) and acceleration due to gravity (g).
Derive the expression for its time period
using method of dimensions.
Example 1.4 The SI unit of energy is
⊳
J = kg m2 s–2; that of speed v is m s–1 and
of acceleration a is m s–2. Which of the Answer The dependence of time period T on
formulae for kinetic energy (K) given below the quantities l, g and m as a product may be
can you rule out on the basis of written as :
dimensional arguments (m stands for the T = k lx gy mz
mass of the body) : where k is dimensionless constant and x, y
(a) K = m2 v3 and z are the exponents.
(b) K = (1/2)mv2 By considering dimensions on both sides, we
(c) K = ma have
(d) K = (3/16)mv2 [Lo M o T 1 ]=[L1 ]x [L1 T –2 ]y [M1 ]z
(e) K = (1/2)mv2 + ma = Lx+y T–2y Mz
Answer Every correct formula or equation must On equating the dimensions on both sides,
have the same dimensions on both sides of the we have
equation. Also, only quantities with the same x + y = 0; –2y = 1; and z = 0
physical dimensions can be added or
1 1
subtracted. The dimensions of the quantity on So that x = ,y = – , z = 0
the right side are [M2 L3 T–3] for (a); [M L2 T–2] for 2 2
–½
(b) and (d); [M L T–2] for (c). The quantity on the
½
Then, T = k l g
right side of (e) has no proper dimensions since
two quantities of different dimensions have been l
added. Since the kinetic energy K has the or, T = k
g
dimensions of [M L2 T–2], formulas (a), (c) and (e)
are ruled out. Note that dimensional arguments Note that value of constant k can not be obtained
cannot tell which of the two, (b) or (d), is the by the method of dimensions. Here it does not
correct formula. For this, one must turn to the matter if some number multiplies the right side
actual definition of kinetic energy (see of this formula, because that does not affect its
Chapter 5). The correct formula for kinetic dimensions.
energy is given by (b). ⊳
l
Actually, k = 2π so that T = 2π ⊳
1.6.2 Deducing Relation among the g
Physical Quantities
The method of dimensions can sometimes be Dimensional analysis is very useful in deducing
used to deduce relation among the physical relations among the interdependent physical
quantities. For this we should know the quantities. However, dimensionless constants
dependence of the physical quantity on other cannot be obtained by this method. The method
quantities (upto three physical quantities or of dimensions can only test the dimensional
linearly independent variables) and consider it validity, but not the exact relationship between
as a product type of the dependence. Let us take physical quantities in any equation. It does not
an example. distinguish between the physical quantities
having same dimensions.
A number of exercises at the end of this
⊳
Example 1.5 Consider a simple
pendulum, having a bob attached to a chapter will help you develop skill in
dimensional analysis.

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10 PHYSICS

SUMMARY

1. Physics is a quantitative science, based on measurement of physical quantities. Certain

physical quantities have been chosen as fundamental or base quantities (such as
length, mass, time, electric current, thermodynamic temperature, amount of substance,
and luminous intensity).
2. Each base quantity is defined in terms of a certain basic, arbitrarily chosen but properly
standardised reference standard called unit (such as metre, kilogram, second, ampere,
kelvin, mole and candela). The units for the fundamental or base quantities are called
fundamental or base units.
3. Other physical quantities, derived from the base quantities, can be expressed as a
combination of the base units and are called derived units. A complete set of units,
both fundamental and derived, is called a system of units.
4. The International System of Units (SI) based on seven base units is at present
internationally accepted unit system and is widely used throughout the world.
5. The SI units are used in all physical measurements, for both the base quantities and
the derived quantities obtained from them. Certain derived units are expressed by
means of SI units with special names (such as joule, newton, watt, etc).
6. The SI units have well defined and internationally accepted unit symbols (such as m
for metre, kg for kilogram, s for second, A for ampere, N for newton etc.).
7. Physical measurements are usually expressed for small and large quantities in scientific
notation, with powers of 10. Scientific notation and the prefixes are used to simplify
measurement notation and numerical computation, giving indication to the precision
of the numbers.
8. Certain general rules and guidelines must be followed for using notations for physical
quantities and standard symbols for SI units, some other units and SI prefixes for
expressing properly the physical quantities and measurements.
9. In computing any physical quantity, the units for derived quantities involved in the
relationship(s) are treated as though they were algebraic quantities till the desired
units are obtained.
10. In measured and computed quantities proper significant figures only should be retained.
Rules for determining the number of significant figures, carrying out arithmetic
operations with them, and ‘rounding off ‘ the uncertain digits must be followed.
11. The dimensions of base quantities and combination of these dimensions describe
the nature of physical quantities. Dimensional analysis can be used to check the
dimensional consistency of equations, deducing relations among the physical
quantities, etc. A dimensionally consistent equation need not be actually an
exact (correct) equation, but a dimensionally wrong or inconsistent equation
must be wrong.

EXERCISES

Note : In stating numerical answers, take care of significant figures.

1.1 Fill in the blanks
(a) The volume of a cube of side 1 cm is equal to .....m3
(b) The surface area of a solid cylinder of radius 2.0 cm and height 10.0 cm is equal to
...(mm)2
(c) A vehicle moving with a speed of 18 km h–1 covers....m in 1 s
(d) The relative density of lead is 11.3. Its density is ....g cm–3 or ....kg m–3.
1.2 Fill in the blanks by suitable conversion of units
(a) 1 kg m2 s–2 = ....g cm2 s–2
(b) 1 m = ..... ly
(c) 3.0 m s–2 = .... km h–2
(d) G = 6.67 × 10–11 N m2 (kg)–2 = .... (cm)3 s–2 g–1.

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UNITS AND MEASUREMENT 11

1.3 A calorie is a unit of heat (energy in transit) and it equals about 4.2 J where 1J =
1 kg m2 s–2. Suppose we employ a system of units in which the unit of mass equals α
kg, the unit of length equals β m, the unit of time is γ s. Show that a calorie has a
magnitude 4.2 α –1 β –2 γ 2 in terms of the new units.
1.4 Explain this statement clearly :
“To call a dimensional quantity ‘large’ or ‘small’ is meaningless without specifying a
standard for comparison”. In view of this, reframe the following statements wherever
necessary :
(a) atoms are very small objects
(b) a jet plane moves with great speed
(c) the mass of Jupiter is very large
(d) the air inside this room contains a large number of molecules
(e) a proton is much more massive than an electron
(f) the speed of sound is much smaller than the speed of light.
1.5 A new unit of length is chosen such that the speed of light in vacuum is unity. What
is the distance between the Sun and the Earth in terms of the new unit if light takes
8 min and 20 s to cover this distance ?
1.6 Which of the following is the most precise device for measuring length :
(a) a vernier callipers with 20 divisions on the sliding scale
(b) a screw gauge of pitch 1 mm and 100 divisions on the circular scale
(c) an optical instrument that can measure length to within a wavelength of light ?
1.7 A student measures the thickness of a human hair by looking at it through a
microscope of magnification 100. He makes 20 observations and finds that the average
width of the hair in the field of view of the microscope is 3.5 mm. What is the
estimate on the thickness of hair ?
1.8 Answer the following :
(a)You are given a thread and a metre scale. How will you estimate the diameter of
the thread ?
(b)A screw gauge has a pitch of 1.0 mm and 200 divisions on the circular scale. Do
you think it is possible to increase the accuracy of the screw gauge arbitrarily by
increasing the number of divisions on the circular scale ?
(c) The mean diameter of a thin brass rod is to be measured by vernier callipers. Why
is a set of 100 measurements of the diameter expected to yield a more reliable
estimate than a set of 5 measurements only ?
1.9 The photograph of a house occupies an area of 1.75 cm2 on a 35 mm slide. The slide
is projected on to a screen, and the area of the house on the screen is 1.55 m2. What
is the linear magnification of the projector-screen arrangement.
1.10 State the number of significant figures in the following :
(a) 0.007 m2
(b) 2.64 × 1024 kg
(c) 0.2370 g cm–3
(d) 6.320 J
(e) 6.032 N m–2
(f) 0.0006032 m2
1.11 The length, breadth and thickness of a rectangular sheet of metal are 4.234 m, 1.005 m, and
2.01 cm respectively. Give the area and volume of the sheet to correct significant figures.
1.12 The mass of a box measured by a grocer’s balance is 2.30 kg. Two gold pieces of
masses 20.15 g and 20.17 g are added to the box. What is (a) the total mass of the
box, (b) the difference in the masses of the pieces to correct significant figures ?
1.13 A famous relation in physics relates ‘moving mass’ m to the ‘rest mass’ mo of a
particle in terms of its speed v and the speed of light, c. (This relation first arose as
a consequence of special relativity due to Albert Einstein). A boy recalls the relation
almost correctly but forgets where to put the constant c. He writes :
m0
m=
(1 − v )
2 1/2 .

Guess where to put the missing c.

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12 PHYSICS

1.14 The unit of length convenient on the atomic scale is known as an angstrom and is
denoted by Å: 1 Å = 10–10 m. The size of a hydrogen atom is about 0.5 Å. What is the
total atomic volume in m3 of a mole of hydrogen atoms ?
1.15 One mole of an ideal gas at standard temperature and pressure occupies 22.4 L
(molar volume). What is the ratio of molar volume to the atomic volume of a mole of
hydrogen ? (Take the size of hydrogen molecule to be about 1 Å). Why is this ratio
so large ?
1.16 Explain this common observation clearly : If you look out of the window of a fast
moving train, the nearby trees, houses etc. seem to move rapidly in a direction opposite
to the train’s motion, but the distant objects (hill tops, the Moon, the stars etc.)
seem to be stationary. (In fact, since you are aware that you are moving, these
distant objects seem to move with you).
1.17 The Sun is a hot plasma (ionized matter) with its inner core at a temperature exceeding
10 7 K, and its outer surface at a temperature of about 6000 K. At these high
temperatures, no substance remains in a solid or liquid phase. In what range do you
expect the mass density of the Sun to be, in the range of densities of solids and
liquids or gases ? Check if your guess is correct from the following data : mass of the
Sun = 2.0 ×1030 kg, radius of the Sun = 7.0 × 108 m.

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 CHAPTER TWO

MOTION IN A STRAIGHT LINE

2.1 INTRODUCTION
Motion is common to everything in the universe. We walk,
run and ride a bicycle. Even when we are sleeping, air moves
2.1 Introduction into and out of our lungs and blood flows in arteries and
2.2 Instantaneous velocity and veins. We see leaves falling from trees and water flowing
speed down a dam. Automobiles and planes carry people from one
2.3 Acceleration place to the other. The earth rotates once every twenty-four
2.4 Kinematic equations for hours and revolves round the sun once in a year. The sun
uniformly accelerated motion itself is in motion in the Milky Way, which is again moving
2.5 Relative velocity within its local group of galaxies.
Summary
Motion is change in position of an object with time. How
Points to ponder does the position change with time ? In this chapter, we shall
Exercises learn how to describe motion. For this, we develop the
concepts of velocity and acceleration. We shall confine
ourselves to the study of motion of objects along a straight
line, also known as rectilinear motion. For the case of
rectilinear motion with uniform acceleration, a set of simple
equations can be obtained. Finally, to understand the relative
nature of motion, we introduce the concept of relative velocity.
In our discussions, we shall treat the objects in motion as
point objects. This approximation is valid so far as the size
of the object is much smaller than the distance it moves in a
reasonable duration of time. In a good number of situations
in real-life, the size of objects can be neglected and they can
be considered as point-like objects without much error.
In Kinematics, we study ways to describe motion without
going into the causes of motion. What causes motion
described in this chapter and the next chapter forms the
subject matter of Chapter 4.

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14 PHYSICS

2.2 INSTANTANEOUS VELOCITY AND SPEED

The average velocity tells us how fast an object
has been moving over a given time interval but
does not tell us how fast it moves at different
instants of time during that interval. For this,
we define instantaneous velocity or simply
velocity v at an instant t.
The velocity at an instant is defined as the
limit of the average velocity as the time interval
∆t becomes infinitesimally small. In other words,
∆x
v = lim (2.1a)
∆t → 0 ∆t
Fig. 2.1 Determining velocity from position-time
dx (2.1b) graph. Velocity at t = 4 s is the slope of the
=
dt tangent to the graph at that instant.

lim
where the symbol ∆t →0 stands for the operation Now, we decrease the value of ∆t from 2 s to 1
of taking limit as ∆tg0 of the quantity on its s. Then line P1P2 becomes Q1Q2 and its slope
right. In the language of calculus, the quantity gives the value of the average velocity over
on the right hand side of Eq. (2.1a) is the the interval 3.5 s to 4.5 s. In the limit ∆t → 0,
differential coefficient of x with respect to t and the line P1P2 becomes tangent to the position-
dx time curve at the point P and the velocity at t
is denoted by (see Appendix 2.1). It is the
dt = 4 s is given by the slope of the tangent at
rate of change of position with respect to time, that point. It is difficult to show this
at that instant. process graphically. But if we use
numerical method to obtain the value of
We can use Eq. (2.1a) for obtaining the
the velocity, the meaning of the limiting
value of velocity at an instant either
process becomes clear. For the graph shown
graphically or numerically. Suppose that we
in Fig. 2.1, x = 0.08 t3. Table 2.1 gives the
want to obtain graphically the value of
value of ∆x/∆t calculated for ∆t equal to 2.0 s,
velocity at time t = 4 s (point P) for the motion
1.0 s, 0.5 s, 0.1 s and 0.01 s centred at t =
of the car represented in Fig.2.1 calculation.
4.0 s. The second and third columns give the
Let us take ∆t = 2 s centred at t = 4 s. Then,
by the definition of the average velocity, the  ∆t   ∆t 
value of t1=  t −  and t 2 =  t +  and the
slope of line P1P2 ( Fig. 2.1) gives the value of  2   2 
average velocity over the interval 3 s to 5 s. fourth and the fifth columns give the

∆x
Table 2.1 Limiting value of at t = 4 s
∆t

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MOTION IN A STRAIGHT LINE 15

a + 16b – a – 4b
= = 6.0 × b
3
corresponding values of x, i.e. x (t1) = 0.08 t1
2.0
and x (t2) = 0.08 t 23 . The sixth column lists the = 6.0 × 2.5 = 15 m s-1 ⊳
difference ∆x = x (t 2) – x (t1 ) and the last
column gives the ratio of ∆x and ∆t, i.e. the Note that for uniform motion, velocity is
average velocity corresponding to the value the same as the average velocity at all
of ∆t listed in the first column. instants.
We see from Table 2.1 that as we decrease Instantaneous speed or simply speed is the
the value of ∆t from 2.0 s to 0.010 s, the value of magnitude of velocity. For example, a velocity of
the average velocity approaches the limiting + 24.0 m s–1 and a velocity of – 24.0 m s–1 —
value 3.84 m s–1 which is the value of velocity at both have an associated speed of 24.0 m s-1. It
dx should be noted that though average speed over
t = 4.0 s, i.e. the value of at t = 4.0 s. In this a finite interval of time is greater or equal to the
dt magnitude of the average velocity,
manner, we can calculate velocity at each instantaneous speed at an instant is equal to
instant for motion of the car. the magnitude of the instantaneous velocity at
The graphical method for the determination that instant. Why so ?
of the instantaneous velocity is always not a
convenient method. For this, we must carefully 2.3 ACCELERATION
plot the position–time graph and calculate the The velocity of an object, in general, changes
value of average velocity as ∆t becomes smaller during its course of motion. How to describe
and smaller. It is easier to calculate the value this change? Should it be described as the rate
of velocity at different instants if we have data of change in velocity with distance or with
of positions at different instants or exact time ? This was a problem even in Galileo’s
expression for the position as a function of time. time. It was first thought that this change could
Then, we calculate ∆x/∆t from the data for be described by the rate of change of velocity
decreasing the value of ∆t and find the limiting with distance. But, through his studies of
value as we have done in Table 2.1 or use motion of freely falling objects and motion of
differential calculus for the given expression and objects on an inclined plane, Galileo concluded
that the rate of change of velocity with time is
dx
calculate at different instants as done in a constant of motion for all objects in free fall.
dt On the other hand, the change in velocity with
the following example. distance is not constant – it decreases with the
⊳ increasing distance of fall. This led to the
Example 2.1 The position of an object concept of acceleration as the rate of change
moving along x-axis is given by x = a + bt2 of velocity with time.
where a = 8.5 m, b = 2.5 m s–2 and t is The average acceleration a over a time interval
measured in seconds. What is its velocity at is defined as the change of velocity divided by
t = 0 s and t = 2.0 s. What is the average the time interval :
velocity between t = 2.0 s and t = 4.0 s ?

Answer In notation of differential calculus, the a = v 2 – v1 = ∆v (2.2)

velocity is t 2 – t1 ∆t

where v2 and v1 are the instantaneous velocities

v=
dx
=
dt dt
d
( )
a + bt 2 = 2b t = 5.0 t m s -1 or simply velocities at time t2 and t1 . It is the
average change of velocity per unit time. The SI
At t = 0 s, v = 0 m s–1 and at t = 2.0 s,
-1
unit of acceleration is m s–2 .
v = 10 m s .
On a plot of velocity versus time, the average
acceleration is the slope of the straight line
x ( 4.0 ) − x (2.0 )
Average velocity = connecting the points corresponding to (v2, t2)
4.0 − 2.0 and (v1, t1).

2024-25
16 PHYSICS

Instantaneous acceleration is defined in the (c) An object is moving in negative direction

same way as the instantaneous velocity : with a negative acceleration.
∆v dv (d) An object is moving in positive direction
a = lim = (2.3) till time t1, and then turns back with the
∆t →0∆t dt
same negative acceleration.
The acceleration at an instant is the slope
of the tangent to the v–t curve at that An interesting feature of a velocity-time
instant. graph for any moving object is that the area
Since velocity is a quantity having both under the curve represents the
magnitude and direction, a change in displacement over a given time interval. A
velocity may involve either or both of these general proof of this statement requires use of
factors. Acceleration, therefore, may result calculus. We can, however, see that it is true
from a change in speed (magnitude), a for the simple case of an object moving with
change in direction or changes in both. Like constant velocity u. Its velocity-time graph is
velocity, acceleration can also be positive, as shown in Fig. 2.4.
negative or zero. Position-time graphs for
motion with positive, negative and zero
acceleration are shown in Figs. 2.4 (a), (b)
and (c), respectively. Note that the graph
curves upward for positive acceleration;
downward for negative acceleration and it is
a straight line for zero acceleration.
Although acceleration can vary with time,
our study in this chapter will be restricted
to motion with constant acceleration. In this
case, the average acceleration equals the
constant value of acceleration during the
interval. If the velocity of an object is v o at t
= 0 and v at time t, we have
v − v0
a= or, v = v0 + a t (2.4)
t −0

Fig. 2.3 Velocity–time graph for motions with

Fig. 2.2 Position-time graph for motion with constant acceleration. (a) Motion in positive
(a) positive acceleration; (b) negative
direction with positive acceleration,
acceleration, and (c) zero acceleration.
(b) Motion in positive direction with
Let us see how velocity-time graph looks like negative acceleration, (c) Motion in
for some simple cases. Fig. 2.3 shows velocity- negative direction with negative
time graph for motion with constant acceleration acceleration, (d) Motion of an object with
negative acceleration that changes
for the following cases :
direction at time t1. Between times 0 to
(a) An object is moving in a positive direction t1, it moves in positive x - direction
with a positive acceleration. and between t1 and t2 it moves in the
(b) An object is moving in positive direction opposite direction.
with a negative acceleration.

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MOTION IN A STRAIGHT LINE 17

Fig. 2.4 Area under v–t curve equals displacement

of the object over a given time interval.

The v-t curve is a straight line parallel to the

time axis and the area under it between t = 0
and t = T is the area of the rectangle of height u
and base T. Therefore, area = u × T = uT which Fig. 2.5 Area under v-t curve for an object with
is the displacement in this time interval. How uniform acceleration.
come in this case an area is equal to a distance?
Think! Note the dimensions of quantities on
the two coordinate axes, and you will arrive at As explained in the previous section, the area
the answer. under v-t curve represents the displacement.
Therefore, the displacement x of the object is :
Note that the x-t, v-t, and a-t graphs shown
in several figures in this chapter have sharp 1
kinks at some points implying that the x =
2
(v –v 0 ) t + v 0 t (2.5)
functions are not differentiable at these
But v − v0 = a t
points. In any realistic situation, the
functions will be differentiable at all points 1
and the graphs will be smooth. Therefore, x = a t 2 + v 0t
2
What this means physically is that 1
or, x = v0t + at 2 (2.6)
acceleration and velocity cannot change 2
values abruptly at an instant. Changes are Equation (2.5) can also be written as
always continuous.
v + v0
2.4 KINEMATIC EQU ATIONS FOR x= t = vt (2.7a)
2
UNIFORMLY ACCELERATED MOTION
where,
For uniformly accelerated motion, we can derive
some simple equations that relate displacement v + v0
(x), time taken (t), initial velocity (v 0), final v= (constant acceleration only)
2
velocity (v) and acceleration (a). Equation (2.4) (2.7b)
already obtained gives a relation between final
and initial velocities v and v0 of an object moving Equations (2.7a) and (2.7b) mean that the object
with uniform acceleration a : has undergone displacement x with an average
velocity equal to the arithmetic average of the
v = v0 + at (2.4) initial and final velocities.
From Eq. (2.4), t = (v – v0)/a. Substituting this in
This relation is graphically represented in Fig. 2.5. Eq. (2.7a), we get
The area under this curve is :
 v + v0   v − v 0  v − v 0
2 2
Area between instants 0 and t = Area of triangle
x =vt = =
ABC + Area of rectangle OACD  2   a  2a
1
=
2
(v –v0 ) t + v0t v 2 = v02 + 2ax (2.8)

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18 PHYSICS

This equation can also be obtained by

∫ 0 (v0 + at ) dt
t
substituting the value of t from Eq. (2.4) into Eq. =
(2.6). Thus, we have obtained three important
equations : 1
x – x 0 = v0 t + a t2
v = v0 + at 2
1
1 x = x 0 + v0 t + a t2
x = v 0t + at 2 2
2 We can write
v 2 = v02 + 2ax (2.9a)
a=
dv dv dx
= =v
dv
dt dx dt dx
connecting five quantities v0, v, a, t and x. These
are kinematic equations of rectilinear motion for or, v dv = a dx
constant acceleration. Integrating both sides,
The set of Eq. (2.9a) were obtained by v x

assuming that at t = 0, the position of the particle, ∫v 0

v dv = ∫x 0
a dx
x is 0. We can obtain a more general equation if
v 2 – v 02
we take the position coordinate at t = 0 as non- = a (x – x 0 )
zero, say x0. Then Eqs. (2.9a) are modified 2
(replacing x by x – x0 ) to :
v 2 = v02 + 2a ( x – x 0 )
v = v0 + at The advantage of this method is that it can be used
1 for motion with non-uniform acceleration
x = x 0 + v 0t + at 2 (2.9b) also.
2
Now, we shall use these equations to some
v 2 = v 02 + 2a ( x − x 0 ) (2.9c) important cases. ⊳
⊳
⊳ Example 2.3 A ball is thrown vertically
Example 2.2 Obtain equations of motion upwards with a velocity of 20 m s–1 from
for constant acceleration using method of the top of a multistorey building. The
calculus. height of the point from where the ball is
thrown is 25.0 m from the ground. (a) How
Answer By definition high will the ball rise ? and (b) how long
will it be before the ball hits the ground?
dv Take g = 10 m s–2.
a =
dt
dv = a dt
Answer (a) Let us take the y-axis in the
Integrating both sides
v t
vertically upward direction with zero at the
∫v 0
dv = ∫ 0a dt ground, as shown in Fig. 2.6.
Now vo = + 20 m s–1,
t
= a ∫ dt (a is a = – g = –10 m s–2,
0
v = 0 m s–1
constant) If the ball rises to height y from the point of
v – v 0 = at launch, then using the equation
v = v 0 + at (
v 2 = v02 + 2 a y – y 0 )
we get
dx
Further, v= 0 = (20)2 + 2(–10)(y – y0)
dt
Solving, we get, (y – y0) = 20 m.
dx = v dt
Integrating both sides (b) We can solve this part of the problem in two
x t ways. Note carefully the methods used.
∫x 0
dx = ∫ 0 v dt

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MOTION IN A STRAIGHT LINE 19

0 = 25 +20 t + (½) (-10) t2

Or, 5t2 – 20t – 25 = 0
Solving this quadratic equation for t, we get
t = 5s
Note that the second method is better since we
do not have to worry about the path of the motion
as the motion is under constant acceleration.
⊳
⊳
Example 2.4 Free-fall : Discuss the
motion of an object under free fall. Neglect
air resistance.

Answer An object released near the surface of

the Earth is accelerated downward under the
influence of the force of gravity. The magnitude
of acceleration due to gravity is represented by
g. If air resistance is neglected, the object is
Fig. 2.6 said to be in free fall. If the height through
which the object falls is small compared to the
FIRST METHOD : In the first method, we split earth’s radius, g can be taken to be constant,
the path in two parts : the upward motion (A to equal to 9.8 m s–2. Free fall is thus a case of
B) and the downward motion (B to C) and motion with uniform acceleration.
calculate the corresponding time taken t1 and We assume that the motion is in y-direction,
t2. Since the velocity at B is zero, we have : more correctly in –y-direction because we
v = vo + at choose upward direction as positive. Since the
0 = 20 – 10t1 acceleration due to gravity is always downward,
Or, t1 = 2 s it is in the negative direction and we have
This is the time in going from A to B. From B, or a = – g = – 9.8 m s–2
the point of the maximum height, the ball falls The object is released from rest at y = 0. Therefore,
freely under the acceleration due to gravity. The v0 = 0 and the equations of motion become:
ball is moving in negative y direction. We use
equation v= 0–gt = –9.8 t m s–1
2 2
y = 0 – ½ g t = –4.9 t m
1 2
y = y0 + v 0t + at v2 = 0 – 2 g y = –19.6 y m2 s–2
2 These equations give the velocity and the
We have, y0 = 45 m, y = 0, v0 = 0, a = – g = –10 m s–2 distance travelled as a function of time and also
0 = 45 + (½) (–10) t22 the variation of velocity with distance. The
Solving, we get t2 = 3 s variation of acceleration, velocity, and distance,
Therefore, the total time taken by the ball before with time have been plotted in Fig. 2.7(a), (b)
it hits the ground = t1 + t2 = 2 s + 3 s = 5 s. and (c).

SECOND METHOD : The total time taken can

also be calculated by noting the coordinates of
initial and final positions of the ball with respect
to the origin chosen and using equation
1 2
y = y0 + v 0t + at
2
Now y0 = 25 m y=0m
vo = 20 m s-1, a = –10m s–2, t = ? (a)

2024-25
20 PHYSICS

traversed during successive intervals of

time. Since initial velocity is zero, we have
1 2
y=− gt
2
Using this equation, we can calculate the
position of the object after different time
intervals, 0, τ, 2τ, 3τ… which are given in
second column of Table 2.2. If we take
(–1/ 2) gτ2 as y0 — the position coordinate after
first time interval τ, then third column gives
(b) the positions in the unit of yo. The fourth
column gives the distances traversed in
successive τs. We find that the distances are
in the simple ratio 1: 3: 5: 7: 9: 11… as shown
in the last column. This law was established
by Galileo Galilei (1564-1642) who was the first
to make quantitative studies of free fall. ⊳

Example 2.6 Stopping distance of

⊳
vehicles : When brakes are applied to a
moving vehicle, the distance it travels before
stopping is called stopping distance. It is
(c) an important factor for road safety and
depends on the initial velocity (v0) and the
Fig. 2.7 Motion of an object under free fall.
(a) Variation of acceleration with time.
braking capacity, or deceleration, –a that
(b) Variation of velocity with time. is caused by the braking. Derive an
(c) Variation of distance with time ⊳ expression for stopping distance of a vehicle
in terms of vo and a.
⊳ Example 2.5 Galileo’s law of odd Answer Let the distance travelled by the vehicle
numbers : “The distances traversed, during before it stops be ds. Then, using equation of
equal intervals of time, by a body falling motion v2 = vo2 + 2 ax, and noting that v = 0, we
from rest, stand to one another in the same have the stopping distance
ratio as the odd numbers beginning with
unity [namely, 1: 3: 5: 7…...].” Prove it. – v02
ds =
Answer Let us divide the time interval of 2a
motion of an object under free fall into many Thus, the stopping distance is proportional to
equal intervals τ and find out the distances the square of the initial velocity. Doubling the

Table 2.2

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MOTION IN A STRAIGHT LINE 21

initial velocity increases the stopping distance

by a factor of 4 (for the same deceleration).
For the car of a particular make, the braking
distance was found to be 10 m, 20 m, 34 m and
50 m corresponding to velocities of 11, 15, 20
and 25 m/s which are nearly consistent with
the above formula.

Stopping distance is an important factor

considered in setting speed limits, for example,
in school zones. ⊳
⊳
Example 2.7 Reaction time : When a
situation demands our immediate
action, it takes some time before we
really respond. Reaction time is the
time a person takes to observe, think
and act. For example, if a person is Fig. 2.8 Measuring the reaction time.
driving and suddenly a boy appears on
the road, then the time elapsed before Answer The ruler drops under free fall.
he slams the brakes of the car is the Therefore, vo = 0, and a = – g = –9.8 m s–2. The
reaction time. Reaction time depends distance travelled d and the reaction time tr are
on complexity of the situation and on related by
an individual.
You can measure your reaction
time by a simple experiment. Take a
ruler and ask your friend to drop it
vertically through the gap between Or,
your thumb and forefinger (Fig. 2.8).
Given d = 21.0 cm and g = 9.8 m s–2 the reaction
After you catch it, find the distance d
time is
travelled by the ruler. In a particular
case, d was found to be 21.0 cm.
⊳
Estimate reaction time.

SUMMARY

1. An object is said to be in motion if its position changes with time. The position of the
object can be specified with reference to a conveniently chosen origin. For motion in
a straight line, position to the right of the origin is taken as positive and to the left as
negative.
The average speed of an object is greater or equal to the magnitude of the average
velocity over a given time interval.
2. Instantaneous velocity or simply velocity is defined as the limit of the average velocity
as the time interval ∆t becomes infinitesimally small :

∆ x dx
v = lim v = lim =
∆t → 0 ∆t → 0 ∆t dt

The velocity at a particular instant is equal to the slope of the tangent drawn on
position-time graph at that instant.

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22 PHYSICS

3. Average acceleration is the change in velocity divided by the time interval during which
the change occurs :

∆v
a=
∆t
4. Instantaneous acceleration is defined as the limit of the average acceleration as the
time interval ∆t goes to zero :

∆v dv
a = lim a = lim =
∆t → 0 ∆t →0 ∆t dt
The acceleration of an object at a particular time is the slope of the velocity-time
graph at that instant of time. For uniform motion, acceleration is zero and the x-t
graph is a straight line inclined to the time axis and the v-t graph is a straight line
parallel to the time axis. For motion with uniform acceleration, x-t graph is a parabola
while the v-t graph is a straight line inclined to the time axis.
5. The area under the velocity-time curve between times t1 and t2 is equal to the displacement
of the object during that interval of time.
6. For objects in uniformly accelerated rectilinear motion, the five quantities, displacement
x, time taken t, initial velocity v0, final velocity v and acceleration a are related by a set
of simple equations called kinematic equations of motion :
v = v0 + at

1 2
x = v0 t + at
2
2 2
v = v0 + 2ax
if the position of the object at time t = 0 is 0. If the particle starts at x = x0 , x in above
equations is replaced by (x – x0).

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MOTION IN A STRAIGHT LINE 23

POINTS TO PONDER
1. The origin and the positive direction of an axis are a matter of choice. You should first specify
this choice before you assign signs to quantities like displacement, velocity and acceleration.
2. If a particle is speeding up, acceleration is in the direction of velocity; if its speed is
decreasing, acceleration is in the direction opposite to that of the velocity. This
statement is independent of the choice of the origin and the axis.
3. The sign of acceleration does not tell us whether the particle’s speed is increasing or
decreasing. The sign of acceleration (as mentioned in point 3) depends on the choice
of the positive direction of the axis. For example, if the vertically upward direction is
chosen to be the positive direction of the axis, the acceleration due to gravity is
negative. If a particle is falling under gravity, this acceleration, though negative,
results in increase in speed. For a particle thrown upward, the same negative
acceleration (of gravity) results in decrease in speed.
4. The zero velocity of a particle at any instant does not necessarily imply zero acceleration
at that instant. A particle may be momentarily at rest and yet have non-zero acceleration.
For example, a particle thrown up has zero velocity at its uppermost point but the
acceleration at that instant continues to be the acceleration due to gravity.
5. In the kinematic equations of motion [Eq. (2.9)], the various quantities are algebraic,
i.e. they may be positive or negative. The equations are applicable in all situations
(for one dimensional motion with constant acceleration) provided the values of different
quantities are substituted in the equations with proper signs.
6. The definitions of instantaneous velocity and acceleration (Eqs. (2.1) and (2.3)) are
exact and are always correct while the kinematic equations (Eq. (2.9)) are true only for
motion in which the magnitude and the direction of acceleration are constant during
the course of motion.

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24 PHYSICS

EXERCISES

2.1 In which of the following examples of motion, can the body be considered
approximately a point object:
(a) a railway carriage moving without jerks between two stations.
(b) a monkey sitting on top of a man cycling smoothly on a circular track.
(c) a spinning cricket ball that turns sharply on hitting the ground.
(d) a tumbling beaker that has slipped off the edge of a table.
2.2 The position-time (x-t) graphs for two children A and B returning from their school
O to their homes P and Q respectively are shown in Fig. 2.9. Choose the correct
entries in the brackets below ;
(a) (A/B) lives closer to the school than (B/A)
(b) (A/B) starts from the school earlier than (B/A)
(c) (A/B) walks faster than (B/A)
(d) A and B reach home at the (same/different) time
(e) (A/B) overtakes (B/A) on the road (once/twice).

Fig. 2.9
2.3 A woman starts from her home at 9.00 am, walks with a speed of 5 km h–1 on a
straight road up to her office 2.5 km away, stays at the office up to 5.00 pm, and
returns home by an auto with a speed of 25 km h–1. Choose suitable scales and
plot the x-t graph of her motion.
2.4 A drunkard walking in a narrow lane takes 5 steps forward and 3 steps backward,
followed again by 5 steps forward and 3 steps backward, and so on. Each step is 1 m
long and requires 1 s. Plot the x-t graph of his motion. Determine graphically and
otherwise how long the drunkard takes to fall in a pit 13 m away from the start.
2.5 A car moving along a straight highway with speed of 126 km h–1 is brought to a
stop within a distance of 200 m. What is the retardation of the car (assumed
uniform), and how long does it take for the car to stop ?
2.6 A player throws a ball upwards with an initial speed of 29.4 m s–1.
(a) What is the direction of acceleration during the upward motion of the ball ?
(b) What are the velocity and acceleration of the ball at the highest point of its motion ?
(c) Choose the x = 0 m and t = 0 s to be the location and time of the ball at its
highest point, vertically downward direction to be the positive direction of
x-axis, and give the signs of position, velocity and acceleration of the ball
during its upward, and downward motion.
(d) To what height does the ball rise and after how long does the ball return to the
player’s hands ? (Take g = 9.8 m s–2 and neglect air resistance).
2.7 Read each statement below carefully and state with reasons and examples, if it is
true or false ;
A particle in one-dimensional motion
(a) with zero speed at an instant may have non-zero acceleration at that instant
(b) with zero speed may have non-zero velocity,
(c) with constant speed must have zero acceleration,
(d) with positive value of acceleration must be speeding up.

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MOTION IN A STRAIGHT LINE 25

2.8 A ball is dropped from a height of 90 m on a floor. At each collision with the floor,
the ball loses one tenth of its speed. Plot the speed-time graph of its motion
between t = 0 to 12 s.
2.9 Explain clearly, with examples, the distinction between :
(a) magnitude of displacement (sometimes called distance) over an interval of time,
and the total length of path covered by a particle over the same interval;
(b) magnitude of average velocity over an interval of time, and the average speed
over the same interval. [Average speed of a particle over an interval of time is
defined as the total path length divided by the time interval]. Show in both (a)
and (b) that the second quantity
is either greater than or equal to
the first. When is the equality sign
true ? [For simplicity, consider
one-dimensional motion only].
2.10 A man walks on a straight road from
his home to a market 2.5 km away with
a speed of 5 km h–1 . Finding the
market closed, he instantly turns and
walks back home with a speed of 7.5
km h–1. What is the
(a) magnitude of average velocity, and
(b) average speed of the man over the
interval of time (i) 0 to 30 min, (ii)
0 to 50 min, (iii) 0 to 40 min ?
[Note: You will appreciate from this
exercise why it is better to define
average speed as total path length
divided by time, and not as
magnitude of average velocity. You
would not like to tell the tired man
on his return home that his
average speed was zero !] Fig. 2.10
2.11 In Exercises 2.9 and 2.10, we have
carefully distinguished between
average speed and magnitude of average
velocity. No such distinction is necessary when
we consider instantaneous speed and
magnitude of velocity. The instantaneous speed
is always equal to the magnitude of
instantaneous velocity. Why?
2.12 Look at the graphs (a) to (d) (Fig. 2.10) carefully
and state, with reasons, which of these cannot
possibly represent one-dimensional motion of
a particle.
2.13 Figure 2.11shows the x-t plot of one-
dimensional motion of a particle. Is it correct
to say from the graph that the particle moves Fig. 2.11
in a straight line for t < 0 and on a parabolic
path for t >0 ? If not, suggest a suitable physical
context for this graph.
2.14 A police van moving on a highway with a speed of
30 km h–1 fires a bullet at a thief’s car speeding away in
the same direction with a speed of 192 km h–1. If the muzzle
speed of the bullet is 150 m s–1, with what speed does the
bullet hit the thief’s car ? (Note: Obtain that speed which
is relevant for damaging the thief’s car).

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26 PHYSICS

2.15 Suggest a suitable physical situation for each of the following graphs (Fig 2.12):

Fig. 2.12

2.16 Figure 2.13 gives the x-t plot of a particle executing one-dimensional simple
harmonic motion. (You will learn about this motion in more detail in Chapter13).
Give the signs of position, velocity and acceleration variables of the particle at
t = 0.3 s, 1.2 s, – 1.2 s.

Fig. 2.13

2.17 Figure 2.14 gives the x-t plot of a

particle in one-dimensional motion.
Three different equal intervals of time
are shown. In which interval is the
average speed greatest, and in which
is it the least ? Give the sign of average
velocity for each interval.

Fig. 2.14
2.18 Figure 2.15 gives a speed-time graph of
a particle in motion along a constant
direction. Three equal intervals of time
are shown. In which interval is the
average acceleration greatest in
magnitude? In which interval is the
average speed greatest ? Choosing the
positive direction as the constant
direction of motion, give the signs of v
and a in the three intervals. What are
the accelerations at the points A, B, C
and D ? Fig. 2.15

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 CHAPTER THREE

MOTION IN A PLANE

3.1 INTRODUCTION
In the last chapter we developed the concepts of position,
displacement, velocity and acceleration that are needed to
3.1 Introduction describe the motion of an object along a straight line. We
3.2 Scalars and vectors found that the directional aspect of these quantities can be
3.3 Multiplication of vectors by taken care of by + and – signs, as in one dimension only two
real numbers directions are possible. But in order to describe motion of an
3.4 Addition and subtraction of object in two dimensions (a plane) or three dimensions
vectors — graphical method (space), we need to use vectors to describe the above-
3.5 Resolution of vectors mentioned physical quantities. Therefore, it is first necessary
3.6 Vector addition — analytical to learn the language of vectors. What is a vector ? How to
method add, subtract and multiply vectors ? What is the result of
3.7 Motion in a plane multiplying a vector by a real number ? We shall learn this
3.8 Motion in a plane with to enable us to use vectors for defining velocity and
constant acceleration acceleration in a plane. We then discuss motion of an object
3.9 Projectile motion in a plane. As a simple case of motion in a plane, we shall
3.10 Uniform circular motion discuss motion with constant acceleration and treat in detail
the projectile motion. Circular motion is a familiar class of
Summary motion that has a special significance in daily-life situations.
Points to ponder We shall discuss uniform circular motion in some detail.
Exercises
The equations developed in this chapter for motion in a
plane can be easily extended to the case of three dimensions.

3.2 SCALARS AND VECTORS

In physics, we can classify quantities as scalars or
vectors. Basically, the difference is that a direction is
associated with a vector but not with a scalar. A scalar
quantity is a quantity with magnitude only. It is specified
completely by a single number, along with the proper
unit. Examples are : the distance between two points,
mass of an object, the temperature of a body and the
time at which a certain event happened. The rules for
combining scalars are the rules of ordinary algebra.
Scalars can be added, subtracted, multiplied and divided

2024-25
28 PHYSICS

just as the ordinary numbers*. For example, represented by another position vector, OP′
if the length and breadth of a rectangle are denoted by r′. The length of the vector r
1.0 m and 0.5 m respectively, then its represents the magnitude of the vector and its
perimeter is the sum of the lengths of the direction is the direction in which P lies as seen
four sides, 1.0 m + 0.5 m +1.0 m + 0.5 m = from O. If the object moves from P to P′, the
3.0 m. The length of each side is a scalar vector PP′ (with tail at P and tip at P′) is called
and the perimeter is also a scalar. Take the displacement vector corresponding to
another example: the maximum and motion from point P (at time t) to point P′ (at time t′).
minimum temperatures on a particular day
are 35.6 °C and 24.2 °C respectively. Then,
the difference between the two temperatures
is 11.4 °C. Similarly, if a uniform solid cube
of aluminium of side 10 cm has a mass of
2.7 kg, then its volume is 10–3 m3 (a scalar)
and its density is 2.7×103 kg m –3 (a scalar).
A vector quantity is a quantity that has both
a magnitude and a direction and obeys the
triangle law of addition or equivalently the Fig. 3.1 (a) Position and displacement vectors.
parallelogram law of addition. So, a vector is (b) Displacement vector PQ and different
specified by giving its magnitude by a number courses of motion.
and its direction. Some physical quantities that It is important to note that displacement
are represented by vectors are displacement, vector is the straight line joining the initial and
velocity, acceleration and force. final positions and does not depend on the actual
To represent a vector, we use a bold face type path undertaken by the object between the two
in this book. Thus, a velocity vector can be
positions. For example, in Fig. 3.1(b), given the
represented by a symbol v. Since bold face is
initial and final positions as P and Q, the
difficult to produce, when written by hand, a
displacement vector is the same PQ for different
vector is often represented by an arrow placed
r r paths of journey, say PABCQ, PDQ, and PBEFQ.
over a letter, say v . Thus, both v and v
Therefore, the magnitude of displacement is
represent the velocity vector. The magnitude of
either less or equal to the path length of an
a vector is often called its absolute value,
object between two points. This fact was
indicated by |v| = v. Thus, a vector is
emphasised in the previous chapter also while
represented by a bold face, e.g. by A, a, p, q, r, ...
x, y, with respective magnitudes denoted by light discussing motion along a straight line.
face A, a, p, q, r, ... x, y. 3.2.2 Equality of Vectors
3.2.1 Position and Displacement Vectors Two vectors A and B are said to be equal if, and
To describe the position of an object moving in only if, they have the same magnitude and the
a plane, we need to choose a convenient point, same direction.**
say O as origin. Let P and P′ be the positions of Figure 3.2(a) shows two equal vectors A and
the object at time t and t′, respectively [Fig. 3.1(a)]. B. We can easily check their equality. Shift B
We join O and P by a straight line. Then, OP is parallel to itself until its tail Q coincides with that
the position vector of the object at time t. An of A, i.e. Q coincides with O. Then, since their
arrow is marked at the head of this line. It is tips S and P also coincide, the two vectors are
represented by a symbol r, i.e. OP = r. Point P′ is said to be equal. In general, equality is indicated

* Addition and subtraction of scalars make sense only for quantities with same units. However, you can multiply
and divide scalars of different units.
** In our study, vectors do not have fixed locations. So displacing a vector parallel to itself leaves the vector
unchanged. Such vectors are called free vectors. However, in some physical applications, location or line of
application of a vector is important. Such vectors are called localised vectors.

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MOTION IN A PLANE 29

The factor λ by which a vector A is multiplied

could be a scalar having its own physical
dimension. Then, the dimension of λ A is the
product of the dimensions of λ and A. For
example, if we multiply a constant velocity vector
by duration (of time), we get a displacement
vector.
3.4 ADDITION AND SUBTRACTION OF
VECTORS — GRAPHICAL METHOD
Fig. 3.2 (a) Two equal vectors A and B. (b) Two As mentioned in section 4.2, vectors, by
vectors A′ and B′ are unequal though they definition, obey the triangle law or equivalently,
are of the same length. the parallelogram law of addition. We shall now
describe this law of addition using the graphical
as A = B. Note that in Fig. 3.2(b), vectors A′ and method. Let us consider two vectors A and B that
B′ have the same magnitude but they are not lie in a plane as shown in Fig. 3.4(a). The lengths
equal because they have different directions. of the line segments representing these vectors
Even if we shift B′ parallel to itself so that its tail are proportional to the magnitude of the vectors.
Q′ coincides with the tail O′ of A′, the tip S′ of B′ To find the sum A + B, we place vector B so that
does not coincide with the tip P′ of A′. its tail is at the head of the vector A, as in
3.3 MULTIPLICATION OF VECTORS BY REAL Fig. 3.4(b). Then, we join the tail of A to the head
NUMBERS of B. This line OQ represents a vector R, that is,
Multiplying a vector A with a positive number λ the sum of the vectors A and B. Since, in this
gives a vector whose magnitude is changed by procedure of vector addition, vectors are
the factor λ but the direction is the same as that
of A :
λ A = λ A if λ > 0.
For example, if A is multiplied by 2, the resultant
vector 2A is in the same direction as A and has
a magnitude twice of |A| as shown in Fig. 3.3(a).
Multiplying a vector A by a negative number
−λ gives another vector whose direction is
opposite to the direction of A and whose
magnitude is λ times |A|.
Multiplying a given vector A by negative
numbers, say –1 and –1.5, gives vectors as
shown in Fig 3.3(b).

(c) (d)
Fig. 3.3 (a) Vector A and the resultant vector after
multiplying A by a positive number 2. Fig. 3.4 (a) Vectors A and B. (b) Vectors A and B
(b) Vector A and resultant vectors after added graphically. (c) Vectors B and A
multiplying it by a negative number –1 added graphically. (d) Illustrating the
and –1.5. associative law of vector addition.

2024-25
30 PHYSICS

arranged head to tail, this graphical method is What is the physical meaning of a zero vector?
called the head-to-tail method. The two vectors Consider the position and displacement vectors
and their resultant form three sides of a triangle, in a plane as shown in Fig. 3.1(a). Now suppose
so this method is also known as triangle method that an object which is at P at time t, moves to
of vector addition. If we find the resultant of P′ and then comes back to P. Then, what is its
B + A as in Fig. 3.4(c), the same vector R is displacement? Since the initial and final
obtained. Thus, vector addition is commutative: positions coincide, the displacement is a “null
A+B=B+A (3.1) vector”.

The addition of vectors also obeys the associative Subtraction of vectors can be defined in terms
law as illustrated in Fig. 3.4(d). The result of of addition of vectors. We define the difference
adding vectors A and B first and then adding of two vectors A and B as the sum of two vectors
vector C is the same as the result of adding B A and –B :
and C first and then adding vector A : A – B = A + (–B) (3.5)
(A + B) + C = A + (B + C) (3.2) It is shown in Fig 3.5. The vector –B is added to
What is the result of adding two equal and vector A to get R2 = (A – B). The vector R1 = A + B
opposite vectors ? Consider two vectors A and is also shown in the same figure for comparison.
–A shown in Fig. 3.3(b). Their sum is A + (–A). We can also use the parallelogram method to
Since the magnitudes of the two vectors are the find the sum of two vectors. Suppose we have
same, but the directions are opposite, the two vectors A and B. To add these vectors, we
resultant vector has zero magnitude and is bring their tails to a common origin O as
represented by 0 called a null vector or a zero shown in Fig. 3.6(a). Then we draw a line from
vector : the head of A parallel to B and another line from
the head of B parallel to A to complete a
A–A=0 |0|= 0 (3.3)
parallelogram OQSP. Now we join the point of
Since the magnitude of a null vector is zero, its the intersection of these two lines to the origin
direction cannot be specified. O. The resultant vector R is directed from the
The null vector also results when we multiply common origin O along the diagonal (OS) of the
a vector A by the number zero. The main parallelogram [Fig. 3.6(b)]. In Fig.3.6(c), the
properties of 0 are : triangle law is used to obtain the resultant of A
A+0=A and B and we see that the two methods yield the
λ0=0 same result. Thus, the two methods are
0A=0 (3.4) equivalent.

Fig. 3.5 (a) Two vectors A and B, – B is also shown. (b) Subtracting vector B from vector A – the result is R2. For
comparison, addition of vectors A and B, i.e. R1 is also shown.

2024-25
MOTION IN A PLANE 31

Fig. 3.6 (a) Two vectors A and B with their tails brought to a common origin. (b) The sum A + B obtained using
the parallelogram method. (c) The parallelogram method of vector addition is equivalent to the triangle
method.

⊳
Example 3.1 Rain is falling vertically with 3.5 RESOLUTION OF VECTORS
a speed of 35 m s–1. Winds starts blowing Let a and b be any two non-zero vectors in a
after sometime with a speed of 12 m s–1 in plane with different directions and let A be
east to west direction. In which direction another vector in the same plane (Fig. 3.8). A
should a boy waiting at a bus stop hold can be expressed as a sum of two vectors — one
his umbrella ? obtained by multiplying a by a real number and
the other obtained by multiplying b by another
real number. To see this, let O and P be the tail
and head of the vector A. Then, through O, draw
a straight line parallel to a, and through P, a
straight line parallel to b. Let them intersect at
Q. Then, we have
A = OP = OQ + QP (3.6)
But since OQ is parallel to a, and QP is parallel
to b, we can write :

Fig. 3.7 OQ = λ a, and QP = µ b (3.7)

where λ and µ are real numbers.
Answer The velocity of the rain and the wind
are represented by the vectors vr and vw in Fig. Therefore, A = λ a + µ b (3.8)
3.7 and are in the direction specified by the
problem. Using the rule of vector addition, we
see that the resultant of vr and vw is R as shown
in the figure. The magnitude of R is
2 2 2 2 −1 −1
R = vr + vw = 35 + 12 ms = 37 m s

The direction θ that R makes with the vertical

is given by
vw 12
tan θ = = = 0.343 Fig. 3.8 (a) Two non-colinear vectors a and b.
vr 35 (b) Resolving a vector A in terms of vectors
a and b.
θ = tan ( 0.343) = 19°
Or, -1

Therefore, the boy should hold his umbrella We say that A has been resolved into two
in the vertical plane at an angle of about 19o component vectors λ a and µ b along a and b
with the vertical towards the east. ⊳

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32 PHYSICS

respectively. Using this method one can resolve

and A2 is parallel to ɵj , we have :
a given vector into two component vectors along
a set of two vectors – all the three lie in the same A1= Ax ɵi , A2 = Ay ɵj (3.11)
plane. It is convenient to resolve a general vector
where Ax and Ay are real numbers.
along the axes of a rectangular coordinate
system using vectors of unit magnitude. These Thus, A = Ax ɵi + Ay ɵj (3.12)
are called unit vectors that we discuss now. A
unit vector is a vector of unit magnitude and This is represented in Fig. 3.9(c). The quantities
points in a particular direction. It has no Ax and Ay are called x-, and y- components of the
dimension and unit. It is used to specify a vector A. Note that Ax is itself not a vector, but
direction only. Unit vectors along the x-, y- and
A ɵi is a vector, and so is A ɵj . Using simple
z-axes of a rectangular coordinate system are x y
trigonometry, we can express Ax and Ay in terms
denoted by ɵi , ɵj and k̂ , respectively, as shown of the magnitude of A and the angle θ it makes
in Fig. 3.9(a). with the x-axis :
Since these are unit vectors, we have Ax = A cos θ
Ay = A sin θ (3.13)
 î  =  ĵ  =  k̂ =1 (3.9)
As is clear from Eq. (3.13), a component of a
These unit vectors are perpendicular to each vector can be positive, negative or zero
other. In this text, they are printed in bold face depending on the value of θ.
with a cap (^) to distinguish them from other Now, we have two ways to specify a vector A
vectors. Since we are dealing with motion in two in a plane. It can be specified by :
dimensions in this chapter, we require use of (i) its magnitude A and the direction θ it makes
only two unit vectors. If we multiply a unit vector, with the x-axis; or
say n̂ by a scalar, the result is a vector (ii) its components Ax and Ay
λ = λ n̂. In general, a vector A can be written as If A and θ are given, Ax and Ay can be obtained
using Eq. (3.13). If Ax and Ay are given, A and θ
A = |A| n̂ (3.10) can be obtained as follows :
where n̂ is a unit vector along A. 2 2 2 2 2 2
A x + Ay = A cos θ + A sin θ
We can now resolve a vector A in terms
= A2
of component vectors that lie along unit vectors
î and ɵj . Consider a vector A that lies in x-y Or, A= A 2x + Ay2 (3.14)
plane as shown in Fig. 3.9(b). We draw lines from
the head of A perpendicular to the coordinate Ay Ay
And tan θ = , θ = tan− 1 (3.15)
axes as in Fig. 3.9(b), and get vectors A1 and A2 Ax Ax
such that A + A = A. Since A is parallel to ɵi
1 2 1

Fig. 3.9 (a) Unit vectors ɵi , ɵj and kɵ lie along the x-, y-, and z-axes. (b) A vector A is resolved into its
components Ax and Ay along x-, and y- axes. (c) A1 and A2 expressed in terms of ɵi and ɵj .

2024-25
MOTION IN A PLANE 33

So far we have considered a vector lying in

B = B x iɵ + By ɵj
an x-y plane. The same procedure can be used
to resolve a general vector A into three Let R be their sum. We have
components along x-, y-, and z-axes in three R=A+B
dimensions. If α , β, and γ are the angles *
between A and the x-, y-, and z-axes, respectively
( ) (
= A x ɵi + Ay ɵj + B x iɵ + By ɵj ) (3.19a)
[Fig. 3.9(d)], we have Since vectors obey the commutative and
associative laws, we can arrange and regroup
the vectors in Eq. (3.19a) as convenient to us :

(
R = ( A x + B x ) ɵi + Ay + By ɵj ) (3.19b)

Since R = R x iɵ + Ry ɵj (3.20)

we have, R x = A x + B x , R y = Ay + B y (3.21)
Thus, each component of the resultant
vector R is the sum of the corresponding
components of A and B.
In three dimensions, we have
A = A iɵ + A ɵj + A kɵ
x y z

B = B x iɵ + By ɵj + Bz kɵ
(d)
R = A + B = R x iɵ + Ry ɵj + Rz kɵ
Fig. 3.9 (d) A vector A resolved into components along
x-, y-, and z-axes
with Rx = Ax + Bx
A x = A cos α , A y = A cos β , A z = A cos γ (3.16a) Ry = Ay + By
In general, we have Rz = Az + Bz (3.22)
A = Ax ˆi + Ay ˆj + Az k
ˆ (3.16b) This method can be extended to addition and
The magnitude of vector A is subtraction of any number of vectors. For
A = A x2 + Ay2 + Az2 (3.16c) example, if vectors a, b and c are given as
A position vector r can be expressed as a = a iɵ + a ɵj + a kɵ
x y z
r = x ɵi + y ɵj + z k
ɵ (3.17)
b = b x iɵ + by ɵj + bz kɵ
where x, y, and z are the components of r along
x-, y-, z-axes, respectively. c = c x iɵ + c y ɵj + c z kɵ (3.23a)
3.6 VECTOR ADDITION – ANALYTICAL then, a vector T = a + b – c has components :
METHOD Tx = a x + b x − c x
Although the graphical method of adding vectors Ty = a y + by − c y (3.23b)
helps us in visualising the vectors and the
Tz = a z + b z − c z .
resultant vector, it is sometimes tedious and has
limited accuracy. It is much easier to add vectors ⊳
by combining their respective components. Example 3.2 Find the magnitude and
direction of the resultant of two vectors A
Consider two vectors A and B in x-y plane with
and B in terms of their magnitudes and
components Ax, Ay and Bx, By :
angle θ between them.
A = A x iɵ + Ay ɵj (3.18)

* Note that angles α, β, and γ are angles in space. They are between pairs of lines, which are not coplanar.

2024-25
34 PHYSICS

⊳
Example 3.3 A motorboat is racing
towards north at 25 km/h and the water
current in that region is 10 km/h in the
direction of 60° east of south. Find the
resultant velocity of the boat.

Answer The vector vb representing the velocity

of the motorboat and the vector vc representing
Fig. 3.10
the water current are shown in Fig. 3.11 in
Answer Let OP and OQ represent the two vectors directions specified by the problem. Using the
A and B making an angle θ (Fig. 3.10). Then, parallelogram method of addition, the resultant
using the parallelogram method of vector R is obtained in the direction shown in the
addition, OS represents the resultant vector R : figure.
R=A+B
SN is normal to OP and PM is normal to OS.
From the geometry of the figure,
OS2 = ON2 + SN2
but ON = OP + PN = A + B cos θ
SN = B sin θ
OS2 = (A + B cos θ)2 + (B sin θ)2
or, R2 = A2 + B2 + 2AB cos θ

R= A 2 + B 2 + 2AB cos θ (3.24a)

In ∆ OSN, SN = OS sinα = R sinα, and
in ∆ PSN, SN = PS sin θ = B sin θ
Therefore, R sin α = B sin θ
R B
or, = (3.24b)
sin θ sin α
Fig. 3.11
Similarly,
PM = A sin α = B sin β
We can obtain the magnitude of R using the Law
A B of cosine :
or, = (3.24c)
sin β sin α
Combining Eqs. (3.24b) and (3.24c), we get R = v 2b + v c2 + 2v bv c cos120o
R A B
= = (3.24d) = 252 + 102 + 2 × 25 × 10 ( -1/2 ) ≅ 22 km/h
sin θ sin β sin α
To obtain the direction, we apply the Law of sines
Using Eq. (3.24d), we get:
R vc vc
B = or, sin φ = sin θ
sin α = sin θ (3.24e) sin θ sin φ R
R
where R is given by Eq. (3.24a). 10 × sin120 10 3
= = ≅ 0.397
SN B sin θ 21.8 2 × 21.8
or, tan α = = (3.24f)
OP + PN A + B cos θ
φ ≅ 23.4 ⊳
Equation (3.24a) gives the magnitude of the
resultant and Eqs. (3.24e) and (3.24f) its direction. 3.7 MOTION IN A PLANE
Equation (3.24a) is known as the Law of cosines In this section we shall see how to describe
and Eq. (3.24d) as the Law of sines. ⊳ motion in two dimensions using vectors.

2024-25
MOTION IN A PLANE 35

3.7.1 Position Vector and Displacement Suppose a particle moves along the curve shown
The position vector r of a particle P located in a by the thick line and is at P at time t and P′ at
plane with reference to the origin of an x-y time t′ [Fig. 3.12(b)]. Then, the displacement is :
reference frame (Fig. 3.12) is given by ∆r = r′ – r (3.25)
and is directed from P to P′.
r = x iɵ + y ɵj
We can write Eq. (3.25) in a component form:
where x and y are components of r along x-, and
y- axes or simply they are the coordinates of
the object.
∆r ( ) (
= x' ɵi + y' ɵj − x iɵ + y ɵj )
= ɵi∆x + ɵj∆y
where ∆x = x ′ – x, ∆y = y′ – y (3.26)
Velocity
The average velocity ( v ) of an object is the ratio
of the displacement and the corresponding time
interval :
∆r ∆x iɵ + ∆y ɵj ∆x ɵ ∆y
v= = = iɵ +j (3.27)
∆t ∆t ∆t ∆t

Or, v = v x ˆi + v y j
(a)
∆r
Since v = , the direction of the average velocity
∆t
is the same as that of ∆r (Fig. 3.12). The velocity
(instantaneous velocity) is given by the limiting
value of the average velocity as the time interval
approaches zero :
∆ r dr
v = lim = (3.28)
∆t → 0 ∆ t dt
The meaning of the limiting process can be easily
understood with the help of Fig 3.13(a) to (d). In
these figures, the thick line represents the path
of an object, which is at P at time t. P1, P2 and
(b) P3 represent the positions of the object after
Fig. 3.12 (a) Position vector r. (b) Displacement ∆r and times ∆t1,∆t2, and ∆t3. ∆r1, ∆r2, and ∆r3 are the
average velocity v of a particle. displacements of the object in times ∆t1, ∆t2, and

Fig. 3.13 As the time interval ∆t approaches zero, the average velocity approaches the velocity v. The direction
of v is parallel to the line tangent to the path.

2024-25
36 PHYSICS

∆t3, respectively. The direction of the average

velocity v is shown in figures (a), (b) and (c) for
three decreasing values of ∆t, i.e. ∆t1,∆t2, and ∆t3,
( ∆ t 1 > ∆ t 2 > ∆ t 3 ). As ∆ t → 0, ∆ r → 0
and is along the tangent to the path [Fig. 3.13(d)].
Therefore, the direction of velocity at any point
on the path of an object is tangential to the
path at that point and is in the direction of
motion.
We can express v in a component form : Fig. 3.14 The components vx and vy of velocity v and
the angle θ it makes with x-axis. Note that
dr vx = v cos θ, vy = v sin θ.
v=
dt
The acceleration (instantaneous acceleration)
 ∆x ∆y ɵ  is the limiting value of the average acceleration
= lim  iɵ + j (3.29)
∆t → 0 ∆t ∆t  as the time interval approaches zero :
∆v
∆x ɵ ∆y a = lim
= iɵ lim + j lim (3. 32a)
∆t → 0 ∆t ∆t → 0 ∆t ∆t → 0 ∆t
dx ɵ dy Since ∆v = ∆v x iɵ + ∆v y ɵj, we have
Or, v = iɵ +j = v x iɵ + vy ɵj.
dt dt ∆v y
∆v x
dx dy a = iɵ lim + ɵj lim
where v x = , vy = (3.30a) ∆t → 0 ∆t ∆t → 0 ∆t
dt dt
So, if the expressions for the coordinates x and Or, a = a x iɵ + a y ɵj (3.32b)
y are known as functions of time, we can use
these equations to find vx and vy. dv x dv y
where, a x = , ay = (3.32c)*
The magnitude of v is then dt dt
2 2 As in the case of velocity, we can understand
v= v x + vy (3.30b)
graphically the limiting process used in defining
and the direction of v is given by the angle θ : acceleration on a graph showing the path of the
object’s motion. This is shown in Figs. 3.15(a) to
vy v 
−1  y
 (d). P represents the position of the object at
tanθ = , θ = tan (3.30c)
  time t and P1, P2, P3 positions after time ∆t1, ∆t2,
vx  vx 
∆t3, respectively (∆t 1> ∆t2>∆t3). The velocity vectors
vx, vy and angle θ are shown in Fig. 3.14 for a at points P, P1, P2, P3 are also shown in Figs. 3.15
velocity vector v at point p. (a), (b) and (c). In each case of ∆t, ∆v is obtained
using the triangle law of vector addition. By
Acceleration
definition, the direction of average acceleration
The average acceleration a of an object for a is the same as that of ∆v. We see that as ∆t
time interval ∆t moving in x-y plane is the change decreases, the direction of ∆v changes and
in velocity divided by the time interval : consequently, the direction of the acceleration

a=
∆v
=
(
∆ v x iɵ + v y ɵj ) = ∆v x
iɵ +
∆v y
ɵj (3.31a)
changes. Finally, in the limit ∆t g0 [Fig. 3.15(d)],
the average acceleration becomes the
∆t ∆t ∆t ∆t instantaneous acceleration and has the direction
as shown.
Or, a = a x iɵ + a y ɵj . (3.31b)

* In terms of x and y, ax and ay can be expressed as

2024-25
MOTION IN A PLANE 37

x (m)

Fig. 3.15 The average acceleration for three time intervals (a) ∆t1, (b) ∆t2, and (c) ∆t3, (∆t1> ∆t2> ∆t3). (d) In the
limit ∆t g0, the average acceleration becomes the acceleration.

Note that in one dimension, the velocity and

the acceleration of an object are always along  vy  −1  4  °
θ = tan-1   = tan   ≅ 53 with x-axis.
the same straight line (either in the same  x
v  3 
direction or in the opposite direction).
However, for motion in two or three ⊳
dimensions, velocity and acceleration vectors
may have any angle between 0° and 180° 3.8 MOTION IN A PLANE WITH CONSTANT
between them. ACCELERATION
⊳
Example 3.4 The position of a particle is Suppose that an object is moving in x-y plane
given by and its acceleration a is constant. Over an
interval of time, the average acceleration will
r = 3.0t ˆi + 2.0t 2ˆj + 5.0 kˆ equal this constant value. Now, let the velocity
where t is in seconds and the of the object be v0 at time t = 0 and v at time t.
coefficients have the proper units for r to Then, by definition
be in metres. (a) Find v(t) and a(t) of the v − v0 v − v0
particle. (b) Find the magnitude and a= =
t−0 t
direction of v(t) at t = 1.0 s.
Or, v = v 0 + at (3.33a)
Answer In terms of components :
v x = v ox + a x t
v( t ) =
dr
dt
=
d
dt
(3.0 t iɵ + 2.0t 2 ɵj + 5.0 kɵ
) v y = v oy + a y t (3.33b)

= 3.0iɵ + 4.0t ɵj
Let us now find how the position r changes with
dv time. We follow the method used in the one-
a (t ) = = +4.0 ɵj
dt dimensional case. Let ro and r be the position
a = 4.0 m s–2 along y- direction vectors of the particle at time 0 and t and let the
velocities at these instants be vo and v. Then,
At t = 1.0 s, v = 3.0ˆi + 4.0ˆj over this time interval t, the average velocity is
-1 (vo + v)/2. The displacement is the average
It’s magnitude is v = 3 + 4 = 5.0 m s
2 2
velocity multiplied by the time interval :
and direction is

2024-25
38 PHYSICS

 v + v0   ( v + at ) + v 0  ( )
= 5.0 t + 1.5 t 2 ˆi + 1.0 t 2 ˆj
r − r0 =   t= 0 t
 2   2 
Therefore, x (t ) = 5.0 t + 1.5 t 2

= v0t +
1 2
at y (t ) = +1.0 t 2
2 Given x (t) = 84 m, t = ?

1 5.0 t + 1.5 t 2 = 84 ⇒ t = 6 s
Or, r = r0 + v 0t + at 2 (3.34a) At t = 6 s, y = 1.0 (6)2 = 36.0 m
2
dr
It can be easily verified that the derivative of Now, the velocity v = = (5.0 + 3.0 t ) ˆi + 2.0 t ˆj
dt
dr
Eq. (3.34a), i.e. gives Eq.(3.33a) and it also At t = 6 s, v = 23.0iɵ + 12.0 ɵj
dt
satisfies the condition that at t=0, r = r o . speed = v = 232 + 122 ≅ 26 m s−1 .
Equation (3.34a) can be written in component ⊳
form as 3.9 PROJECTILE MOTION
1
x = x 0 + v ox t + a x t 2 As an application of the ideas developed in the
2 previous sections, we consider the motion of a
1 projectile. An object that is in flight after being
y = y0 + v oy t + ayt 2 (3.34b) thrown or projected is called a projectile. Such
2
a projectile might be a football, a cricket ball, a
One immediate interpretation of Eq.(3.34b) is that baseball or any other object. The motion of a
the motions in x- and y-directions can be treated projectile may be thought of as the result of two
independently of each other. That is, motion in separate, simultaneously occurring components
a plane (two-dimensions) can be treated as two
of motions. One component is along a horizontal
separate simultaneous one-dimensional
direction without any acceleration and the other
motions with constant acceleration along two
along the vertical direction with constant
perpendicular directions. This is an important
acceleration due to the force of gravity. It was
result and is useful in analysing motion of objects
Galileo who first stated this independency of the
in two dimensions. A similar result holds for three
dimensions. The choice of perpendicular horizontal and the vertical components of
directions is convenient in many physical projectile motion in his Dialogue on the great
situations, as we shall see in section 3.9 for world systems (1632).
projectile motion. In our discussion, we shall assume that the
air resistance has negligible effect on the motion
⊳ Example 3.5 A particle starts from origin of the projectile. Suppose that the projectile is
at t = 0 with a velocity 5.0 î m/s and moves launched with velocity vo that makes an angle
in x-y plane under action of a force which θo with the x-axis as shown in Fig. 3.16.
produces a constant acceleration of
After the object has been projected, the
(3.0iɵ +2.0jɵ ) m/s 2 . (a) What is the
acceleration acting on it is that due to gravity
y-coordinate of the particle at the instant which is directed vertically downward:
its x-coordinate is 84 m ? (b) What is the
speed of the particle at this time ? a = −g ɵj
Or, ax = 0, ay = – g (3.35)

Answer From Eq. (3.34a) for r0 = 0, the position The components of initial velocity vo are :
of the particle is given by
1 2
r (t ) = v 0 t + at vox = vo cos θo
2 voy= vo sin θo (3.36)
( )
= 5.0ˆi t + (1/2) 3.0ˆi + 2.0ˆj t 2

2024-25
MOTION IN A PLANE 39

Now, since g, θo and vo are constants, Eq. (3.39)

is of the form y = a x + b x2, in which a and b are
constants. This is the equation of a parabola,
i.e. the path of the projectile is a parabola
(Fig. 3.17).

Fig 3.16 Motion of an object projected with velocity

vo at angle θ0.
If we take the initial position to be the origin of
the reference frame as shown in Fig. 3.16, we
have :
xo = 0, yo = 0
Then, Eq.(3.34b) becomes :
x = vox t = (vo cos θo ) t
and y = (vo sin θo ) t – ( ½ )g t2 (3.37) Fig. 3.17 The path of a projectile is a parabola.

The components of velocity at time t can be Time of maximum height

obtained using Eq.(3.33b) : How much time does the projectile take to reach the
vx = vox = vo cos θo maximum height ? Let this time be denoted by tm.
Since at this point, vy= 0, we have from Eq. (3.38):
vy = vo sin θo – g t (3.38) vy = vo sinθo – g tm = 0
Equation (3.37) gives the x-, and y-coordinates Or, tm = vo sinθo /g (3.40a)
of the position of a projectile at time t in terms of
The total time Tf during which the projectile is
two parameters — initial speed vo and projection
in flight can be obtained by putting y = 0 in
angle θo. Notice that the choice of mutually
Eq. (3.37). We get :
perpendicular x-, and y-directions for the
analysis of the projectile motion has resulted in Tf = 2 (vo sin θo )/g (3.40b)
a simplification. One of the components of Tf is known as the time of flight of the projectile.
velocity, i.e. x-component remains constant We note that Tf = 2 tm , which is expected
throughout the motion and only the because of the symmetry of the parabolic path.
y- component changes, like an object in free fall Maximum height of a projectile
in vertical direction. This is shown graphically
The maximum height h m reached by the
at few instants in Fig. 3.17. Note that at the point
projectile can be calculated by substituting
of maximum height, vy= 0 and therefore,
t = tm in Eq. (3.37) :
vy
θ = tan-1 =o  v sinθ  g  v sinθ 2
vx (
y = hm = v0 sinθ 0 
0
)
0
− 
 0 0

Equation of path of a projectile  g  2 g 

What is the shape of the path followed by the

( v 0 sin θ 0 ) 2
projectile? This can be seen by eliminating the Or, hm = (3.41)
time between the expressions for x and y as 2g
given in Eq. (3.37). We obtain: Horizontal range of a projectile
g
y = ( tan θo ) x −
The horizontal distance travelled by a projectile from
x2
2 (v o cosθo )
2 (3.39) its initial position (x = y = 0) to the position where it
passes y = 0 during its fall is called the horizontal

2024-25
40 PHYSICS

range, R. It is the distance travelled during the time y (t) = yo + voy t +(1/2) ay t2
of flight Tf . Therefore, the range R is Here, xo = yo = 0, voy = 0, ay = –g = –9.8 m s-2,
R = (vo cos θo) (Tf ) vox = 15 m s-1.
=(vo cos θo) (2 vo sin θo)/g The stone hits the ground when y(t) = – 490 m.
– 490 m = –(1/2)(9.8) t2.
2
v0 sin 2θ 0 This gives t =10 s.
Or, R= (3.42a) The velocity components are vx = vox and
g
vy = voy – g t
Equation (3.42a) shows that for a given so that when the stone hits the ground :
projection velocity vo , R is maximum when sin vox = 15 m s–1
2θ0 is maximum, i.e., when θ0 = 450. voy = 0 – 9.8 × 10 = – 98 m s–1
The maximum horizontal range is, therefore, Therefore, the speed of the stone is
2
Rm =
v0 v 2x + vy2 = 152 + 982 = 99 m s −1 ⊳
(3.42b)
g
⊳
Example 3.6 Galileo, in his book Two new ⊳ Example 3.8 A cricket ball is thrown at a
sciences, stated that “for elevations which speed of 28 m s–1 in a direction 30° above
exceed or fall short of 45° by equal amounts, the horizontal. Calculate (a) the maximum
the ranges are equal”. Prove this statement. height, (b) the time taken by the ball to
return to the same level, and (c) the
distance from the thrower to the point
Answer For a projectile launched with velocity
where the ball returns to the same level.
vo at an angle θo , the range is given by

v02 sin 2θ0

R= Answer (a) The maximum height is given by
g
hm =
(v0 sinθo )2 = (28 sin 30°)2
Now, for angles, (45° + α ) and ( 45° – α), 2θo is m
2g 2 (9.8 )
(90° + 2α ) and ( 90° – 2α ) , respectively. The
values of sin (90° + 2α ) and sin (90° – 2α ) are 14 × 14
the same, equal to that of cos 2α. Therefore, = = 10.0 m
2 × 9.8
ranges are equal for elevations which exceed or
fall short of 45° by equal amounts α. ⊳ (b) The time taken to return to the same level is
Tf = (2 vo sin θo )/g = (2× 28 × sin 30° )/9.8
⊳ = 28/9.8 s = 2.9 s
Example 3.7 A hiker stands on the edge (c) The distance from the thrower to the point
of a cliff 490 m above the ground and where the ball returns to the same level is
throws a stone horizontally with an initial
speed of 15 m s-1. Neglecting air resistance,
find the time taken by the stone to reach R=
(v sin 2θ )
2
o o
=
28 × 28 × sin 60o
= 69 m ⊳
g 9.8
the ground, and the speed with which it
hits the ground. (Take g = 9.8 m s-2 ).
3.10 UNIFORM CIRCULAR MOTION
Answer We choose the origin of the x-,and y-
When an object follows a circular path at a
axis at the edge of the cliff and t = 0 s at the
constant speed, the motion of the object is called
instant the stone is thrown. Choose the positive
uniform circular motion. The word “uniform”
direction of x-axis to be along the initial velocity refers to the speed, which is uniform (constant)
and the positive direction of y-axis to be the throughout the motion. Suppose an object is
vertically upward direction. The x-, and y- moving with uniform speed v in a circle of radius
components of the motion can be treated R as shown in Fig. 3.18. Since the velocity of the
independently. The equations of motion are : object is changing continuously in direction, the
x (t) = xo + vox t object undergoes acceleration. Let us find the
magnitude and the direction of this acceleration.

2024-25
MOTION IN A PLANE 41

Fig. 3.18 Velocity and acceleration of an object in uniform circular motion. The time interval ∆t decreases from
(a) to (c) where it is zero. The acceleration is directed, at each point of the path, towards the centre of
the circle.
Let r and r′ be the position vectors and v and r′ be ∆θ. Since the velocity vectors v and v′ are
v′ the velocities of the object when it is at point P always perpendicular to the position vectors, the
and P ′ as shown in Fig. 3.18(a). By definition, angle between them is also ∆θ . Therefore, the
velocity at a point is along the tangent at that triangle CPP′ formed by the position vectors and
point in the direction of motion. The velocity the triangle GHI formed by the velocity vectors
vectors v and v′ are as shown in Fig. 3.18(a1). v, v′ and ∆v are similar (Fig. 3.18a). Therefore,
∆v is obtained in Fig. 3.18 (a2) using the triangle the ratio of the base-length to side-length for
law of vector addition. Since the path is circular, one of the triangles is equal to that of the other
v is perpendicular to r and so is v′ to r′. triangle. That is :
Therefore, ∆v is perpendicular to ∆r. Since
 ∆v  ∆v ∆r
average acceleration is along ∆v  a =  , the =
 ∆t  v R
average acceleration a is perpendicular to ∆r. If
we place ∆v on the line that bisects the angle ∆r
Or, ∆v = v
between r and r′, we see that it is directed towards R
the centre of the circle. Figure 3.18(b) shows the Therefore,
same quantities for smaller time interval. ∆v and
∆v v ∆r v ∆r
hence a is again directed towards the centre. a = lim = lim = lim
In Fig. 3.18(c), ∆t Ž 0 and the average ∆t → 0 ∆t ∆ t → 0 R∆ t R ∆t → 0 ∆t
acceleration becomes the instantaneous If ∆t is small, ∆θ will also be small and then arc
acceleration. It is directed towards the centre*. PP′ can be approximately taken to be|∆r|:
Thus, we find that the acceleration of an object ∆ r ≅ v∆ t
in uniform circular motion is always directed
∆r
towards the centre of the circle. Let us now find ≅v
the magnitude of the acceleration. ∆t
The magnitude of a is, by definition, given by ∆r
lim =v
∆v Or,
a = ∆t → 0 ∆t
lim
∆t → 0 ∆t
Let the angle between position vectors r and Therefore, the centripetal acceleration ac is :

* In the limit ∆tŽ0, ∆r becomes perpendicular to r. In this limit ∆v→ 0 and is consequently also perpendicular
to V. Therefore, the acceleration is directed towards the centre, at each point of the circular path.

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42 PHYSICS

v 2 2
ω R
2
ac =   v = v2/R (3.43) ac =
v
=
2
=ω R
R 
R R
Thus, the acceleration of an object moving with 2
ac = ω R (3.46)
speed v in a circle of radius R has a magnitude
2
v /R and is always directed towards the centre.
The time taken by an object to make one revolution
This is why this acceleration is called centripetal
acceleration (a term proposed by Newton). A is known as its time period T and the number of
thorough analysis of centripetal acceleration was revolution made in one second is called its
first published in 1673 by the Dutch scientist frequency ν (=1/T ). However, during this time
Christiaan Huygens (1629-1695) but it was the distance moved by the object is s = 2πR.
probably known to Newton also some years earlier. Therefore, v = 2πR/T =2πRν (3.47)
“Centripetal” comes from a Greek term which means In terms of frequency ν, we have
‘centre-seeking’. Since v and R are constant, the ω = 2πν
magnitude of the centripetal acceleration is also v = 2πRν
constant. However, the direction changes —
ac = 4π2 ν2R (3.48)
pointing always towards the centre. Therefore, a
centripetal acceleration is not a constant vector. ⊳
Example 3.9 An insect trapped in a
We have another way of describing the
circular groove of radius 12 cm moves along
velocity and the acceleration of an object in
the groove steadily and completes 7
uniform circular motion. As the object moves
revolutions in 100 s. (a) What is the
from P to P′ in time ∆t (= t′ – t), the line CP
angular speed, and the linear speed of the
(Fig. 3.18) turns through an angle ∆θ as shown
motion? (b) Is the acceleration vector a
in the figure. ∆θ is called angular distance. We
constant vector ? What is its magnitude ?
define the angular speed ω (Greek letter omega)
as the time rate of change of angular
Answer This is an example of uniform circular
displacement :
motion. Here R = 12 cm. The angular speed ω is
∆θ given by
ω=
∆t
(3.44) ω = 2π/T = 2π × 7/100 = 0.44 rad/s
Now, if the distance travelled by the object The linear speed v is :
during the time ∆t is ∆s, i.e. PP′ is ∆s, then : v =ω R = 0.44 s-1 × 12 cm = 5.3 cm s-1
∆s The direction of velocity v is along the tangent
v=
∆t to the circle at every point. The acceleration is
directed towards the centre of the circle. Since
but ∆s = R ∆θ. Therefore :
this direction changes continuously,
∆θ acceleration here is not a constant vector.
v=R =Rω
∆t However, the magnitude of acceleration is
v= Rω (3.45) constant:
We can express centripetal acceleration ac in a = ω2 R = (0.44 s–1)2 (12 cm)
terms of angular speed : = 2.3 cm s-2 ⊳

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MOTION IN A PLANE 43

SUMMARY

1. Scalar quantities are quantities with magnitudes only. Examples are distance, speed,
mass and temperature.
2. Vector quantities are quantities with magnitude and direction both. Examples are
displacement, velocity and acceleration. They obey special rules of vector algebra.
3. A vector A multiplied by a real number λ is also a vector, whose magnitude is λ times
the magnitude of the vector A and whose direction is the same or opposite depending
upon whether λ is positive or negative.
4. Two vectors A and B may be added graphically using head-to-tail method or parallelogram
method.
5. Vector addition is commutative :
A+B=B+A
It also obeys the associative law :
(A + B) + C = A + (B + C)
6. A null or zero vector is a vector with zero magnitude. Since the magnitude is zero, we
don’t have to specify its direction. It has the properties :
A+0=A
λ0 = 0
0A=0
7. The subtraction of vector B from A is defined as the sum of A and –B :
A – B = A+ (–B)
8. A vector A can be resolved into component along two given vectors a and b lying in the
same plane :
A=λa+µb
where λ and µ are real numbers.
9. A unit vector associated with a vector A has magnitude 1 and is along the vector A:
A
n̂ =
A
The unit vectors i,ɵ ɵj, k
ɵ are vectors of unit magnitude and point in the direction of
the x-, y-, and z-axes, respectively in a right-handed coordinate system.
10. A vector A can be expressed as
A = A iɵ + A ɵj x y
where Ax, Ay are its components along x-, and y -axes. If vector A makes an angle θ
Ay
with the x-axis, then Ax = A cos θ, Ay=A sin θ and A = A = Ax2 + Ay2 , tanθ = .
Ax
11. Vectors can be conveniently added using analytical method. If sum of two vectors A
and B, that lie in x-y plane, is R, then :
R = Rx iɵ + Ry ɵj , where, Rx = Ax + Bx, and Ry = Ay + By

12. The position vector of an object in x-y plane is given by r = x iɵ + y ɵj and the
displacement from position r to position r’ is given by
∆r = r′− r
= ( x ′ − x ) iɵ + (y ′ − y ) ɵj
= ∆x iɵ + ∆y ɵj
13. If an object undergoes a displacement ∆r in time ∆t, its average velocity is given by
∆r
v= . The velocity of an object at time t is the limiting value of the average velocity
∆t
as ∆t tends to zero :

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44 PHYSICS

∆r dr
v= lim =. It can be written in unit vector notation as :
∆t → 0 ∆t dt
dx dy dz
v = v iɵ + v ɵj + v
x y
ɵ
z k where vx = dt , v y = dt , v z = dt
When position of an object is plotted on a coordinate system, v is always tangent to
the curve representing the path of the object.
14. If the velocity of an object changes from v to v′in time ∆t, then its average acceleration
v − v' ∆v
is given by: a = =
∆t ∆t
The acceleration a at any time t is the limiting value of a as ∆t Ž0 :
∆v dv
lima= =
∆t → 0 ∆t dt
ɵ ɵ ɵ
In component form, we have : a = a x i + a y j + a z k
dv x dvy dvz
where, a x = , ay = , az =
dt dt dt
15. If an object is moving in a plane with constant acceleration a = a = a x2 + a y2 and
its position vector at time t = 0 is ro, then at any other time t, it will be at a point given
by:
1 2
r = ro + v o t + at
2
and its velocity is given by :
v = vo + a t
where vo is the velocity at time t = 0
In component form :
1
x = x o + vox t + ax t 2
2
1
y = yo + voy t + ay t 2
2
v x = v ox + a x t

v y = v oy + a y t

Motion in a plane can be treated as superposition of two separate simultaneous one-

dimensional motions along two perpendicular directions
16. An object that is in flight after being projected is called a projectile. If an object is
projected with initial velocity vo making an angle θo with x-axis and if we assume its
initial position to coincide with the origin of the coordinate system, then the position
and velocity of the projectile at time t are given by :
x = (vo cos θo) t
y = (vo sin θo) t − (1/2) g t2
vx = vox = vo cos θo
vy = vo sin θo − g t
The path of a projectile is parabolic and is given by :

gx 2
y = ( tanθ0 ) x –
2 (v o cos θo )
2

The maximum height that a projectile attains is :

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MOTION IN A PLANE 45

hm =
(vo sinqo )
2g
The time taken to reach this height is :
vo sinθ o
tm =
g
The horizontal distance travelled by a projectile from its initial position to the position
it passes y = 0 during its fall is called the range, R of the projectile. It is :
vo2
R= sin 2θo
g
17. When an object follows a circular path at constant speed, the motion of the object is
called uniform circular motion. The magnitude of its acceleration is ac = v2 /R. The
direction of ac is always towards the centre of the circle.
The angular speed ω, is the rate of change of angular distance. It is related to velocity
v by v = ω R. The acceleration is ac = ω 2R.
If T is the time period of revolution of the object in circular motion and ν is its
frequency, we have ω = 2π ν, v = 2πνR, ac = 4π2ν2R

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46 PHYSICS

POINTS TO PONDER
1. The path length traversed by an object between two points is, in general, not the same as
the magnitude of displacement. The displacement depends only on the end points; the
path length (as the name implies) depends on the actual path. The two quantities are
equal only if the object does not change its direction during the course of motion. In all
other cases, the path length is greater than the magnitude of displacement.
2. In view of point 1 above, the average speed of an object is greater than or equal to the
magnitude of the average velocity over a given time interval. The two are equal only if the
path length is equal to the magnitude of displacement.
3. The vector equations (3.33a) and (3.34a) do not involve any choice of axes. Of course,
you can always resolve them along any two independent axes.
4. The kinematic equations for uniform acceleration do not apply to the case of uniform
circular motion since in this case the magnitude of acceleration is constant but its
direction is changing.
5. An object subjected to two velocities v1 and v2 has a resultant velocity v = v1 + v2. Take
care to distinguish it from velocity of object 1 relative to velocity of object 2 : v12= v1 − v2.
Here v1 and v2 are velocities with reference to some common reference frame.
6. The resultant acceleration of an object in circular motion is towards the centre only if
the speed is constant.
7. The shape of the trajectory of the motion of an object is not determined by the acceleration
alone but also depends on the initial conditions of motion ( initial position and initial
velocity). For example, the trajectory of an object moving under the same acceleration
due to gravity can be a straight line or a parabola depending on the initial conditions.

EXERCISES
3.1 State, for each of the following physical quantities, if it is a scalar or a vector :
volume, mass, speed, acceleration, density, number of moles, velocity, angular
frequency, displacement, angular velocity.
3.2 Pick out the two scalar quantities in the following list :
force, angular momentum, work, current, linear momentum, electric field, average
velocity, magnetic moment, relative velocity.
3.3 Pick out the only vector quantity in the following list :
Temperature, pressure, impulse, time, power, total path length, energy, gravitational
potential, coefficient of friction, charge.
3.4 State with reasons, whether the following algebraic operations with scalar and vector
physical quantities are meaningful :
(a) adding any two scalars, (b) adding a scalar to a vector of the same dimensions ,
(c) multiplying any vector by any scalar, (d) multiplying any two scalars, (e) adding any
two vectors, (f) adding a component of a vector to the same vector.
3.5 Read each statement below carefully and state with reasons, if it is true or false :
(a) The magnitude of a vector is always a scalar, (b) each component of a vector is
always a scalar, (c) the total path length is always equal to the magnitude of the
displacement vector of a particle. (d) the average speed of a particle (defined as total
path length divided by the time taken to cover the path) is either greater or equal to
the magnitude of average velocity of the particle over the same interval of time, (e)
Three vectors not lying in a plane can never add up to give a null vector.
3.6 Establish the following vector inequalities geometrically or otherwise :
(a) |a+b| < |a| + |b|
(b) |a+b| > ||a| − |b||

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MOTION IN A PLANE 47

(c) − b| < |a| + |b|

|a−
(d) − b| > ||a| − |b||
|a−
When does the equality sign above apply?
3.7 Given a + b + c + d = 0, which of the following
statements are correct : Q
(a) a, b, c, and d must each be a null vector,
(b) The magnitude of (a + c) equals the magnitude of
( b + d),
(c) The magnitude of a can never be greater than the
sum of the magnitudes of b, c, and d,
(d) b + c must lie in the plane of a and d if a and d are
not collinear, and in the line of a and d, if they are
collinear ?
3.8 Three girls skating on a circular ice ground of radius
200 m start from a point P on the edge of the ground
and reach a point Q diametrically opposite to P following
different paths as shown in Fig. 3.19. What is the
magnitude of the displacement vector for each ? For Fig. 3.19
which girl is this equal to the actual length of
path skate ?

3.9 A cyclist starts from the centre O of a circular park of radius 1 km, reaches the edge P
of the park, then cycles along the circumference, and returns to the centre along QO
as shown in Fig. 3.20. If the round trip takes 10 min, what is the (a) net displacement,
(b) average velocity, and (c) average speed of the cyclist ?

Fig. 3.20
3.10 On an open ground, a motorist follows a track that turns to his left by an angle of 600
after every 500 m. Starting from a given turn, specify the displacement of the motorist
at the third, sixth and eighth turn. Compare the magnitude of the displacement with
the total path length covered by the motorist in each case.
3.11 A passenger arriving in a new town wishes to go from the station to a hotel located
10 km away on a straight road from the station. A dishonest cabman takes him along
a circuitous path 23 km long and reaches the hotel in 28 min. What is (a) the average
speed of the taxi, (b) the magnitude of average velocity ? Are the two equal ?
3.12 The ceiling of a long hall is 25 m high. What is the maximum horizontal distance that
a ball thrown with a speed of 40 m s-1 can go without hitting the ceiling of the hall ?
3.13 A cricketer can throw a ball to a maximum horizontal distance of 100 m. How much
high above the ground can the cricketer throw the same ball ?

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48 PHYSICS

3.14 A stone tied to the end of a string 80 cm long is whirled in a horizontal circle with a
constant speed. If the stone makes 14 revolutions in 25 s, what is the magnitude and
direction of acceleration of the stone ?
3.15 An aircraft executes a horizontal loop of radius 1.00 km with a steady speed of 900
km/h. Compare its centripetal acceleration with the acceleration due to gravity.
3.16 Read each statement below carefully and state, with reasons, if it is true or false :
(a) The net acceleration of a particle in circular motion is always along the radius of
the circle towards the centre
(b) The velocity vector of a particle at a point is always along the tangent to the path
of the particle at that point
(c) The acceleration vector of a particle in uniform circular motion averaged over one
cycle is a null vector

3.17 The position of a particle is given by

r = 3.0t ˆi − 2.0t 2 ˆj + 4.0 k
ˆ m
where t is in seconds and the coefficients have the proper units for r to be in metres.
(a) Find the v and a of the particle? (b) What is the magnitude and direction of
velocity of the particle at t = 2.0 s ?
3.18 A particle starts from the origin at t = 0 s with a velocity of 10.0 ɵj m/s and moves in

( )
the x-y plane with a constant acceleration of 8.0ɵi + 2.0 ɵj m s-2. (a) At what time is
the x- coordinate of the particle 16 m? What is the y-coordinate of the particle at
that time? (b) What is the speed of the particle at the time ?
3.19 ɵi and ɵj are unit vectors along x- and y- axis respectively. What is the magnitude
and direction of the vectors ɵi + ɵj , and ɵi − ɵj ? What are the components of a vector

A= 2 ɵi + 3ɵj along the directions of ɵi + ɵj and ɵi − ɵj ? [You may use graphical method]
3.20 For any arbitrary motion in space, which of the following relations are true :
(a) vaverage = (1/2) (v (t1) + v (t2))
(b) v average = [r(t2) - r(t1) ] /(t2 – t1)
(c) v (t) = v (0) + a t
(d) r (t) = r (0) + v (0) t + (1/2) a t2
(e) a average =[ v (t2) - v (t1 )] /( t2 – t1)
(The ‘average’ stands for average of the quantity over the time interval t1 to t2)
3.21 Read each statement below carefully and state, with reasons and examples, if it is
true or false :
A scalar quantity is one that
(a) is conserved in a process
(b) can never take negative values
(c) must be dimensionless
(d) does not vary from one point to another in space
(e) has the same value for observers with different orientations of axes.
3.22 An aircraft is flying at a height of 3400 m above the ground. If the angle subtended at
a ground observation point by the aircraft positions 10.0 s a part is 30°, wat is the
speed of the aircraft ?

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 CHAPTER FOUR

LAWS OF MOTION

4.1 INTRODUCTION
In the preceding Chapter, our concern was to describe the
motion of a particle in space quantitatively. We saw that
4.1 Introduction uniform motion needs the concept of velocity alone whereas
4.2 Aristotle’s fallacy non-uniform motion requires the concept of acceleration in
4.3 The law of inertia addition. So far, we have not asked the question as to what
4.4 Newton’s first law of motion governs the motion of bodies. In this chapter, we turn to this
4.5 Newton’s second law of
basic question.
motion Let us first guess the answer based on our common
4.6 Newton’s third law of motion experience. To move a football at rest, someone must kick it.
To throw a stone upwards, one has to give it an upward
4.7 Conservation of momentum
push. A breeze causes the branches of a tree to swing; a
4.8 Equilibrium of a particle strong wind can even move heavy objects. A boat moves in a
4.9 Common forces in mechanics flowing river without anyone rowing it. Clearly, some external
4.10 Circular motion agency is needed to provide force to move a body from rest.
4.11 Solving problems in Likewise, an external force is needed also to retard or stop
mechanics motion. You can stop a ball rolling down an inclined plane by
Summary applying a force against the direction of its motion.
Points to ponder In these examples, the external agency of force (hands,
Exercises wind, stream, etc) is in contact with the object. This is not
always necessary. A stone released from the top of a building
accelerates downward due to the gravitational pull of the
earth. A bar magnet can attract an iron nail from a distance.
This shows that external agencies (e.g. gravitational and
magnetic forces ) can exert force on a body even from a
distance.
In short, a force is required to put a stationary body in
motion or stop a moving body, and some external agency is
needed to provide this force. The external agency may or may
not be in contact with the body.
So far so good. But what if a body is moving uniformly (e.g.
a skater moving straight with constant speed on a horizontal
ice slab) ? Is an external force required to keep a body in
uniform motion?

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50 PHYSICS

4.2 ARISTOTLE’S FALLACY true law of nature for forces and motion, one has
The question posed above appears to be simple. to imagine a world in which uniform motion is
However, it took ages to answer it. Indeed, the possible with no frictional forces opposing. This
correct answer to this question given by Galileo is what Galileo did.
in the seventeenth century was the foundation 4.3 THE LAW OF INERTIA
of Newtonian mechanics, which signalled the
Galileo studied motion of objects on an inclined
birth of modern science.
plane. Objects (i) moving down an inclined plane
The Greek thinker, Aristotle (384 B.C– 322
accelerate, while those (ii) moving up retard.
B.C.), held the view that if a body is moving,
(iii) Motion on a horizontal plane is an interme-
something external is required to keep it moving.
diate situation. Galileo concluded that an object
According to this view, for example, an arrow
moving on a frictionless horizontal plane must
shot from a bow keeps flying since the air behind
neither have acceleration nor retardation, i.e. it
the arrow keeps pushing it. The view was part of
an elaborate framework of ideas developed by should move with constant velocity (Fig. 4.1(a)).
Aristotle on the motion of bodies in the universe.
Most of the Aristotelian ideas on motion are now
known to be wrong and need not concern us.
For our purpose here, the Aristotelian law of
motion may be phrased thus: An external force
is required to keep a body in motion. (i) (ii) (iii)
Aristotelian law of motion is flawed, as we shall Fig. 4.1(a)
see. However, it is a natural view that anyone Another experiment by Galileo leading to the
would hold from common experience. Even a same conclusion involves a double inclined plane.
small child playing with a simple (non-electric) A ball released from rest on one of the planes rolls
down and climbs up the other. If the planes are
toy-car on a floor knows intuitively that it needs
smooth, the final height of the ball is nearly the
to constantly drag the string attached to the toy-
same as the initial height (a little less but never
car with some force to keep it going. If it releases
greater). In the ideal situation, when friction is
the string, it comes to rest. This experience is
absent, the final height of the ball is the same
common to most terrestrial motion. External as its initial height.
forces seem to be needed to keep bodies in If the slope of the second plane is decreased
motion. Left to themselves, all bodies eventually and the experiment repeated, the ball will still
come to rest. reach the same height, but in doing so, it will
What is the flaw in Aristotle’s argument? The travel a longer distance. In the limiting case, when
answer is: a moving toy car comes to rest because the slope of the second plane is zero (i.e. is a
the external force of friction on the car by the floor horizontal) the ball travels an infinite distance.
opposes its motion. To counter this force, the child In other words, its motion never ceases. This is,
has to apply an external force on the car in the of course, an idealised situation (Fig. 4.1(b)).
direction of motion. When the car is in uniform
motion, there is no net external force acting on it:
the force by the child cancels the force ( friction)
by the floor. The corollary is: if there were no friction,
the child would not be required to apply any force
to keep the toy car in uniform motion.
The opposing forces such as friction (solids)
and viscous forces (for fluids) are always present
in the natural world. This explains why forces
by external agencies are necessary to overcome
the frictional forces to keep bodies in uniform
motion. Now we understand where Aristotle Fig. 4.1(b) The law of inertia was inferred by Galileo
went wrong. He coded this practical experience from observations of motion of a ball on a
in the form of a basic argument. To get at the double inclined plane.

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LAWS OF MOTION 51

In practice, the ball does come to a stop after accomplished almost single-handedly by Isaac
moving a finite distance on the horizontal plane, Newton, one of the greatest scientists of all times.
because of the opposing force of friction which Newton built on Galileo’s ideas and laid the
can never be totally eliminated. However, if there foundation of mechanics in terms of three laws
were no friction, the ball would continue to move of motion that go by his name. Galileo’s law of
with a constant velocity on the horizontal plane. inertia was his starting point which he formu-
Galileo thus, arrived at a new insight on lated as the first law of motion:
motion that had eluded Aristotle and those who Every body continues to be in its state
followed him. The state of rest and the state of of rest or of uniform motion in a straight
uniform linear motion (motion with constant line unless compelled by some external
velocity) are equivalent. In both cases, there is force to act otherwise.

Ideas on Motion in Ancient Indian Science

Ancient Indian thinkers had arrived at an elaborate system of ideas on motion. Force, the cause of
motion, was thought to be of different kinds : force due to continuous pressure (nodan), as the force
of wind on a sailing vessel; impact (abhighat), as when a potter’s rod strikes the wheel; persistent
tendency (sanskara) to move in a straight line(vega) or restoration of shape in an elastic body;
transmitted force by a string, rod, etc. The notion of (vega) in the Vaisesika theory of motion perhaps
comes closest to the concept of inertia. Vega, the tendency to move in a straight line, was thought to
be opposed by contact with objects including atmosphere, a parallel to the ideas of friction and air
resistance. It was correctly summarised that the different kinds of motion (translational, rotational
and vibrational) of an extended body arise from only the translational motion of its constituent
particles. A falling leaf in the wind may have downward motion as a whole (patan) and also rotational
and vibrational motion (bhraman, spandan), but each particle of the leaf at an instant only has a
definite (small) displacement. There was considerable focus in Indian thought on measurement of
motion and units of length and time. It was known that the position of a particle in space can be
indicated by distance measured along three axes. Bhaskara (1150 A.D.) had introduced the concept
of ‘instantaneous motion’ (tatkaliki gati), which anticipated the modern notion of instantaneous
velocity using Differential Calculus. The difference between a wave and a current (of water) was clearly
understood; a current is a motion of particles of water under gravity and fluidity while a wave results
from the transmission of vibrations of water particles.

no net force acting on the body. It is incorrect to The state of rest or uniform linear motion both
assume that a net force is needed to keep a body imply zero acceleration. The first law of motion can,
in uniform motion. To maintain a body in therefore, be simply expressed as:
uniform motion, we need to apply an external If the net external force on a body is zero, its
force to ecounter the frictional force, so that acceleration is zero. Acceleration can be non
the two forces sum up to zero net external zero only if there is a net external force on
force. the body.
To summarise, if the net external force is zero,
a body at rest continues to remain at rest and a Two kinds of situations are encountered in the
body in motion continues to move with a uniform application of this law in practice. In some
velocity. This property of the body is called examples, we know that the net external force
inertia. Inertia means ‘resistance to change’. on the object is zero. In that case we can
A body does not change its state of rest or conclude that the acceleration of the object is
uniform motion, unless an external force zero. For example, a spaceship out in
compels it to change that state. interstellar space, far from all other objects and
with all its rockets turned off, has no net
4.4 NEWTON’S FIRST LAW OF MOTION external force acting on it. Its acceleration,
Galileo’s simple, but revolutionary ideas according to the first law, must be zero. If it is
dethroned Aristotelian mechanics. A new in motion, it must continue to move with a
mechanics had to be developed. This task was uniform velocity.

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52 PHYSICS

More often, however, we do not know all the The acceleration of the car cannot be accounted
forces to begin with. In that case, if we know for by any internal force. This might sound
that an object is unaccelerated (i.e. it is either surprising, but it is true. The only conceivable
at rest or in uniform linear motion), we can infer external force along the road is the force of
from the first law that the net external force on friction. It is the frictional force that accelerates
the object must be zero. Gravity is everywhere. the car as a whole. (You will learn about friction
For terrestrial phenomena, in particular, every in section 4.9). When the car moves with
object experiences gravitational force due to the constant velocity, there is no net external force.
earth. Also objects in motion generally experience The property of inertia contained in the First
friction, viscous drag, etc. If then, on earth, an law is evident in many situations. Suppose we
object is at rest or in uniform linear motion, it is are standing in a stationary bus and the driver
not because there are no forces acting on it, but starts the bus suddenly. We get thrown
because the various external forces cancel out backward with a jerk. Why ? Our feet are in touch
i.e. add up to zero net external force. with the floor. If there were no friction, we would
Consider a book at rest on a horizontal surface remain where we were, while the floor of the bus
Fig. (4.2(a)). It is subject to two external forces : would simply slip forward under our feet and the
the force due to gravity (i.e. its weight W) acting back of the bus would hit us. However,
downward and the upward force on the book by fortunately, there is some friction between the
the table, the normal force R . R is a self-adjusting feet and the floor. If the start is not too sudden,
force. This is an example of the kind of situation i.e. if the acceleration is moderate, the frictional
mentioned above. The forces are not quite known force would be enough to accelerate our feet
fully but the state of motion is known. We observe along with the bus. But our body is not strictly
the book to be at rest. Therefore, we conclude a rigid body. It is deformable, i.e. it allows some
from the first law that the magnitude of R equals relative displacement between different parts.
that of W. A statement often encountered is : What this means is that while our feet go with
“Since W = R, forces cancel and, therefore, the book the bus, the rest of the body remains where it is
is at rest”. This is incorrect reasoning. The correct due to inertia. Relative to the bus, therefore, we
statement is : “Since the book is observed to be at are thrown backward. As soon as that happens,
rest, the net external force on it must be zero, however, the muscular forces on the rest of the
according to the first law. This implies that the body (by the feet) come into play to move the body
normal force R must be equal and opposite to the along with the bus. A similar thing happens
weight W ”. when the bus suddenly stops. Our feet stop due
to the friction which does not allow relative
motion between the feet and the floor of the bus.
But the rest of the body continues to move
forward due to inertia. We are thrown forward.
The restoring muscular forces again come into
play and bring the body to rest.
⊳
Example 4.1 An astronaut accidentally
gets separated out of his small spaceship
accelerating in inter stellar space at a
Fig. 4.2 (a) a book at rest on the table, and (b) a car
constant rate of 100 m s–2. What is the
moving with uniform velocity. The net force
is zero in each case.
acceleration of the astronaut the instant after
he is outside the spaceship ? (Assume that
Consider the motion of a car starting from there are no nearby stars to exert
rest, picking up speed and then moving on a gravitational force on him.)
smooth straight road with uniform speed (Fig.
(4.2(b)). When the car is stationary, there is no Answer Since there are no nearby stars to exert
net force acting on it. During pick-up, it gravitational force on him and the small
accelerates. This must happen due to a net spaceship exerts negligible gravitational
external force. Note, it has to be an external force. attraction on him, the net force acting on the

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LAWS OF MOTION 53

astronaut, once he is out of the spaceship, is act. One reason is that the cricketer allows a
zero. By the first law of motion the acceleration longer time for his hands to stop the ball. As
of the astronaut is zero. ⊳ you may have noticed, he draws in the hands
4.5 NEWTON’S SECOND LAW OF MOTION backward in the act of catching the ball
(Fig. 4.3). The novice, on the other hand,
The first law refers to the simple case when the
keeps his hands fixed and tries to catch the
net external force on a body is zero. The second
ball almost instantly. He needs to provide a
law of motion refers to the general situation when
much greater force to stop the ball instantly,
there is a net external force acting on the body.
and this hurts. The conclusion is clear: force
It relates the net external force to the
not only depends on the change in momentum,
acceleration of the body.
but also on how fast the change is brought
Momentum about. The same change in momentum
Momentum of a body is defined to be the product brought about in a shorter time needs a
of its mass m and velocity v, and is denoted greater applied force. In short, the greater the
by p: rate of change of momentum, the greater is
p=mv (4.1) the force.
Momentum is clearly a vector quantity. The
following common experiences indicate the
importance of this quantity for considering the
effect of force on motion.
• Suppose a light-weight vehicle (say a small
car) and a heavy weight vehicle (say a loaded
truck) are parked on a horizontal road. We all
know that a much greater force is needed to
push the truck than the car to bring them to
the same speed in same time. Similarly, a
greater opposing force is needed to stop a
heavy body than a light body in the same time,
if they are moving with the same speed.
• If two stones, one light and the other heavy,
are dropped from the top of a building, a Fig. 4.3 Force not only depends on the change in
person on the ground will find it easier to catch momentum but also on how fast the change
the light stone than the heavy stone. The is brought about. A seasoned cricketer draws
in his hands during a catch, allowing greater
mass of a body is thus an important
time for the ball to stop and hence requires a
parameter that determines the effect of force smaller force.
on its motion.
• Speed is another important parameter to
consider. A bullet fired by a gun can easily • Observations confirm that the product of
pierce human tissue before it stops, resulting mass and velocity (i.e. momentum) is basic to
in casualty. The same bullet fired with the effect of force on motion. Suppose a fixed
moderate speed will not cause much damage. force is applied for a certain interval of time
Thus for a given mass, the greater the speed, on two bodies of different masses, initially at
the greater is the opposing force needed to stop rest, the lighter body picks up a greater speed
the body in a certain time. Taken together,
than the heavier body. However, at the end of
the product of mass and velocity, that is
the time interval, observations show that each
momentum, is evidently a relevant variable
body acquires the same momentum. Thus
of motion. The greater the change in the
the same force for the same time causes
momentum in a given time, the greater is the
force that needs to be applied. the same change in momentum for
• A seasoned cricketer catches a cricket ball different bodies. This is a crucial clue to the
coming in with great speed far more easily second law of motion.
than a novice, who can hurt his hands in the • In the preceding observations, the vector

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54 PHYSICS

character of momentum has not been evident. ∆p ∆p

In the examples so far, momentum and change F∝ or F = k
∆t ∆t
in momentum both have the same direction.
But this is not always the case. Suppose a where k is a constant of proportionality. Taking
stone is rotated with uniform speed in a ∆p
horizontal plane by means of a string, the the limit ∆t → 0, the term becomes the
∆t
magnitude of momentum is fixed, but its derivative or differential co-efficient of p with
direction changes (Fig. 4.4). A force is needed dp
to cause this change in momentum vector. respect to t, denoted by . Thus
dt
This force is provided by our hand through
the string. Experience suggests that our hand dp
F =k (4.2)
needs to exert a greater force if the stone is dt
rotated at greater speed or in a circle of For a body of fixed mass m,
smaller radius, or both. This corresponds to
greater acceleration or equivalently a greater dp d dv
rate of change in momentum vector. This
= (m v ) = m = ma (4.3)
dt dt dt
suggests that the greater the rate of change
i.e the Second Law can also be written as
in momentum vector the greater is the force
F = kma (4.4)
applied.
which shows that force is proportional to the
product of mass m and acceleration a.
The unit of force has not been defined so far.
In fact, we use Eq. (4.4) to define the unit of force.
We, therefore, have the liberty to choose any
constant value for k. For simplicity, we choose
k = 1. The second law then is
dp
F= = ma (4.5)
dt
In SI unit force is one that causes an acceleration
of 1 m s-2 to a mass of 1 kg. This unit is known as
newton : 1 N = 1 kg m s-2.
Let us note at this stage some important points
Fig. 4.4 Force is necessary for changing the direction
of momentum, even if its magnitude is about the second law :
constant. We can feel this while rotating a 1. In the second law, F = 0 implies a = 0. The second
stone in a horizontal circle with uniform speed law is obviously consistent with the first law.
by means of a string.
2. The second law of motion is a vector law. It is
These qualitative observations lead to the equivalent to three equations, one for each
second law of motion expressed by Newton as component of the vectors :
follows :
dp x
The rate of change of momentum of a body is Fx = = ma x
dt
directly proportional to the applied force and
dp y
takes place in the direction in which the force Fy = = ma y
acts. dt
dp
Thus, if under the action of a force F for time Fz = z =m a z (4.6)
interval ∆t, the velocity of a body of mass m dt
changes from v to v + ∆v i.e. its initial momentum This means that if a force is not parallel to
p = m v changes by ∆p = m ∆v . According to the the velocity of the body, but makes some angle
with it, it changes only the component of
Second Law,
velocity along the direction of force. The

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LAWS OF MOTION 55

component of velocity normal to the force Answer The retardation ‘a’ of the bullet
remains unchanged. For example, in the (assumed constant) is given by
motion of a projectile under the vertical
gravitational force, the horizontal component –u2 – 90 × 90
a= = m s −2 = – 6750 m s−2
of velocity remains unchanged (Fig. 4.5). 2s 2 × 0.6
3. The second law of motion given by Eq. (4.5) is The retarding force, by the second law of
applicable to a single point particle. The force motion, is
F in the law stands for the net external force
= 0.04 kg × 6750 m s-2 = 270 N
on the particle and a stands for acceleration
of the particle. It turns out, however, that the The actual resistive force, and therefore,
law in the same form applies to a rigid body or, retardation of the bullet may not be uniform. The
even more generally, to a system of particles. answer therefore, only indicates the average
In that case, F refers to the total external force resistive force. ⊳
on the system and a refers to the acceleration
⊳
Example 4.3 The motion of a particle of
of the system as a whole. More precisely, a is
1 2
the acceleration of the centre of mass of the mass m is described by y = ut + gt . Find
system about which we shall study in detail in 2
Chapter 6. Any internal forces in the system the force acting on the particle.
are not to be included in F. Answer We know
1 2
y = ut + gt
2
Now,
dy
v= = u + gt
dt
dv
acceleration, a = =g
dt
Fig. 4.5 Acceleration at an instant is determined by Then the force is given by Eq. (4.5)
the force at that instant. The moment after a F = ma = mg
stone is dropped out of an accelerated train,
Thus the given equation describes the motion
it has no horizontal acceleration or force, if
air resistance is neglected. The stone carries of a particle under acceleration due to gravity
no memory of its acceleration with the train and y is the position coordinate in the direction
a moment ago. of g. ⊳

4. The second law of motion is a local relation Impulse

which means that force F at a point in space We sometimes encounter examples where a large
(location of the particle) at a certain instant force acts for a very short duration producing a
of time is related to a at that point at that finite change in momentum of the body. For
instant. Acceleration here and now is example, when a ball hits a wall and bounces
determined by the force here and now, not by back, the force on the ball by the wall acts for a
any history of the motion of the particle very short time when the two are in contact, yet
(See Fig. 4.5). the force is large enough to reverse the momentum
of the ball. Often, in these situations, the force
⊳ Example 4.2 A bullet of mass 0.04 kg and the time duration are difficult to ascertain
moving with a speed of 90 m s–1 enters a separately. However, the product of force and time,
which is the change in momentum of the body
heavy wooden block and is stopped after a
remains a measurable quantity. This product is
distance of 60 cm. What is the average
called impulse:
resistive force exerted by the block on the
bullet? Impulse = Force × time duration
= Change in momentum (4.7)

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56 PHYSICS

A large force acting for a short time to produce a Thus, according to Newtonian mechanics,
finite change in momentum is called an impulsive force never occurs singly in nature. Force is the
force. In the history of science, impulsive forces were mutual interaction between two bodies. Forces
put in a conceptually different category from always occur in pairs. Further, the mutual forces
ordinary forces. Newtonian mechanics has no such between two bodies are always equal and
distinction. Impulsive force is like any other force – opposite. This idea was expressed by Newton in
except that it is large and acts for a short time. the form of the third law of motion.
To every action, there is always an equal and
Example 4.4 A batsman hits back a ball
⊳
opposite reaction.
straight in the direction of the bowler without
changing its initial speed of 12 m s–1. Newton’s wording of the third law is so crisp and
If the mass of the ball is 0.15 kg, determine beautiful that it has become a part of common
the impulse imparted to the ball. (Assume language. For the same reason perhaps,
linear motion of the ball) misconceptions about the third law abound. Let
us note some important points about the third
Answer Change in momentum law, particularly in regard to the usage of the
= 0.15 × 12–(–0.15×12) terms : action and reaction.
1. The terms action and reaction in the third law
= 3.6 N s, mean nothing else but ‘force’. Using different
Impulse = 3.6 N s, terms for the same physical concept
in the direction from the batsman to the bowler. can sometimes be confusing. A simple
This is an example where the force on the ball and clear way of stating the third law is as
by the batsman and the time of contact of the follows :
ball and the bat are difficult to know, but the Forces always occur in pairs. Force on a
impulse is readily calculated. ⊳ body A by B is equal and opposite to the
force on the body B by A.
4.6 NEWTON’S THIRD LAW OF MOTION
2. The terms action and reaction in the third law
The second law relates the external force on a
may give a wrong impression that action
body to its acceleration. What is the origin of the
comes before reaction i.e action is the cause
external force on the body ? What agency
and reaction the effect. There is no cause-
provides the external force ? The simple answer effect relation implied in the third law. The
in Newtonian mechanics is that the external force on A by B and the force on B by A act
force on a body always arises due to some other at the same instant. By the same reasoning,
body. Consider a pair of bodies A and B. B gives any one of them may be called action and the
rise to an external force on A. A natural question other reaction.
is: Does A in turn give rise to an external force 3. Action and reaction forces act on different
on B ? In some examples, the answer seems bodies, not on the same body. Consider a pair
clear. If you press a coiled spring, the spring is of bodies A and B. According to the third law,
compressed by the force of your hand. The
FAB = – FBA (4.8)
compressed spring in turn exerts a force on your
hand and you can feel it. But what if the bodies (force on A by B) = – (force on B by A)
are not in contact ? The earth pulls a stone Thus if we are considering the motion of any
downwards due to gravity. Does the stone exert one body (A or B), only one of the two forces is
a force on the earth ? The answer is not obvious relevant. It is an error to add up the two forces
since we hardly see the effect of the stone on the and claim that the net force is zero.
earth. The answer according to Newton is: Yes, However, if you are considering the system
the stone does exert an equal and opposite force of two bodies as a whole, FAB and FBA are
on the earth. We do not notice it since the earth internal forces of the system (A + B). They add
is very massive and the effect of a small force on up to give a null force. Internal forces in a
its motion is negligible. body or a system of particles thus cancel away

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LAWS OF MOTION 57

in pairs. This is an important fact that the force on the wall due to the ball is normal to
enables the second law to be applicable to a the wall along the positive x-direction. The
body or a system of particles (See Chapter 6). magnitude of force cannot be ascertained since
the small time taken for the collision has not
⊳ Example 4.5 Two identical billiard balls been specified in the problem.
strike a rigid wall with the same speed but
Case (b)
at different angles, and get reflected without
any change in speed, as shown in Fig. 4.6. ( px ) initial ( )
= m u cos 30 , py initial = − m u sin 30
What is (i) the direction of the force on the
wall due to each ball? (ii) the ratio of the
magnitudes of impulses imparted to the ( px ) final = – m u cos 30 , py ( ) final = − m u sin 30
balls by the wall ? Note, while px changes sign after collision, py
does not. Therefore,
x-component of impulse = –2 m u cos 30°
y-component of impulse = 0
The direction of impulse (and force) is the same
as in (a) and is normal to the wall along the
negative x direction. As before, using Newton’s
third law, the force on the wall due to the ball is
normal to the wall along the positive x direction.
The ratio of the magnitudes of the impulses
Fig. 4.6 imparted to the balls in (a) and (b) is

Answer An instinctive answer to (i) might be (

2 m u/ 2 m u cos 30 = ) 2
3
≈ 1.2 ⊳
that the force on the wall in case (a) is normal to
the wall, while that in case (b) is inclined at 30° 4.7 CONSERVATION OF MOMENTUM
to the normal. This answer is wrong. The force
on the wall is normal to the wall in both cases. The second and third laws of motion lead to
How to find the force on the wall? The trick is an important consequence: the law of
to consider the force (or impulse) on the ball conservation of momentum. Take a familiar
due to the wall using the second law, and then example. A bullet is fired from a gun. If the force
use the third law to answer (i). Let u be the speed on the bullet by the gun is F, the force on the gun
of each ball before and after collision with the by the bullet is – F, according to the third law.
wall, and m the mass of each ball. Choose the x The two forces act for a common interval of time
and y axes as shown in the figure, and consider ∆t. According to the second law, F ∆t is the change
the change in momentum of the ball in each in momentum of the bullet and – F ∆t is the
case : change in momentum of the gun. Since initially,
both are at rest, the change in momentum equals
Case (a) the final momentum for each. Thus if pb is the
( px ) initial = mu (p )
y initial =0 momentum of the bullet after firing and pg is the
recoil momentum of the gun, pg = – pb i.e. pb + pg
( px )
final
= −mu (p )
y final =0 = 0. That is, the total momentum of the (bullet +
gun) system is conserved.
Impulse is the change in momentum vector. Thus in an isolated system (i.e. a system with
Therefore, no external force), mutual forces between pairs
of particles in the system can cause momentum
x-component of impulse = – 2 m u change in individual particles, but since the
y-component of impulse = 0 mutual forces for each pair are equal and
Impulse and force are in the same direction. opposite, the momentum changes cancel in pairs
Clearly, from above, the force on the ball due to and the total momentum remains unchanged.
the wall is normal to the wall, along the negative This fact is known as the law of conservation
x-direction. Using Newton’s third law of motion, of momentum :

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58 PHYSICS

The total momentum of an isolated system of

interacting particles is conserved.
An important example of the application of the
law of conservation of momentum is the collision
of two bodies. Consider two bodies A and B, with
initial momenta pA and pB. The bodies collide,
get apart, with final momenta p′A and p′ B Fig. 4.7 Equilibrium under concurrent forces.
respectively. By the Second Law
In other words, the resultant of any two forces
say F1 and F2, obtained by the parallelogram
FAB ∆t = p′A − p A and
law of forces must be equal and opposite to the
FBA ∆t = p′B − p B third force, F3. As seen in Fig. 4.7, the three
forces in equilibrium can be represented by the
(where we have taken a common interval of time sides of a triangle with the vector arrows taken
for both forces i.e. the time for which the two in the same sense. The result can be
bodies are in contact.) generalised to any number of forces. A particle
is in equilibrium under the action of forces F1,
Since FAB = − FBA by the third law,
F2,... Fn if they can be represented by the sides
p′A − p A = −( p′B − p B ) of a closed n-sided polygon with arrows directed
in the same sense.
i.e. p′A + p′B = p A + p B (4.9) Equation (4.11) implies that
which shows that the total final momentum of F1x + F2x + F3x = 0
the isolated system equals its initial momentum. F1y + F2y + F3y = 0
Notice that this is true whether the collision is F1z + F2z + F3z = 0 (4.12)
elastic or inelastic. In elastic collisions, there is
where F1x, F1y and F1z are the components of F1
a second condition that the total initial kinetic
along x, y and z directions respectively.
energy of the system equals the total final kinetic
energy (See Chapter 5). Example 4.6 See Fig. 4.8. A mass of 6 kg
⊳
is suspended by a rope of length 2 m
from the ceiling. A force of 50 N in the
4.8 EQUILIBRIUM OF A PARTICLE horizontal direction is applied at the mid-
Equilibrium of a particle in mechanics refers to point P of the rope, as shown. What is the
the situation when the net external force on the angle the rope makes with the vertical in
equilibrium ? (Take g = 10 m s-2). Neglect
particle is zero.* According to the first law, this
the mass of the rope.
means that, the particle is either at rest or in
uniform motion.
If two forces F1 and F2, act on a particle,
equilibrium requires
F1 = − F2 (4.10)
i.e. the two forces on the particle must be equal
and opposite. Equilibrium under three
concurrent forces F1, F2 and F3 requires that
(a) (b) (c)
the vector sum of the three forces is zero. Fig. 4.8
F1 + F2 + F3 = 0 (4.11)

* Equilibrium of a body requires not only translational equilibrium (zero net external force) but also rotational
equilibrium (zero net external torque), as we shall see in Chapter 6.

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LAWS OF MOTION 59

Answer Figures 4.8(b) and 4.8(c) are known as other types of supports), there are mutual
free-body diagrams. Figure 4.8(b) is the free-body contact forces (for each pair of bodies) satisfying
diagram of W and Fig. 4.8(c) is the free-body the third law. The component of contact force
diagram of point P. normal to the surfaces in contact is called
Consider the equilibrium of the weight W. normal reaction. The component parallel to the
Clearly,T2 = 6 × 10 = 60 N. surfaces in contact is called friction. Contact
Consider the equilibrium of the point P under forces arise also when solids are in contact with
the action of three forces - the tensions T1 and fluids. For example, for a solid immersed in a
T2, and the horizontal force 50 N. The horizontal fluid, there is an upward bouyant force equal to
and vertical components of the resultant force the weight of the fluid displaced. The viscous
must vanish separately : force, air resistance, etc are also examples of
contact forces (Fig. 4.9).
T1 cos θ = T2 = 60 N
Two other common forces are tension in a
T1 sin θ = 50 N string and the force due to spring. When a spring
which gives that is compressed or extended by an external force,
a restoring force is generated. This force is
usually proportional to the compression or
Note the answer does not depend on the length elongation (for small displacements). The spring
of the rope (assumed massless) nor on the point force F is written as F = – k x where x is the
at which the horizontal force is applied. ⊳ displacement and k is the force constant. The
negative sign denotes that the force is opposite
4.9 COMMON FORCES IN MECHANICS to the displacement from the unstretched state.
In mechanics, we encounter several kinds of For an inextensible string, the force constant is
forces. The gravitational force is, of course, very high. The restoring force in a string is called
pervasive. Every object on the earth experiences tension. It is customary to use a constant tension
the force of gravity due to the earth. Gravity also T throughout the string. This assumption is true
governs the motion of celestial bodies. The for a string of negligible mass.
gravitational force can act at a distance without We learnt that there are four fundamental
the need of any intervening medium. forces in nature. Of these, the weak and strong
All the other forces common in mechanics are forces appear in domains that do not concern
contact forces.* As the name suggests, a contact us here. Only the gravitational and electrical
force on an object arises due to contact with some forces are relevant in the context of mechanics.
other object: solid or fluid. When bodies are in The different contact forces of mechanics
contact (e.g. a book resting on a table, a system mentioned above fundamentally arise from
of rigid bodies connected by rods, hinges and electrical forces. This may seem surprising

Fig. 4.9 Some examples of contact forces in mechanics.

* We are not considering, for simplicity, charged and magnetic bodies. For these, besides gravity, there are
electrical and magnetic non-contact forces.

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60 PHYSICS

since we are talking of uncharged and non- exist by itself. When there is no applied force,
magnetic bodies in mechanics. At the microscopic there is no static friction. It comes into play the
level, all bodies are made of charged constituents moment there is an applied force. As the applied
(nuclei and electrons) and the various contact force F increases, fs also increases, remaining
forces arising due to elasticity of bodies, molecular equal and opposite to the applied force (up to a
collisions and impacts, etc. can ultimately be certain limit), keeping the body at rest. Hence, it
traced to the electrical forces between the charged is called static friction. Static friction opposes
constituents of different bodies. The detailed impending motion. The term impending motion
means motion that would take place (but does
microscopic origin of these forces is, however,
not actually take place) under the applied force,
complex and not useful for handling problems in
if friction were absent.
mechanics at the macroscopic scale. This is why
We know from experience that as the applied
they are treated as different types of forces with force exceeds a certain limit, the body begins to
their characteristic properties determined move. It is found experimentally that the limiting
empirically.
value of static friction f s ( ) max
is independent of
4.9.1 Friction the area of contact and varies with the normal
Let us return to the example of a body of mass m force(N) approximately as :
at rest on a horizontal table. The force of gravity (f )
s max
= µs N (4.13)
(mg) is cancelled by the normal reaction force
where µ s is a constant of proportionality
(N) of the table. Now suppose a force F is applied
depending only on the nature of the surfaces in
horizontally to the body. We know from
contact. The constant µs is called the coefficient
experience that a small applied force may not of static friction. The law of static friction may
be enough to move the body. But if the applied thus be written as
force F were the only external force on the body, fs ≤ µs N (4.14)
it must move with acceleration F/m, however
small. Clearly, the body remains at rest because ( )
If the applied force F exceeds f s max the body
some other force comes into play in the begins to slide on the surface. It is found experi-
horizontal direction and opposes the applied mentally that when relative motion has started,
force F, resulting in zero net force on the body. the frictional force decreases from the static
This force fs parallel to the surface of the body in
contact with the table is known as frictional
( )
maximum value f s max . Frictional force that
force, or simply friction (Fig. 4.10(a)). The opposes relative motion between surfaces in
subscript stands for static friction to distinguish contact is called kinetic or sliding friction and is
it from kinetic friction fk that we consider later denoted by fk . Kinetic friction, like static fric-
tion, is found to be independent of the area of
(Fig. 4.10(b)). Note that static friction does not
contact. Further, it is nearly independent of the
velocity. It satisfies a law similar to that for static
friction:
f k = µk N (4.15)
where µk′ the coefficient of kinetic friction,
depends only on the surfaces in contact. As
mentioned above, experiments show that µk is
Fig. 4.10 Static and sliding friction: (a) Impending less than µs . When relative motion has begun,
motion of the body is opposed by static the acceleration of the body according to the
friction. When external force exceeds the second law is ( F – fk )/m. For a body moving with
maximum limit of static friction, the body constant velocity, F = fk. If the applied force on
begins to move. (b) Once the body is in the body is removed, its acceleration is – fk /m
motion, it is subject to sliding or kinetic friction and it eventually comes to a stop.
which opposes relative motion between the The laws of friction given above do not have
two surfaces in contact. Kinetic friction is the status of fundamental laws like those for
usually less than the maximum value of static
gravitational, electric and magnetic forces. They
friction.
are empirical relations that are only

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LAWS OF MOTION 61

approximately true. Yet they are very useful in Answer The forces acting on a block of mass m
practical calculations in mechanics. at rest on an inclined plane are (i) the weight
Thus, when two bodies are in contact, each mg acting vertically downwards (ii) the normal
experiences a contact force by the other. Friction, force N of the plane on the block, and (iii) the
by definition, is the component of the contact force static frictional force fs opposing the impending
parallel to the surfaces in contact, which opposes motion. In equilibrium, the resultant of these
impending or actual relative motion between the forces must be zero. Resolving the weight mg
two surfaces. Note that it is not motion, but along the two directions shown, we have
relative motion that the frictional force opposes. m g sin θ = fs , m g cos θ = N
Consider a box lying in the compartment of a train
As θ increases, the self-adjusting frictional force
that is accelerating. If the box is stationary
fs increases until at θ = θmax, fs achieves its
relative to the train, it is in fact accelerating along
with the train. What forces cause the acceleration maximum value, f s ( ) max
= µs N.
of the box? Clearly, the only conceivable force in
the horizontal direction is the force of friction. If Therefore,
there were no friction, the floor of the train would
tan θmax = µs or θmax = tan–1 µs
slip by and the box would remain at its initial
position due to inertia (and hit the back side of When θ becomes just a little more than θmax ,
the train). This impending relative motion is there is a small net force on the block and it
opposed by the static friction fs. Static friction begins to slide. Note that θmax depends only on
provides the same acceleration to the box as that µs and is independent of the mass of the block.
of the train, keeping it stationary relative to the
train. For θmax = 15°,
⊳ µs = tan 15°
Example 4.7 Determine the maximum = 0.27 ⊳
acceleration of the train in which a box ⊳
lying on its floor will remain stationary, Example 4.9 What is the acceleration of
given that the co-efficient of static friction the block and trolley system shown in a
between the box and the train’s floor is Fig. 4.12(a), if the coefficient of kinetic friction
0.15. between the trolley and the surface is 0.04?
What is the tension in the string? (Take g =
Answer Since the acceleration of the box is due 10 m s-2). Neglect the mass of the string.
to the static friction,
ma = fs ≤ µs N = µs m g
i.e. a ≤ µs g
∴ amax = µs g = 0.15 x 10 m s–2
= 1.5 m s–2 ⊳
⊳
Example 4.8 See Fig. 4.11. A mass of 4 kg
rests on a horizontal plane. The plane is
gradually inclined until at an angle θ = 15°
with the horizontal, the mass just begins to
slide. What is the coefficient of static friction
between the block and the surface ?
(a)

(b) (c)
Fig. 4.11 Fig. 4.12

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62 PHYSICS

Answer As the string is inextensible, and the is the reason why discovery of the wheel has
pully is smooth, the 3 kg block and the 20 kg been a major milestone in human history.
trolley both have same magnitude of Rolling friction again has a complex origin,
acceleration. Applying second law to motion of though somewhat different from that of static
the block (Fig. 4.12(b)), and sliding friction. During rolling, the surfaces
30 – T = 3a in contact get momentarily deformed a little, and
Apply the second law to motion of the trolley (Fig. this results in a finite area (not a point) of the
4.12(c)), body being in contact with the surface. The net
effect is that the component of the contact force
T – fk = 20 a.
parallel to the surface opposes motion.
Now fk = µk N,
We often regard friction as something
Here µk = 0.04, undesirable. In many situations, like in a
N = 20 x 10 machine with different moving parts, friction
= 200 N. does have a negative role. It opposes relative
Thus the equation for the motion of the trolley is motion and thereby dissipates power in the form
T – 0.04 x 200 = 20 a Or T – 8 = 20a. of heat, etc. Lubricants are a way of reducing
22 kinetic friction in a machine. Another way is to
These equations give a = m s –2 = 0.96 m s-2 use ball bearings between two moving parts of a
23
and T = 27.1 N. ⊳ machine [Fig. 4.13(a)]. Since the rolling friction
between ball bearings and the surfaces in
Rolling friction contact is very small, power dissipation is
A body like a ring or a sphere rolling without reduced. A thin cushion of air maintained
slipping over a horizontal plane will suffer no between solid surfaces in relative motion is
another effective way of reducing friction
friction, in principle. At every instant, there is
(Fig. 4.13(a)).
just one point of contact between the body and
In many practical situations, however, friction
the plane and this point has no motion relative
is critically needed. Kinetic friction that
to the plane. In this ideal situation, kinetic or dissipates power is nevertheless important for
static friction is zero and the body should quickly stopping relative motion. It is made use
continue to roll with constant velocity. We know, of by brakes in machines and automobiles.
in practice, this will not happen and some Similarly, static friction is important in daily
resistance to motion (rolling friction) does occur, life. We are able to walk because of friction. It
i.e. to keep the body rolling, some applied force is impossible for a car to move on a very slippery
is needed. For the same weight, rolling friction road. On an ordinary road, the friction between
is much smaller (even by 2 or 3 orders of the tyres and the road provides the necessary
magnitude) than static or sliding friction. This external force to accelerate the car.

Fig. 4.13 Some ways of reducing friction. (a) Ball bearings placed between moving parts of a machine.
(b) Compressed cushion of air between surfaces in relative motion.

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LAWS OF MOTION 63

4.10 CIRCULAR MOTION is the static friction that provides the centripetal
acceleration. Static friction opposes the
We have seen in Chapter 4 that acceleration of
impending motion of the car moving away from
a body moving in a circle of radius R with uniform
the circle. Using equation (4.14) & (4.16) we get
speed v is v2/R directed towards the centre.
the result
According to the second law, the force f providing
c
this acceleration is : mv 2
f = ≤ µs N
mv 2 R
fc = (4.16)
R µs RN
v2 ≤ = µs Rg [ ∵ N = mg]
where m is the mass of the body. This force m
directed forwards the centre is called the which is independent of the mass of the car.
centripetal force. For a stone rotated in a circle This shows that for a given value of µs and R,
by a string, the centripetal force is provided by there is a maximum speed of circular motion of
the tension in the string. The centripetal force the car possible, namely
for motion of a planet around the sun is the
v max = µs Rg (4.18)

(a) (b)

Fig. 4.14 Circular motion of a car on (a) a level road, (b) a banked road.

gravitational force on the planet due to the sun. Motion of a car on a banked road
For a car taking a circular turn on a horizontal
We can reduce the contribution of friction to the
road, the centripetal force is the force of friction.
circular motion of the car if the road is banked
The circular motion of a car on a flat and
(Fig. 4.14(b)). Since there is no acceleration along
banked road give interesting application of the
the vertical direction, the net force along this
laws of motion.
direction must be zero. Hence,
Motion of a car on a level road
N cos θ = mg + f sin θ (4.19a)
Three forces act on the car (Fig. 4.14(a):
(i) The weight of the car, mg The centripetal force is provided by the horizontal
(ii) Normal reaction, N components of N and f.
(iii) Frictional force, f mv 2
As there is no acceleration in the vertical N sin θ + f cos θ = (4.19b)
R
direction
N – mg = 0 But f ≤ µs N
N = mg (4.17)
Thus to obtain v we put
The centripetal force required for circular motion max
is along the surface of the road, and is provided f = µs N .
by the component of the contact force between Then Eqs. (4.19a) and (4.19b) become
road and the car tyres along the surface. This
by definition is the frictional force. Note that it N cos θ = mg + µs N sin θ (4.20a)

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64 PHYSICS

N sin θ + µs N cos θ = mv2/R (4.20b)

⊳ Example 4.11 A circular racetrack of
From Eq. (4.20a), we obtain radius 300 m is banked at an angle of 15°.
mg If the coefficient of friction between the
N= wheels of a race-car and the road is 0.2,
cosθ – µs sinθ
what is the (a) optimum speed of the race-
Substituting value of N in Eq. (4.20b), we get car to avoid wear and tear on its tyres, and
mg (sinθ + µs cosθ ) mv max
2 (b) maximum permissible speed to avoid
= slipping ?
cosθ – µs sinθ R
1 Answer On a banked road, the horizontal
 µ + tanθ  2 component of the normal force and the frictional
or v max =  Rg s  (4.21) force contribute to provide centripetal force to
 1 – µs tanθ 
keep the car moving on a circular turn without
Comparing this with Eq. (4.18) we see that slipping. At the optimum speed, the normal
maximum possible speed of a car on a banked reaction’s component is enough to provide the
road is greater than that on a flat road. needed centripetal force, and the frictional force
is not needed. The optimum speed vo is given by
For µs = 0 in Eq. (4.21 ), Eq. (4.22):
vo = ( R g tan θ ) ½ (4.22) vO = (R g tan θ)1/2
At this speed, frictional force is not needed at all Here R = 300 m, θ = 15°, g = 9.8 m s-2; we
to provide the necessary centripetal force. have
Driving at this speed on a banked road will cause vO = 28.1 m s-1.
little wear and tear of the tyres. The same The maximum permissible speed vmax is given by
equation also tells you that for v < vo, frictional Eq. (4.21):
force will be up the slope and that a car can be
parked only if tan θ ≤ µs.
⊳ ⊳
Example 4.10 A cyclist speeding at
18 km/h on a level road takes a sharp
circular turn of radius 3 m without reducing
the speed. The co-efficient of static friction 4.11 SOLVING PROBLEMS IN MECHANICS
between the tyres and the road is 0.1. Will The three laws of motion that you have learnt in
the cyclist slip while taking the turn? this chapter are the foundation of mechanics.
You should now be able to handle a large variety
Answer On an unbanked road, frictional force of problems in mechanics. A typical problem in
alone can provide the centripetal force needed mechanics usually does not merely involve a
to keep the cyclist moving on a circular turn single body under the action of given forces.
without slipping. If the speed is too large, or if More often, we will need to consider an assembly
the turn is too sharp (i.e. of too small a radius) of different bodies exerting forces on each other.
or both, the frictional force is not sufficient to Besides, each body in the assembly experiences
provide the necessary centripetal force, and the the force of gravity. When trying to solve a
cyclist slips. The condition for the cyclist not to problem of this type, it is useful to remember
slip is given by Eq. (4.18) : the fact that we can choose any part of the
v2 ≤ µs R g assembly and apply the laws of motion to that
part provided we include all forces on the chosen
Now, R = 3 m, g = 9.8 m s-2, µs = 0.1. That is, part due to the remaining parts of the assembly.
µs R g = 2.94 m2 s-2. v = 18 km/h = 5 m s-1; i.e., We may call the chosen part of the assembly as
v2 = 25 m2 s-2. The condition is not obeyed. the system and the remaining part of the
The cyclist will slip while taking the assembly (plus any other agencies of forces) as
circular turn. ⊳ the environment. We have followed the same

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LAWS OF MOTION 65

method in solved examples. To handle a typical the net force on the block must be zero i.e.,
problem in mechanics systematically, one R = 20 N. Using third law the action of the
should use the following steps : block (i.e. the force exerted on the floor by
(i) Draw a diagram showing schematically the the block) is equal to 20 N and directed
various parts of the assembly of bodies, the vertically downwards.
links, supports, etc. (b) The system (block + cylinder) accelerates
(ii) Choose a convenient part of the assembly downwards with 0.1 m s-2. The free-body
as one system. diagram of the system shows two forces on
(iii) Draw a separate diagram which shows this the system : the force of gravity due to the
system and all the forces on the system by earth (270 N); and the normal force R ′ by the
the remaining part of the assembly. Include floor. Note, the free-body diagram of the
also the forces on the system by other system does not show the internal forces
agencies. Do not include the forces on the between the block and the cylinder. Applying
environment by the system. A diagram of the second law to the system,
this type is known as ‘a free-body diagram’.
270 – R′ = 27 × 0.1N
(Note this does not imply that the system
ie. R′ = 267.3 N
under consideration is without a net force).
(iv) In a free-body diagram, include information
about forces (their magnitudes and
directions) that are either given or you are
sure of (e.g., the direction of tension in a
string along its length). The rest should be
treated as unknowns to be determined using
laws of motion.
(v) If necessary, follow the same procedure for
another choice of the system. In doing so,
employ Newton’s third law. That is, if in the
free-body diagram of A, the force on A due to
B is shown as F, then in the free-body
diagram of B, the force on B due to A should
be shown as –F.
The following example illustrates the above
procedure :

⊳ Example 4.12 See Fig. 4.15. A wooden Fig. 4.15

block of mass 2 kg rests on a soft horizontal
floor. When an iron cylinder of mass 25 kg By the third law, the action of the system on
is placed on top of the block, the floor yields the floor is equal to 267.3 N vertically downward.
steadily and the block and the cylinder Action-reaction pairs
together go down with an acceleration of
For (a): (i) the force of gravity (20 N) on the block
0.1 m s–2. What is the action of the block
by the earth (say, action); the force of
on the floor (a) before and (b) after the floor
gravity on the earth by the block
yields ? Take g = 10 m s–2. Identify the
(reaction) equal to 20 N directed
action-reaction pairs in the problem.
upwards (not shown in the figure).
(ii) the force on the floor by the block
Answer (action); the force on the block by the
(a) The block is at rest on the floor. Its free-body floor (reaction).
diagram shows two forces on the block, the For (b): (i) the force of gravity (270 N) on the
force of gravitational attraction by the earth system by the earth (say, action); the
equal to 2 × 10 = 20 N; and the normal force force of gravity on the earth by the
R of the floor on the block. By the First Law, system (reaction), equal to 270 N,

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66 PHYSICS

directed upwards (not shown in the gravity on the mass in (a) or (b) and the normal
figure). force on the mass by the floor are not action-
(ii) the force on the floor by the system reaction pairs. These forces happen to be equal
(action); the force on the system by the and opposite for (a) since the mass is at rest.
floor (reaction). In addition, for (b), the They are not so for case (b), as seen already.
force on the block by the cylinder and The weight of the system is 270 N, while the
the force on the cylinder by the block normal force R′ is 267.3 N. ⊳
also constitute an action-reaction pair. The practice of drawing free-body diagrams is
The important thing to remember is that an of great help in solving problems in mechanics.
action-reaction pair consists of mutual forces It allows you to clearly define your system and
which are always equal and opposite between consider all forces on the system due to objects
two bodies. Two forces on the same body which that are not part of the system itself. A number
happen to be equal and opposite can never of exercises in this and subsequent chapters will
constitute an action-reaction pair. The force of help you cultivate this practice.

SUMMARY

1. Aristotle’s view that a force is necessary to keep a body in uniform motion is wrong. A
force is necessary in practice to counter the opposing force of friction.
2. Galileo extrapolated simple observations on motion of bodies on inclined planes, and
arrived at the law of inertia. Newton’s first law of motion is the same law rephrased
thus: “Everybody continues to be in its state of rest or of uniform motion in a straight line,
unless compelled by some external force to act otherwise”. In simple terms, the First Law
is “If external force on a body is zero, its acceleration is zero”.
3. Momentum (p ) of a body is the product of its mass (m) and velocity (v) :
p = mv
4. Newton’s second law of motion :
The rate of change of momentum of a body is proportional to the applied force and takes
place in the direction in which the force acts. Thus
dp
F=k =kma
dt
where F is the net external force on the body and a its acceleration. We set the constant
of proportionality k = 1 in SI units. Then
dp
F= = ma
dt
The SI unit of force is newton : 1 N = 1 kg m s-2.
(a) The second law is consistent with the First Law (F = 0 implies a = 0)
(b) It is a vector equation
(c) It is applicable to a particle, and also to a body or a system of particles, provided F
is the total external force on the system and a is the acceleration of the system as
a whole.
(d) F at a point at a certain instant determines a at the same point at that instant.
That is the Second Law is a local law; a at an instant does not depend on the
history of motion.
4. Impulse is the product of force and time which equals change in momentum.
The notion of impulse is useful when a large force acts for a short time to produce a
measurable change in momentum. Since the time of action of the force is very short,
one can assume that there is no appreciable change in the position of the body during
the action of the impulsive force.
6. Newton’s third law of motion:
To every action, there is always an equal and opposite reaction

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LAWS OF MOTION 67

In simple terms, the law can be stated thus :

Forces in nature always occur between pairs of bodies. Force on a body A by body
B is equal and opposite to the force on the body B by A.
Action and reaction forces are simultaneous forces. There is no cause-effect
relation between action and reaction. Any of the two mutual forces can be
called action and the other reaction. Action and reaction act on different
bodies and so they cannot be cancelled out. The internal action and reaction
forces between different parts of a body do, however, sum to zero.
7. Law of Conservation of Momentum
The total momentum of an isolated system of particles is conserved. The law
follows from the second and third law of motion.
8. Friction
Frictional force opposes (impending or actual) relative motion between two
surfaces in contact. It is the component of the contact force along the common
tangent to the surface in contact. Static friction fs opposes impending relative
motion; kinetic friction fk opposes actual relative motion. They are independent
of the area of contact and satisfy the following approximate laws :

( )
f s ≤ fs
max
= µs R

f =µ R
k k
µs (co-efficient of static friction) and µk (co-efficient of kinetic friction) are
constants characteristic of the pair of surfaces in contact. It is found
experimentally that µk is less than µs .

POINTS TO PONDER
1. Force is not always in the direction of motion. Depending on the situation, F
may be along v, opposite to v, normal to v or may make some other angle with
v. In every case, it is parallel to acceleration.
2. If v = 0 at an instant, i.e. if a body is momentarily at rest, it does not mean that
force or acceleration are necessarily zero at that instant. For example, when a
ball thrown upward reaches its maximum height, v = 0 but the force continues
to be its weight mg and the acceleration is not zero but g.
3. Force on a body at a given time is determined by the situation at the location of
the body at that time. Force is not ‘carried’ by the body from its earlier history of
motion. The moment after a stone is released out of an accelerated train, there is
no horizontal force (or acceleration) on the stone, if the effects of the surrounding
air are neglected. The stone then has only the vertical force of gravity.
4. In the second law of motion F = m a, F stands for the net force due to all
material agencies external to the body. a is the effect of the force. ma should
not be regarded as yet another force, besides F.

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68 PHYSICS

5. The centripetal force should not be regarded as yet another kind of force. It is
simply a name given to the force that provides inward radial acceleration to a
body in circular motion. We should always look for some material force like
tension, gravitational force, electrical force, friction, etc as the centripetal force
in any circular motion.
6. Static friction is a self-adjusting force up to its limit µs N (fs ≤ µs N). Do not put
fs= µs N without being sure that the maximum value of static friction is coming
into play.
7. The familiar equation mg = R for a body on a table is true only if the body is in
equilibrium. The two forces mg and R can be different (e.g. a body in an
accelerated lift). The equality of mg and R has no connection with the third
law.
8. The terms ‘action’ and ‘reaction’ in the third Law of Motion simply stand for
simultaneous mutual forces between a pair of bodies. Unlike their meaning in
ordinary language, action does not precede or cause reaction. Action and reaction
act on different bodies.
9. The different terms like ‘friction’, ‘normal reaction’ ‘tension’, ‘air resistance’,
‘viscous drag’, ‘thrust’, ‘buoyancy’, ‘weight’, ‘centripetal force’ all stand for ‘force’
in different contexts. For clarity, every force and its equivalent terms
encountered in mechanics should be reduced to the phrase ‘force on A by B’.
10. For applying the second law of motion, there is no conceptual distinction between
inanimate and animate objects. An animate object such as a human also
requires an external force to accelerate. For example, without the external
force of friction, we cannot walk on the ground.
11. The objective concept of force in physics should not be confused with the
subjective concept of the ‘feeling of force’. On a merry-go-around, all parts of
our body are subject to an inward force, but we have a feeling of being pushed
outward – the direction of impending motion.

EXERCISES

(For simplicity in numerical calculations, take g = 10 m s-2)

4.1 Give the magnitude and direction of the net force acting on
(a) a drop of rain falling down with a constant speed,
(b) a cork of mass 10 g floating on water,
(c) a kite skillfully held stationary in the sky,
(d) a car moving with a constant velocity of 30 km/h on a rough road,
(e) a high-speed electron in space far from all material objects, and free of
electric and magnetic fields.
4.2 A pebble of mass 0.05 kg is thrown vertically upwards. Give the direction
and magnitude of the net force on the pebble,
(a) during its upward motion,
(b) during its downward motion,
(c) at the highest point where it is momentarily at rest. Do your answers
change if the pebble was thrown at an angle of 45° with the horizontal
direction?
Ignore air resistance.
4.3 Give the magnitude and direction of the net force acting on a stone of mass
0.1 kg,
(a) just after it is dropped from the window of a stationary train,
(b) just after it is dropped from the window of a train running at a constant
velocity of 36 km/h,
(c ) just after it is dropped from the window of a train accelerating with 1 m s-2,
(d) lying on the floor of a train which is accelerating with 1 m s-2, the stone
being at rest relative to the train.
Neglect air resistance throughout.

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LAWS OF MOTION 69

4.4 One end of a string of length l is connected to a particle of mass m and the
other to a small peg on a smooth horizontal table. If the particle moves in a
circle with speed v the net force on the particle (directed towards the centre)
is :

mv2 mv 2
(i) T, (ii) T − , (iii) T + , (iv) 0
l l
T is the tension in the string. [Choose the correct alternative].
4.5 A constant retarding force of 50 N is applied to a body of mass 20 kg moving
initially with a speed of 15 m s-1. How long does the body take to stop ?
4.6 A constant force acting on a body of mass 3.0 kg changes its speed from 2.0 m s-1
to 3.5 m s-1 in 25 s. The direction of the motion of the body remains
unchanged. What is the magnitude and direction of the force ?
4.7 A body of mass 5 kg is acted upon by two perpendicular forces 8 N and 6 N.
Give the magnitude and direction of the acceleration of the body.
4.8 The driver of a three-wheeler moving with a speed of 36 km/h sees a child
standing in the middle of the road and brings his vehicle to rest in 4.0 s just
in time to save the child. What is the average retarding force on the vehicle ?
The mass of the three-wheeler is 400 kg and the mass of the driver is 65 kg.
4.9 A rocket with a lift-off mass 20,000 kg is blasted upwards with an initial
acceleration of 5.0 m s-2. Calculate the initial thrust (force) of the blast.
4.10 A body of mass 0.40 kg moving initially with a constant speed of 10 m s-1 to
the north is subject to a constant force of 8.0 N directed towards the south
for 30 s. Take the instant the force is applied to be t = 0, the position of the
body at that time to be x = 0, and predict its position at t = –5 s, 25 s, 100 s.
4.11 A truck starts from rest and accelerates uniformly at 2.0 m s-2. At t = 10 s, a
stone is dropped by a person standing on the top of the truck (6 m high from
the ground). What are the (a) velocity, and (b) acceleration of the stone at t =
11s ? (Neglect air resistance.)
4.12 A bob of mass 0.1 kg hung from the ceiling of a room by a string 2 m long is
set into oscillation. The speed of the bob at its mean position is 1 m s-1.
What is the trajectory of the bob if the string is cut when the bob is (a) at one
of its extreme positions, (b) at its mean position.
4.13 A man of mass 70 kg stands on a weighing scale in a lift which is moving
(a) upwards with a uniform speed of 10 m s-1,
(b) downwards with a uniform acceleration of 5 m s-2,
(c) upwards with a uniform acceleration of 5 m s-2.
What would be the readings on the scale in each case?
(d) What would be the reading if the lift mechanism failed and it hurtled
down freely under gravity ?
4.14 Figure 4.16 shows the position-time graph of a particle of mass 4 kg. What is
the (a) force on the particle for t < 0, t > 4 s, 0 < t < 4 s? (b) impulse at t = 0 and
t = 4 s ? (Consider one-dimensional motion only).

Fig. 4.16
4.15 Two bodies of masses 10 kg and 20 kg respectively kept on a smooth, horizontal
surface are tied to the ends of a light string. A horizontal force F = 600 N is
applied to (i) A, (ii) B along the direction of string. What is the tension in the
string in each case?

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70 PHYSICS

4.16 Two masses 8 kg and 12 kg are connected at the two ends of a light inextensible
string that goes over a frictionless pulley. Find the acceleration of the masses, and
the tension in the string when the masses are released.
4.17 A nucleus is at rest in the laboratory frame of reference. Show that if it disintegrates
into two smaller nuclei the products must move in opposite directions.
4.18 Two billiard balls each of mass 0.05 kg moving in opposite directions with speed 6 m s-1
collide and rebound with the same speed. What is the impulse imparted to each ball due
to the other ?
4.19 A shell of mass 0.020 kg is fired by a gun of mass 100 kg. If the muzzle speed of the
shell is 80 m s-1, what is the recoil speed of the gun ?
4.20 A batsman deflects a ball by an angle of 45° without changing its initial speed which is
equal to 54 km/h. What is the impulse imparted to the ball ? (Mass of the ball is 0.15 kg.)
4.21 A stone of mass 0.25 kg tied to the end of a string is whirled round in a circle of radius
1.5 m with a speed of 40 rev./min in a horizontal plane. What is the tension in the
string ? What is the maximum speed with which the stone can be whirled around if
the string can withstand a maximum tension of 200 N ?
4.22 If, in Exercise 4.21, the speed of the stone is increased beyond the maximum permissible
value, and the string breaks suddenly, which of the following correctly describes the
trajectory of the stone after the string breaks :
(a) the stone moves radially outwards,
(b) the stone flies off tangentially from the instant the string breaks,
(c) the stone flies off at an angle with the tangent whose magnitude depends on the
speed of the particle ?
4.23 Explain why
(a) a horse cannot pull a cart and run in empty space,
(b) passengers are thrown forward from their seats when a speeding bus stops
suddenly,
(c) it is easier to pull a lawn mower than to push it,
(d) a cricketer moves his hands backwards while holding a catch.

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 CHAPTER FIVE

WORK, ENERGY AND POWER

5.1 INTRODUCTION
The terms ‘work’, ‘energy’ and ‘power’ are frequently used
in everyday language. A farmer ploughing the field, a
5.1 Introduction construction worker carrying bricks, a student studying for
a competitive examination, an artist painting a beautiful
5.2 Notions of work and kinetic
landscape, all are said to be working. In physics, however,
energy : The work-energy
theorem the word ‘Work’ covers a definite and precise meaning.
Somebody who has the capacity to work for 14-16 hours a
5.3 Work
day is said to have a large stamina or energy. We admire a
5.4 Kinetic energy
long distance runner for her stamina or energy. Energy is
5.5 Work done by a variable force thus our capacity to do work. In Physics too, the term ‘energy’
5.6 The work-energy theorem for is related to work in this sense, but as said above the term
a variable force ‘work’ itself is defined much more precisely. The word ‘power’
5.7 The concept of potential is used in everyday life with different shades of meaning. In
energy karate or boxing we talk of ‘powerful’ punches. These are
5.8 The conservation of delivered at a great speed. This shade of meaning is close to
mechanical energy the meaning of the word ‘power’ used in physics. We shall
5.9 The potential energy of a find that there is at best a loose correlation between the
spring physical definitions and the physiological pictures these
5.10 Power terms generate in our minds. The aim of this chapter is to
5.11 Collisions develop an understanding of these three physical quantities.
Summary
Before we proceed to this task, we need to develop a
Points to ponder
mathematical prerequisite, namely the scalar product of two
vectors.
Exercises
5.1.1 The Scalar Product
We have learnt about vectors and their use in Chapter 3.
Physical quantities like displacement, velocity, acceleration,
force etc. are vectors. We have also learnt how vectors are
added or subtracted. We now need to know how vectors are
multiplied. There are two ways of multiplying vectors which
we shall come across : one way known as the scalar product
gives a scalar from two vectors and the other known as the
vector product produces a new vector from two vectors. We
shall look at the vector product in Chapter 6. Here we take
up the scalar product of two vectors. The scalar product or
dot product of any two vectors A and B, denoted as A.B (read

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72 PHYSICS

A dot B) is defined as
A = A x iɵ + Ay ɵj + Az kɵ
A.B = A B cos θ (5.1a)
B = B x iɵ + By ɵj + Bz kɵ
where θ is the angle between the two vectors as
shown in Fig. 5.1(a). Since A, B and cos θ are their scalar product is
scalars, the dot product of A and B is a scalar
quantity. Each vector, A and B, has a direction
(
A.B = A x ˆi + Ay ˆj + Az k )(
ˆ . B ˆi + B ˆj + B k
x y z
ˆ )
but their scalar product does not have a = A x B x + Ay By + Az B z (5.1b)
direction.
From the definition of scalar product and
From Eq. (5.1a), we have (Eq. 5.1b) we have :
(i) A . A = A x A x + A y Ay + A z A z
A .B = A (B cos θ )
= B (A cos θ ) Or,
2 2
A = A x + Ay + A z
2 2
(5.1c)
Geometrically, B cos θ is the projection of B onto since A .A = |A ||A| cos 0 = A2.
A in Fig.5.1 (b) and A cos θ is the projection of A (ii) A .B = 0, if A and B are perpendicular.
onto B in Fig. 5.1 (c). So, A.B is the product of
the magnitude of A and the component of B along u Example 5.1 Find the angle between force
A. Alternatively, it is the product of the F = (3 ˆi + 4 ˆj - 5 k
ˆ ) unit and displacement
magnitude of B and the component of A along B.
d = (5 ˆi + 4 ˆj + 3 k
ˆ ) unit. Also find the
Equation (5.1a) shows that the scalar product
follows the commutative law : projection of F on d.
A.B = B.A Answer F.d = Fx d x + Fy d y + Fz d z
Scalar product obeys the distributive = 3 (5) + 4 (4) + (– 5) (3)
law: = 16 unit
A . (B + C) = A .B + A .C Hence F.d = F d cos θ = 16 unit

Further, A. (λ B) = λ (A.B) Now F.F = F 2 = Fx2 + Fy2 + Fz2

where λ is a real number. = 9 + 16 + 25
= 50 unit
The proofs of the above equations are left to
you as an exercise. and d.d = d 2 = d x2 + dy2 + dz2

For unit vectors ɵi, ɵj, kɵ we have = 25 + 16 + 9

= 50 unit
iɵ ⋅ ɵi =
ɵj ⋅ ɵj = kɵ ⋅ kɵ = 1
16 16
∴ cos θ = = = 0.32 ,
iɵ ⋅ ɵj =
ɵj ⋅ kɵ = kɵ ⋅ iɵ = 0 50 50 50

Given two vectors θ = cos–1 0.32

Fig. 5.1 (a) The scalar product of two vectors A and B is a scalar : A. B = A B cos θ. (b) B cos θ is the projection
of B onto A. (c) A cos θ is the projection of A onto B.

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WORK, ENERGY AND POWER 73

5.2 NOTIONS OF WORK AND KINETIC

ENERGY: THE WORK-ENERGY THEOREM to be proportional to the speed of the drop
but is otherwise undetermined. Consider
The following relation for rectilinear motion under a drop of mass 1.00 g falling from a height
constant acceleration a has been encountered 1.00 km. It hits the ground with a speed of
in Chapter 3, 50.0 m s-1. (a) What is the work done by the
v2 − u2 = 2 as (5.2) gravitational force ? What is the work done
where u and v are the initial and final speeds by the unknown resistive force?
and s the distance traversed. Multiplying both Answer (a) The change in kinetic energy of the
sides by m/2, we have drop is
1 1 1
mv 2 − mu 2 = mas = Fs (5.2a) ∆K = m v2 − 0
2 2 2
where the last step follows from Newton’s Second 1
Law. We can generalise Eq. (5.2) to three = × 10-3 × 50 × 50
2
dimensions by employing vectors = 1.25 J
v2 − u2 = 2 a.d where we have assumed that the drop is initially
at rest.
Here a and d are acceleration and displacement
Assuming that g is a constant with a value
vectors of the object respectively.
10 m/s2, the work done by the gravitational force
Once again multiplying both sides by m/2 , we obtain
is,
1 1 Wg = mgh
mv 2 − mu 2 = m a.d = F.d (5.2b)
2 2 = 10-3 ×10 ×103
The above equation provides a motivation for = 10.0 J
the definitions of work and kinetic energy. The (b) From the work-energy theorem
left side of the equation is the difference in the
quantity ‘half the mass times the square of the ∆ K = W g + Wr
speed’ from its initial value to its final value. We where Wr is the work done by the resistive force
call each of these quantities the ‘kinetic energy’, on the raindrop. Thus
denoted by K. The right side is a product of the Wr = ∆K − Wg
displacement and the component of the force = 1.25 −10
along the displacement. This quantity is called = − 8.75 J
‘work’ and is denoted by W. Eq. (5.2b) is then
is negative. ⊳
Kf − Ki = W (5.3) 5.3 WORK
where Ki and Kf are respectively the initial and As seen earlier, work is related to force and the
final kinetic energies of the object. Work refers displacement over which it acts. Consider a
to the force and the displacement over which it constant force F acting on an object of mass m.
acts. Work is done by a force on the body over The object undergoes a displacement d in the
a certain displacement. positive x-direction as shown in Fig. 5.2.
Equation (5.2) is also a special case of the
work-energy (WE) theorem : The change in
kinetic energy of a particle is equal to the
work done on it by the net force. We shall
generalise the above derivation to a varying force
in a later section.
⊳ Example 5.2 It is well known that a
raindrop falls under the influence of the Fig. 5.2 An object undergoes a displacement d
downward gravitational force and the under the influence of the force F.
opposing resistive force. The latter is known

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74 PHYSICS

The work done by the force is defined to be Table 5.1 Alternative Units of Work/Energy in J
the product of component of the force in the
direction of the displacement and the
magnitude of this displacement. Thus
W = (F cos θ )d = F.d (5.4)
We see that if there is no displacement, there
is no work done even if the force is large. Thus,
when you push hard against a rigid brick wall,
the force you exert on the wall does no work. Yet ⊳
Example 5.3 A cyclist comes to a skidding
your muscles are alternatively contracting and stop in 10 m. During this process, the force
relaxing and internal energy is being used up on the cycle due to the road is 200 N and
and you do get tired. Thus, the meaning of work is directly opposed to the motion. (a) How
in physics is different from its usage in everyday much work does the road do on the cycle ?
language. (b) How much work does the cycle do on
the road ?
No work is done if :
(i) the displacement is zero as seen in the
example above. A weightlifter holding a 150 Answer Work done on the cycle by the road is
kg mass steadily on his shoulder for 30 s the work done by the stopping (frictional) force
does no work on the load during this time. on the cycle due to the road.
(ii) the force is zero. A block moving on a smooth (a) The stopping force and the displacement make
horizontal table is not acted upon by a an angle of 180o (π rad) with each other.
horizontal force (since there is no friction), but Thus, work done by the road,
may undergo a large displacement. Wr = Fd cosθ
(iii) the force and displacement are mutually
= 200 × 10 × cos π
perpendicular. This is so since, for θ = π/2 rad
(= 90o), cos (π/2) = 0. For the block moving on = – 2000 J
a smooth horizontal table, the gravitational It is this negative work that brings the cycle
force mg does no work since it acts at right to a halt in accordance with WE theorem.
angles to the displacement. If we assume that (b) From Newton’s Third Law an equal and
the moon’s orbits around the earth is opposite force acts on the road due to the
perfectly circular then the earth’s cycle. Its magnitude is 200 N. However, the
gravitational force does no work. The moon’s road undergoes no displacement. Thus,
instantaneous displacement is tangential work done by cycle on the road is zero. ⊳
while the earth’s force is radially inwards and The lesson of Example 5.3 is that though the
θ = π/2. force on a body A exerted by the body B is always
Work can be both positive and negative. If θ is equal and opposite to that on B by A (Newton’s
between 0o and 90o, cos θ in Eq. (5.4) is positive. Third Law); the work done on A by B is not
If θ is between 90o and 180o, cos θ is negative. necessarily equal and opposite to the work done
In many examples the frictional force opposes on B by A.
displacement and θ = 180o. Then the work done
5.4 KINETIC ENERGY
by friction is negative (cos 180o = –1).
From Eq. (5.4) it is clear that work and energy As noted earlier, if an object of mass m has
have the same dimensions, [ML2T–2]. The SI unit velocity v, its kinetic energy K is
of these is joule (J), named after the famous British
1 1
physicist James Prescott Joule (1811-1869). Since K = m v.v = mv 2 (5.5)
work and energy are so widely used as physical 2 2
concepts, alternative units abound and some of Kinetic energy is a scalar quantity. The kinetic
these are listed in Table 5.1. energy of an object is a measure of the work an

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WORK, ENERGY AND POWER 75

Table 5.2 Typical kinetic energies (K)

object can do by the virtue of its motion. This This is illustrated in Fig. 5.3(a). Adding
notion has been intuitively known for a long time. successive rectangular areas in Fig. 5.3(a) we
The kinetic energy of a fast flowing stream get the total work done as
has been used to grind corn. Sailing xf
ships employ the kinetic energy of the wind. Table
5.2 lists the kinetic energies for various
W≅ ∑F (x )∆x
xi
(5.6)

objects. where the summation is from the initial position

xi to the final position xf.
Example 5.4 In a ballistics demonstration
⊳
a police officer fires a bullet of mass 50.0 g If the displacements are allowed to approach
with speed 200 m s-1 (see Table 5.2) on soft zero, then the number of terms in the sum
plywood of thickness 2.00 cm. The bullet increases without limit, but the sum approaches
emerges with only 10% of its initial kinetic a definite value equal to the area under the curve
energy. What is the emergent speed of the in Fig. 5.3(b). Then the work done is
bullet ? lim xf

Answer The initial kinetic energy of the bullet

W = lim
∆x → 0 ∑F (x )∆x
xi
is mv2/2 = 1000 J. It has a final kinetic energy
of 0.1×1000 = 100 J. If vf is the emergent speed xf

of the bullet, = ∫ F ( x ) dx (5.7)

1 2
xi
mv f = 100 J where ‘lim’ stands for the limit of the sum when
2
∆x tends to zero. Thus, for a varying force
2 × 100 J the work done can be expressed as a definite
vf =
0.05 kg integral of force over displacement (see also
Appendix 3.1).
= 63.2 m s–1
The speed is reduced by approximately 68%
(not 90%). ⊳

5.5 WORK DONE BY A VARIABLE FORCE

A constant force is rare. It is the variable force,
which is more commonly encountered. Fig. 5.3
is a plot of a varying force in one dimension.
If the displacement ∆x is small, we can take
the force F (x) as approximately constant and
the work done is then
∆W =F (x) ∆x Fig. 5.3(a)

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76 PHYSICS

The work done by the frictional force is

Wf → area of the rectangle AGHI
Wf = (−50) × 20
= − 1000 J
The area on the negative side of the force axis
has a negative sign. ⊳
5.6 THE WORK-ENERGY THEOREM FOR A
VARIABLE FORCE
Fig. 5.3 (a) The shaded rectangle represents the We are now familiar with the concepts of work
work done by the varying force F(x), over and kinetic energy to prove the work-energy
the small displacement ∆x, ∆W = F(x) ∆x. theorem for a variable force. We confine
(b) adding the areas of all the rectangles we ourselves to one dimension. The time rate of
find that for ∆x → 0, the area under the curve change of kinetic energy is
is exactly equal to the work done by F(x).
dK d 1 2
=  m v 
⊳
Example 5.5 A woman pushes a trunk on dt dt  2
a railway platform which has a rough
dv
surface. She applies a force of 100 N over a =m v
distance of 10 m. Thereafter, she gets dt
progressively tired and her applied force =F v (from Newton’s Second Law)
reduces linearly with distance to 50 N. The dx
total distance through which the trunk has =F
dt
been moved is 20 m. Plot the force applied Thus
by the woman and the frictional force, which dK = Fdx
is 50 N versus displacement. Calculate the Integrating from the initial position (x i ) to final
work done by the two forces over 20 m. position ( x f ), we have
Answer Kf xf

∫ dK = ∫ Fdx
Ki xi

where, Ki and K f are the initial and final kinetic

energies corresponding to x i and x f.
xf

Fig. 5.4 Plot of the force F applied by the woman and

or K f − Ki = ∫ Fdx (5.8a)
xi
the opposing frictional force f versus
From Eq. (5.7), it follows that
displacement.
Kf − Ki = W (5.8b)
The plot of the applied force is shown in Fig.
5.4. At x = 20 m, F = 50 N (≠ 0). We are given Thus, the WE theorem is proved for a variable
that the frictional force f is |f|= 50 N. It opposes force.
motion and acts in a direction opposite to F. It While the WE theorem is useful in a variety of
is therefore, shown on the negative side of the problems, it does not, in general, incorporate the
force axis. complete dynamical information of Newton’s
The work done by the woman is second law. It is an integral form of Newton’s
WF → area of the rectangle ABCD + area of second law. Newton’s second law is a relation
the trapezium CEID between acceleration and force at any instant of
1 time. Work-energy theorem involves an integral
WF = 100 × 10 + (100 + 50) × 10 over an interval of time. In this sense, the temporal
2
= 1000 + 750 (time) information contained in the statement of
= 1750 J Newton’s second law is ‘integrated over’ and is

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WORK, ENERGY AND POWER 77

not available explicitly. Another observation is that are like ‘compressed springs’. They possess a
Newton’s second law for two or three dimensions large amount of potential energy. An earthquake
is in vector form whereas the work-energy results when these fault lines readjust. Thus,
theorem is in scalar form. In the scalar form, potential energy is the ‘stored energy’ by virtue
information with respect to directions contained of the position or configuration of a body. The
in Newton’s second law is not present. body left to itself releases this stored energy in
⊳ the form of kinetic energy. Let us make our notion
Example 5.6 A block of mass m = 1 kg, of potential energy more concrete.
moving on a horizontal surface with speed The gravitational force on a ball of mass m is
vi = 2 m s–1 enters a rough patch ranging mg . g may be treated as a constant near the earth
from x = 0.10 m to x = 2.01 m. The retarding surface. By ‘near’ we imply that the height h of
force Fr on the block in this range is inversely the ball above the earth’s surface is very small
proportional to x over this range, compared to the earth’s radius RE (h <<RE) so that
−k we can ignore the variation of g near the earth’s
Fr = for 0.1 < x < 2.01 m surface*. In what follows we have taken the
x
= 0 for x < 0.1m and x > 2.01 m upward direction to be positive. Let us raise the
where k = 0.5 J. What is the final kinetic ball up to a height h. The work done by the external
energy and speed vf of the block as it agency against the gravitational force is mgh. This
crosses this patch ? work gets stored as potential energy.
Gravitational potential energy of an object, as a
function of the height h, is denoted by V(h) and it
Answer From Eq. (5.8a) is the negative of work done by the gravitational
2.01
( −k ) dx force in raising the object to that height.
K f = Ki + ∫ x
V (h) = mgh
0.1 If h is taken as a variable, it is easily seen that
the gravitational force F equals the negative of
1
= mv i2 − k ln (x ) 2.01
0.1
the derivative of V(h) with respect to h. Thus,
2
d
F =− V(h) = −m g
1
= mvi2 − k ln (2.01/0.1) dh
2 The negative sign indicates that the
= 2 − 0.5 ln (20.1) gravitational force is downward. When released,
the ball comes down with an increasing speed.
= 2 − 1.5 = 0.5 J Just before it hits the ground, its speed is given
v f = 2K f /m = 1 m s−1 by the kinematic relation,
v2 = 2gh
This equation can be written as
Here, note that ln is a symbol for the natural
logarithm to the base e and not the logarithm to 1
the base 10 [ln X = loge X = 2.303 log10 X]. ⊳ m v2 = m g h
2
5.7 THE CONCEPT OF POTENTIAL ENERGY which shows that the gravitational potential
energy of the object at height h, when the object
The word potential suggests possibility or is released, manifests itself as kinetic energy of
capacity for action. The term potential energy the object on reaching the ground.
brings to one’s mind ‘stored’ energy. A stretched Physically, the notion of potential energy is
bow-string possesses potential energy. When it applicable only to the class of forces where work
is released, the arrow flies off at a great speed. done against the force gets ‘stored up’ as energy.
The earth’s crust is not uniform, but has When external constraints are removed, it
discontinuities and dislocations that are called manifests itself as kinetic energy. Mathematically,
fault lines. These fault lines in the earth’s crust (for simplicity, in one dimension) the potential

* The variation of g with height is discussed in Chapter 7 on Gravitation.

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78 PHYSICS

energy V(x) is defined if the force F(x) can be which means that K + V, the sum of the kinetic
written as and potential energies of the body is a constant.
dV Over the whole path, xi to xf, this means that
F (x ) = − Ki + V(xi ) = Kf + V(xf ) (5.11)
dx
This implies that The quantity K +V(x), is called the total
mechanical energy of the system. Individually
xf Vf
the kinetic energy K and the potential energy
∫ F(x) dx = − ∫ dV = Vi − V f V(x) may vary from point to point, but the sum
xi Vi
is a constant. The aptness of the term
The work done by a conservative force such as ‘conservative force’ is now clear.
gravity depends on the initial and final positions Let us consider some of the definitions of a
only. In the previous chapter we have worked conservative force.
on examples dealing with inclined planes. If an l A force F(x) is conservative if it can be derived
object of mass m is released from rest, from the from a scalar quantity V(x) by the relation
top of a smooth (frictionless) inclined plane of given by Eq. (5.9). The three-dimensional
height h, its speed at the bottom generalisation requires the use of a vector
is 2gh irrespective of the angle of inclination. derivative, which is outside the scope of this
Thus, at the bottom of the inclined plane it book.
acquires a kinetic energy, mgh. If the work done l The work done by the conservative force
depends only on the end points. This can be
or the kinetic energy did depend on other factors
seen from the relation,
such as the velocity or the particular path taken
W = Kf – Ki = V (xi ) – V(xf )
by the object, the force would be called non-
which depends on the end points.
conservative.
l A third definition states that the work done
The dimensions of potential energy are
by this force in a closed path is zero. This is
[ML2T –2] and the unit is joule (J), the same as
once again apparent from Eq. (5.11) since
kinetic energy or work. To reiterate, the change
xi = xf .
in potential energy, for a conservative force,
∆V is equal to the negative of the work done by Thus, the principle of conservation of total
the force mechanical energy can be stated as
∆V = − F(x) ∆x (5.9) The total mechanical energy of a system is
In the example of the falling ball considered in conserved if the forces, doing work on it, are
this section we saw how potential energy was conservative.
converted to kinetic energy. This hints at an The above discussion can be made more
important principle of conservation in mechanics, concrete by considering the example of the
which we now proceed to examine. gravitational force once again and that of the
spring force in the next section. Fig. 5.5 depicts
5.8 THE CONSERVATION OF MECHANICAL a ball of mass m being dropped from a cliff of
ENERGY height H.
For simplicity we demonstrate this important
principle for one-dimensional motion. Suppose
that a body undergoes displacement ∆x under
the action of a conservative force F. Then from
the WE theorem we have,
∆K = F(x) ∆x
If the force is conservative, the potential energy
function V(x) can be defined such that
− ∆V = F(x) ∆x
The above equations imply that Fig. 5.5 The conversion of potential energy to kinetic
∆K + ∆V = 0 energy for a ball of mass m dropped from a
∆(K + V ) = 0 (5.10) height H.

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WORK, ENERGY AND POWER 79

The total mechanical energies E0, Eh, and EH Answer (i) There are two external forces on
of the ball at the indicated heights zero (ground the bob : gravity and the tension (T ) in the
level), h and H, are string. The latter does no work since the
EH = mgH (5.11 a) displacement of the bob is always normal to the
string. The potential energy of the bob is thus
1
Eh = mgh + mvh2 (5.11 b) associated with the gravitational force only. The
2 total mechanical energy E of the system is
E0 = (1/2) mvf2 (5.11 c)
conserved. We take the potential energy of the
The constant force is a special case of a spatially system to be zero at the lowest point A. Thus,
dependent force F(x). Hence, the mechanical at A :
energy is conserved. Thus
EH = E0 1 2
1 E= mv0 (5.12)
or, mgH = mv 2f 2
2
v f = 2gH [Newton’s Second Law]
a result that was obtained in section 5.7 for a
where TA is the tension in the string at A. At the
freely falling body.
highest point C, the string slackens, as the
Further,
tension in the string (TC ) becomes zero.
EH = Eh
which implies, Thus, at C
1
v 2h = 2 g(H − h) (5.11 d) E= mvc2 + 2mgL (5.13)
2
and is a familiar result from kinematics.
At the height H, the energy is purely potential. mvc2
It is partially converted to kinetic at height h and mg = [Newton’s Second Law] (5.14)
L
is fully kinetic at ground level. This illustrates
the conservation of mechanical energy. where v C is the speed at C. From Eqs. (5.13)
and (5.14)
Example 5.7 A bob of mass m is suspended
⊳
5
by a light string of length L . It is imparted a E =
mgL
horizontal velocity vo at the lowest point A 2
such that it completes a semi-circular Equating this to the energy at A
trajectory in the vertical plane with the string
5 m 2
becoming slack only on reaching the topmost mgL = v0
point, C. This is shown in Fig. 5.6. Obtain an 2 2
expression for (i) vo; (ii) the speeds at points or, v0 = 5 gL
B and C; (iii) the ratio of the kinetic energies
(KB/KC) at B and C. Comment on the nature (ii) It is clear from Eq. (5.14)
of the trajectory of the bob after it reaches vC = gL
the point C.
At B, the energy is
1
E= mv 2B + mgL
2
Equating this to the energy at A and employing
the result from (i), namely v 02 = 5 gL ,

1 1
mv 2B + mgL = mv02
2 2

5
= m gL
Fig. 5.6 2

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80 PHYSICS

∴ v B = 3gL k xm2
W =+ (5.16)
2
(iii) The ratio of the kinetic energies at B and C
is :
1 2
mv
KB 2 B 3
= =
KC 1 2 1
mvC
2
At point C, the string becomes slack and the
velocity of the bob is horizontal and to the left. If
the connecting string is cut at this instant, the
bob will execute a projectile motion with
horizontal projection akin to a rock kicked
horizontally from the edge of a cliff. Otherwise
the bob will continue on its circular path and
complete the revolution. ⊳
5.9 THE POTENTIAL ENERGY OF A SPRING
The spring force is an example of a variable force
which is conservative. Fig. 5.7 shows a block
attached to a spring and resting on a smooth
horizontal surface. The other end of the spring
is attached to a rigid wall. The spring is light
and may be treated as massless. In an ideal
spring, the spring force Fs is proportional to
x where x is the displacement of the block from
the equilibrium position. The displacement could
be either positive [Fig. 5.7(b)] or negative
[Fig. 5.7(c)]. This force law for the spring is called
Hooke’s law and is mathematically stated as

Fs = − kx
The constant k is called the spring constant. Its
unit is N m-1. The spring is said to be stiff if k is
large and soft if k is small. Fig. 5.7 Illustration of the spring force with a block
Suppose that we pull the block outwards as in attached to the free end of the spring.
Fig. 5.7(b). If the extension is xm, the work done by (a) The spring force Fs is zero when the
the spring force is displacement x from the equilibrium position
is zero. (b) For the stretched spring x > 0
xm xm and Fs < 0 (c) For the compressed spring
Ws = ∫ Fs dx = − ∫ kx dx x < 0 and Fs > 0.(d) The plot of Fs versus x.
0 0 The area of the shaded triangle represents
the work done by the spring force. Due to the
2
k xm opposing signs of Fs and x, this work done is
=− (5.15)
2 2
negative, Ws = −kx m / 2.
This expression may also be obtained by
considering the area of the triangle as in The same is true when the spring is
Fig. 5.7(d). Note that the work done by the compressed with a displacement xc (< 0). The
external pulling force F is positive since it
overcomes the spring force. spring force does work Ws = − kx c2 / 2 while the

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WORK, ENERGY AND POWER 81

external force F does work + kx c2 / 2 . If the block and vice versa, however, the total mechanical
energy remains constant. This is graphically
is moved from an initial displacement xi to a depicted in Fig. 5.8.
final displacement xf , the work done by the
spring force Ws is
xf
k x i2 k x 2f
Ws = − ∫ k x dx = − (5.17)
xi
2 2

Thus the work done by the spring force depends

only on the end points. Specifically, if the block
is pulled from xi and allowed to return to xi ;
xi
k x i2 k x i2
Ws = − ∫ k x dx = −
xi
2 2

=0 (5.18) Fig. 5.8 Parabolic plots of the potential energy V and

The work done by the spring force in a cyclic kinetic energy K of a block attached to a
process is zero. We have explicitly demonstrated spring obeying Hooke’s law. The two plots
are complementary, one decreasing as the
that the spring force (i) is position dependent
other increases. The total mechanical
only as first stated by Hooke, (Fs = − kx); (ii) energy E = K + V remains constant.
does work which only depends on the initial and
final positions, e.g. Eq. (5.17). Thus, the spring
Example 5.8 To simulate car accidents, auto
⊳
force is a conservative force.
We define the potential energy V(x) of the spring manufacturers study the collisions of moving
to be zero when block and spring system is in the cars with mounted springs of different spring
equilibrium position. For an extension (or constants. Consider a typical simulation with
compression) x the above analysis suggests that a car of mass 1000 kg moving with a speed
18.0 km/h on a smooth road and colliding
kx 2 with a horizontally mounted spring of spring
V(x) = (5.19) constant 5.25 × 103 N m–1. What is the
2
You may easily verify that − dV/dx = − k x, the maximum compression of the spring ?
spring force. If the block of mass m in Fig. 5.7 is
extended to xm and released from rest, then its Answer At maximum compression the kinetic
total mechanical energy at any arbitrary point x, energy of the car is converted entirely into the
where x lies between – xm and + xm, will be given by potential energy of the spring.
The kinetic energy of the moving car is
1 2 1 1
k xm = k x 2 + m v2 1
2 2 2 K = mv 2
where we have invoked the conservation of 2
mechanical energy. This suggests that the speed 1
and the kinetic energy will be maximum at the = × 103 × 5 × 5
2
equilibrium position, x = 0, i.e.,
K = 1.25 × 104 J
1 1
2
m vm = k xm
2
where we have converted 18 km h–1 to 5 m s–1 [It is
2 2 useful to remember that 36 km h–1 = 10 m s–1].
where vm is the maximum speed. At maximum compression x m, the potential
energy V of the spring is equal to the kinetic
k
or vm = xm energy K of the moving car from the principle of
m conservation of mechanical energy.
Note that k/m has the dimensions of [T-2] and
our equation is dimensionally correct. The 1
V = k xm
2
kinetic energy gets converted to potential energy 2

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82 PHYSICS

= 1.25 × 104 J
We obtain
xm = 2.00 m
We note that we have idealised the situation.
The spring is considered to be massless. The
surface has been considered to possess
negligible friction. ⊳
We conclude this section by making a few Fig. 5.9 The forces acting on the car.
remarks on conservative forces.
(i) Information on time is absent from the above 1
discussions. In the example considered ∆K = Kf − Ki = 0 − m v 2
2
above, we can calculate the compression, but The work done by the net force is
not the time over which the compression
1
occurs. A solution of Newton’s Second Law W =− kx m2 − µm g x m
for this system is required for temporal 2
information. Equating we have
(ii) Not all forces are conservative. Friction, for
1 1
example, is a non-conservative force. The m v 2 = k x m2 + µm g x m
2 2
principle of conservation of energy will have
to be modified in this case. This is illustrated Now µmg = 0.5 × 103 × 10 = 5 × 103 N (taking
in Example 5.9. g =10.0 m s -2). After rearranging the above
(iii) The zero of the potential energy is arbitrary. equation we obtain the following quadratic
equation in the unknown xm.
It is set according to convenience. For the
spring force we took V(x) = 0, at x = 0, i.e. the k x m2 + 2µm g x m − m v 2 = 0
unstretched spring had zero potential
energy. For the constant gravitational force
mg, we took V = 0 on the earth’s surface. In
a later chapter we shall see that for the force
due to the universal law of gravitation, the where we take the positive square root since
zero is best defined at an infinite distance xm is positive. Putting in numerical values we
from the gravitational source. However, once obtain
the zero of the potential energy is fixed in a xm = 1.35 m
given discussion, it must be consistently which, as expected, is less than the result in
adhered to throughout the discussion. You Example 5.8.
cannot change horses in midstream ! If the two forces on the body consist of a
conservative force Fc and a non-conservative
⊳
Example 5.9 Consider Example 5.8 taking force Fnc , the conservation of mechanical energy
the coefficient of friction, µ, to be 0.5 and formula will have to be modified. By the WE
calculate the maximum compression of the theorem
spring. (Fc+ Fnc ) ∆x = ∆K
But Fc ∆x = − ∆V
Answer In presence of friction, both the spring Hence, ∆(K + V) = Fnc ∆x
force and the frictional force act so as to oppose ∆E = Fnc ∆x
the compression of the spring as shown in where E is the total mechanical energy. Over
Fig. 5.9. the path this assumes the form
We invoke the work-energy theorem, rather Ef − Ei = Wnc
than the conservation of mechanical energy. where W nc is the total work done by the
The change in kinetic energy is non-conservative forces over the path. Note that

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WORK, ENERGY AND POWER 83

unlike the conservative force, Wnc depends on Our electricity bills carry the energy
the particular path i to f. ⊳ consumption in units of kWh. Note that kWh is
a unit of energy and not of power.
5.10 POWER
Often it is interesting to know not only the work u Example 5.10 An elevator can carry a
done on an object, but also the rate at which maximum load of 1800 kg (elevator +
this work is done. We say a person is physically passengers) is moving up with a constant
fit if he not only climbs four floors of a building speed of 2 m s–1. The frictional force opposing
but climbs them fast. Power is defined as the the motion is 4000 N. Determine the
time rate at which work is done or energy is minimum power delivered by the motor to
transferred. the elevator in watts as well as in horse
The average power of a force is defined as the power.
ratio of the work, W, to the total time t taken
Answer The downward force on the elevator is
W
Pav = F = m g + Ff = (1800 × 10) + 4000 = 22000 N
t
The instantaneous power is defined as the The motor must supply enough power to balance
limiting value of the average power as time this force. Hence,
interval approaches zero, P = F. v = 22000 × 2 = 44000 W = 59 hp ⊳
dW 5.11 COLLISIONS
P = (5.20)
dt In physics we study motion (change in position).
The work dW done by a force F for a displacement At the same time, we try to discover physical
dr is dW = F.dr. The instantaneous power can quantities, which do not change in a physical
also be expressed as process. The laws of momentum and energy
conservation are typical examples. In this
dr
P = F. section we shall apply these laws to a commonly
dt encountered phenomena, namely collisions.
= F.v (5.21) Several games such as billiards, marbles or
carrom involve collisions.We shall study the
where v is the instantaneous velocity when the collision of two masses in an idealised form.
force is F. Consider two masses m1 and m2. The particle
Power, like work and energy, is a scalar m1 is moving with speed v1i , the subscript ‘i’
quantity. Its dimensions are [ML2T – 3]. In the SI, implying initial. We can cosider m2 to be at rest.
its unit is called a watt (W). The watt is 1 J s–1. No loss of generality is involved in making such
The unit of power is named after James Watt, a selection. In this situation the mass m 1
one of the innovators of the steam engine in the collides with the stationary mass m2 and this
eighteenth century. is depicted in Fig. 5.10.
There is another unit of power, namely the
horse-power (hp)
1 hp = 746 W
This unit is still used to describe the output of
automobiles, motorbikes, etc.
We encounter the unit watt when we buy
electrical goods such as bulbs, heaters and
refrigerators. A 100 watt bulb which is on for 10
hours uses 1 kilowatt hour (kWh) of energy.
100 (watt) × 10 (hour) Fig. 5.10 Collision of mass m1, with a stationary mass m2.
= 1000 watt hour The masses m 1 and m 2 fly-off in different
=1 kilowatt hour (kWh) directions. We shall see that there are
= 103 (W) × 3600 (s) relationships, which connect the masses, the
= 3.6 × 106 J velocities and the angles.

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84 PHYSICS

5.11.1 Elastic and Inelastic Collisions The loss in kinetic energy on collision is
In all collisions the total linear momentum is 1 1
conserved; the initial momentum of the system ∆K = m1v1i2 − (m1 + m 2 )v 2f
2 2
is equal to the final momentum of the system.
One can argue this as follows. When two objects
1 1 m12
collide, the mutual impulsive forces acting over = m1v12i − v12i [using Eq. (5.22)]
the collision time ∆t cause a change in their 2 2 m1 + m 2
respective momenta :
1  m1 
∆p1 = F12 ∆t = m1v12i 1 − 
2  m 1 + m2 
∆p2 = F21 ∆t
where F12 is the force exerted on the first particle
1 m1m 2 2
by the second particle. F21 is likewise the force = v1i
exerted on the second particle by the first particle. 2 m1 + m 2
Now from Newton’s third law, F12 = − F21. This
implies which is a positive quantity as expected.
Consider next an elastic collision. Using the
∆p1 + ∆p2 = 0
above nomenclature with θ 1 = θ 2 = 0, the
The above conclusion is true even though the momentum and kinetic energy conservation
forces vary in a complex fashion during the equations are
collision time ∆t. Since the third law is true at
every instant, the total impulse on the first object m1v1i = m1v1f + m2v2f (5.23)
is equal and opposite to that on the second.
m 1v12i = m 1v12f + m 2v 22 f (5.24)
On the other hand, the total kinetic energy of
the system is not necessarily conserved. The From Eqs. (5.23) and (5.24) it follows that,
impact and deformation during collision may
generate heat and sound. Part of the initial kinetic m 1v1i (v 2 f − v1i ) = m1v1 f (v 2 f − v1 f )
energy is transformed into other forms of energy.
A useful way to visualise the deformation during or, v 2 f (v1i − v1 f ) = v12i − v12f
collision is in terms of a ‘compressed spring’. If
the ‘spring’ connecting the two masses regains = (v1i − v1 f )(v1i + v1 f )
its original shape without loss in energy, then
the initial kinetic energy is equal to the final Hence, ∴ v 2 f = v1i + v1 f (5.25)
kinetic energy but the kinetic energy during the
collision time ∆t is not constant. Such a collision Substituting this in Eq. (5.23), we obtain
is called an elastic collision. On the other hand (m 1 − m 2 )
v1 f = v1i (5.26)
the deformation may not be relieved and the two m1 + m 2
bodies could move together after the collision. A
2m1v1i
collision in which the two particles move together and v2 f = (5.27)
after the collision is called a completely inelastic m1 + m 2
collision. The intermediate case where the Thus, the ‘unknowns’ {v1f, v2f} are obtained in
deformation is partly relieved and some of the terms of the ‘knowns’ {m1, m2, v1i}. Special cases
initial kinetic energy is lost is more common and of our analysis are interesting.
is appropriately called an inelastic collision. Case I : If the two masses are equal
5.11.2 Collisions in One Dimension v1f = 0
Consider first a completely inelastic collision v2f = v1i
in one dimension. Then, in Fig. 5.10, The first mass comes to rest and pushes off the
θ1 =θ2 = 0 second mass with its initial speed on collision.
m1v1i = (m1+m2)vf (momentum conservation) Case II : If one mass dominates, e.g. m2 > > m1
v1f ~ − v1i v2f ~ 0
m1 The heavier mass is undisturbed while the
vf = v1i (5.22)
m1 + m 2 lighter mass reverses its velocity.

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WORK, ENERGY AND POWER 85

⊳ dimensional, where the initial velocities and the

Example 5.11 Slowing down of neutrons: final velocities lie in a plane.
In a nuclear reactor a neutron of high
speed (typically 107 m s–1) must be slowed 5.11.3 Collisions in Two Dimensions
to 103 m s–1 so that it can have a high Fig. 5.10 also depicts the collision of a moving
probability of interacting with isotope U 235
92
mass m1 with the stationary mass m2. Linear
and causing it to fission. Show that a momentum is conserved in such a collision.
neutron can lose most of its kinetic energy Since momentum is a vector this implies three
in an elastic collision with a light nuclei equations for the three directions {x, y, z}.
like deuterium or carbon which has a mass Consider the plane determined by the final
of only a few times the neutron mass. The velocity directions of m1 and m2 and choose it to
material making up the light nuclei, usually be the x-y plane. The conservation of the
heavy water (D2O) or graphite, is called a z-component of the linear momentum implies
moderator. that the entire collision is in the x-y plane. The
x- and y-component equations are
Answer The initial kinetic energy of the neutron
m1v1i = m1v1f cos θ 1 + m2v2f cos θ 2 (5.28)
is
0 = m1v1f sin θ1 − m2v2f sin θ2 (5.29)
1
K1i = m1v12i
2 One knows {m1, m2, v1i} in most situations. There
are thus four unknowns {v1f , v2f , θ1 and θ2}, and
while its final kinetic energy from Eq. (5.26)
only two equations. If θ 1 = θ 2 = 0, we regain
2
1 1  m − m2  2 Eq. (5.23) for one dimensional collision.
K1 f = m 1v12f = m1  1 v1i
2 2  m1 + m 2  If, further the collision is elastic,
1 1 1
m1v1i 2 = m1v1 f 2 + m2v2 f 2 (5.30)
The fractional kinetic energy lost is 2 2 2
2 We obtain an additional equation. That still
K1 f m − m2 
f1 = = 1 leaves us one equation short. At least one of
K1i  m 1 + m 2  the four unknowns, say θ 1, must be made known
while the fractional kinetic energy gained by the for the problem to be solvable. For example, θ1
moderating nuclei K2f /K1i is can be determined by moving a detector in an
angular fashion from the x to the y axis. Given
f2 = 1 − f1 (elastic collision)
{m1, m2, v1i , θ1} we can determine {v1f , v2f , θ2}
4m1m 2 from Eqs. (5.28)-(5.30).
=
(m1 + m 2 )2 ⊳ Example 5.12 Consider the collision
depicted in Fig. 5.10 to be between two
One can also verify this result by substituting
billiard balls with equal masses m1 = m2.
from Eq. (5.27).
The first ball is called the cue while the
For deuterium m 2 = 2m 1 and we obtain
second ball is called the target. The
f1 = 1/9 while f2 = 8/9. Almost 90% of the
billiard player wants to ‘sink’ the target
neutron’s energy is transferred to deuterium. For
ball in a corner pocket, which is at an
carbon f1 = 71.6% and f2 = 28.4%. In practice,
angle θ2 = 37°. Assume that the collision is
however, this number is smaller since head-on
elastic and that friction and rotational
collisions are rare. ⊳
motion are not important. Obtain θ 1.
If the initial velocities and final velocities of
both the bodies are along the same straight line,
Answer From momentum conservation, since
the masses are equal
then it is called a one-dimensional collision, or
head-on collision. In the case of small spherical v1i = v1f + v 2f
bodies, this is possible if the direction of travel
of body 1 passes through the centre of body 2 or ( )(
v 1i 2 = v1 f + v 2 f ⋅ v1 f + v 2 f )
which is at rest. In general, the collision is two-
= v1 f 2 + v 2 f 2 + 2 v1 f .v2 f

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86 PHYSICS

= {v 1f
2
+ v 2 f 2 + 2v1 f v 2 f cos (θ1 + 37° ) } (5.31)
The matter simplifies greatly if we consider
spherical masses with smooth surfaces, and
Since the collision is elastic and m1 = m2 it follows assume that collision takes place only when the
from conservation of kinetic energy that bodies touch each other. This is what happens
in the games of marbles, carrom and billiards.
v1i 2 = v1 f 2 + v 2 f 2 (5.32)
In our everyday world, collisions take place only
Comparing Eqs. (5.31) and (5.32), we get when two bodies touch each other. But consider
a comet coming from far distances to the sun, or
cos (θ1 + 37°) = 0 alpha particle coming towards a nucleus and
or θ1 + 37° = 90° going away in some direction. Here we have to
deal with forces involving action at a distance.
Thus, θ1 = 53° Such an event is called scattering. The velocities
This proves the following result : when two equal and directions in which the two particles go away
masses undergo a glancing elastic collision with depend on their initial velocities as well as the
one of them at rest, after the collision, they will type of interaction between them, their masses,
move at right angles to each other. ⊳ shapes and sizes.

SUMMARY

1. The work-energy theorem states that the change in kinetic energy of a body is the work
done by the net force on the body.
Kf - Ki = Wnet
2. A force is conservative if (i) work done by it on an object is path independent and
depends only on the end points {xi, xj}, or (ii) the work done by the force is zero for an
arbitrary closed path taken by the object such that it returns to its initial position.
3. For a conservative force in one dimension, we may define a potential energy function V(x)
such that
dV ( x )
F (x ) = −
dx
xf

or Vi − V f = ∫ F ( x ) dx
xi

4. The principle of conservation of mechanical energy states that the total mechanical
energy of a body remains constant if the only forces that act on the body are conservative.
5. The gravitational potential energy of a particle of mass m at a height x about the earth’s
surface is
V(x) = m g x
where the variation of g with height is ignored.
5. The elastic potential energy of a spring of force constant k and extension x is
1
V (x ) = k x2
2
7. The scalar or dot product of two vectors A and B is written as A.B and is a scalar
quantity given by :A.B = AB cos θ, where θ is the angle between A and B. It can be
positive, negative or zero depending upon the value of θ. The scalar product of two
vectors can be interpreted as the product of magnitude of one vector and component
of the other vector along the first vector. For unit vectors :
ˆi ⋅ ˆi = ˆj ⋅ ˆj = k
ˆ ⋅k
ˆ = 1 and ˆi ⋅ ˆj = ˆj ⋅ k
ˆ =k
ˆ ⋅ ˆi = 0
Scalar products obey the commutative and the distributive laws.

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WORK, ENERGY AND POWER 87

POINTS TO PONDER
1. The phrase ‘calculate the work done’ is incomplete. We should refer (or imply
clearly by context) to the work done by a specific force or a group of forces on a
given body over a certain displacement.
2. Work done is a scalar quantity. It can be positive or negative unlike mass and
kinetic energy which are positive scalar quantities. The work done by the friction
or viscous force on a moving body is negative.
3. For two bodies, the sum of the mutual forces exerted between them is zero from
Newton’s Third Law,
F12 + F21 = 0
But the sum of the work done by the two forces need not always cancel, i.e.
W12 + W21 ≠ 0
However, it may sometimes be true.
4. The work done by a force can be calculated sometimes even if the exact nature of
the force is not known. This is clear from Example 5.2 where the WE theorem is
used in such a situation.
5. The WE theorem is not independent of Newton’s Second Law. The WE theorem
may be viewed as a scalar form of the Second Law. The principle of conservation
of mechanical energy may be viewed as a consequence of the WE theorem for
conservative forces.
5. The WE theorem holds in all inertial frames. It can also be extended to non-
inertial frames provided we include the pseudoforces in the calculation of the
net force acting on the body under consideration.
7. The potential energy of a body subjected to a conservative force is always
undetermined upto a constant. For example, the point where the potential
energy is zero is a matter of choice. For the gravitational potential energy mgh,
the zero of the potential energy is chosen to be the ground. For the spring
potential energy kx2/2 , the zero of the potential energy is the equilibrium position
of the oscillating mass.
8. Every force encountered in mechanics does not have an associated potential
energy. For example, work done by friction over a closed path is not zero and no
potential energy can be associated with friction.
9. During a collision : (a) the total linear momentum is conserved at each instant of
the collision ; (b) the kinetic energy conservation (even if the collision is elastic)
applies after the collision is over and does not hold at every instant of the collision.
In fact the two colliding objects are deformed and may be momentarily at rest
with respect to each other.

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88 PHYSICS

EXERCISES

5.1 The sign of work done by a force on a body is important to understand. State carefully
if the following quantities are positive or negative:
(a) work done by a man in lifting a bucket out of a well by means of a rope tied to the
bucket.
(b) work done by gravitational force in the above case,
(c) work done by friction on a body
sliding down an inclined plane,
(d) work done by an applied force on
a body moving on a rough
horizontal plane with uniform
velocity,
(e) work done by the resistive force of
air on a vibrating pendulum in
bringing it to rest.
5.2 A body of mass 2 kg initially at rest
moves under the action of an applied
horizontal force of 7 N on a table with
coefficient of kinetic friction = 0.1.
Compute the
(a) work done by the applied force in
10 s,
(b) work done by friction in 10 s,
(c) work done by the net force on the
body in 10 s,
(d) change in kinetic energy of the
body in 10 s,
and interpret your results.
5.3 Given in Fig. 5.11 are examples of some
potential energy functions in one
dimension. The total energy of the
particle is indicated by a cross on the
ordinate axis. In each case, specify the
regions, if any, in which the particle
cannot be found for the given energy.
Also, indicate the minimum total
energy the particle must have in each
case. Think of simple physical contexts
for which these potential energy shapes
are relevant.

Fig. 5.11

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WORK, ENERGY AND POWER 89

5.4 The potential energy function for a

particle executing linear simple
harmonic motion is given by V(x) =
kx2/2, where k is the force constant
of the oscillator. For k = 0.5 N m-1,
the graph of V(x) versus x is shown
in Fig. 5.12. Show that a particle of
total energy 1 J moving under this
Fig. 5.12
potential must ‘turn back’ when it
reaches x = ± 2 m.

5.5 Answer the following :

(a) The casing of a rocket in flight
burns up due to friction. At
whose expense is the heat
energy required for burning
obtained? The rocket or the
atmosphere?
(b) Comets move around the sun
in highly elliptical orbits. The
gravitational force on the
comet due to the sun is not Fig. 5.13
normal to the comet’s velocity
in general. Yet the work done by the gravitational force over every complete orbit
of the comet is zero. Why ?
(c) An artificial satellite orbiting the earth in very thin atmosphere loses its energy
gradually due to dissipation against atmospheric resistance, however small. Why
then does its speed increase progressively as it comes closer and closer to the earth ?
(d) In Fig. 5.13(i) the man walks 2 m carrying a mass of 15 kg on his hands. In Fig.
5.13(ii), he walks the same distance pulling the rope behind him. The rope goes
over a pulley, and a mass of 15 kg hangs at its other end. In which case is the work
done greater ?
5.6 Underline the correct alternative :
(a) When a conservative force does positive work on a body, the potential energy of
the body increases/decreases/remains unaltered.
(b) Work done by a body against friction always results in a loss of its kinetic/potential
energy.
(c) The rate of change of total momentum of a many-particle system is proportional
to the external force/sum of the internal forces on the system.
(d) In an inelastic collision of two bodies, the quantities which do not change after
the collision are the total kinetic energy/total linear momentum/total energy of
the system of two bodies.
5.7 State if each of the following statements is true or false. Give reasons for your answer.
(a) In an elastic collision of two bodies, the momentum and energy of each body is
conserved.
(b) Total energy of a system is always conserved, no matter what internal and external
forces on the body are present.
(c) Work done in the motion of a body over a closed loop is zero for every force in
nature.
(d) In an inelastic collision, the final kinetic energy is always less than the initial
kinetic energy of the system.
5.8 Answer carefully, with reasons :
(a) In an elastic collision of two billiard balls, is the total kinetic energy conserved
during the short time of collision of the balls (i.e. when they are in contact) ?
(b) Is the total linear momentum conserved during the short time of an elastic collision
of two balls ?

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90 PHYSICS

(c) What are the answers to (a) and (b) for an inelastic collision ?
(d) If the potential energy of two billiard balls depends only on the separation distance
between their centres, is the collision elastic or inelastic ? (Note, we are talking
here of potential energy corresponding to the force during collision, not gravitational
potential energy).
5.9 A body is initially at rest. It undergoes one-dimensional motion with constant
acceleration. The power delivered to it at time t is proportional to
(i) t1/2 (ii) t (iii) t3/2 (iv) t2
5.10 A body is moving unidirectionally under the influence of a source of constant power.
Its displacement in time t is proportional to
(i) t1/2 (ii) t (iii) t3/2 (iv) t2
5.11 A body constrained to move along the z-axis of a coordinate system is subject to a
constant force F given by
F = −ˆi + 2 ˆj + 3 k
ˆ N

where ˆi, ˆj, k

ˆ are unit vectors along the x-, y- and z-axis of the system respectively.
What is the work done by this force in moving the body a distance of 4 m along the
z-axis ?
5.12 An electron and a proton are detected in a cosmic ray experiment, the first with kinetic
energy 10 keV, and the second with 100 keV. Which is faster, the electron or the
proton ? Obtain the ratio of their speeds. (electron mass = 9.11×10-31 kg, proton mass
= 1.67×10–27 kg, 1 eV = 1.60 ×10–19 J).
5.13 A rain drop of radius 2 mm falls from a height of 500 m above the ground. It falls with
decreasing acceleration (due to viscous resistance of the air) until at half its original
height, it attains its maximum (terminal) speed, and moves with uniform speed
thereafter. What is the work done by the gravitational force on the drop in the first
and second half of its journey ? What is the work done by the resistive force in the
entire journey if its speed on reaching the ground is 10 m s–1 ?
5.14 A molecule in a gas container hits a horizontal wall with speed 200 m s–1 and angle 30°
with the normal, and rebounds with the same speed. Is momentum conserved in the
collision ? Is the collision elastic or inelastic ?
5.15 A pump on the ground floor of a building can pump up water to fill a tank of volume 30 m3
in 15 min. If the tank is 40 m above the ground, and the efficiency of the pump is 30%,
how much electric power is consumed by the pump ?
5.16 Two identical ball bearings in contact with each other and resting on a frictionless
table are hit head-on by another ball bearing of the same mass moving initially with a
speed V. If the collision is elastic, which of the following (Fig. 5.14) is a possible result
after collision ?

Fig. 5.14

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WORK, ENERGY AND POWER 91

5.17 The bob A of a pendulum released from 30o to the

vertical hits another bob B of the same mass at rest
on a table as shown in Fig. 5.15. How high does
the bob A rise after the collision ? Neglect the size of
the bobs and assume the collision to be elastic.

5.18 The bob of a pendulum is released from a horizontal

position. If the length of the pendulum is 1.5 m,
what is the speed with which the bob arrives at the
lowermost point, given that it dissipated 5% of its
initial energy against air resistance ?
5.19 A trolley of mass 300 kg carrying a sandbag of 25 kg
is moving uniformly with a speed of 27 km/h on a Fig. 5.15
frictionless track. After a while, sand starts leaking
out of a hole on the floor of the trolley at the rate of
0.05 kg s–1. What is the speed of the trolley after the entire sand bag is empty ?
5.20 A body of mass 0.5 kg travels in a straight line with velocity v =a x3/2 where a = 5 m–1/2 s–1.
What is the work done by the net force during its displacement from x = 0 to
x=2m?
5.21 The blades of a windmill sweep out a circle of area A. (a) If the wind flows at a
velocity v perpendicular to the circle, what is the mass of the air passing through it
in time t ? (b) What is the kinetic energy of the air ? (c) Assume that the windmill
converts 25% of the wind’s energy into electrical energy, and that A = 30 m2, v = 36
km/h and the density of air is 1.2 kg m–3. What is the electrical power produced ?
5.22 A person trying to lose weight (dieter) lifts a 10 kg mass, one thousand times, to a
height of 0.5 m each time. Assume that the potential energy lost each time she
lowers the mass is dissipated. (a) How much work does she do against the gravitational
force ? (b) Fat supplies 3.8 × 107J of energy per kilogram which is converted to
mechanical energy with a 20% efficiency rate. How much fat will the dieter use up?
5.23 A family uses 8 kW of power. (a) Direct solar energy is incident on the horizontal
surface at an average rate of 200 W per square meter. If 20% of this energy can be
converted to useful electrical energy, how large an area is needed to supply 8 kW?
(b) Compare this area to that of the roof of a typical house.

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 CHAPTER SIX

SYSTEMS OF PARTICLES AND ROTATIONAL MOTION

6.1 INTRODUCTION
In the earlier chapters we primarily considered the motion
of a single particle. (A particle is ideally represented as a
6.1 Introduction point mass having no size.) We applied the results of our
6.2 Centre of mass study even to the motion of bodies of finite size, assuming
6.3 Motion of centre of mass that motion of such bodies can be described in terms of the
6.4 Linear momentum of a motion of a particle.
system of particles Any real body which we encounter in daily life has a
6.5 Vector product of two vectors finite size. In dealing with the motion of extended bodies
6.6 Angular velocity and its (bodies of finite size) often the idealised model of a particle is
relation with linear velocity inadequate. In this chapter we shall try to go beyond this
6.7 Torque and angular inadequacy. We shall attempt to build an understanding of
momentum the motion of extended bodies. An extended body, in the
6.8 Equilibrium of a rigid body first place, is a system of particles. We shall begin with the
6.9 Moment of inertia consideration of motion of the system as a whole. The centre
6.10 Kinematics of rotational of mass of a system of particles will be a key concept here.
motion about a fixed axis We shall discuss the motion of the centre of mass of a system
of particles and usefulness of this concept in understanding
6.11 Dynamics of rotational
motion about a fixed axis the motion of extended bodies.
A large class of problems with extended bodies can be
6.12 Angular momentum in case
of rotation about a fixed solved by considering them to be rigid bodies. Ideally a
axis rigid body is a body with a perfectly definite and
unchanging shape. The distances between all pairs of
Summary
particles of such a body do not change. It is evident from
Points to Ponder
this definition of a rigid body that no real body is truly rigid,
Exercises
since real bodies deform under the influence of forces. But in
many situations the deformations are negligible. In a number
of situations involving bodies such as wheels, tops, steel
beams, molecules and planets on the other hand, we can ignore
that they warp (twist out of shape), bend or vibrate and treat
them as rigid.

6.1.1 What kind of motion can a rigid body have?

Let us try to explore this question by taking some examples
of the motion of rigid bodies. Let us begin with a rectangular

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SYSTEMS OF PARTICLES AND ROTATIONAL MOTION 93

most common way to constrain a rigid body so

that it does not have translational motion is to
fix it along a straight line. The only possible
motion of such a rigid body is rotation. The line
or fixed axis about which the body is rotating is
its axis of rotation. If you look around, you will
come across many examples of rotation about
an axis, a ceiling fan, a potter’s wheel, a giant
wheel in a fair, a merry-go-round and so on (Fig
Fig 6.1 Translational (sliding) motion of a block down
an inclined plane.
6.3(a) and (b)).
(Any point like P1 or P2 of the block moves
with the same velocity at any instant of time.)

block sliding down an inclined plane without any

sidewise movement. The block is taken as a rigid
body. Its motion down the plane is such that all
the particles of the body are moving together,
i.e. they have the same velocity at any instant
of time. The rigid body here is in pure
translational motion (Fig. 6.1).
In pure translational motion at any
instant of time, all particles of the body have
the same velocity.
Consider now the rolling motion of a solid
metallic or wooden cylinder down the same
(a)
inclined plane (Fig. 6.2). The rigid body in this
problem, namely the cylinder, shifts from the
top to the bottom of the inclined plane, and thus,
seems to have translational motion. But as Fig.
6.2 shows, all its particles are not moving with
the same velocity at any instant. The body,
therefore, is not in pure translational motion.
Its motion is translational plus ‘something else.’

Fig. 6.2 Rolling motion of a cylinder. It is not pure

translational motion. Points P1, P2, P3 and P4
have different velocities (shown by arrows)
(b)
at any instant of time. In fact, the velocity of
Fig. 6.3 Rotation about a fixed axis
the point of contact P3 is zero at any instant,
(a) A ceiling fan
if the cylinder rolls without slipping.
(b) A potter’s wheel.

In order to understand what this ‘something Let us try to understand what rotation is,
else’ is, let us take a rigid body so constrained what characterises rotation. You may notice that
that it cannot have translational motion. The in rotation of a rigid body about a fixed axis,

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94 PHYSICS

Fig. 6.5 (a) A spinning top

(The point of contact of the top with the
ground, its tip O, is fixed.)
Axis of oscillation

Axis of
rotation
from blades
Fig. 6.4 A rigid body rotation about the z-axis (Each
point of the body such as P 1 or
P2 describes a circle with its centre (C1
or C2) on the axis of rotation. The radius of
the circle (r1or r 2 ) is the perpendicular
distance of the point (P1 or P2 ) from the
axis. A point on the axis like P3 remains
stationary).

every particle of the body moves in a circle, Fig. 6.5 (b) An oscillating table fan with rotating
blades. The pivot of the fan, point O, is
which lies in a plane perpendicular to the axis
fixed. The blades of the fan are under
and has its centre on the axis. Fig. 6.4 shows rotational motion, whereas, the axis of
the rotational motion of a rigid body about a fixed rotation of the fan blades is oscillating.
axis (the z-axis of the frame of reference). Let P1
In some examples of rotation, however, the
be a particle of the rigid body, arbitrarily chosen axis may not be fixed. A prominent example of
and at a distance r1 from fixed axis. The particle this kind of rotation is a top spinning in place
P1 describes a circle of radius r1 with its centre [Fig. 6.5(a)]. (We assume that the top does not
C1 on the fixed axis. The circle lies in a plane slip from place to place and so does not have
perpendicular to the axis. The figure also shows translational motion.) We know from experience
another particle P2 of the rigid body, P2 is at a that the axis of such a spinning top moves
distance r2 from the fixed axis. The particle P2 around the vertical through its point of contact
moves in a circle of radius r2 and with centre C2 with the ground, sweeping out a cone as shown
on the axis. This circle, too, lies in a plane in Fig. 6.5(a). (This movement of the axis of the
perpendicular to the axis. Note that the circles top around the vertical is termed precession.)
described by P1 and P2 may lie in different planes; Note, the point of contact of the top with
both these planes, however, are perpendicular ground is fixed. The axis of rotation of the top
to the fixed axis. For any particle on the axis at any instant passes through the point of
like P 3 , r = 0. Any such particle remains contact. Another simple example of this kind of
stationary while the body rotates. This is rotation is the oscillating table fan or a pedestal
expected since the axis of rotation is fixed. fan [Fig.6.5(b)]. You may have observed that the

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SYSTEMS OF PARTICLES AND ROTATIONAL MOTION 95

axis of rotation of such a fan has an oscillating Thus, for us rotation will be about a fixed axis
(sidewise) movement in a horizontal plane about only unless stated otherwise.
the vertical through the point at which the axis The rolling motion of a cylinder down an
is pivoted (point O in Fig. 6.5(b)). inclined plane is a combination of rotation about
While the fan rotates and its axis moves a fixed axis and translation. Thus, the
sidewise, this point is fixed. Thus, in more ‘something else’ in the case of rolling motion
general cases of rotation, such as the rotation which we referred to earlier is rotational motion.
of a top or a pedestal fan, one point and not You will find Fig. 6.6(a) and (b) instructive from
one line, of the rigid body is fixed. In this case this point of view. Both these figures show
the axis is not fixed, though it always passes motion of the same body along identical
through the fixed point. In our study, however, translational trajectory. In one case, Fig. 6.6(a),
we mostly deal with the simpler and special case the motion is a pure translation; in the other
of rotation in which one line (i.e. the axis) is fixed. case [Fig. 6.6(b)] it is a combination of translation
and rotation. (You may try to reproduce the two
types of motion shown, using a rigid object like
a heavy book.)
We now recapitulate the most important
observations of the present section: The motion
of a rigid body which is not pivoted or fixed in
some way is either a pure translation or a
combination of translation and rotation. The
motion of a rigid body which is pivoted or fixed
Fig. 6.6(a) Motion of a rigid body which is pure
in some way is rotation. The rotation may be
translation.
about an axis that is fixed (e.g. a ceiling fan) or
moving (e.g. an oscillating table fan [Fig.6.5(b)]).
We shall, in the present chapter, consider
rotational motion about a fixed axis only.

6.2 CENTRE OF MASS

We shall first see what the centre of mass of a
system of particles is and then discuss its
significance. For simplicity we shall start with
a two particle system. We shall take the line
Fig. 6.6(b) Motion of a rigid body which is a joining the two particles to be the x- axis.
combination of translation and
rotation.
Fig 6.6 (a) and 6.6 (b) illustrate different motions of
the same body. Note P is an arbitrary point of the
body; O is the centre of mass of the body, which is
defined in the next section. Suffice to say here that
the trajectories of O are the translational trajectories
Tr1 and Tr2 of the body. The positions O and P at
three different instants of time are shown by O1, O2,
and O3, and P 1, P 2 and P3, respectively, in both
Figs. 6.6 (a) and (b) . As seen from Fig. 6.6(a), at any
instant the velocities of any particles like O and P of
the body are the same in pure translation. Notice, in
this case the orientation of OP, i.e. the angle OP makes
Fig. 6.7
with a fixed direction, say the horizontal, remains
the same, i.e. α1 = α2 = α3. Fig. 6.6 (b) illustrates a case
of combination of translation and rotation. In this case, Let the distances of the two particles be x1
at any instants the velocities of O and P differ. Also, and x2 respectively from some origin O. Let m1
α1, α2 and α3 may all be different. and m2 be respectively the masses of the two

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96 PHYSICS

particles. The centre of mass of the system is

m (y1 + y 2 + y 3 ) y1 + y 2 + y 3
that point C which is at a distance X from O, Y = =
where X is given by 3m 3
Thus, for three particles of equal mass, the
m 1 x1 + m 2 x 2
X = (6.1)
centre of mass coincides with the centroid of the
m1 + m 2 triangle formed by the particles.
In Eq. (6.1), X can be regarded as the mass- Results of Eqs. (6.3a) and (6.3b) are
weighted mean of x1 and x2. If the two particles generalised easily to a system of n particles, not
have the same mass m1 = m2 = m, then necessarily lying in a plane, but distributed in
space. The centre of mass of such a system is
mx 1 + mx 2 x 1 + x 2
X = = at (X, Y, Z ), where
2m 2
Thus, for two particles of equal mass the X =
∑mi xi (6.4a)
centre of mass lies exactly midway between M
them.
If we have n particles of masses m1, m2, Y =
∑ m i yi (6.4b)
...mn respectively, along a straight line taken as M
the x- axis, then by definition the position of the
centre of the mass of the system of particles is and Z =
∑ m i zi (6.4c)
given by. M
n

∑ mi xi
Here M = ∑mi is the total mass of the
m x + m 2 x 2 + ... + m n x n
X= 1 1 = i =1
=
∑ mx
i i
(6.2) system. The index i runs from 1 to n; mi is the
n
m1 + m 2 +... + m n
∑ mi ∑ m i mass of the ith particle and the position of the
i =1 ith particle is given by (xi, yi, zi).
where x1, x2,...xn are the distances of the Eqs. (6.4a), (6.4b) and (6.4c) can be
particles from the origin; X is also measured from combined into one equation using the notation
the same origin. The symbol ∑ (the Greek letter of position vectors. Let ri be the position vector
sigma) denotes summation, in this case over n of the ith particle and R be the position vector of
particles. The sum the centre of mass:
∑ mi =M r = x ɵi + y ɵj + z k
i i i i

is the total mass of the system. and R = X ɵi + Y ɵj + Z k

Suppose that we have three particles, not
lying in a straight line. We may define x– and y–
axes in the plane in which the particles lie and R=
∑ m i ri
represent the positions of the three particles by Then M (6.4d)
coordinates (x1,y1), (x2,y2) and (x3,y3) respectively. The sum on the right hand side is a vector
Let the masses of the three particles be m1, m2 sum.
and m3 respectively. The centre of mass C of Note the economy of expressions we achieve
the system of the three particles is defined and by use of vectors. If the origin of the frame of
located by the coordinates (X, Y) given by reference (the coordinate system) is chosen to

m 1x 1 + m 2 x 2 + m 3 x 3 be the centre of mass then ∑ mi ri = 0 for the

X = (6.3a) given system of particles.
m1 + m 2 + m 3
A rigid body, such as a metre stick or a
m 1y1 + m 2y2 + m 3y3 flywheel, is a system of closely packed particles;
Y = (6.3b) Eqs. (6.4a), (6.4b), (6.4c) and (6.4d) are therefore,
m1 + m 2 + m 3
applicable to a rigid body. The number of
For the particles of equal mass m = m1 = m2 particles (atoms or molecules) in such a body is
= m 3, so large that it is impossible to carry out the
m (x1 + x 2 + x 3 ) x1 + x 2 + x 3 summations over individual particles in these
X = = equations. Since the spacing of the particles is
3m 3

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SYSTEMS OF PARTICLES AND ROTATIONAL MOTION 97

small, we can treat the body as a continuous Let us consider a thin rod, whose width and
distribution of mass. We subdivide the body into breath (in case the cross section of the rod is
n small elements of mass; ∆m1, ∆m2... ∆mn; the rectangular) or radius (in case the cross section
ith element ∆mi is taken to be located about the of the rod is cylindrical) is much smaller than
point (xi, yi, zi). The coordinates of the centre of its length. Taking the origin to be at the
mass are then approximately given by geometric centre of the rod and x-axis to be
along the length of the rod, we can say that on
X =
∑ (∆m i )x i , Y = ∑ (∆m i )yi , Z = ∑ (∆m i )zi account of reflection symmetry, for every
∑ ∆m i ∑ ∆m i ∑ ∆m i element dm of the rod at x, there is an element
of the same mass dm located at –x (Fig. 6.8).
As we make n bigger and bigger and each
∆m i smaller and smaller, these expressions
The net contribution of every such pair to
become exact. In that case, we denote the sums
over i by integrals. Thus, the integral and hence the integral itself

∑ ∆m i → ∫ dm = M , is zero. From Eq. (6.6), the point for which the

integral itself is zero, is the centre of mass.
∑ ( ∆m i )x i → ∫ x dm ,
Thus, the centre of mass of a homogenous thin
rod coincides with its geometric centre. This can
be understood on the basis of reflection symmetry.
∑ ( ∆m i )yi → ∫ y dm , The same symmetry argument will apply to
homogeneous rings, discs, spheres, or even
and ∑ (∆m i )zi → ∫ z dm thick rods of circular or rectangular cross
Here M is the total mass of the body. The section. For all such bodies you will realise that
coordinates of the centre of mass now are for every element dm at a point (x, y, z ) one can
1 1 1 always take an element of the same mass at
M∫ ∫ y dm and Z = M ∫ z dm
X= x dm , Y = (6.5a)
M the point (–x, –y, –z ). (In other words, the origin
The vector expression equivalent to these is a point of reflection symmetry for these
three scalar expressions is bodies.) As a result, the integrals in Eq. (6.5 a)
all are zero. This means that for all the above
1
M∫
R= r dm (6.5b) bodies, their centre of mass coincides with their
geometric centre.
If we choose, the centre of mass as the origin
of our coordinate system, u Example 6.1 Find the centre of mass of
R= 0 three particles at the vertices of an
equilateral triangle. The masses of the
i.e., ∫ r dm = 0 particles are 100g, 150g, and 200g
respectively. Each side of the equilateral
or ∫ x dm = ∫ y dm = ∫ z dm = 0 (6.6) triangle is 0.5m long.
Often we have to calculate the centre of mass of
Answer
homogeneous bodies of regular shapes like rings,
discs, spheres, rods etc. (By a homogeneous body
we mean a body with uniformly distributed
mass.) By using symmetry consideration, we can
easily show that the centres of mass of these
bodies lie at their geometric centres.

Fig. 6.8 Determining the CM of a thin rod. Fig. 6.9

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98 PHYSICS

With the x – and y–axes chosen as shown in Fig. concurrence of the medians, i.e. on the centroid
6.9, the coordinates of points O, A and B forming G of the triangle. ⊳
the equilateral triangle are respectively (0,0),
(0.5,0), (0.25,0.25 3 ). Let the masses 100 g, u Example 6.3 Find the centre of mass of a
150g and 200g be located at O, A and B be uniform L-shaped lamina (a thin flat plate)
respectively. Then, with dimensions as shown. The mass of
the lamina is 3 kg.
m 1x 1 + m 2 x 2 + m 3 x 3
X =
m1 + m 2 + m 3 Answer Choosing the X and Y axes as shown
in Fig. 6.11 we have the coordinates of the
100 (0 ) + 150(0.5) + 200(0.25) gm vertices of the L-shaped lamina as given in the
=
(100 + 150 + 200) g figure. We can think of the
L-shape to consist of 3 squares each of length
75 + 50 125 5 1m. The mass of each square is 1kg, since the
= m= m= m
450 450 18 lamina is uniform. The centres of mass C1, C2
and C3 of the squares are, by symmetry, their
100(0) + 150(0) + 200(0.25 3) gm geometric centres and have coordinates (1/2,1/2),
Y = (3/2,1/2), (1/2,3/2) respectively. We take the
450 g
masses of the squares to be concentrated at
these points. The centre of mass of the whole
50 3 3 1
= m= m= m L shape (X, Y) is the centre of mass of these
450 9 3 3 mass points.
The centre of mass C is shown in the figure.
Note that it is not the geometric centre of the
triangle OAB. Why? ⊳

u Example 6.2 Find the centre of mass of a

triangular lamina.

Answer The lamina (∆LMN ) may be subdivided

into narrow strips each parallel to the base (MN)
as shown in Fig. 6.10

Fig. 6.11

Hence

X =
[1(1/ 2) + 1(3 / 2) + 1(1/2)] kg m 5
= m
Fig. 6.10 (1 + 1 + 1) kg 6

By symmetry each strip has its centre of [1(1/2) + 1(1/ 2) + 1(3 /2)] kg m 5
mass at its midpoint. If we join the midpoint of Y = = m
all the strips we get the median LP. The centre (1 + 1 + 1) kg 6
of mass of the triangle as a whole therefore, has The centre of mass of the L-shape lies on
to lie on the median LP. Similarly, we can argue the line OD. We could have guessed this without
that it lies on the median MQ and NR. This calculations. Can you tell why? Suppose, the
means the centre of mass lies on the point of three squares that make up the L shaped lamina

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SYSTEMS OF PARTICLES AND ROTATIONAL MOTION 99

of Fig. 6.11 had different masses. How will you Thus, the total mass of a system of particles
then determine the centre of mass of the lamina? times the acceleration of its centre of mass is
⊳ the vector sum of all the forces acting on the
system of particles.
6.3 MOTION OF CENTRE OF MASS Note when we talk of the force F1 on the first
Equipped with the definition of the centre of particle, it is not a single force, but the vector
mass, we are now in a position to discuss its sum of all the forces on the first particle; likewise
physical importance for a system of n particles. for the second particle etc. Among these forces
We may rewrite Eq.(6.4d) as on each particle there will be external forces
exerted by bodies outside the system and also
MR = ∑ m i ri = m1r1 + m 2 r2 + ... + m n rn (6.7) internal forces exerted by the particles on one
Differentiating the two sides of the equation another. We know from Newton’s third law that
with respect to time we get these internal forces occur in equal and opposite
dR dr dr dr pairs and in the sum of forces of Eq. (6.10), their
M = m1 1 + m 2 2 + ... + m n n contribution is zero. Only the external forces
dt dt dt dt
contribute to the equation. We can then rewrite
Eq. (6.10) as
or
MA = Fext (6.11)
M V = m1 v1 + m 2 v 2 + ... + m n vn (6.8)
where Fext represents the sum of all external
where v1 ( = dr1 /dt ) is the velocity of the first
forces acting on the particles of the system.
particle v 2 ( = dr 2 dt ) is the velocity of the Eq. (6.11) states that the centre of mass of
a system of particles moves as if all the mass
second particle etc. and V = dR / dt is the of the system was concentrated at the centre
velocity of the centre of mass. Note that we of mass and all the external forces were
assumed the masses m 1, m 2, ... etc. do not applied at that point.
change in time. We have therefore, treated them Notice, to determine the motion of the centre
as constants in differentiating the equations of mass no knowledge of internal forces of the
with respect to time. system of particles is required; for this purpose
Differentiating Eq.(6.8) with respect to time, we need to know only the external forces.
we obtain To obtain Eq. (6.11) we did not need to specify
the nature of the system of particles. The system
dV dv1 dv 2 dv n
M = m1 + m2 + ... + m n may be a collection of particles in which there
dt dt dt dt may be all kinds of internal motions, or it may
or be a rigid body which has either pure
translational motion or a combination of
MA = m 1a1 + m 2 a 2 + ... + m n an (6.9)
translational and rotational motion. Whatever
where a1 ( = dv1 /dt ) is the acceleration of the is the system and the motion of its individual
particles, the centre of mass moves according
first particle, a 2 ( = dv2 /dt ) is the acceleration to Eq. (6.11).
Instead of treating extended bodies as single
of the second particle etc. and A (= d V / dt ) is
particles as we have done in earlier chapters,
the acceleration of the centre of mass of the we can now treat them as systems of particles.
system of particles. We can obtain the translational component of
Now, from Newton’s second law, the force their motion, i.e. the motion of the centre of mass
acting on the first particle is given by F1 = m1a1 . of the system, by taking the mass of the whole
The force acting on the second particle is given system to be concentrated at the centre of mass
and all the external forces on the system to be
by F2 = m 2 a 2 and so on. Eq. (6.9) may be written
acting at the centre of mass.
as This is the procedure that we followed earlier
MA = F1 + F2 + ... + Fn (6.10) in analysing forces on bodies and solving

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100 PHYSICS

problems without explicitly outlining and where F is the force on the particle. Let us
justifying the procedure. We now realise that in consider a system of n particles with masses m1,
earlier studies we assumed, without saying so, m2,...mn respectively and velocities v1 , v 2 ,.......vn
that rotational motion and/or internal motion
respectively. The particles may be interacting
of the particles were either absent or negligible.
and have external forces acting on them. The
We no longer need to do this. We have not only
found the justification of the procedure we linear momentum of the first particle is m1v1 ,
followed earlier; but we also have found how to of the second particle is m 2 v 2 and so on.
describe and separate the translational motion
For the system of n particles, the linear
of (1) a rigid body which may be rotating as
momentum of the system is defined to be the
well, or (2) a system of particles with all kinds
vector sum of all individual particles of the
of internal motion.
system,
P = p1 + p2 + ... + pn
= m1 v1 + m 2 v 2 + ... + m n vn (6.14)
Comparing this with Eq. (6.8)
P=MV (6.15)
Thus, the total momentum of a system of
particles is equal to the product of the total
mass of the system and the velocity of its
centre of mass. Differentiating Eq. (6.15) with
respect to time,
dP dV
Fig. 6.12 The centre of mass of the fragments =M = MA (6.16)
dt dt
of the projectile continues along the
same parabolic path which it would Comparing Eq.(6.16) and Eq. (6.11),
have followed if there were no dP
explosion. = Fext (6.17)
dt
Figure 6.12 is a good illustration of Eq. (6.11). This is the statement of Newton’s second law
A projectile, following the usual parabolic of motion extended to a system of particles.
trajectory, explodes into fragments midway in Suppose now, that the sum of external
air. The forces leading to the explosion are forces acting on a system of particles is zero.
internal forces. They contribute nothing to the Then from Eq.(6.17)
motion of the centre of mass. The total external
dP
force, namely, the force of gravity acting on the = 0 or P = Constant (6.18a)
body, is the same before and after the explosion. dt
The centre of mass under the influence of the Thus, when the total external force acting
external force continues, therefore, along the on a system of particles is zero, the total linear
same parabolic trajectory as it would have momentum of the system is constant. This is
followed if there were no explosion. the law of conservation of the total linear
momentum of a system of particles. Because of
6.4 LINEAR MOMENTUM OF A SYSTEM OF Eq. (6.15), this also means that when the
PARTICLES total external force on the system is zero
Let us recall that the linear momentum of a the velocity of the centre of mass remains
constant. (We assume throughout the
particle is defined as
discussion on systems of particles in this
p=mv (6.12) chapter that the total mass of the system
Let us also recall that Newton’s second law remains constant.)
written in symbolic form for a single particle is Note that on account of the internal forces,
dp i.e. the forces exerted by the particles on one
F= (6.13) another, the individual particles may have
dt

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SYSTEMS OF PARTICLES AND ROTATIONAL MOTION 101

complicated trajectories. Yet, if the total external

force acting on the system is zero, the centre of
mass moves with a constant velocity, i.e., moves
uniformly in a straight line like a free particle.
The vector Eq. (6.18a) is equivalent to three
scalar equations,
Px = c1, Py = c2 and Pz = c3 (6.18 b) (a) (b)
Here Px, Py and Pz are the components of the
total linear momentum vector P along the x–, y– Fig. 6.14 (a) Trajectories of two stars, S1 (dotted line)
and z–axes respectively; c 1 , c 2 and c 3 are and S2 (solid line) forming a binary
constants. system with their centre of mass C in
uniform motion.
(b) The same binary system, with the
centre of mass C at rest.

move back to back with their centre of mass

remaining at rest as shown in Fig.6.13 (b).
In many problems on the system of
particles, as in the above radioactive decay
problem, it is convenient to work in the centre
of mass frame rather than in the laboratory
frame of reference.
(a) (b)
In astronomy, binary (double) stars is a
common occurrence. If there are no external
forces, the centre of mass of a double star
Fig. 6.13 (a) A heavy nucleus radium (Ra) splits into
moves like a free particle, as shown in Fig.6.14
a lighter nucleus radon (Rn) and an alpha
particle (nucleus of helium atom). The CM (a). The trajectories of the two stars of equal
of the system is in uniform motion. mass are also shown in the figure; they look
(b) The same spliting of the heavy nucleus complicated. If we go to the centre of mass
radium (Ra) with the centre of mass at frame, then we find that there the two stars
rest. The two product particles fly back are moving in a circle, about the centre of
to back. mass, which is at rest. Note that the position
of the stars have to be diametrically opposite
As an example, let us consider the to each other [Fig. 6.14(b)]. Thus in our frame
radioactive decay of a moving unstable particle, of reference, the trajectories of the stars are a
like the nucleus of radium. A radium nucleus combination of (i) uniform motion in a straight
disintegrates into a nucleus of radon and an line of the centre of mass and (ii) circular
alpha particle. The forces leading to the decay orbits of the stars about the centre of mass.
are internal to the system and the external As can be seen from the two examples,
forces on the system are negligible. So the total separating the motion of different parts of a
linear momentum of the system is the same system into motion of the centre of mass and
before and after decay. The two particles motion about the centre of mass is a very
useful technique that helps in understanding
produced in the decay, the radon nucleus and
the motion of the system.
the alpha particle, move in different directions
in such a way that their centre of mass moves
6.5 VECTOR PRODUCT OF TWO VECTORS
along the same path along which the original
decaying radium nucleus was moving We are already familiar with vectors and their
[Fig. 6.13(a)]. use in physics. In chapter 5 (Work, Energy, Power)
If we observe the decay from the frame of we defined the scalar product of two vectors. An
reference in which the centre of mass is at rest, important physical quantity, work, is defined as
the motion of the particles involved in the decay a scalar product of two vector quantities, force
looks particularly simple; the product particles and displacement.

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102 PHYSICS

We shall now define another product of two A simpler version of the right hand rule is
vectors. This product is a vector. Two important the following : Open up your right hand palm
quantities in the study of rotational motion, and curl the fingers pointing from a to b. Your
namely, moment of a force and angular stretched thumb points in the direction of c.
momentum, are defined as vector products. It should be remembered that there are two
angles between any two vectors a and b . In
Definition of Vector Product Fig. 6.15 (a) or (b) they correspond to θ (as shown)
A vector product of two vectors a and b is a and (3600– θ). While applying either of the above
vector c such that rules, the rotation should be taken through the
(i) magnitude of c = c = ab sin θ where a and b smaller angle (<1800) between a and b. It is θ
are magnitudes of a and b and θ is the here.
angle between the two vectors. Because of the cross (×) used to denote the
(ii) c is perpendicular to the plane containing vector product, it is also referred to as cross product.
a and b. • Note that scalar product of two vectors is
(iii) if we take a right handed screw with its head commutative as said earlier, a.b = b.a
lying in the plane of a and b and the screw The vector product, however, is not
perpendicular to this plane, and if we turn commutative, i.e. a × b ≠ b × a
the head in the direction from a to b, then The magnitude of both a × b and b × a is the
the tip of the screw advances in the direction same ( ab sin θ ); also, both of them ar e
of c. This right handed screw rule is perpendicular to the plane of a and b. But the
illustrated in Fig. 6.15a. rotation of the right-handed screw in case of
Alternately, if one curls up the fingers of a × b is from a to b, whereas in case of b × a it
right hand around a line perpendicular to the is from b to a. This means the two vectors are
plane of the vectors a and b and if the fingers in opposite directions. We have
are curled up in the direction from a to b, then a × b = −b × a
the stretched thumb points in the direction of • Another interesting property of a vector
c, as shown in Fig. 6.15b.
product is its behaviour under reflection.
Under reflection (i.e. on taking the plane
mirror image) we have
x → − x , y → −y and z → − z . As a result all
the components of a vector change sign and
thus a → −a , b → −b . What happens to
a × b under reflection?
a × b → ( −a ) × ( − b) = a × b
Thus, a × b does not change sign under
reflection.
• Both scalar and vector products are
distributive with respect to vector addition.
Thus,
a.( b + c) = a.b + a.c
a × ( b + c) = a × b + a × c
(a) (b) • We may write c = a × b in the component
form. For this we first need to obtain some
elementary cross products:
Fig. 6.15 (a) Rule of the right handed screw for (i) a × a = 0 (0 is a null vector, i.e. a vector
defining the direction of the vector with zero magnitude)
product of two vectors.
(b) Rule of the right hand for defining the
This follows since magnitude of a × a is
direction of the vector product. a 2 sin 0° = 0 .

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SYSTEMS OF PARTICLES AND ROTATIONAL MOTION 103

From this follow the results

ˆi ˆj ˆ
k
(i) ˆi × ˆi = 0, ˆj × ˆj = 0, k
ˆ ×k
ˆ =0
a×b= 3 −4 5 = 7ˆi − ˆj − 5k
ˆ
(ii) ˆi × ˆj = k
ˆ −2 1 −3
Note that the magnitude of ˆi × ˆj is sin900
Note b × a = −7ˆi + ˆj + 5k
ˆ ⊳
or 1, since î and ĵ both have unit
magnitude and the angle between them is 900. 6.6 ANGULAR VELOCITY AND ITS RELATION
WITH LINEAR VELOCITY
Thus, ˆi × ˆj is a unit vector. A unit vector
In this section we shall study what is angular
perpendicular to the plane of î and ĵ and velocity and its role in rotational motion. We
related to them by the right hand screw rule is have seen that every particle of a rotating body
moves in a circle. The linear velocity of the
k̂ . Hence, the above result. You may verify particle is related to the angular velocity. The
similarly,
relation between these two quantities involves
ˆj × kˆ = ˆi and k ˆ × ˆi = ˆj a vector product which we learnt about in the
From the rule for commutation of the cross last section.
product, it follows: Let us go back to Fig. 6.4. As said above, in
rotational motion of a rigid body about a fixed
ˆj × ˆi = − k ˆ × ˆj = −ˆi, ˆi × k
ˆ, k ˆ = − ˆj axis, every particle of the body moves in a circle,
Note if ˆi, ˆj, k
ˆ occur cyclically in the above
vector product relation, the vector product is
positive. If ˆi, ˆj, k
ˆ do not occur in cyclic order,
the vector product is negative.
Now,
a × b = (a ˆi + a ˆj + a k
x y
ˆ ) × (b ˆi + b ˆj + b k
z x y
ˆ)
z

= a x by k
ˆ − a b ˆj − a b k
x z y x
ˆ + a b ˆi + a b ˆj − a b ˆi
y z z x z y

= (a yb z − a zby )i + (a zb x − a x b z ) j + (a x by − a yb x )k
We have used the elementary cross products
in obtaining the above relation. The expression
for a × b can be put in a determinant form which
is easy to remember.
ˆi ˆj kˆ
a × b = ax ay az
bx by bz

u Example 6.4 Find the scalar and vector Fig. 6.16 Rotation about a fixed axis. (A particle (P)
products of two vectors. a = of the rigid body rotating about the fixed
(z-) axis moves in a circle with centre (C)
and b = on the axis.)
Answer
which lies in a plane perpendicular to the axis
a i b = (3ˆi − 4 ˆj + 5k
ˆ )i( −2ˆi + ˆj − 3k
ˆ) and has its centre on the axis. In Fig. 6.16 we
redraw Fig. 6.4, showing a typical particle (at a
= −6 − 4 − 15
point P) of the rigid body rotating about a fixed
= −25 axis (taken as the z-axis). The particle describes

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104 PHYSICS

a circle with a centre C on the axis. The radius and points out in the direction in which a right
of the circle is r, the perpendicular distance of handed screw would advance, if the head of the
the point P from the axis. We also show the screw is rotated with the body. (See Fig. 6.17a).
linear velocity vector v of the particle at P. It is The magnitude of this vector is ω = dθ dt
along the tangent at P to the circle.
referred as above.
Let P′ be the position of the particle after an
interval of time ∆t (Fig. 6.16). The angle PCP′
describes the angular displacement ∆θ of the
particle in time ∆t. The average angular velocity
of the particle over the interval ∆t is ∆θ/∆t. As
∆t tends to zero (i.e. takes smaller and smaller
values), the ratio ∆θ/∆t approaches a limit which
is the instantaneous angular velocity dθ/dt of
the particle at the position P. We denote the
instantaneous angular velocity by ω (the
Greek letter omega). We know from our study Fig. 6.17 (a) If the head of a right handed screw
of circular motion that the magnitude of linear rotates with the body, the screw
velocity v of a particle moving in a circle is advances in the direction of the angular
related to the angular velocity of the particle ω velocity ω. If the sense (clockwise or
by the simple relation υ = ω r , where r is the anticlockwise) of rotation of the body
radius of the circle. changes, so does the direction of ω.
We observe that at any given instant the
relation v = ω r applies to all particles of the
rigid body. Thus for a particle at a perpendicular
distance ri from the fixed axis, the linear velocity
at a given instant vi is given by
vi = ω ri (6.19)
The index i runs from 1 to n, where n is the
total number of particles of the body.
For particles on the axis, r = 0 , and hence
v = ω r = 0. Thus, particles on the axis are
stationary. This verifies that the axis is fixed.
Note that we use the same angular velocity
ω for all the particles. We therefore, refer to ω
as the angular velocity of the whole body.
We have characterised pure translation of
a body by all parts of the body having the same Fig. 6.17 (b) The angular velocity vector ω is directed
velocity at any instant of time. Similarly, we along the fixed axis as shown. The linear
may characterise pure rotation by all parts of velocity of the particle at P is v = ω × r.
the body having the same angular velocity at It is perpendicular to both ω and r and
any instant of time. Note that this is directed along the tangent to the circle
described by the particle.
characterisation of the rotation of a rigid body
about a fixed axis is just another way of saying We shall now look at what the vector
as in Sec. 6.1 that each particle of the body moves product ω × r corresponds to. Refer to Fig.
in a circle, which lies in a plane perpendicular 6.17(b) which is a part of Fig. 6.16 reproduced
to the axis and has the centre on the axis. to show the path of the particle P. The figure
In our discussion so far the angular velocity shows the vector ω directed along the fixed (z–)
appears to be a scalar. In fact, it is a vector. We axis and also the position vector r = OP of the
shall not justify this fact, but we shall accept particle at P of the rigid body with respect to
it. For rotation about a fixed axis, the angular the origin O. Note that the origin is chosen to
velocity vector lies along the axis of rotation, be on the axis of rotation.

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SYSTEMS OF PARTICLES AND ROTATIONAL MOTION 105

Now ω × r = ω × OP = ω × (OC + CP) If the axis of rotation is fixed, the direction

But ω × OC = 0 as ω is along OC of ω and hence, that of α is fixed. In this case
the vector equation reduces to a scalar equation
Hence ω × r = ω × CP
dω
α= (6.22)
The vector ω × CP is perpendicular to ω, i.e. dt
to the z-axis and also to CP, the radius of the
circle described by the particle at P. It is 6.7 TORQUE AND ANGULAR MOMENTUM
therefore, along the tangent to the circle at P.
In this section, we shall acquaint ourselves with
Also, the magnitude of ω × CP is ω (CP) since
two physical quantities (torque and angular
ω and CP are perpendicular to each other. We momentum) which are defined as vector products
shall denote CP by r⊥ and not by r, as we did of two vectors. These as we shall see, are
earlier. especially important in the discussion of motion
Thus, ω × r is a vector of magnitude ω r⊥ of systems of particles, particularly rigid bodies.
and is along the tangent to the circle described
by the particle at P. The linear velocity vector v 6.7.1 Moment of force (Torque)
at P has the same magnitude and direction.
We have learnt that the motion of a rigid body,
Thus,
in general, is a combination of rotation and
v =ω × r (6.20)
translation. If the body is fixed at a point or along
In fact, the relation, Eq. (6.20), holds good
a line, it has only rotational motion. We know
even for rotation of a rigid body with one point
fixed, such as the rotation of the top [Fig. 6.6(a)]. that force is needed to change the translational
In this case r represents the position vector of state of a body, i.e. to produce linear
the particle with respect to the fixed point taken acceleration. We may then ask, what is the
as the origin. analogue of force in the case of rotational
We note that for rotation about a fixed motion? To look into the question in a concrete
axis, the direction of the vector ω does not situation let us take the example of opening or
change with time. Its magnitude may, closing of a door. A door is a rigid body which
however, change from instant to instant. For
can rotate about a fixed vertical axis passing
the more general rotation, both the
magnitude and the direction of ω may change through the hinges. What makes the door
from instant to instant. rotate? It is clear that unless a force is applied
the door does not rotate. But any force does not
6.6.1 Angular acceleration
do the job. A force applied to the hinge line
You may have noticed that we are developing cannot produce any rotation at all, whereas a
the study of rotational motion along the lines force of given magnitude applied at right angles
of the study of translational motion with which to the door at its outer edge is most effective in
we are already familiar. Analogous to the kinetic producing rotation. It is not the force alone, but
variables of linear displacement (s) and velocity how and where the force is applied is important
(v) in translational motion, we have angular in rotational motion.
displacement (θ ω) in
θ ) and angular velocity (ω The rotational analogue of force in linear
rotational motion. It is then natural to define motion is moment of force. It is also referred to
in rotational motion the concept of angular as torque or couple. (We shall use the words
acceleration in analogy with linear acceleration moment of force and torque interchangeably.)
defined as the time rate of change of velocity in We shall first define the moment of force for the
translational motion. We define angular special case of a single particle. Later on we
acceleration α as the time rate of change of
shall extend the concept to systems of particles
angular velocity. Thus,
including rigid bodies. We shall also relate it to
dω a change in the state of rotational motion, i.e. is
α= (6.21)
dt angular acceleration of a rigid body.

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106 PHYSICS

of the line of action of F from the origin and

F⊥ ( = F sin θ ) is the component of F in the
direction perpendicular to r. Note that τ = 0 if
r = 0, F = 0 or θ = 00 or 1800 . Thus, the moment
of a force vanishes if either the magnitude of
the force is zero, or if the line of action of the
force passes through the origin.
One may note that since r × F is a vector
product, properties of a vector product of two
vectors apply to it. If the direction of F is
reversed, the direction of the moment of force
is reversed. If directions of both r and F are
reversed, the direction of the moment of force
remains the same.
6.7.2 Angular momentum of a particle
Just as the moment of a force is the rotational
analogue of force in linear motion, the quantity
angular momentum is the rotational analogue
Fig. 6.18 τ = r × F, τ is perpendicular to the plane of linear momentum. We shall first define
containing r and F, and its direction is angular momentum for the special case of a
given by the right handed screw rule. single particle and look at its usefulness in the
context of single particle motion. We shall then
If a force acts on a single particle at a point extend the definition of angular momentum to
P whose position with respect to the origin O is systems of particles including rigid bodies.
given by the position vector r (Fig. 6.18), the Like moment of a force, angular momentum
moment of the force acting on the particle with is also a vector product. It could also be referred
respect to the origin O is defined as the vector to as moment of (linear) momentum. From this
product term one could guess how angular momentum
τ=r×F (6.23) is defined.
The moment of force (or torque) is a vector Consider a particle of mass m and linear
quantity. The symbol τ stands for the Greek momentum p at a position r relative to the origin
letter tau. The magnitude of τ is O. The angular momentum l of the particle with
τ = r F sinθ (6.24a) respect to the origin O is defined to be
where r is the magnitude of the position vector l=r×p (6.25a)
r, i.e. the length OP, F is the magnitude of force The magnitude of the angular momentum
F and θ is the angle between r and F as vector is
shown. l = r p sin θ (6.26a)
Moment of force has dimensions M L2 T -2. where p is the magnitude of p and θ is the angle
Its dimensions are the same as those of work between r and p. We may write
or energy. It is, however, a very different physical
l = r p ⊥ or r⊥ p (6.26b)
quantity than work. Moment of a force is a
vector, while work is a scalar. The SI unit of where r⊥ (= r sinθ) is the perpendicular distance
moment of force is newton metre (N m). The of the directional line of p from the origin and
magnitude of the moment of force may be
p ⊥ ( = p sin θ ) is the component of p in a direction
written
perpendicular to r. We expect the angular
τ = (r sin θ )F = r⊥ F (6.24b) momentum to be zero (l = 0), if the linear
or τ = r F sin θ = rF⊥ (6.24c) momentum vanishes (p = 0), if the particle is at
the origin (r = 0), or if the directional line of p
where r⊥ = r sinθ is the perpendicular distance passes through the origin θ = 00 or 1800.

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SYSTEMS OF PARTICLES AND ROTATIONAL MOTION 107

The physical quantities, moment of a force

and angular momentum, have an important An experiment with the bicycle rim
relation between them. It is the rotational
Take a
analogue of the relation between force and linear
bicycle rim
momentum. For deriving the relation in the and extend
context of a single particle, we differentiate its axle on
l = r × p with respect to time, both sides.
T ie two
dl d
= ( r × p) s t r i n g s
dt dt at both ends
Applying the product rule for differentiation A and B,
to the right hand side, as shown
in the
d dr dp adjoining
( r × p) = ×p+r×
dt dt dt figure. Hold
Now, the velocity of the particle is v = dr/dt both the
and p = m v s t r i n g s
Initially After
together in
dr one hand such that the rim is vertical. If you
Because of this × p = v × m v = 0,
dt leave one string, the rim will tilt. Now keeping
as the vector product of two parallel vectors the rim in vertical position with both the strings
in one hand, put the wheel in fast rotation
vanishes. Further, since dp / dt = F,
around the axle with the other hand. Then leave
dp one string, say B, from your hand, and observe
r× =r×F =t what happens.
dt
The rim keeps rotating in a vertical plane
d and the plane of rotation turns around the string
Hence ( r × p) = τ A which you are holding. We say that the axis
dt
of rotation of the rim or equivalently
or (6.27) its angular momentum precesses about the
string A.
Thus, the time rate of change of the angular The rotating rim gives rise to an angular
momentum of a particle is equal to the torque momentum. Determine the direction of this
acting on it. This is the rotational analogue of angular momentum. When you are holding the
the equation F = dp/dt, which expresses rotating rim with string A, a torque is generated.
Newton’s second law for the translational motion (We leave it to you to find out how the torque is
generated and what its direction is.) The effect
of a single particle.
of the torque on the angular momentum is to
make it precess around an axis perpendicular
Torque and angular momentum for a system to both the angular momentum and the torque.
of particles Verify all these statements.
To get the total angular momentum of a system
of particles about a given point we need to add
vectorially the angular momenta of individual
particles. Thus, for a system of n particles, particle has mass mi and velocity vi ) We may
write the total angular momentum of a system
of particles as
(6.25b)
The angular momentum of the ith particle
is given by
li = ri × pi This is a generalisation of the definition of
where ri is the position vector of the ith particle angular momentum (Eq. 6.25a) for a single
with respect to a given origin and p = (mivi) is particle to a system of particles.
the linear momentum of the particle. (The Using Eqs. (6.23) and (6.25b), we get

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108 PHYSICS

dL d dl Note that like Eq.(6.17), Eq.(6.28b) holds

dt
=
dt
( l )= ∑i dt = ∑τ (6.28a) good for any system of particles, whether it is a
i rigid body or its individual particles have all
where τ i is the torque acting on the ith particle; kinds of internal motion.
τi = ri × Fi Conservation of angular momentum
The force Fi on the ith particle is the vector
If τext = 0, Eq. (6.28b) reduces to
Fiext
sum of external forces acting on the particle dL
int
=0
and the internal forces F exerted on it by the
i
dt
other particles of the system. We may therefore or L = constant. (6.29a)
separate the contribution of the external and Thus, if the total external torque on a system
the internal forces to the total torque of particles is zero, then the total angular
momentum of the system is conserved, i.e.
τ = ∑ τ i = ∑ ri × Fi as remains constant. Eq. (6.29a) is equivalent to
i i three scalar equations,
τ = τext + τ int , Lx = K1, Ly = K2 and Lz = K3 (6.29 b)
Here K1, K2 and K3 are constants; Lx, Ly and
where τext = ∑ ri × Fi ext Lz are the components of the total angular
i momentum vector L along the x,y and z axes
respectively. The statement that the total
and τ int = ∑ ri × Fiint angular momentum is conserved means that
i
each of these three components is conserved.
We shall assume not only Newton’s third law
Eq. (6.29a) is the rotational analogue of
of motion, i.e. the forces between any two particles
Eq. (6.18a), i.e. the conservation law of the total
of the system are equal and opposite, but also that
linear momentum for a system of particles.
these forces are directed along the line joining the Like Eq. (6.18a), it has applications in many
two particles. In this case the contribution of the practical situations. We shall look at a few of
internal forces to the total torque on the system is the interesting applications later on in
zero, since the torque resulting from each action- this chapter.
reaction pair of forces is zero. We thus have, τint =
0 and therefore τ = τext. u Example 6.5 Find the torque of a force
Since τ = ∑ τ i , it follows from Eq. (6.28a) + – about the origin. The force acts on
that a particle whose position vector is .

dL
= τ ext (6.28 b) Answer Here r = ˆi − ˆj + kˆ
dt
and F = 7ˆi + 3ˆj − 5k
ˆ.
Thus, the time rate of the total angular
momentum of a system of particles about a We shall use the determinant rule to find the
point (taken as the origin of our frame of torque τ = r × F
reference) is equal to the sum of the external
torques (i.e. the torques due to external forces)
acting on the system taken about the same
point. Eq. (6.28 b) is the generalisation of the
single particle case of Eq. (6.23) to a system of
particles. Note that when we have only one or ⊳
particle, there are no internal forces or torques.
Eq.(6.28 b) is the rotational analogue of Example 6.6 Show that the angular
dP u momentum about any point of a single
= Fext (6.17) particle moving with constant velocity
dt remains constant throughout the motion.

2024-25
SYSTEMS OF PARTICLES AND ROTATIONAL MOTION 109

Answer Let the particle with velocity v be at acceleration nor angular acceleration. This means
point P at some instant t. We want to calculate (1) the total force, i.e. the vector sum of the
the angular momentum of the particle about an forces, on the rigid body is zero;
arbitrary point O. n
F1 + F2 + ... + Fn = ∑F i =0 (6.30a)
i =1

If the total force on the body is zero, then

the total linear momentum of the body does
not change with time. Eq. (6.30a) gives the
condition for the translational equilibrium
of the body.
(2) The total torque, i.e. the vector sum of the
torques on the rigid body is zero,
n

τ1+ τ2 + ... + τn = ∑ τi = 0 (6.30b)

Fig 6.19 i =1

If the total torque on the rigid body is zero,

The angular momentum is l = r × mv. Its the total angular momentum of the body does
magnitude is mvr sinθ, where θ is the angle
not change with time. Eq. (6.30 b) gives the
between r and v as shown in Fig. 6.19. Although
condition for the rotational equilibrium of the
the particle changes position with time, the line
body.
of direction of v remains the same and hence
One may raise a question, whether the
OM = r sin θ. is a constant.
Further, the direction of l is perpendicular rotational equilibrium condition [Eq. 6.30(b)]
to the plane of r and v. It is into the page of the remains valid, if the origin with respect to which
figure.This direction does not change with time. the torques are taken is shifted. One can show
Thus, l remains the same in magnitude and that if the translational equilibrium condition
direction and is therefore conserved. Is there [Eq. 6.30(a)] holds for a rigid body, then such a
any external torque on the particle? ⊳ shift of origin does not matter, i.e. the rotational
equilibrium condition is independent of the
6.8 EQUILIBRIUM OF A RIGID BODY location of the origin about which the torques
We are now going to concentrate on the motion
are taken. Example 6.7 gives a proof of this result
of rigid bodies rather than on the motion of in a special case of a couple, i.e. two forces
general systems of particles. acting on a rigid body in translational
We shall recapitulate what effect the equilibrium. The generalisation of this result to
external forces have on a rigid body. (Henceforth n forces is left as an exercise.
we shall omit the adjective ‘external’ because Eq. (6.30a) and Eq. (6.30b), both, are vector
unless stated otherwise, we shall deal with only equations. They are equivalent to three scalar
external forces and torques.) The forces change equations each. Eq. (6.30a) corresponds to
the translational state of the motion of the rigid n n n
body, i.e. they change its total linear ∑ Fix =0, ∑ Fiy = 0 and ∑ Fiz = 0 (6.31a)
i =1 i =1 i =1
momentum in accordance with Eq. (6.17). But
this is not the only effect the forces have. The where Fix, Fiy and Fiz are respectively the x, y and
total torque on the body may not vanish. Such z components of the forces Fi. Similarly, Eq.
a torque changes the rotational state of motion (6.30b) is equivalent to three scalar equations
of the rigid body, i.e. it changes the total angular n n

momentum of the body in accordance with ∑ τix = 0, ∑ τiy = 0 and (6.31b)

i =1 i =1
Eq. (6.28 b).
A rigid body is said to be in mechanical where τix, τiy and τiz are respectively the x, y and
equilibrium, if both its linear momentum and z components of the torque τi .
angular momentum are not changing with time, Eq. (6.31a) and (6.31b) give six independent
or equivalently, the body has neither linear conditions to be satisfied for mechanical

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110 PHYSICS

equilibrium of a rigid body. In a number of

problems all the forces acting on the body are
coplanar. Then we need only three conditions
to be satisfied for mechanical equilibrium. Two
of these conditions correspond to translational
equilibrium; the sum of the components of the
forces along any two perpendicular axes in the
plane must be zero. The third condition
corresponds to rotational equilibrium. The sum
of the components of the torques along any axis Fig. 6.20 (b)
perpendicular to the plane of the forces must
be zero. The force at B in Fig. 6.20(a) is reversed in
The conditions of equilibrium of a rigid body Fig. 6.20(b). Thus, we have the same rod with
two forces of equal magnitude but acting in
may be compared with those for a particle, which
opposite diretions applied perpendicular to the
we considered in earlier chapters. Since rod, one at end A and the other at end B. Here
consideration of rotational motion does not apply the moments of both the forces are equal, but
to a particle, only the conditions for translational they are not opposite; they act in the same sense
equilibrium (Eq. 6.30 a) apply to a particle. Thus, and cause anticlockwise rotation of the rod. The
for equilibrium of a particle the vector sum of total force on the body is zero; so the body is in
all the forces on it must be zero. Since all these translational equilibrium; but it is not in
forces act on the single particle, they must be rotational equilibrium. Although the rod is not
concurrent. Equilibrium under concurrent fixed in any way, it undergoes pure rotation (i.e.
rotation without translation).
forces was discussed in the earlier chapters.
A pair of forces of equal magnitude but acting
A body may be in partial equilibrium, i.e., it in opposite directions with different lines of
may be in translational equilibrium and not in action is known as a couple or torque. A couple
rotational equilibrium, or it may be in rotational produces rotation without translation.
equilibrium and not in translational When we open the lid of a bottle by turning
equilibrium. it, our fingers are applying a couple to the lid
Consider a light (i.e. of negligible mass) rod [Fig. 6.21(a)]. Another known example is a
(AB) as shown in Fig. 6.20(a). At the two ends (A compass needle in the earth’s magnetic field as
and B) of which two parallel forces, both equal shown in the Fig. 6.21(b). The earth’s magnetic
field exerts equal forces on the north and south
in magnitude and acting along same direction
poles. The force on the North Pole is towards
are applied perpendicular to the rod. the north, and the force on the South Pole is
toward the south. Except when the needle points
in the north-south direction; the two forces do
not have the same line of action. Thus there is
a couple acting on the needle due to the earth’s
magnetic field.

Fig. 6.20 (a)

Let C be the midpoint of AB, CA = CB = a.

the moment of the forces at A and B will both
be equal in magnitude (aF ), but opposite in
sense as shown. The net moment on the rod will
be zero. The system will be in rotational
equilibrium, but it will not be in translational
equilibrium; ∑F ≠ 0 Fig. 6.21(a) Our fingers apply a couple to turn
the lid.

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SYSTEMS OF PARTICLES AND ROTATIONAL MOTION 111

length. This point is called the fulcrum. A see-

saw on the children’s playground is a typical
example of a lever. Two forces F1 and F2, parallel
to each other and usually perpendicular to the
lever, as shown here, act on the lever at
distances d1 and d2 respectively from the fulcrum
as shown in Fig. 6.23.

Fig. 6.21(b) The Earth’s magnetic field exerts equal

and opposite forces on the poles of a Fig. 6.23
compass needle. These two forces form
a couple. The lever is a system in mechanical
equilibrium. Let R be the reaction of the support
u Example 6.7 Show that moment of a
at the fulcrum; R is directed opposite to the
couple does not depend on the point about forces F1 and F2. For translational equilibrium,
which you take the moments.
R – F1 – F2 = 0 (i)
Answer
For considering rotational equilibrium we
take the moments about the fulcrum; the sum
of moments must be zero,
d1F1 – d2F2 = 0 (ii)
Normally the anticlockwise (clockwise)
moments are taken to be positive (negative). Note
R acts at the fulcrum itself and has zero moment
Fig. 6.22 about the fulcrum.
In the case of the lever force F1 is usually
Consider a couple as shown in Fig. 6.22 some weight to be lifted. It is called the load and
acting on a rigid body. The forces F and -F act its distance from the fulcrum d1 is called the
respectively at points B and A. These points have load arm. Force F2 is the effort applied to lift the
position vectors r1 and r2 with respect to origin load; distance d2 of the effort from the fulcrum
O. Let us take the moments of the forces about is the effort arm.
the origin. Eq. (ii) can be written as
The moment of the couple = sum of the d1F1 = d2 F2 (6.32a)
moments of the two forces making the couple or load arm × load = effort arm × effort
= r1 × (–F) + r2 × F The above equation expresses the principle
= r2 × F – r1 × F of moments for a lever. Incidentally the ratio
= (r2–r1) × F F1/F2 is called the Mechanical Advantage (M.A.);
But r1 + AB = r2, and hence AB = r2 – r1. F1 d 2
The moment of the couple, therefore, is M.A. = F = d (6.32b)
AB × F. 2 1

Clearly this is independent of the origin, the If the effort arm d2 is larger than the load
point about which we took the moments of the arm, the mechanical advantage is greater than
forces. ⊳ one. Mechanical advantage greater than one
means that a small effort can be used to lift a
6.8.1 Principle of moments large load. There are several examples of a lever
An ideal lever is essentially a light (i.e. of around you besides the see-saw. The beam of a
negligible mass) rod pivoted at a point along its balance is a lever. Try to find more such

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112 PHYSICS

examples and identify the fulcrum, the effort and The CG of the cardboard is so located that
effort arm, and the load and the load arm of the the total torque on it due to the forces m1g, m2g
lever in each case. …. etc. is zero.
You may easily show that the principle of If ri is the position vector of the ith particle
moment holds even when the parallel forces F1 of an extended body with respect to its CG, then
and F2 are not perpendicular, but act at some the torque about the CG, due to the force of
angle, to the lever. gravity on the particle is τi = ri × mi g. The total
gravitational torque about the CG is zero, i.e.
6.8.2 Centre of gravity
τ g = ∑ τi = ∑r
i × mi g = 0 (6.33)
Many of you may have the experience of We may therefore, define the CG of a body
balancing your notebook on the tip of a finger. as that point where the total gravitational torque
Figure 6.24 illustrates a similar experiment that on the body is zero.
you can easily perform. Take an irregular- We notice that in Eq. (6.33), g is the same
shaped cardboard having mass M and a narrow for all particles, and hence it comes out of the
tipped object like a pencil. You can locate by trial summation. This gives, since g is non-zero,
and error a point G on the cardboard where it
can be balanced on the tip of the pencil. (The ∑m r i i = 0. Remember that the position vectors
cardboard remains horizontal in this position.) (ri) are taken with respect to the CG. Now, in
This point of balance is the centre of gravity (CG) accordance with the reasoning given below
of the cardboard. The tip of the pencil provides Eq. (6.4a) in Sec. 6.2, if the sum is zero, the origin
a vertically upward force due to which the must be the centre of mass of the body. Thus,
cardboard is in mechanical equilibrium. As the centre of gravity of the body coincides with
shown in the Fig. 6.24, the reaction of the tip is the centre of mass in uniform gravity or gravity-
equal and opposite to Mg and hence the
cardboard is in translational equilibrium. It is
also in rotational equilibrium; if it were not so,
due to the unbalanced torque it would tilt and
fall. There are torques on the card board due to
the forces of gravity like m1g, m2g …. etc, acting
on the individual particles that make up the
cardboard.

Fig. 6.25 Determining the centre of gravity of a body

Fig. 6.24 Balancing a cardboard on the tip of a of irregular shape. The centre of gravity G
pencil. The point of support, G, is the lies on the vertical AA1 through the point
centre of gravity. of suspension of the body A.

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SYSTEMS OF PARTICLES AND ROTATIONAL MOTION 113

free space. We note that this is true because = 30 cm, PG = 5 cm, AK1= BK2 = 10 cm and K1G =
the body being small, g does not K2G = 25 cm. Also, W= weight of the rod = 4.00
vary from one point of the body to the other. If kg and W 1 = suspended load = 6.00 kg;
the body is so extended that g varies from part R1 and R 2 are the normal reactions of the
to part of the body, then the centre of gravity support at the knife edges.
and centre of mass will not coincide. Basically, For translational equilibrium of the rod,
the two are different concepts. The centre of R1+R2 –W1 –W = 0 (i)
mass has nothing to do with gravity. It depends Note W1 and W act vertically down and R1
only on the distribution of mass of the body. and R2 act vertically up.
In Sec. 6.2 we found out the position of the For considering rotational equilibrium, we
centre of mass of several regular, homogeneous take moments of the forces. A convenient point
objects. Obviously the method used there gives to take moments about is G. The moments of
us also the centre of gravity of these bodies, if R2 and W1 are anticlockwise (+ve), whereas the
they are small enough. moment of R1 is clockwise (-ve).
Figure 6.25 illustrates another way of For rotational equilibrium,
determining the CG of an irregular shaped body –R1 (K1G) + W1 (PG) + R2 (K2G) = 0 (ii)
like a cardboard. If you suspend the body from It is given that W = 4.00g N and W1 = 6.00g
some point like A, the vertical line through A N, where g = acceleration due to gravity. We
passes through the CG. We mark the vertical take g = 9.8 m/s2.
AA1. We then suspend the body through other With numerical values inserted, from (i)
points like B and C. The intersection of the R1 + R2 – 4.00g – 6.00g = 0
verticals gives the CG. Explain why the method or R1 + R2 = 10.00g N (iii)
works. Since the body is small enough, the = 98.00 N
method allows us to determine also its centre From (ii), – 0.25 R1 + 0.05 W1 + 0.25 R2 = 0
of mass. or R1 – R2 = 1.2g N = 11.76 N (iv)
From (iii) and (iv), R1 = 54.88 N,
u Example 6.8 A metal bar 70 cm long and R2 = 43.12 N
4.00 kg in mass supported on two knife- Thus the reactions of the support are about
edges placed 10 cm from each end. A 6.00 55 N at K1 and 43 N at K2. ⊳
kg load is suspended at 30 cm from one
end. Find the reactions at the knife-edges. u Example 6.9 A 3m long ladder weighing
(Assume the bar to be of uniform cross 20 kg leans on a frictionless wall. Its feet
section and homogeneous.) rest on the floor 1 m from the wall as shown
in Fig.6.27. Find the reaction forces of the
Answer wall and the floor.

Answer

Fig. 6.26

Figure 6.26 shows the rod AB, the positions

of the knife edges K1 and K2 , the centre of
gravity of the rod at G and the suspended load
at P.
Note the weight of the rod W acts at its
centre of gravity G. The rod is uniform in cross
section and homogeneous; hence G is at the
centre of the rod; AB = 70 cm. AG = 35 cm, AP Fig. 6.27

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114 PHYSICS

The ladder AB is 3 m long, its foot A is at from the axis, the linear velocity is υi = ri ω . The
distance AC = 1 m from the wall. From
kinetic energy of motion of this particle is
Pythagoras theorem, BC = 2 2 m. The forces
1 1
on the ladder are its weight W acting at its centre ki = m iυi2 = m i ri2ω 2
2 2
of gravity D, reaction forces F1 and F2 of the wall
and the floor respectively. Force F 1 is where mi is the mass of the particle. The total
perpendicular to the wall, since the wall is kinetic energy K of the body is then given by
frictionless. Force F 2 is resolved into two the sum of the kinetic energies of individual
components, the normal reaction N and the particles,
force of friction F. Note that F prevents the ladder n
1 n
from sliding away from the wall and is therefore K = ∑ ki = ∑ (m i ri2ω 2 )
i =1 2 i =1
directed toward the wall.
For translational equilibrium, taking the Here n is the number of particles in the body.
forces in the vertical direction, Note ω is the same for all particles. Hence, taking
N–W=0 (i) ω out of the sum,
Taking the forces in the horizontal direction, 1 n

F – F1 = 0 (ii) K = ω 2 ( ∑ m i ri2 )
2 i =1
For rotational equilibrium, taking the
moments of the forces about A, We define a new parameter characterising
the rigid body, called the moment of inertia I ,
2 2 F1 − (1/2) W = 0 (iii) given by
Now W = 20 g = 20 × 9.8 N = 196.0 N n
I = ∑ m i ri2 (6.34)
From (i) N = 196.0 N i =1

From (iii) F1 = W 4 2 = 196.0 / 4 2 = 34.6 N With this definition,

1 2
From (ii) F = F1 = 34.6 N K= Iω (6.35)
2
Note that the parameter I is independent of
F2 = F 2 + N 2 = 199.0 N
the magnitude of the angular velocity. It is a
The force F2 makes an angle α with the characteristic of the rigid body and the axis
horizontal, about which it rotates.
Compare Eq. (6.35) for the kinetic energy of
tan α = N F = 4 2 , α = tan −1(4 2 ) ≈ 80 ⊳
a rotating body with the expression for the
kinetic energy of a body in linear (translational)
6.9 MOMENT OF INERTIA
motion,
We have already mentioned that we are
1
developing the study of rotational motion parallel K= m υ2
2
to the study of translational motion with which
Here, m is the mass of the body and v is its
we are familiar. We have yet to answer one major
velocity. We have already noted the analogy
question in this connection. What is the between angular velocity ω (in respect of
analogue of mass in rotational motion? We shall rotational motion about a fixed axis) and linear
attempt to answer this question in the present velocity v (in respect of linear motion). It is then
section. To keep the discussion simple, we shall evident that the parameter, moment of inertia
consider rotation about a fixed axis only. Let us I, is the desired rotational analogue of mass in
try to get an expression for the kinetic energy of linear motion. In rotation (about a fixed axis),
a rotating body. We know that for a body rotating the moment of inertia plays a similar role as
about a fixed axis, each particle of the body moves mass does in linear motion.
in a circle with linear velocity given by Eq. (6.19). We now apply the definition Eq. (6.34), to
(Refer to Fig. 6.16). For a particle at a distance calculate the moment of inertia in two simple cases.

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SYSTEMS OF PARTICLES AND ROTATIONAL MOTION 115

(a) Consider a thin ring of radius R and mass change in its rotational motion, it can be
M, rotating in its own plane around its centre regarded as a measure of rotational inertia of
with angular velocity ω. Each mass element the body; it is a measure of the way in which
of the ring is at a distance R from the axis, different parts of the body are distributed at
and moves with a speed Rω. The kinetic different distances from the axis. Unlike the
energy is therefore, mass of a body, the moment of inertia is not a
1 1 fixed quantity but depends on distribution of
K= Mυ 2 = MR 2ω 2 mass about the axis of rotation, and the
2 2
orientation and position of the axis of rotation
Comparing with Eq. (6.35) we get I = MR 2 with respect to the body as a whole. As a
for the ring. measure of the way in which the mass of a
rotating rigid body is distributed with respect to
the axis of rotation, we can define a new
parameter, the radius of gyration. It is related
to the moment of inertia and the total mass of
the body.
Notice from the Table 6.1 that in all
cases, we can write I = Mk2 , where k has
the dimension of length. For a rod, about
the perpendicular axis at its midpoint,
k 2 = L2 12 , i.e. k = L 12 . Similarly, k = R/2
for the circular disc about its diameter. The
length k is a geometric property of the body and
axis of rotation. It is called the radius of
Fig. 6.28 A light rod of length l with a pair of
masses rotating about an axis through
gyration. The radius of gyration of a body
the centre of mass of the system and about an axis may be defined as the distance
perpendicular to the rod. The total mass from the axis of a mass point whose mass is
of the system is M. equal to the mass of the whole body and whose
moment of inertia is equal to the moment of
(b) Next, take a rigid rod of negligible mass of inertia of the body about the axis.
length of length l with a pair of small masses, Thus, the moment of inertia of a rigid body
rotating about an axis through the centre of depends on the mass of the body, its shape and
mass perpendicular to the rod (Fig. 6.28). size; distribution of mass about the axis of
Each mass M/2 is at a distance l/2 from rotation, and the position and orientation of the
the axis. The moment of inertia of the masses axis of rotation.
is therefore given by From the definition, Eq. (6.34), we can infer
(M/2) (l/2)2 + (M/2)(l/2)2 that the dimensions of moments of inertia are
Thus, for the pair of masses, rotating about ML2 and its SI units are kg m2.
the axis through the centre of mass The property of this extremely important
perpendicular to the rod
quantity I, as a measure of rotational inertia of
I = Ml 2 / 4
the body, has been put to a great practical use.
Table 6.1 simply gives the moment of inertia of
The machines, such as steam engine and the
various familiar regular shaped bodies about
specific axes. (The derivations of these automobile engine, etc., that produce rotational
expressions are beyond the scope of this motion have a disc with a large moment of
textbook and you will study them in higher inertia, called a flywheel. Because of its large
classes.) moment of inertia, the flywheel resists the
As the mass of a body resists a change in its sudden increase or decrease of the speed of the
state of linear motion, it is a measure of its inertia vehicle. It allows a gradual change in the speed
in linear motion. Similarly, as the moment of and prevents jerky motions, thereby ensuring
inertia about a given axis of rotation resists a a smooth ride for the passengers on the vehicle.

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116 PHYSICS

Table 6.1 Moments of inertia of some regular shaped bodies about specific axes

Z Body Axis Figure I

(1) Thin circular Perpendicular to M R2

ring, radius R plane, at centre

(2) Thin circular Diameter M R2/2

ring, radius R

(3) Thin rod, Perpendicular to M L2/12

length L rod, at mid point

(4) Circular disc, Perpendicular to M R2/2

radius R disc at centre

(5) Circular disc, Diameter M R2/4

radius R

(6) Hollow cylinder, Axis of cylinder M R2

radius R

(7) Solid cylinder, Axis of cylinder M R2/2

radius R

(8) Solid sphere, Diameter 2 M R2/5

radius R

6.10 KINEMATICS OF ROTATIONAL MOTION translation. We wish to take this analogy further.
ABOUT A FIXED AXIS In doing so we shall restrict the discussion only
We have already indicated the analogy between to rotation about fixed axis. This case of motion
rotational motion and translational motion. For involves only one degree of freedom, i.e., needs
example, the angular velocity ω plays the same only one independent variable to describe the
role in rotation as the linear velocity v in motion. This in translation corresponds to linear

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SYSTEMS OF PARTICLES AND ROTATIONAL MOTION 117

motion. This section is limited only to kinematics.

We shall turn to dynamics in later sections.
We recall that for specifying the angular
displacement of the rotating body we take any
particle like P (Fig.6.29) of the body. Its angular
displacement θ in the plane it moves is the
angular displacement of the whole body; θ is
measured from a fixed direction in the plane of
motion of P, which we take to be the x′-axis,
chosen parallel to the x-axis. Note, as shown,
the axis of rotation is the z – axis and the plane
of the motion of the particle is the x - y plane.
Fig. 6.29 also shows θ 0 , the angular
displacement at t = 0.
We also recall that the angular velocity is
the time rate of change of angular displacement,
ω = dθ/dt. Note since the axis of rotation is fixed,
there is no need to treat angular velocity as a Fig.6.29 Specifying the angular position of a rigid
vector. Further, the angular acceleration, α = body.

dω/dt. u Example 6.10 Obtain Eq. (6.36) from first

The kinematical quantities in rotational principles.
motion, angular displacement (θ ), angular
velocity ( ω ) and angular acceleration ( α ) Answer The angular acceleration is uniform,
respectively are analogous to kinematic hence
quantities in linear motion, displacement (x ),
dω
velocity (v) and acceleration (a). We know the = α = constant (i)
kinematical equations of linear motion with dt
uniform (i.e. constant) acceleration: Integrating this equation,
v = v0 + at (a)
ω = ∫ α dt + c
1
x = x 0 + υ0t + at 2 (b) = α t + c (as α is constant)
2
At t = 0, ω = ω0 (given)
υ 2 = υ02 + 2ax (c) From (i) we get at t = 0, ω = c = ω0
Thus, ω = αt + ω0 as required.
where x0 = initial displacement and v0= initial With the definition of ω = dθ/dt we may
velocity. The word ‘initial’ refers to values of the integrate Eq. (6.36) to get Eq. (6.37). This
quantities at t = 0 derivation and the derivation of Eq. (6.38) is left
The corresponding kinematic equations for as an exercise.
rotational motion with uniform angular
acceleration are:
u Example 6.11 The angular speed of a
motor wheel is increased from 1200 rpm to
ω = ω0 + αt (6.36) 3120 rpm in 16 seconds. (i) What is its
angular acceleration, assuming the
1
θ = θ0 + ω 0t + αt2 (6.37) acceleration to be uniform? (ii) How many
2 revolutions does the engine make during
and ω 2 = ω02 + 2α (θ – θ0 ) (6.38) this time?
Answer
where θ0= initial angular displacement of the (i) We shall use ω = ω0 + αt
rotating body, and ω0 = initial angular velocity ω0 = initial angular speed in rad/s
of the body.

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118 PHYSICS

= 2π × angular speed in rev/s It is, however, necessary that these

correspondences are established on sound
2π × angular speed in rev/min dynamical considerations. This is what we now
=
60 s/min turn to.
Before we begin, we note a simplification
2π × 1200 that arises in the case of rotational motion
= rad/s
60 about a fixed axis. Since the axis is fixed, only
= 40π rad/s those components of torques, which are along
the direction of the fixed axis need to be
Similarly ω = final angular speed in rad/s
considered in our discussion. Only these
2π × 3120 components can cause the body to rotate about
= rad/s the axis. A component of the torque
60
perpendicular to the axis of rotation will tend to
= 2π × 52 rad/s turn the axis from its position. We specifically
= 104 π rad/s assume that there will arise necessary forces of
constraint to cancel the effect of the
∴ Angular acceleration perpendicular components of the (external)
torques, so that the fixed position of the axis
ω − ω0 will be maintained. The perpendicular
α= = 4 π rad/s2 components of the torques, therefore need not
t
be taken into account. This means that for our
The angular acceleration of the engine calculation of torques on a rigid body:
= 4π rad/s2 (1) We need to consider only those forces that
(ii) The angular displacement in time t is lie in planes perpendicular to the axis.
given by Forces which are parallel to the axis will give
1 2 torques perpendicular to the axis and need
θ = ω 0t + αt not be taken into account.
2
(2) We need to consider only those components
1 of the position vectors which are
= (40π × 16 + × 4π × 162 ) rad
2 perpendicular to the axis. Components of
position vectors along the axis will result in
= (640π + 512π ) rad
torques perpendicular to the axis and need
= 1152π rad
not be taken into account.
1152π
Number of revolutions = = 576 ⊳ Work done by a torque
2π
6.11 DYNAMICS OF ROTATIONAL MOTION
ABOUT A FIXED AXIS
Table 6.2 lists quantities associated with linear
motion and their analogues in rotational
motion. We have already compared kinematics
of the two motions. Also, we know that in
rotational motion moment of inertia and torque
play the same role as mass and force
respectively in linear motion. Given this we
should be able to guess what the other
analogues indicated in the table are. For Fig. 6.30 Work done by a force F 1 acting on a
example, we know that in linear motion, work particle of a body rotating about a fixed
done is given by F dx, in rotational motion about axis; the particle describes a circular path
a fixed axis it should be τ dθ , since we already with centre C on the axis; arc P1P′1(ds1)
gives the displacement of the particle.
know the correspondence d x → dθ and F → τ .

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SYSTEMS OF PARTICLES AND ROTATIONAL MOTION 119

Table 6.2 Comparison of Translational and Rotational Motion

Linear Motion Rotational Motion about a Fixed Axis

1 Displacement x Angular displacement θ
2 Velocity v = dx/dt Angular velocity ω = dθ/dt
3 Acceleration a = dv/dt Angular acceleration α = dω/dt
4 Mass M Moment of inertia I
5 Force F = Ma Torque τ = I α
6 Work dW = F ds Work W = τ dθ
2
7 Kinetic energy K = Mv /2 Kinetic energy K = Iω2/2
8 Power P = F v Power P = τω
9 Linear momentum p = Mv Angular momentum L = Iω

Figure 6.30 shows a cross-section of a rigid If there are more than one forces acting on
body rotating about a fixed axis, which is taken the body, the work done by all of them can be
added to give the total work done on the body.
as the z-axis (perpendicular to the plane of the
Denoting the magnitudes of the torques due to
page; see Fig. 6.29). As said above we need to
the different forces as τ1, τ2, … etc,
consider only those forces which lie in planes
perpendicular to the axis. Let F1 be one such dW = (τ1 + τ 2 + ...) dθ
typical force acting as shown on a particle of Remember, the forces giving rise to the
the body at point P1 with its line of action in a torques act on different particles, but the
plane perpendicular to the axis. For convenience angular displacement dθ is the same for all
we call this to be the x′–y′ plane (coincident particles. Since all the torques considered are
with the plane of the page). The particle at P1 parallel to the fixed axis, the magnitude τ of the
describes a circular path of radius r1 with centre total torque is just the algebraic sum of the
C on the axis; CP1 = r1. magnitudes of the torques, i.e., τ = τ1 + τ2 + .....
In time ∆t, the point moves to the position We, therefore, have
P 1′ . The displacement of the particle ds 1 ,
dW = τ dθ (6.39)
therefore, has magnitude ds 1 = r 1 d θ and
direction tangential at P1 to the circular path This expression gives the work done by the
as shown. Here dθ is the angular displacement total (external) torque τ which acts on the body
rotating about a fixed axis. Its similarity with
of the particle, dθ = ∠P1CP1′ .The work done by
the corresponding expression
the force on the particle is
dW= F ds
dW1 = F1. ds1= F1ds1 cosφ1= F1(r1 dθ)sinα1 for linear (translational) motion is obvious.
where φ1 is the angle between F1 and the tangent Dividing both sides of Eq. (6.39) by dt gives
at P1, and α1 is the angle between F1 and the
dW dθ
radius vector OP1; φ1 + α1 = 90°. P = =τ = τω
dt dt
The torque due to F1 about the origin is or P = τω (6.40)
OP 1 × F 1. Now OP 1 = OC + OP 1. [Refer to This is the instantaneous power. Compare
Fig. 6.17(b).] Since OC is along the axis, the torque this expression for power in the case of rotational
resulting from it is excluded from our motion about a fixed axis with that of power in
consideration. The effective torque due to F1 is the case of linear motion,
τ1= CP × F1; it is directed along the axis of rotation P = Fv
and has a magnitude τ1= r1F1 sinα , Therefore, In a perfectly rigid body there is no internal
dW1 = τ1dθ motion. The work done by external torques is

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120 PHYSICS

therefore, not dissipated and goes on to increase Answer

the kinetic energy of the body. The rate at which
work is done on the body is given by Eq. (6.40).
This is to be equated to the rate at which kinetic
energy increases. The rate of increase of kinetic
energy is
d  Iω2  (2ω ) dω
=I
dt  2  2 dt
We assume that the moment of inertia does
not change with time. This means that the mass
of the body does not change, the body remains
rigid and also the axis does not change its
position with respect to the body.

Since α = dω /dt , we get

d  Iω2 
 2  = I ω α
Fig. 6.31
dt
(a) We use I α=τ
Equating rates of work done and of increase
the torque τ=FR
in kinetic energy,
= 25 × 0.20 Nm (as R = 0.20m)
τω = I ω α
= 5.0 Nm
τ = Iα (6.41) I = Moment of inertia of flywheel about its
Eq. (6.41) is similar to Newton’s second law
for linear motion expressed symbolically as MR 2
axis =
F = ma 2
Just as force produces acceleration, torque 20.0 × (0.2)2
produces angular acceleration in a body. The = = 0.4 kg m2
2
angular acceleration is directly proportional to
α = angular acceleration
the applied torque and is inversely proportional
= 5.0 N m/0.4 kg m2 = 12.5 s–2
to the moment of inertia of the body. In this
(b) Work done by the pull unwinding 2m of the
respect, Eq.(6.41) can be called Newton’s second
cord
law for rotational motion about a fixed axis.
= 25 N × 2m = 50 J
u (c) Let ω be the final angular velocity. The
Example 6.12 A cord of negligible mass is 1 2
kinetic energy gained = Iω ,
wound round the rim of a fly wheel of mass 2
20 kg and radius 20 cm. A steady pull of since the wheel starts from rest. Now,
25 N is applied on the cord as shown in
Fig. 6.31. The flywheel is mounted on a ω 2 = ω02 + 2αθ , ω0 = 0
horizontal axle with frictionless bearings. The angular displacement θ = length of
(a) Compute the angular acceleration of unwound string / radius of wheel
the wheel. = 2m/0.2 m = 10 rad
(b) Find the work done by the pull, when ω 2 = 2 × 12.5 × 10.0 = 250 (rad/s )2
2m of the cord is unwound.
(c) Find also the kinetic energy of the ∴
wheel at this point. Assume that the (d) The answers are the same, i.e. the kinetic energy
wheel starts from rest. gained by the wheel = work done by the force.
(d) Compare answers to parts (b) and (c). There is no loss of energy due to friction. ⊳

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SYSTEMS OF PARTICLES AND ROTATIONAL MOTION 121

6.12 ANGULAR MOMENTUM IN CASE OF For computing the total angular momentum
ROTATION ABOUT A FIXED AXIS of the whole rigid body, we add up the
contribution of each particle of the body.
We have studied in section 6.7, the angular
momentum of a system of particles. We already Thus
know from there that the time rate of total We denote by L ⊥ and L z the components of
angular momentum of a system of particles
about a point is equal to the total external torque L respectively perpendicular to the z-axis and
on the system taken about the same point. When along the z-axis;
the total external torque is zero, the total angular L ⊥ = ∑ OCi × m i vi (6.42a)
momentum of the system is conserved.
where mi and vi are respectively the mass and
We now wish to study the angular momentum
the velocity of the ith particle and Ci is the centre
in the special case of rotation about a fixed axis.
of the circle described by the particle;
The general expression for the total angular
momentum of the system of n particles is
N
and
L= ∑ ri × pi (6.25b)
i =1 or Lz = Iω k ˆ (6.42b)
We first consider the angular momentum of
The last step follows since the perpendicular
a typical particle of the rotating rigid body. We
distance of the ith particle from the axis is ri; and
then sum up the contributions of individual
by definition the moment of inertia of the body
particles to get L of the whole body.
For a typical particle l = r × p. As seen in the about the axis of rotation is I = ∑ m i ri2 .
last section r = OP = OC + CP [Fig. 6.17(b)]. With
p=mv, Note L = L z + L ⊥ (6.42c)
The rigid bodies which we have mainly
l = ( OC × m v ) + (CP × m v )
considered in this chapter are symmetric about
The magnitude of the linear velocity v of the the axis of rotation, i.e. the axis of rotation is
particle at P is given by v = ωr⊥ where r⊥ is the one of their symmetry axes. For such bodies, for
length of CP or the perpendicular distance of P a given OCi, for every particle which has a
from the axis of rotation. Further, v is tangential velocity vi , there is another particle of velocity
at P to the circle which the particle describes.
–vi located diametrically opposite on the circle
Using the right-hand rule one can check that
with centre Ci described by the particle. Together
CP × v is parallel to the fixed axis. The unit
vector along the fixed axis (chosen as the z-axis) such pairs will contribute zero to L ⊥ and as a
is k̂ . Hence result for symmetric bodies L ⊥ is zero, and
CP × m v = r⊥ (mv ) k
ˆ hence
= mr⊥2ω kˆ (since υ = ωr⊥ ) L = L z = Iωk
ˆ (6.42d)
Similarly, we can check that OC × v is For bodies, which are not symmetric about
perpendicular to the fixed axis. Let us denote the axis of rotation, L is not equal to Lz and hence
the part of l along the fixed axis (i.e. the z-axis) L does not lie along the axis of rotation.
by lz, then Referring to Table 6.1, can you tell in which
l z = CP × m v = mr⊥2ω k
ˆ cases L = Lz will not apply?
Let us differentiate Eq. (6.42b). Since k̂ is a
and l = l z + OC × m v fixed (constant) vector, we get
We note that lz is parallel to the fixed axis,
d d  ˆ
but l is not. In general, for a particle, the angular (L z ) =  (I ω ) k
momentum l is not along the axis of rotation, dt dt
i.e. for a particle, l and ω are not necessarily Now, Eq. (6.28b) states
parallel. Compare this with the corresponding
dL
fact in translation. For a particle, p and v are = τ
always parallel to each other. dt

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122 PHYSICS

As we have seen in the last section, only We have already derived this equation using
those components of the external torques which the work - kinetic energy route.
are along the axis of rotation, need to be taken
into account, when we discuss rotation about a 6.12.1 Conservation of angular momentum
fixed axis. This means we can take τ = τ k
ˆ. We are now in a position to revisit the principle
of conservation of angular momentum in the
Since L = L z + L ⊥ and the direction of Lz (vector
context of rotation about a fixed axis. From Eq.
k̂ ) is fixed, it follows that for rotation about a (6.43c), if the external torque is zero,
fixed axis, Lz = Iω = constant (6.44)
For symmetric bodies, from Eq. (6.42d), Lz
dL z may be replaced by L .(L and Lz are respectively
= τk
ˆ (6.43a)
dt the magnitudes of L and Lz.)
This then is the required form, for fixed axis
dL ⊥ rotation, of Eq. (6.29a), which expresses the
and =0 (6.43b)
dt general law of conservation of angular momentum
Thus, for rotation about a fixed axis, the of a system of particles. Eq. (6.44) applies to many
component of angular momentum perpendicular situations that we come across in daily life. You
may do this experiment with your friend. Sit on a
to the fixed axis is constant. As L z = I ω k
ˆ , we
swivel chair (a chair with a seat, free to rotate
get from Eq. (6.43a), about a pivot) with your arms folded and feet not
d resting on, i.e., away from, the ground. Ask your
(I ω ) = τ (6.43c) friend to rotate the chair rapidly. While the chair
dt
is rotating with considerable angular speed
If the moment of inertia I does not change with stretch your arms horizontally. What happens?
time, Your angular speed is reduced. If you bring back
d dω your arms closer to your body, the angular speed
(I ω ) = I = Iα increases again. This is a situation where the
dt dt
and we get from Eq. (6.43c), principle of conservation of angular momentum
is applicable. If friction in the rotational
τ = Iα (6.41)

Fig 6.32 (a) A demonstration of conservation of

angular momentum. A girl sits on a Fig 6.32 (b) An acrobat employing the principle of
swivel chair and stretches her arms/ conservation of angular momentum in
brings her arms closer to the body. her performance.

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SYSTEMS OF PARTICLES AND ROTATIONAL MOTION 123

mechanism is neglected, there is no external A circus acrobat and a diver take advantage
torque about the axis of rotation of the chair and of this principle. Also, skaters and classical,
hence Iω is constant. Stretching the arms Indian or western, dancers performing a
increases I about the axis of rotation, resulting in pirouette (a spinning about a tip–top) on the toes
decreasing the angular speed ω. Bringing the of one foot display ‘mastery’ over this principle.
arms closer to the body has the opposite effect. Can you explain?

SUMMARY

1. Ideally, a rigid body is one for which the distances between different particles of the
body do not change, even though there are forces on them.
2. A rigid body fixed at one point or along a line can have only rotational motion. A rigid
body not fixed in some way can have either pure translational motion or a combination
of translational and rotational motions.
3. In rotation about a fixed axis, every particle of the rigid body moves in a circle which
lies in a plane perpendicular to the axis and has its centre on the axis. Every Point in
the rotating rigid body has the same angular velocity at any instant of time.
4. In pure translation, every particle of the body moves with the same velocity at any
instant of time.
5. Angular velocity is a vector. Its magnitude is ω = dθ/dt and it is directed along the axis
of rotation. For rotation about a fixed axis, this vector ω has a fixed direction.
6. The vector or cross product of two vector a and b is a vector written as a× b. The
magnitude of this vector is absinθ and its direction is given by the right handed screw
or the right hand rule.
7. The linear velocity of a particle of a rigid body rotating about a fixed axis is given by
v = ω × r, where r is the position vector of the particle with respect to an origin along the
fixed axis. The relation applies even to more general rotation of a rigid body with one
point fixed. In that case r is the position vector of the particle with respect to the fixed
point taken as the origin.
8. The centre of mass of a system of n particles is defined as the point whose position
vector is

R=
∑ m i ri
M

9. Velocity of the centre of mass of a system of particles is given by V = P/M, where P is the
linear momentum of the system. The centre of mass moves as if all the mass of the
system is concentrated at this point and all the external forces act at it. If the total
external force on the system is zero, then the total linear momentum of the system is
constant.

10. The angular momentum of a system of n particles about the origin is

n
L = ∑ ri × pi
i = 1

The torque or moment of force on a system of n particles about the origin is

τ = ∑ ri × Fi
1

The force Fi acting on the ith particle includes the external as well as internal forces.
Assuming Newton’s third law of motion and that forces between any two particles act
along the line joining the particles, we can show τint = 0 and

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124 PHYSICS

dL
= τ ext
dt
11. A rigid body is in mechanical equilibrium if
(1) it is in translational equilibrium, i.e., the total external force on it is zero : ∑F i =0 ,
and
(2) it is in rotational equilibrium, i.e. the total external torque on it is zero :

∑ τ i = ∑ ri × Fi = 0 .
12. The centre of gravity of an extended body is that point where the total gravitational
torque on the body is zero.
13. The moment of intertia of a rigid body about an axis is defined by the formula I = ∑ m i ri2
where ri is the perpendicular distance of the ith point of the body from the axis. The
1
kinetic energy of rotation is K = Iω2 .
2

POINTS TO PONDER
1. To determine the motion of the centre of mass of a system no knowledge of internal
forces of the system is required. For this purpose we need to know only the external
forces on the body.
2. Separating the motion of a system of particles as the motion of the centre of mass, (i.e.,
the translational motion of the system) and motion about (i.e. relative to) the centre of
mass of the system is a useful technique in dynamics of a system of particles. One
example of this technique is separating the kinetic energy of a system of particles K as
the kinetic energy of the system about its centre of mass K′ and the kinetic energy of the
centre of mass MV2/2,
K = K′ + MV2/2
3. Newton’s Second Law for finite sized bodies (or systems of particles) is based in Newton’s
Second Law and also Newton’s Third Law for particles.
4. To establish that the time rate of change of the total angular momentum of a system of
particles is the total external torque in the system, we need not only Newton’s second
law for particles, but also Newton’s third law with the provision that the forces between
any two particles act along the line joining the particles.
5. The vanishing of the total external force and the vanishing of the total external torque
are independent conditions. We can have one without the other. In a couple, total
external force is zero, but total torque is non-zero.
6. The total torque on a system is independent of the origin if the total external force is
zero.
7. The centre of gravity of a body coincides with its centre of mass only if the gravitational
field does not vary from one part of the body to the other.

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SYSTEMS OF PARTICLES AND ROTATIONAL MOTION 125

8. The angular momentum L and the angular velocity ω are not necessarily parallel vectors.
However, for the simpler situations discussed in this chapter when rotation is about a
fixed axis which is an axis of symmetry of the rigid body, the relation L = Iω
ω holds good,
where I is the moment of the inertia of the body about the rotation axis.

EXERCISES

6.1 Give the location of the centre of mass of a (i) sphere, (ii) cylinder, (iii) ring, and (iv)
cube, each of uniform mass density. Does the centre of mass of a body necessarily lie
inside the body ?
6.2 In the HCl molecule, the separation between the nuclei of the two atoms is about
1.27 Å (1 Å = 10-10 m). Find the approximate location of the CM of the molecule,
given that a chlorine atom is about 35.5 times as massive as a hydrogen atom and
nearly all the mass of an atom is concentrated in its nucleus.
6.3 A child sits stationary at one end of a long trolley moving uniformly with a speed V
on a smooth horizontal floor. If the child gets up and runs about on the trolley in
any manner, what is the speed of the CM of the (trolley + child) system ?
6.4 Show that the area of the triangle contained between the vectors a and b is one half
of the magnitude of a × b.
6.5 Show that a.(b × c) is equal in magnitude to the volume of the parallelepiped formed
on the three vectors , a, b and c.
6.6 Find the components along the x, y, z axes of the angular momentum l of a particle,
whose position vector is r with components x, y, z and momentum is p with
components px, py and pz. Show that if the particle moves only in the x-y plane the
angular momentum has only a z-component.
6.7 Two particles, each of mass m and speed v, travel in opposite directions along parallel
lines separated by a distance d. Show that the angular momentum vector of the two
particle system is the same whatever be the point about which the angular momentum
is taken.
6.8 A non-uniform bar of weight W is suspended at rest by two strings of negligible
weight as shown in Fig.6.33. The angles made by the strings with the vertical are
36.9° and 53.1° respectively. The bar is 2 m long. Calculate the distance d of the
centre of gravity of the bar from its left end.

Fig. 6.33

6.9 A car weighs 1800 kg. The distance between its front and back axles is 1.8 m. Its
centre of gravity is 1.05 m behind the front axle. Determine the force exerted by the
level ground on each front wheel and each back wheel.

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126 PHYSICS

6.10 Torques of equal magnitude are applied to a hollow cylinder and a solid sphere, both
having the same mass and radius. The cylinder is free to rotate about its standard
axis of symmetry, and the sphere is free to rotate about an axis passing through its
centre. Which of the two will acquire a greater angular speed after a given time.
6.11 A solid cylinder of mass 20 kg rotates about its axis with angular speed 100 rad s-1.
The radius of the cylinder is 0.25 m. What is the kinetic energy associated with the
rotation of the cylinder? What is the magnitude of angular momentum of the cylinder
about its axis?
6.12 (a) A child stands at the centre of a turntable with his two arms outstretched. The
turntable is set rotating with an angular speed of 40 rev/min. How much is the
angular speed of the child if he folds his hands back and thereby reduces his
moment of inertia to 2/5 times the initial value ? Assume that the turntable
rotates without friction.
(b) Show that the child’s new kinetic energy of rotation is more than the initial
kinetic energy of rotation. How do you account for this increase in kinetic energy?
6.13 A rope of negligible mass is wound round a hollow cylinder of mass 3 kg and radius
40 cm. What is the angular acceleration of the cylinder if the rope is pulled with a
force of 30 N ? What is the linear acceleration of the rope ? Assume that there is no
slipping.
6.14 To maintain a rotor at a uniform angular speed of 200 rad s-1, an engine needs to
transmit a torque of 180 N m. What is the power required by the engine ?
(Note: uniform angular velocity in the absence of friction implies zero torque. In
practice, applied torque is needed to counter frictional torque). Assume that the
engine is 100% efficient.
6.15 From a uniform disk of radius R, a circular hole of radius R/2 is cut out. The centre
of the hole is at R/2 from the centre of the original disc. Locate the centre of gravity
of the resulting flat body.
6.16 A metre stick is balanced on a knife edge at its centre. When two coins, each of mass
5 g are put one on top of the other at the 12.0 cm mark, the stick is found to be
balanced at 45.0 cm. What is the mass of the metre stick?
6.17 The oxygen molecule has a mass of 5.30 × 10-26 kg and a moment of inertia of
1.94 ×10-46 kg m2 about an axis through its centre perpendicular to the lines joining
the two atoms. Suppose the mean speed of such a molecule in a gas is 500 m/s and
that its kinetic energy of rotation is two thirds of its kinetic energy of translation.
Find the average angular velocity of the molecule.

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 CHAPTER SEVEN

GRAVITATION

7.1 INTRODUCTION
Early in our lives, we become aware of the tendency of all
material objects to be attracted towards the earth. Anything
7.1 Introduction
thrown up falls down towards the earth, going uphill is lot
7.2 Kepler’s laws
more tiring than going downhill, raindrops from the clouds
7.3 Universal law of
above fall towards the earth and there are many other such
gravitation
phenomena. Historically it was the Italian Physicist Galileo
7.4 The gravitational
constant (1564-1642) who recognised the fact that all bodies,
7.5 Acceleration due to
irrespective of their masses, are accelerated towards the earth
gravity of the earth with a constant acceleration. It is said that he made a public
7.6 Acceleration due to demonstration of this fact. To find the truth, he certainly
gravity below and above did experiments with bodies rolling down inclined planes and
the surface of earth arrived at a value of the acceleration due to gravity which is
7.7 Gravitational potential close to the more accurate value obtained later.
energy A seemingly unrelated phenomenon, observation of stars,
7.8 Escape speed planets and their motion has been the subject of attention
7.9 Earth satellites in many countries since the earliest of times. Observations
7.10 Energy of an orbiting since early times recognised stars which appeared in the
satellite sky with positions unchanged year after year. The more
Summary interesting objects are the planets which seem to have regular
Points to ponder motions against the background of stars. The earliest
Exercises recorded model for planetary motions proposed by Ptolemy
about 2000 years ago was a ‘geocentric’ model in which all
celestial objects, stars, the sun and the planets, all revolved
around the earth. The only motion that was thought to be
possible for celestial objects was motion in a circle.
Complicated schemes of motion were put forward by Ptolemy
in order to describe the observed motion of the planets. The
planets were described as moving in circles with the centre
of the circles themselves moving in larger circles. Similar
theories were also advanced by Indian astronomers some
400 years later. However a more elegant model in which the
Sun was the centre around which the planets revolved – the
‘heliocentric’ model – was already mentioned by Aryabhatta
(5th century A.D.) in his treatise. A thousand years later, a
Polish monk named Nicolas Copernicus (1473-1543)

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128 PHYSICS

proposed a definitive model in which the planets of the ellipse (Fig. 7.1a). This law was a
moved in circles around a fixed central sun. His deviation from the Copernican model which
theory was discredited by the church, but allowed only circular orbits. The ellipse, of
notable amongst its supporters was Galileo who which the circle is a special case, is a closed
had to face prosecution from the state for his curve which can be drawn very simply as
beliefs. follows.
It was around the same time as Galileo, a Select two points F1 and F2. Take a length
nobleman called Tycho Brahe (1546-1601) of a string and fix its ends at F1 and F2 by
hailing from Denmark, spent his entire lifetime pins. With the tip of a pencil stretch the string
recording observations of the planets with the taut and then draw a curve by moving the
naked eye. His compiled data were analysed
pencil keeping the string taut throughout.(Fig.
later by his assistant Johannes Kepler (1571-
7.1(b)) The closed curve you get is called an
1640). He could extract from the data three
ellipse. Clearly for any point T on the ellipse,
elegant laws that now go by the name of Kepler’s
laws. These laws were known to Newton and the sum of the distances from F1 and F2 is a
enabled him to make a great scientific leap in constant. F1, F 2 are called the focii. Join the
proposing his universal law of gravitation. points F 1 and F 2 and extend the line to
intersect the ellipse at points P and A as shown
7.2 KEPLER’S LAWS in Fig. 7.1(b). The midpoint of the line PA is
The three laws of Kepler can be stated as the centre of the ellipse O and the length PO =
follows: AO is called the semi-major axis of the ellipse.
1. Law of orbits : All planets move in elliptical For a circle, the two focii merge into one and
orbits with the Sun situated at one of the foci the semi-major axis becomes the radius of the
circle.
B 2. Law of areas : The line that joins any planet
to the sun sweeps equal areas in equal
intervals of time (Fig. 7.2). This law comes from
the observations that planets appear to move
2b slower when they are farther from the sun
P S S' A
than when they are nearer.

C
2a
Fig. 7.1(a) An ellipse traced out by a planet around
the sun. The closest point is P and the
farthest point is A, P is called the
perihelion and A the aphelion. The
semimajor axis is half the distance AP.

Fig. 7.2 The planet P moves around the sun in an

elliptical orbit. The shaded area is the area
Fig. 7.1(b) Drawing an ellipse. A string has its ends ∆A swept out in a small interval of time ∆t.
fixed at F1 and F2. The tip of a pencil holds
the string taut and is moved around.

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GRAVITATION 129

3. Law of periods : The square of the time period the law of areas. Gravitation is a central force
of revolution of a planet is proportional to the and hence the law of areas follows.
cube of the semi-major axis of the ellipse traced
out by the planet. ⊳ Example 7.1 Let the speed of the planet
at the perihelion P in Fig. 7.1(a) be vP and
Table 7.1 gives the approximate time periods
the Sun-planet distance SP be rP. Relate
of revolution of eight* planets around the sun
{rP, vP} to the corresponding quantities at
along with values of their semi-major axes. the aphelion {rA, vA}. Will the planet take
Table 7.1 Data from measurement of equal times to traverse BAC and CPB ?
planetary motions given below
confirm Kepler’s Law of Periods Answer The magnitude of the angular
(a ≡ 10
Semi-major axis in units of 10 m. momentum at P is Lp = mp rp vp, since inspection
T ≡ Time period of revolution of the planet tells us that r p and v p are mutually
in years(y). perpendicular. Similarly, LA = mp rA vA. From
Q ≡ The quotient ( T2/a3 ) in units of
angular momentum conservation
10 -34 y2 m-3.)
mp rp vp = mp rA vA
Planet a T Q vp rA
or = ⊳
Mercury 5.79 0.24 2.95 vA rp
Venus 10.8 0.615 3.00
Earth 15.0 1 2.96 Since rA > rp, vp > vA .
Mars 22.8 1.88 2.98 The area SBAC bounded by the ellipse and
Jupiter 77.8 11.9 3.01 the radius vectors SB and SC is larger than SBPC
Saturn 143 29.5 2.98 in Fig. 7.1. From Kepler’s second law, equal areas
Uranus 287 84 2.98 are swept in equal times. Hence the planet will
Neptune 450 165 2.99 take a longer time to traverse BAC than CPB.
7.3 UNIVERSAL LAW OF GRAVITATION
The law of areas can be understood as a Legend has it that observing an apple falling from
consequence of conservation of angular a tree, Newton was inspired to arrive at an
momentum whch is valid for any central universal law of gravitation that led to an
force . A central force is such that the force explanation of terrestrial gravitation as well as
on the planet is along the vector joining the of Kepler’s laws. Newton’s reasoning was that
Sun and the planet. Let the Sun be at the the moon revolving in an orbit of radius Rm was
origin and let the position and momentum subject to a centripetal acceleration due to
of the planet be denoted by r and p earth’s gravity of magnitude
respectively. Then the area swept out by the
V2 4π 2 Rm
planet of mass m in time interval ∆ t is (Fig. am = = (7.3)
Rm T2
7.2) ∆ A given by
∆A = ½ (r × v∆t) (7.1)
where V is the speed of the moon related to the
Hence
time period T by the relation V = 2π Rm / T . The
∆A /∆t =½ (r × p)/m, (since v = p/m)
= L / (2 m) (7.2) time period T is about 27.3 days and Rm was
where v is the velocity, L is the angular already known then to be about 3.84 × 108m. If
momentum equal to ( r × p). For a central we substitute these numbers in Eq. (7.3), we get
force, which is directed along r, L is a constant a value of am much smaller than the value of
acceleration due to gravity g on the surface of
as the planet goes around. Hence, ∆ A /∆t is a
the earth, arising also due to earth’s gravitational
constant according to the last equation. This is attraction.

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130 PHYSICS

This clearly shows that the force due to The gravitational force is attractive, i.e., the
earth’s gravity decreases with distance. If one force F is along – r. The force on point mass m1
assumes that the gravitational force due to the due to m2 is of course – F by Newton’s third law.
earth decreases in proportion to the inverse Thus, the gravitational force F12 on the body 1
square of the distance from the centre of the
due to 2 and F21 on the body 2 due to 1 are related
earth, we will have am α Rm
−2
; g α R−
E
2
and we get as F12 = – F21.
Before we can apply Eq. (7.5) to objects under
g R2
= m2 3600 (7.4) consideration, we have to be careful since the
am RE law refers to point masses whereas we deal with
in agreement with a value of g 9.8 m s-2 and extended objects which have finite size. If we have
the value of am from Eq. (7.3). These observations a collection of point masses, the force on any
led Newton to propose the following Universal Law one of them is the vector sum of the gravitational
of Gravitation : forces exerted by the other point masses as
Every body in the universe attracts every other shown in Fig 7.4.
body with a force which is directly proportional
to the product of their masses and inversely
proportional to the square of the distance
between them.
The quotation is essentially from Newton’s
famous treatise called ‘Mathematical Principles
of Natural Philosophy’ (Principia for short).
Stated Mathematically, Newton’s gravitation
law reads : The force F on a point mass m2 due
to another point mass m1 has the magnitude
m1 m 2
|F | = G (7.5)
r2
Equation (7.5) can be expressed in vector form as

F= G
m1 m 2
r 2 ( )
– rɵ = – G
m1 m 2 ɵ
r2
r
Fig. 7.4 Gravitational force on point mass m1 is the
vector sum of the gravitational forces exerted
m1 m 2 ɵ by m2, m3 and m4.
= –G 3
r
r
The total force on m1 is
where G is the universal gravitational constant,
Gm 2 m1 ɵ Gm 3 m1 ɵ Gm 4 m1 ɵ
F1 = r 21 + r 31 + r 41
rɵ is the unit vector from m1 to m2 and r = r2 – r1 2
r21 2
r31 2
r41
as shown in Fig. 7.3.
⊳ Example 7.2 Three equal masses of m kg
each are fixed at the vertices of an
equilateral triangle ABC.
(a) What is the force acting on a mass 2m
placed at the centroid G of the triangle ?
(b) What is the force if the mass at the
O vertex A is doubled ?
Take AG = BG = CG = 1 m (see Fig. 7.5)
Answer (a) The angle between GC and the
positive x-axis is 30° and so is the angle between
Fig. 7.3 Gravitational force on m1 due to m2 is along GB and the negative x-axis. The individual forces
r where the vector r is (r2– r1). in vector notation are

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GRAVITATION 131

cases, a simple law results when you do that :

(1) The force of attraction between a hollow
spherical shell of uniform density and a
point mass situated outside is just as if
the entire mass of the shell is
concentrated at the centre of the shell.
Qualitatively this can be understood as
follows: Gravitational forces caused by the
various regions of the shell have components
along the line joining the point mass to the
centre as well as along a direction
prependicular to this line. The components
Fig. 7.5 Three equal masses are placed at the three prependicular to this line cancel out when
vertices of the ∆ ABC. A mass 2m is placed
summing over all regions of the shell leaving
at the centroid G.
only a resultant force along the line joining
the point to the centre. The magnitude of
Gm (2m ) ˆ
FGA = j this force works out to be as stated above.
1 (2) The force of attraction due to a hollow
Gm (2m ) ˆ spherical shell of uniform density, on a
FGB =
1
(
−i cos 30ο − ˆj sin 30ο ) point mass situated inside it is zero.
Qualitatively, we can again understand this
Gm (2m ) ˆ
FGC =
1
(
+ i cos 30ο − ˆj sin 30ο ) result. Various regions of the spherical shell
attract the point mass inside it in various
From the principle of superposition and the law directions. These forces cancel each other
of vector addition, the resultant gravitational completely.
force FR on (2m) is
FR = FGA + FGB + FGC 7.4 THE GRAVITATIONAL CONSTANT
(
FR = 2Gm 2 ˆj + 2Gm 2 −ˆi cos 30ο −ˆj sin 30ο ) The value of the gravitational constant G entering
the Universal law of gravitation can be
( )
+ 2Gm 2 ˆi cos 30ο − ˆj sin 30ο = 0 determined experimentally and this was first done
Alternatively, one expects on the basis of by English scientist Henry Cavendish in 1798.
symmetry that the resultant force ought to be The apparatus used by him is schematically
zero. shown in Fig.7.6
(b) Now if the mass at vertex A is doubled
then

For the gravitational force between an extended Fig. 7.6 Schematic drawing of Cavendish’s
object (like the earth) and a point mass, Eq. (7.5) is not experiment. S1 and S2 are large spheres
directly applicable. Each point mass in the extended which are kept on either side (shown
object will exert a force on the given point mass and shades) of the masses at A and B. When
the big spheres are taken to the other side
these force will not all be in the same direction. We
of the masses (shown by dotted circles),
have to add up these forces vectorially for all the point the bar AB rotates a little since the torque
masses in the extended object to get the total force. reverses direction. The angle of rotation can
This is easily done using calculus. For two special be measured experimentally.

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132 PHYSICS

The bar AB has two small lead spheres all the shells exert a gravitational force at the
attached at its ends. The bar is suspended from point outside just as if their masses are
a rigid support by a fine wire. Two large lead concentrated at their common centre according
spheres are brought close to the small ones but to the result stated in section 7.3. The total mass
on opposite sides as shown. The big spheres of all the shells combined is just the mass of the
attract the nearby small ones by equal and earth. Hence, at a point outside the earth, the
opposite force as shown. There is no net force gravitational force is just as if its entire mass of
on the bar but only a torque which is clearly the earth is concentrated at its centre.
equal to F times the length of the bar,where F is For a point inside the earth, the situation
the force of attraction between a big sphere and is different. This is illustrated in Fig. 7.7.
its neighbouring small sphere. Due to this
torque, the suspended wire gets twisted till such
time as the restoring torque of the wire equals
the gravitational torque . If θ is the angle of twist
of the suspended wire, the restoring torque is
proportional to θ, equal to τθ. Where τ is the
restoring couple per unit angle of twist. τ can be
measured independently e.g. by applying a
known torque and measuring the angle of twist.
The gravitational force between the spherical
balls is the same as if their masses are Mr
concentrated at their centres. Thus if d is the
separation between the centres of the big and Fig. 7.7 The mass m is in a mine located at a depth
its neighbouring small ball, M and m their d below the surface of the Earth of mass
masses, the gravitational force between the big ME and radius RE. We treat the Earth to be
sphere and its neighouring small ball is. spherically symmetric.
Mm Again consider the earth to be made up of
F =G (7.6)
d2 concentric shells as before and a point mass m
If L is the length of the bar AB , then the situated at a distance r from the centre. The
torque arising out of F is F multiplied by L. At point P lies outside the sphere of radius r. For
equilibrium, this is equal to the restoring torque the shells of radius greater than r, the point P
and hence lies inside. Hence according to result stated in
the last section, they exert no gravitational force
Mm on mass m kept at P. The shells with radius ≤ r
G L =τ θ (7.7)
d2 make up a sphere of radius r for which the point
Observation of θ thus enables one to P lies on the surface. This smaller sphere
calculate G from this equation. therefore exerts a force on a mass m at P as if
Since Cavendish’s experiment, the its mass Mr is concentrated at the centre. Thus
measurement of G has been refined and the the force on the mass m at P has a magnitude
currently accepted value is Gm (M r )
G = 6.67×10-11 N m2/kg2 (7.8) F = (7.9)
r2
We assume that the entire earth is of uniform
7.5 ACCELERATION DUE TO GRAVITY OF
THE EARTH 4π 3
density and hence its mass is M E = RE ρ
3
The earth can be imagined to be a sphere made
where ME is the mass of the earth RE is its radius
of a large number of concentric spherical shells
and ρ is the density. On the other hand the
with the smallest one at the centre and the
largest one at its surface. A point outside the 4π
mass of the sphere Mr of radius r is ρ r 3 and
earth is obviously outside all the shells. Thus, 3

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GRAVITATION 133

hence its distance from the centre of the earth is

(R E + h ). If F (h) denoted the magnitude of
the force on the point mass m , we get from
G m ME Eq. (7.5) :
= r (7.10)
RE 3
If the mass m is situated on the surface of GM E m
earth, then r = RE and the gravitational force on F (h ) = (7.13)
(R E + h )2
it is, from Eq. (7.10)
M Em The acceleration experienced by the point
F =G (7.11) mass is F (h )/ m ≡ g(h ) and we get
R E2
The acceleration experienced by the mass F (h ) GM E
g(h ) = = . (7.14)
m, which is usually denoted by the symbol g is m (R E + h )2
related to F by Newton’s 2nd law by relation
This is clearly less than the value of g on the
F = mg. Thus
GM E
F GM E surface of earth : g = R 2 . For h << RE , we can
g= = (7.12) E
m R E2 expand the RHS of Eq. (7.14) :
Acceleration g is readily measurable. RE is a GM E
= g (1 + h / R E )
−2
g(h ) = 2
known quantity. The measurement of G by R E (1 + h / R E )2

Cavendish’s experiment (or otherwise), combined h

with knowledge of g and RE enables one to For R <<1 , using binomial expression,
E
estimate ME from Eq. (7.12). This is the reason
 2h 
why there is a popular statement regarding g (h ) ≅ g 1 −
R E 
. (7.15)
Cavendish : “Cavendish weighed the earth”. 

7.6 ACCELERATION DUE TO GRAVITY BELOW Equation (7.15) thus tells us that for small
AND ABOVE THE SURFACE OF EARTH heights h above the value of g decreases by a
factor (1 − 2h / RE ).
Consider a point mass m at a height h above the
surface of the earth as shown in Fig. 7.8(a). The Now, consider a point mass m at a depth
radius of the earth is denoted by RE . Since this d below the surface of the earth (Fig. 7.8(b)),
point is outside the earth, so that its distance from the centre of the
earth is ( RE − d ) as shown in the figure. The
earth can be thought of as being composed
of a smaller sphere of radius (R E – d ) and a
spherical shell of thickness d. The force on
m due to the outer shell of thickness d is
zero because the result quoted in the
previous section. As far as the smaller
sphere of radius ( R E – d ) is concerned, the
point mass is outside it and hence according
to the result quoted earlier, the force due to
this smaller sphere is just as if the entire
mass of the smaller sphere is concentrated
at the centre. If Ms is the mass of the smaller
sphere, then,
Ms/ME = ( RE – d)3 / RE3 ( 7.16)
Since mass of a sphere is proportional to be
Fig. 7.8 (a) g at a height h above the surface of the cube of its radius.
earth.

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134 PHYSICS

close to the surface of earth, at distances from

the surface much smaller than the radius of the
earth. In such cases, the force of gravity is
practically a constant equal to mg, directed
towards the centre of the earth. If we consider a
Ms ME point at a height h1 from the surface of the earth
and another point vertically above it at a height
h2 from the surface, the work done in lifting the
particle of mass m from the first to the second
position is denoted by W12
W12 = Force × displacement
Fig. 7.8 (b) g at a depth d. In this case only the smaller
sphere of radius (RE–d) contributes to g. = mg (h2 – h1) (7.20)
Thus the force on the point mass is If we associate a potential energy W(h) at a
point at a height h above the surface such that
2
F (d) = G Ms m / (RE – d ) (7.17)
W(h) = mgh + Wo (7.21)
Substituting for Ms from above , we get
(where Wo = constant) ;
F (d) = G ME m ( RE – d ) / RE3 (7.18) then it is clear that
and hence the acceleration due to gravity at W12 = W(h2) – W(h1) (7.22)
a depth d, The work done in moving the particle is just
the difference of potential energy between its
F (d )
g(d) = is final and initial positions.Observe that the
m constant Wo cancels out in Eq. (7.22). Setting h
F (d ) GM E = 0 in the last equation, we get W ( h = 0 ) = Wo.
g (d ) = = (RE − d ) . h = 0 means points on the surface of the earth.
m R E3 Thus, Wo is the potential energy on the surface
RE − d of the earth.
=g = g(1 − d / R E ) (7.19) If we consider points at arbitrary distance
RE
from the surface of the earth, the result just
Thus, as we go down below earth’s surface, derived is not valid since the assumption that
the acceleration due gravity decreases by a factor the gravitational force mg is a constant is no
(1 − d / RE ). The remarkable thing about longer valid. However, from our discussion we
know that a point outside the earth, the force of
acceleration due to earth’s gravity is that it is
gravitation on a particle directed towards the
maximum on its surface decreasing whether you
centre of the earth is
go up or down.
G ME m
F= (7.23)
7.7 GRAVITATIONAL POTENTIAL ENERGY r2
We had discussed earlier the notion of potential where ME = mass of earth, m = mass of the
energy as being the energy stored in the body at particle and r its distance from the centre of the
its given position. If the position of the particle earth. If we now calculate the work done in
lifting a particle from r = r1 to r = r2 (r2 > r1) along
changes on account of forces acting on it, then
a vertical path, we get instead of Eq. (7.20)
the change in its potential energy is just the
amount of work done on the body by the force. r2 GMm
W12 = ∫ dr
As we had discussed earlier, forces for which the r1 r2
work done is independent of the path are the
conservative forces.  1 1
= −G ME m  −  (7.24)
The force of gravity is a conservative force  r2 r1 
and we can calculate the potential energy of a In place of Eq. (7.21), we can thus associate
body arising out of this force, called the a potential energy W(r) at a distance r, such that
gravitational potential energy. Consider points

2024-25
GRAVITATION 135

G ME m
W (r ) = − + W1 , (7.25)
r
valid for r > R ,
so that once again W12 = W(r 2 ) – W(r 1).
Setting r = infinity in the last equation, we get
W ( r = infinity ) = W1 . Thus, W1 is the potential
energy at infinity. One should note that only the
difference of potential energy between two points
has a definite meaning from Eqs. (7.22) and
(7.24). One conventionally sets W1 equal to zero,
so that the potential energy at a point is just the
amount of work done in displacing the particle
from infinity to that point.
We have calculated the potential energy at
a point of a particle due to gravitational forces Fig. 7.9
on it due to the earth and it is proportional to
the mass of the particle. The gravitational The gravitational potential at the centre of
potential due to the gravitational force of the
earth is defined as the potential energy of a
the square (r = 2 l/2 is)
particle of unit mass at that point. From the Gm
U (r ) = − 4 2 . ⊳
earlier discussion, we learn that the gravitational l
potential energy associated with two particles
of masses m1 and m2 separated by distance by a 7.8 ESCAPE SPEED
distance r is given by
If a stone is thrown by hand, we see it falls back
Gm1m 2 to the earth. Of course using machines we can
V =– (if we choose V = 0 as r → ∞ )
r shoot an object with much greater speeds and
It should be noted that an isolated system of with greater and greater initial speed, the object
particles will have the total potential energy that scales higher and higher heights. A natural
equals the sum of energies (given by the above query that arises in our mind is the following:
equation) for all possible pairs of its constituent ‘can we throw an object with such high initial
particles. This is an example of the application speeds that it does not fall back to the earth?’
of the superposition principle. The principle of conservation of energy helps
us to answer this question. Suppose the object
⊳ Example 7.3 Find the potential energy of did reach infinity and that its speed there was
a system of four particles placed at the Vf . The energy of an object is the sum of potential
vertices of a square of side l. Also obtain and kinetic energy. As before W1 denotes that
the potential at the centre of the square. gravitational potential energy of the object at
infinity. The total energy of the projectile at
infinity then is
Answer Consider four masses each of mass m
at the corners of a square of side l ; See Fig. 7.9.
We have four mass pairs at distance l and two mV f2
E ( ∞) = W1 + (7.26)
diagonal pairs at distance 2 l
2
Hence, If the object was thrown initially with a speed
Vi from a point at a distance (h+RE) from the
G m2 G m2 centre of the earth (RE = radius of the earth), its
W (r ) = − 4 −2
l 2l energy initially was
1 GmM E
2G m2  1  G m2 E (h + R E ) = mVi2 – + W1 (7.27)
=−  2 +  = − 5.41 2 (h + R E )
l  2 l

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136 PHYSICS

By the principle of energy conservation ⊳

Eqs. (7.26) and (7.27) must be equal. Hence Example 7.4 Two uniform solid spheres
2 of equal radii R, but mass M and 4 M have
mVi2 GmM E mV
= a centre to centre separation 6 R, as shown
f
– (7.28)
2 (h + R E ) 2 in Fig. 7.10. The two spheres are held fixed.
The R.H.S. is a positive quantity with a A projectile of mass m is projected from the
minimum value zero hence so must be the L.H.S. surface of the sphere of mass M directly
Thus, an object can reach infinity as long as Vi towards the centre of the second sphere.
is such that Obtain an expression for the minimum
speed v of the projectile so that it reaches
mVi2 GmM E the surface of the second sphere.
– ≥0 (7.29)
2 (h + R E )

The minimum value of Vi corresponds to the

case when the L.H.S. of Eq. (7.29) equals zero.
Thus, the minimum speed required for an object
to reach infinity (i.e. escape from the earth)
corresponds to Fig. 7.10

Answer The projectile is acted upon by two

1
2
( )
m Vi2
min
=
GmM E
h + RE (7.30) mutually opposing gravitational forces of the two
spheres. The neutral point N (see Fig. 7.10) is
defined as the position where the two forces
If the object is thrown from the surface of cancel each other exactly. If ON = r, we have
the earth, h = 0, and we get
GMm 4G M m
=
2GM E r2 (6 R −r )2
(Vi )min = (7.31) (6R – r)2 = 4r2
RE
6R – r = ±2r
r = 2R or – 6R.
The neutral point r = – 6R does not concern
Using the relation g = GM E / RE2 , we get us in this example. Thus ON = r = 2R. It is
sufficient to project the particle with a speed
(Vi )min = 2gR E (7.32) which would enable it to reach N. Thereafter,
the greater gravitational pull of 4M would
suffice. The mechanical energy at the surface
Using the value of g and RE, numerically of M is
(Vi) min≈11.2 km/s. This is called the escape
1 GMm 4G M m
speed, sometimes loosely called the escape Ei = m v2 − − .
velocity. 2 R 5R
Equation (7.32) applies equally well to an At the neutral point N, the speed approaches
object thrown from the surface of the moon with zero. The mechanical energy at N is purely
g replaced by the acceleration due to Moon’s potential.
gravity on its surface and rE replaced by the G M m 4G M m
EN = − − .
radius of the moon. Both are smaller than their 2R 4R
values on earth and the escape speed for the From the principle of conservation of
moon turns out to be 2.3 km/s, about five times mechanical energy
smaller. This is the reason that moon has no
atmosphere. Gas molecules if formed on the
surface of the moon having velocities larger than 1 2 GM 4GM GM GM
v − − =− −
this will escape the gravitational pull of the 2 R 5R 2R R
moon. or

2024-25
GRAVITATION 137

2G M  4 1  traverses a distance 2π(RE + h) with speed V. Its

v2 =  −  time period T therefore is
R  5 2
2π ( R E + h ) 2π (R E + h )3 / 2
 3G M 
1/2 T = = (7.37)
v =  ⊳ V G ME
 5R  on substitution of value of V from Eq. (7.35).
A point to note is that the speed of the projectile Squaring both sides of Eq. (7.37), we get
is zero at N, but is nonzero when it strikes the
T 2 = k ( RE + h)3 (where k = 4 π2 / GME) (7.38)
heavier sphere 4 M. The calculation of this speed
is left as an exercise to the students. which is Kepler’s law of periods, as applied to
motion of satellites around the earth. For a
7.9 EARTH SATELLITES satellite very close to the surface of earth h can
be neglected in comparison to RE in Eq. (7.38).
Earth satellites are objects which revolve around Hence, for such satellites, T is To, where
the earth. Their motion is very similar to the
motion of planets around the Sun and hence T0 = 2π R E / g (7.39)
Kepler’s laws of planetary motion are equally If we substitute the numerical values
applicable to them. In particular, their orbits g ≃ 9.8 m s-2 and RE = 6400 km., we get
around the earth are circular or elliptic. Moon is
the only natural satellite of the earth with a near 6.4 × 106
T0 = 2π s
circular orbit with a time period of approximately 9.8
27.3 days which is also roughly equal to the Which is approximately 85 minutes.
rotational period of the moon about its own axis.
⊳ Example 7.5 The planet Mars has two
Since, 1957, advances in technology have enabled
many countries including India to launch artificial moons, phobos and delmos. (i) phobos has
earth satellites for practical use in fields like a period 7 hours, 39 minutes and an orbital
telecommunication, geophysics and meteorology. radius of 9.4 ×103 km. Calculate the mass
We will consider a satellite in a circular orbit of mars. (ii) Assume that earth and mars
of a distance (RE + h ) from the centre of the earth, move in circular orbits around the sun,
where RE = radius of the earth. If m is the mass with the martian orbit being 1.52 times
of the satellite and V its speed, the centripetal the orbital radius of the earth. What is
force required for this orbit is the length of the martian year in days ?

mV 2 Answer (i) We employ Eq. (7.38) with the sun’s

F(centripetal) = (7.33)
(RE + h ) mass replaced by the martian mass Mm
2
directed towards the centre. This centripetal force 2 4π 3
is provided by the gravitational force, which is T = R
GM m
2 3
G m ME 4π R
F(gravitation) = ( R + h )2 (7.34) Mm = 2
E G T
where ME is the mass of the earth.
4 × ( 3.14) × ( 9.4) × 10
2 3 18
Equating R.H.S of Eqs. (7.33) and (7.34) and
=
cancelling out m, we get × ( 459 × 60)
-11 2
6.67 × 10
G ME
V2 = (7.35) 4 × ( 3.14 ) × ( 9.4 ) × 10
2 3 18
(RE + h ) Mm =
6.67 × ( 4.59 × 6) × 10
2 -5
Thus V decreases as h increases. From = 6.48 × 1023 kg.
equation (7.35),the speed V for h = 0 is (ii) Once again Kepler’s third law comes to our
V 2 (h = 0) = GM / R E = gRE (7.36) aid,
2 3
where we have used the relation TM R MS
2
= 3
g = GM / RE 2 . In every orbit, the satellite TE R ES

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138 PHYSICS

where RMS is the mars -sun distance and RES is  1  1 

−13 2
the earth-sun distance. = 10  d  
 ( 24 × 60 × 60) 2   (1 / 1000) 3 km3 
∴ TM = (1.52)3/2 × 365
= 1.33 ×10–14 d2 km–3
= 684 days
Using Eq. (7.38) and the given value of k,
We note that the orbits of all planets except
the time period of the moon is
Mercury and Mars are very close to being
T 2 = (1.33 × 10-14)(3.84 × 105)3
circular. For example, the ratio of the semi-
T = 27.3 d ⊳
minor to semi-major axis for our Earth is,
Note that Eq. (7.38) also holds for elliptical
b/a = 0.99986. ⊳
orbits if we replace (RE+h) by the semi-major axis
⊳ Example 7.6 Weighing the Earth : You of the ellipse. The earth will then be at one of
the foci of this ellipse.
are given the following data: g = 9.81 ms–2,
RE = 6.37×106 m, the distance to the moon R
7.10 ENERGY OF AN ORBITING SATELLITE
= 3.84×108 m and the time period of the
moon’s revolution is 27.3 days. Obtain the Using Eq. (7.35), the kinetic energy of the satellite
mass of the Earth ME in two different ways. in a circular orbit with speed v is
1
Answer From Eq. (7.12) we have K iE = m v2
2
2
g RE
ME = Gm M E
G =
2(RE + h ) , (7.40)

=
(
9.81 × 6.37 × 10 )
6 2 Considering gravitational potential energy at
infinity to be zero, the potential energy at distance
-11
6.67 × 10 (R +h) from the centre of the earth is
= 5.97× 1024 kg. e

The moon is a satellite of the Earth. From G m ME

P .E = − (7.41)
the derivation of Kepler’s third law [see Eq. (R E + h )
(7.38)]
The K.E is positive whereas the P.E is
2 3
4π R negative. However, in magnitude the K.E. is half
T2 =
G ME the P.E, so that the total E is

4π2R 3
G m ME
ME = E = K .E + P .E = − (7.42)
GT 2 2(R E + h )
4 × 3.14 × 3.14 × ( 3.84 ) × 10 The total energy of an circularly orbiting
3 24
= satellite is thus negative, with the potential
× ( 27.3 × 24 × 60 × 60)
-11 2
6.67 × 10 energy being negative but twice is magnitude of
24
= 6.02 × 10 kg the positive kinetic energy.
Both methods yield almost the same answer, When the orbit of a satellite becomes
the difference between them being less than 1%. elliptic, both the K.E. and P.E. vary from point
⊳ to point. The total energy which remains
constant is negative as in the circular orbit case.
⊳ This is what we expect, since as we have
Example 7.7 Express the constant k of Eq.
(7.38) in days and kilometres. Given discussed before if the total energy is positive or
k = 10–13 s2 m–3. The moon is at a distance zero, the object escapes to infinity. Satellites
of 3.84 × 105 km from the earth. Obtain its are always at finite distance from the earth and
time-period of revolution in days. hence their energies cannot be positive or zero.

Answer Given
k = 10–13 s2 m–3

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GRAVITATION 139

The change in the total energy is

⊳ Example 7.8 A 400 kg satellite is in a circular
∆E = Ef – Ei
orbit of radius 2RE about the Earth. How much
energy is required to transfer it to a circular
orbit of radius 4RE ? What are the changes in
G M E m  G M E m R E

the kinetic and potential energies ? = =
8 RE  R2  8
 E 
Answer Initially, g m RE 9.81 × 400 × 6.37 × 106
∆E = = = 3.13 × 109 J
G ME m 8 8
Ei = −
4 RE The kinetic energy is reduced and it mimics
While finally ∆E, namely, ∆K = Kf – Ki = – 3.13 × 109 J.
G ME m
The change in potential energy is twice the
Ef = − change in the total energy, namely
8 RE
∆V = Vf – Vi = – 6.25 × 109 J ⊳

SUMMARY

1. Newton’s law of universal gravitation states that the gravitational force of attraction between
any two particles of masses m1 and m2 separated by a distance r has the magnitude
m 1m 2
F =G 2
r
where G is the universal gravitational constant, which has the value 6.672 ×10–11 N m2 kg–2.
2. If we have to find the resultant gravitational force acting on the particle m due to a number of
masses M1, M2, ….Mn etc. we use the principle of superposition. Let F1, F2, ….Fn be the individual
forces due to M1, M2, ….Mn, each given by the law of gravitation. From the principle of superposition
each force acts independently and uninfluenced by the other bodies. The resultant force FR is
then found by vector addition
n
FR = F1 + F2 + ……+ Fn = ∑ Fi
i =1
where the symbol ‘Σ’ stands for summation.
3. Kepler’s laws of planetary motion state that
(a) All planets move in elliptical orbits with the Sun at one of the focal points
(b) The radius vector drawn from the Sun to a planet sweeps out equal areas in equal time
intervals. This follows from the fact that the force of gravitation on the planet is central
and hence angular momentum is conserved.
(c) The square of the orbital period of a planet is proportional to the cube of the semi-major
axis of the elliptical orbit of the planet
The period T and radius R of the circular orbit of a planet about the Sun are related
by
 4 π2  3
T2 =  R
G M 
 s

where Ms is the mass of the Sun. Most planets have nearly circular orbits about the Sun. For
elliptical orbits, the above equation is valid if R is replaced by the semi-major axis, a.
4. The acceleration due to gravity.
(a) at a height h above the earth’s surface
G ME
g(h ) =
(R E + h)
2

G ME  2h 
≈ 1 − R  for h << RE
R E2 E

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140 PHYSICS

 2h  G ME
g(h ) = g (0) 1 − where g (0) =
 R E  R E2
(b) at depth d below the earth’s surface is
G ME  d   d 
g (d ) = 1 − R  = g (0 ) 1 − R 
R E2 E E

5. The gravitational force is a conservative force, and therefore a potential energy function can be
defined. The gravitational potential energy associated with two particles separated by a distance
r is given by
G m1 m 2
V =−
r
where V is taken to be zero at r → ∞. The total potential energy for a system of particles is the
sum of energies for all pairs of particles, with each pair represented by a term of the form given
by above equation. This prescription follows from the principle of superposition.
6. If an isolated system consists of a particle of mass m moving with a speed v in the vicinity of a
massive body of mass M, the total mechanical energy of the particle is given by
1 GMm
E= m v2−
2 r
That is, the total mechanical energy is the sum of the kinetic and potential energies. The total
energy is a constant of motion.
7. If m moves in a circular orbit of radius a about M, where M >> m, the total energy of the system is
GMm
E =−
2a
with the choice of the arbitrary constant in the potential energy given in the point 5., above.
The total energy is negative for any bound system, that is, one in which the orbit is closed, such
as an elliptical orbit. The kinetic and potential energies are
GMm
K=
2a
GMm
V =−
a
8. The escape speed from the surface of the earth is
2 G ME
ve = = 2 gRE
RE
and has a value of 11.2 km s–1.
9. If a particle is outside a uniform spherical shell or solid sphere with a spherically symmetric
internal mass distribution, the sphere attracts the particle as though the mass of the sphere or
shell were concentrated at the centre of the sphere.
10. If a particle is inside a uniform spherical shell, the gravitational force on the particle is zero. If a
particle is inside a homogeneous solid sphere, the force on the particle acts toward the centre of the
sphere. This force is exerted by the spherical mass interior to the particle.

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GRAVITATION 141

POINTS TO PONDER
1. In considering motion of an object under the gravitational influence of another object
the following quantities are conserved:
(a) Angular momentum
(b) Total mechanical energy
Linear momentum is not conserved
2. Angular momentum conservation leads to Kepler’s second law. However, it is not special
to the inverse square law of gravitation. It holds for any central force.
3. In Kepler’s third law (see Eq. (7.1) and T2 = KS R3. The constant KS is the same for all
planets in circular orbits. This applies to satellites orbiting the Earth [(Eq. (7.38)].
4. An astronaut experiences weightlessness in a space satellite. This is not because the
gravitational force is small at that location in space. It is because both the astronaut
and the satellite are in “free fall” towards the Earth.
5. The gravitational potential energy associated with two particles separated by a distance
r is given by
G m1 m 2
V =– + constant
r
The constant can be given any value. The simplest choice is to take it to be zero. With
this choice
G m1 m 2
V =–
r
This choice implies that V → 0 as r → ∞. Choosing location of zero of the gravitational
energy is the same as choosing the arbitrary constant in the potential energy. Note that
the gravitational force is not altered by the choice of this constant.
6. The total mechanical energy of an object is the sum of its kinetic energy (which is always
positive) and the potential energy. Relative to infinity (i.e. if we presume that the potential
energy of the object at infinity is zero), the gravitational potential energy of an object is
negative. The total energy of a satellite is negative.
7. The commonly encountered expression m g h for the potential energy is actually an
approximation to the difference in the gravitational potential energy discussed in the
point 6, above.
8. Although the gravitational force between two particles is central, the force between two
finite rigid bodies is not necessarily along the line joining their centre of mass. For a
spherically symmetric body however the force on a particle external to the body is as if
the mass is concentrated at the centre and this force is therefore central.
9. The gravitational force on a particle inside a spherical shell is zero. However, (unlike a
metallic shell which shields electrical forces) the shell does not shield other bodies outside
it from exerting gravitational forces on a particle inside. Gravitational shielding is not
possible.

EXERCISES
7.1 Answer the following :
(a) You can shield a charge from electrical forces by putting it inside a hollow conductor.
Can you shield a body from the gravitational influence of nearby matter by putting
it inside a hollow sphere or by some other means ?
(b) An astronaut inside a small space ship orbiting around the earth cannot detect
gravity. If the space station orbiting around the earth has a large size, can he hope
to detect gravity ?
(c) If you compare the gravitational force on the earth due to the sun to that due
to the moon, you would find that the Sun’s pull is greater than the moon’s pull.
(you can check this yourself using the data available in the succeeding exercises).
However, the tidal effect of the moon’s pull is greater than the tidal effect of sun.
Why ?

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142 PHYSICS

7.2 Choose the correct alternative :

(a) Acceleration due to gravity increases/decreases with increasing altitude.
(b) Acceleration due to gravity increases/decreases with increasing depth (assume the
earth to be a sphere of uniform density).
(c) Acceleration due to gravity is independent of mass of the earth/mass of the body.
(d) The formula –G Mm(1/r 2 – 1/r 1 ) is more/less accurate than the formula
mg(r2 – r1) for the difference of potential energy between two points r2 and r1 distance
away from the centre of the earth.
7.3 Suppose there existed a planet that went around the Sun twice as fast as the earth.
What would be its orbital size as compared to that of the earth ?
7.4 Io, one of the satellites of Jupiter, has an orbital period of 1.769 days and the radius
of the orbit is 4.22 × 108 m. Show that the mass of Jupiter is about one-thousandth
that of the sun.
7.5 Let us assume that our galaxy consists of 2.5 × 1011 stars each of one solar mass. How
long will a star at a distance of 50,000 ly from the galactic centre take to complete one
revolution ? Take the diameter of the Milky Way to be 105 ly.
7.6 Choose the correct alternative:
(a) If the zero of potential energy is at infinity, the total energy of an orbiting satellite
is negative of its kinetic/potential energy.
(b) The energy required to launch an orbiting satellite out of earth’s gravitational
influence is more/less than the energy required to project a stationary object at
the same height (as the satellite) out of earth’s influence.
7.7 Does the escape speed of a body from the earth depend on (a) the mass of the body, (b)
the location from where it is projected, (c) the direction of projection, (d) the height of
the location from where the body is launched?
7.8 A comet orbits the sun in a highly elliptical orbit. Does the comet have a constant (a)
linear speed, (b) angular speed, (c) angular momentum, (d) kinetic energy, (e) potential
energy, (f) total energy throughout its orbit? Neglect any mass loss of the comet when
it comes very close to the Sun.
7.9 Which of the following symptoms is likely to afflict an astronaut in space (a) swollen
feet, (b) swollen face, (c) headache, (d) orientational problem.
7.10 In the following two exercises, choose the correct answer from among the given ones:
The gravitational intensity at the centre of a hemispherical shell of uniform mass
density has the direction indicated by the arrow (see Fig 7.11) (i) a, (ii) b, (iii) c, (iv) 0.

Fig. 7.11

7.11 For the above problem, the direction of the gravitational intensity at an arbitrary
point P is indicated by the arrow (i) d, (ii) e, (iii) f, (iv) g.
7.12 A rocket is fired from the earth towards the sun. At what distance from the earth’s
centre is the gravitational force on the rocket zero ? Mass of the sun = 2×1030 kg,
mass of the earth = 6×1024 kg. Neglect the effect of other planets etc. (orbital radius
= 1.5 × 1011 m).
7.13 How will you ‘weigh the sun’, that is estimate its mass? The mean orbital radius of
the earth around the sun is 1.5 × 108 km.
7.14 A saturn year is 29.5 times the earth year. How far is the saturn from the sun if the
earth is 1.50 × 108 km away from the sun ?
7.15 A body weighs 63 N on the surface of the earth. What is the gravitational force on it
due to the earth at a height equal to half the radius of the earth ?

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GRAVITATION 143

7.16 Assuming the earth to be a sphere of uniform mass density, how much would a
body weigh half way down to the centre of the earth if it weighed 250 N on the
surface ?
7.17 A rocket is fired vertically with a speed of 5 km s-1 from the earth’s surface. How far
from the earth does the rocket go before returning to the earth ? Mass of the earth
= 6.0 × 1024 kg; mean radius of the earth = 6.4 × 106 m; G = 6.67 × 10–11 N m2 kg–2.
7.18 The escape speed of a projectile on the earth’s surface is 11.2 km s–1. A body is
projected out with thrice this speed. What is the speed of the body far away from
the earth? Ignore the presence of the sun and other planets.
7.19 A satellite orbits the earth at a height of 400 km above the surface. How much
energy must be expended to rocket the satellite out of the earth’s gravitational
influence? Mass of the satellite = 200 kg; mass of the earth = 6.0×1024 kg; radius of
the earth = 6.4 × 106 m; G = 6.67 × 10–11 N m2 kg–2.
7.20 Two stars each of one solar mass (= 2×1030 kg) are approaching each other for a
head on collision. When they are a distance 109 km, their speeds are negligible.
What is the speed with which they collide ? The radius of each star is 104 km.
Assume the stars to remain undistorted until they collide. (Use the known value
of G).
7.21 Two heavy spheres each of mass 100 kg and radius 0.10 m are placed 1.0 m apart on
a horizontal table. What is the gravitational force and potential at the mid point of
the line joining the centres of the spheres ? Is an object placed at that point in
equilibrium? If so, is the equilibrium stable or unstable ?

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 CHAPTER EIGHT

MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF SOLIDS

8.1 INTRODUCTION
In Chapter 6, we studied the rotation of the bodies and then
realised that the motion of a body depends on how mass is
8.1 Introduction distributed within the body. We restricted ourselves to simpler
8.2 Stress and strain situations of rigid bodies. A rigid body generally means a
8.3 Hooke’s law hard solid object having a definite shape and size. But in
8.4 Stress-strain curve reality, bodies can be stretched, compressed and bent. Even
8.5 Elastic moduli the appreciably rigid steel bar can be deformed when a
8.6 Applications of elastic sufficiently large external force is applied on it. This means
behaviour of materials that solid bodies are not perfectly rigid.
A solid has definite shape and size. In order to change (or
Summary
deform) the shape or size of a body, a force is required. If
Points to ponder
you stretch a helical spring by gently pulling its ends, the
Exercises
length of the spring increases slightly. When you leave the
ends of the spring, it regains its original size and shape. The
property of a body, by virtue of which it tends to regain its
original size and shape when the applied force is removed, is
known as elasticity and the deformation caused is known
as elastic deformation. However, if you apply force to a lump
of putty or mud, they have no gross tendency to regain their
previous shape, and they get permanently deformed. Such
substances are called plastic and this property is called
plasticity. Putty and mud are close to ideal plastics.
The elastic behaviour of materials plays an important role
in engineering design. For example, while designing a
building, knowledge of elastic properties of materials like steel,
concrete etc. is essential. The same is true in the design of
bridges, automobiles, ropeways etc. One could also ask —
Can we design an aeroplane which is very light but
sufficiently strong? Can we design an artificial limb which
is lighter but stronger? Why does a railway track have a
particular shape like I? Why is glass brittle while brass is
not? Answers to such questions begin with the study of how
relatively simple kinds of loads or forces act to deform
different solids bodies. In this chapter, we shall study the

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168 PHYSICS

elastic behaviour and mechanical properties of

∆L
solids which would answer many such Longitudinal strain = (8.2)
questions. L
However, if two equal and opposite deforming
8.2 STRESS AND STRAIN
forces are applied parallel to the cross-sectional
When forces are applied on a body in such a area of the cylinder, as shown in Fig. 8.1(b),
manner that the body is still in static equilibrium, there is relative displacement between the
it is deformed to a small or large extent depending opposite faces of the cylinder. The restoring force
upon the nature of the material of the body and per unit area developed due to the applied
the magnitude of the deforming force. The tangential force is known as tangential or
deformation may not be noticeable visually in shearing stress.
many materials but it is there. When a body is As a result of applied tangential force, there
subjected to a deforming force, a restoring force is a relative displacement ∆x between opposite
is developed in the body. This restoring force is faces of the cylinder as shown in the Fig. 8.1(b).
equal in magnitude but opposite in direction to The strain so produced is known as shearing
the applied force. The restoring force per unit area strain and it is defined as the ratio of relative
is known as stress. If F is the force applied normal displacement of the faces ∆x to the length of the
to the cross–section and A is the area of cross cylinder L.
section of the body,
∆x
Magnitude of the stress = F/A (8.1) Shearing strain = = tan θ (8.3)
The SI unit of stress is N m–2 or pascal (Pa) L
and its dimensional formula is [ ML–1T–2 ]. where θ is the angular displacement of the
There are three ways in which a solid may
cylinder from the vertical (original position of the
change its dimensions when an external force
cylinder). Usually θ is very small, tan θ
acts on it. These are shown in Fig. 8.1. In
is nearly equal to angle θ , (if θ = 10°, for
Fig.8.1(a), a cylinder is stretched by two equal
example, there is only 1% difference between θ
forces applied normal to its cross-sectional area.
and tan θ).
The restoring force per unit area in this case is
It can also be visualised, when a book is
called tensile stress. If the cylinder is
pressed with the hand and pushed horizontally,
compressed under the action of applied forces,
as shown in Fig. 8.2 (c).
the restoring force per unit area is known as
Thus, shearing strain = tan θ ≈ θ (8.4)
compressive stress. Tensile or compressive
In Fig. 8.1 (d), a solid sphere placed in the fluid
stress can also be termed as longitudinal stress.
under high pressure is compressed uniformly on
In both the cases, there is a change in the
all sides. The force applied by the fluid acts in
length of the cylinder. The change in the length
perpendicular direction at each point of the
∆L to the original length L of the body (cylinder surface and the body is said to be under
in this case) is known as longitudinal strain. hydraulic compression. This leads to decrease

(a) (b) (c) (d)

Fig. 8.1 (a) A cylindrical body under tensile stress elongates by ∆L (b) Shearing stress on a cylinder deforming it by
an angle θ (c) A body subjected to shearing stress (d) A solid body under a stress normal to the surface at
every point (hydraulic stress). The volumetric strain is ∆V/V, but there is no change in shape.

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MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF SOLIDS 169

in its volume without any change of its compression and shear stress may also be
geometrical shape. obtained. The stress-strain curves vary from
The body develops internal restoring forces material to material. These curves help us to
that are equal and opposite to the forces applied understand how a given material deforms with
by the fluid (the body restores its original shape increasing loads. From the graph, we can see
and size when taken out from the fluid). The that in the region between O to A, the curve is
internal restoring force per unit area in this case linear. In this region, Hooke’s law is obeyed.
is known as hydraulic stress and in magnitude The body regains its original dimensions when
is equal to the hydraulic pressure (applied force the applied force is removed. In this region, the
per unit area). solid behaves as an elastic body.
The strain produced by a hydraulic pressure
is called volume strain and is defined as the
ratio of change in volume (∆V) to the original
volume (V ).
∆V
Volume strain = (8.5)
V
Since the strain is a ratio of change in
dimension to the original dimension, it has no
units or dimensional formula.

8.3 HOOKE’S LAW

Stress and strain take different forms in the
situations depicted in the Fig. (8.1). For small
deformations the stress and strain are
proportional to each other. This is known as Fig. 8.2 A typical stress-strain curve for a metal.
Hooke’s law.
Thus, In the region from A to B, stress and strain
stress ∝ strain are not proportional. Nevertheless, the body still
stress = k × strain (8.6) returns to its original dimension when the load
where k is the proportionality constant and is is removed. The point B in the curve is known
known as modulus of elasticity. as yield point (also known as elastic limit) and
Hooke’s law is an empirical law and is found the corresponding stress is known as yield
to be valid for most materials. However, there strength (σy ) of the material.
are some materials which do not exhibit this If the load is increased further, the stress
linear relationship. developed exceeds the yield strength and strain
increases rapidly even for a small change in the
8.4 STRESS-STRAIN CURVE stress. The portion of the curve between B and
D shows this. When the load is removed, say at
The relation between the stress and the strain some point C between B and D, the body does
for a given material under tensile stress can be not regain its original dimension. In this case,
found experimentally. In a standard test of even when the stress is zero, the strain is not
tensile properties, a test cylinder or a wire is zero. The material is said to have a permanent
stretched by an applied force. The fractional set. The deformation is said to be plastic
change in length (the strain) and the applied deformation. The point D on the graph is the
force needed to cause the strain are recorded. ultimate tensile strength (σu ) of the material.
The applied force is gradually increased in steps Beyond this point, additional strain is produced
and the change in length is noted. A graph is even by a reduced applied force and fracture
plotted between the stress (which is equal in occurs at point E. If the ultimate strength and
magnitude to the applied force per unit area) and fracture points D and E are close, the material
the strain produced. A typical graph for a metal is said to be brittle. If they are far apart, the
is shown in Fig. 8.2. Analogous graphs for material is said to be ductile.

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170 PHYSICS

8.5 ELASTIC MODULI

The proportional region within the elastic limit
of the stress-strain curve (region OA in Fig. 8.2)
is of great importance for structural and
manufacturing engineering designs. The ratio
of stress and strain, called modulus of elasticity,
is found to be a characteristic of the material.

8.5.1 Young’s Modulus

Experimental observation show that for a given
material, the magnitude of the strain produced
is same whether the stress is tensile or
compressive. The ratio of tensile (or compressive)
stress (σ ) to the longitudinal strain (ε) is defined as
Fig. 8.3 Stress-strain curve for the elastic tissue of Young’s modulus and is denoted by the symbol Y.
Aorta, the large tube (vessel) carrying blood
from the heart. σ
Y= (8.7)
As stated earlier, the stress-strain behaviour ε
varies from material to material. For example, From Eqs. (8.1) and (8.2), we have
rubber can be pulled to several times its original
length and still returns to its original shape. Fig. Y = (F/A)/(∆L/L)
8.3 shows stress-strain curve for the elastic = (F × L) /(A × ∆L) (8.8)
tissue of aorta, present in the heart. Note that Since strain is a dimensionless quantity, the
although elastic region is very large, the material unit of Young’s modulus is the same as that of
does not obey Hooke’s law over most of the region. stress i.e., N m–2 or Pascal (Pa). Table 8.1 gives
Secondly, there is no well defined plastic region. the values of Young’s moduli and yield strengths
Substances like tissue of aorta, rubber etc. of some material.
which can be stretched to cause large strains From the data given in Table 8.1, it is noticed
are called elastomers. that for metals Young’s moduli are large.

Table 8.1 Young’s moduli and yield strenghs of some material

# Substance tested under compression

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MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF SOLIDS 171

Therefore, these materials require a large force Answer The copper and steel wires are under
to produce small change in length. To increase a tensile stress because they have the same
the length of a thin steel wire of 0.1 cm2 cross- tension (equal to the load W) and the same area
sectional area by 0.1%, a force of 2000 N is of cross-section A. From Eq. (8.7) we have stress
required. The force required to produce the same = strain × Young’s modulus. Therefore
strain in aluminium, brass and copper wires W/A = Yc × (∆Lc/Lc) = Ys × (∆Ls/Ls)
having the same cross-sectional area are 690 N, where the subscripts c and s refer to copper
900 N and 1100 N respectively. It means that and stainless steel respectively. Or,
steel is more elastic than copper, brass and ∆Lc/∆Ls = (Ys/Yc) × (Lc/Ls)
aluminium. It is for this reason that steel is Given Lc = 2.2 m, Ls = 1.6 m,
preferred in heavy-duty machines and in From Table 9.1 Yc = 1.1 × 1011 N.m–2, and
structural designs. Wood, bone, concrete and Ys = 2.0 × 1011 N.m–2.
glass have rather small Young’s moduli. ∆Lc/∆Ls = (2.0 × 10 /1.1 × 1011) × (2.2/1.6) = 2.5.
11

The total elongation is given to be

u Example 8.1 A structural steel rod has a ∆Lc + ∆Ls = 7.0 × 10-4 m
radius of 10 mm and a length of 1.0 m. A Solving the above equations,
100 kN force stretches it along its length. ∆Lc = 5.0 × 10-4 m, and ∆Ls = 2.0 × 10-4 m.
Calculate (a) stress, (b) elongation, and (c) Therefore
strain on the rod. Young’s modulus, of W = (A × Yc × ∆Lc)/Lc
structural steel is 2.0 × 1011 N m-2. = π (1.5 × 10-3)2 × [(5.0 × 10-4 × 1.1 × 1011)/2.2]
= 1.8 × 102 N ⊳
Answer We assume that the rod is held by a
clamp at one end, and the force F is applied at uExample 8.3 In a human pyramid in a
the other end, parallel to the length of the rod.
circus, the entire weight of the balanced
Then the stress on the rod is given by
group is supported by the legs of a performer
F F who is lying on his back (as shown in Fig.
Stress = =
A πr
2 8.4). The combined mass of all the persons
performing the act, and the tables, plaques
100 × 10 N
3
= etc. involved is 280 kg. The mass of the
( )
−2 2
3.14 × 10 m performer lying on his back at the bottom of
= 3.18 × 108 N m–2 the pyramid is 60 kg. Each thighbone (femur)
The elongation, of this performer has a length of 50 cm and
an effective radius of 2.0 cm. Determine the
( F/A ) L amount by which each thighbone gets
∆L =
Y compressed under the extra load.
(3.18 × 10 8
N m
–2
) (1m )
= 11 –2
2 × 10 N m
= 1.59 × 10–3 m
= 1.59 mm
The strain is given by
Strain = ∆L/L
= (1.59 × 10–3 m)/(1m)
= 1.59 × 10–3
= 0.16 % ⊳

u Example 8.2 A copper wire of length 2.2 m

and a steel wire of length 1.6 m, both of
diameter 3.0 mm, are connected end to end.
When stretched by a load, the net
elongation is found to be 0.70 mm. Obtain
the load applied. Fig. 8.4 Human pyramid in a circus.

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172 PHYSICS

Answer Total mass of all the performers, tables, Table 8.2 Shear moduli (G) of some common
materials
plaques etc. = 280 kg
Mass of the performer = 60 kg
Material G (109 Nm–2
Mass supported by the legs of the performer or GPa)
at the bottom of the pyramid
Aluminium 25
= 280 – 60 = 220 kg
Brass 36
Weight of this supported mass
Copper 42
= 220 kg wt. = 220 × 9.8 N = 2156 N. Glass 23
Weight supported by each thighbone of the Iron 70
performer = ½ (2156) N = 1078 N. Lead 5.6
From Table 9.1, the Young’s modulus for bone Nickel 77
is given by Steel 84
Y = 9.4 × 109 N m–2. Tungsten 150
Length of each thighbone L = 0.5 m Wood 10
the radius of thighbone = 2.0 cm
Thus the cross-sectional area of the thighbone u Example 8.4 A square lead slab of side 50
A = π × (2 × 10-2)2 m2 = 1.26 × 10-3 m2. cm and thickness 10 cm is subject to a
shearing force (on its narrow face) of 9.0 ×
Using Eq. (9.8), the compression in each
104 N. The lower edge is riveted to the floor.
thighbone (∆L) can be computed as How much will the upper edge be displaced?
∆L = [(F × L)/(Y × A)]
= [(1078 × 0.5)/(9.4 × 109 × 1.26 × 10-3)]
Answer The lead slab is fixed and the force is
= 4.55 × 10-5 m or 4.55 × 10-3 cm. applied parallel to the narrow face as shown in
This is a very small change! The fractional Fig. 8.6. The area of the face parallel to which
decrease in the thighbone is ∆L/L = 0.000091 or this force is applied is
0.0091%. ⊳ A = 50 cm × 10 cm
= 0.5 m × 0.1 m
8.5.2 Shear Modulus
= 0.05 m2
The ratio of shearing stress to the corresponding
Therefore, the stress applied is
shearing strain is called the shear modulus of = (9.4 × 104 N/0.05 m2)
the material and is represented by G. It is also = 1.80 × 106 N.m–2
called the modulus of rigidity.
G = shearing stress (σs)/shearing strain
G = (F/A)/(∆x/L)
= (F × L)/(A × ∆x) (8.10)
Similarly, from Eq. (9.4)
G = (F/A)/θ
= F/(A × θ) (8.11)
The shearing stress σs can also be expressed as
aaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaa
σs = G × θ (8.12)
aaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaa
SI unit of shear modulus is N m–2 or Pa. The
Fig. 8.5
shear moduli of a few common materials are
given in Table 9.2. It can be seen that shear We know that shearing strain = (∆x/L)= Stress /G.
modulus (or modulus of rigidity) is generally less Therefore the displacement ∆x = (Stress × L)/G
than Young’s modulus (from Table 9.1). For most = (1.8 × 106 N m–2 × 0.5m)/(5.6 × 109 N m–2)
materials G ≈ Y/3. = 1.6 × 10–4 m = 0.16 mm ⊳

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MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF SOLIDS 173

8.5.3 Bulk Modulus Table 8.3 Bulk moduli (B) of some common
Materials
In Section (8.3), we have seen that when a body
is submerged in a fluid, it undergoes a hydraulic Material B (109 N m–2 or GPa)
stress (equal in magnitude to the hydraulic Solids
pressure). This leads to the decrease in the
volume of the body thus producing a strain called Aluminium 72
volume strain [Eq. (8.5)]. The ratio of hydraulic Brass 61
stress to the corresponding hydraulic strain is
called bulk modulus. It is denoted by symbol B. Copper 140
B = – p/(∆V/V) (8.12) Glass 37
The negative sign indicates the fact that with
Iron 100
an increase in pressure, a decrease in volume
occurs. That is, if p is positive, ∆V is negative. Nickel 260
Thus for a system in equilibrium, the value of
Steel 160
bulk modulus B is always positive. SI unit of
bulk modulus is the same as that of pressure Liquids
i.e., N m–2 or Pa. The bulk moduli of a few common
Water 2.2
materials are given in Table 8.3.
The reciprocal of the bulk modulus is called Ethanol 0.9
compressibility and is denoted by k. It is defined
Carbon disulphide 1.56
as the fractional change in volume per unit
increase in pressure. Glycerine 4.76
k = (1/B) = – (1/∆p) × (∆V/V) (8.13) Mercury 25
It can be seen from the data given in Table
8.3 that the bulk moduli for solids are much Gases
larger than for liquids, which are again much Air (at STP) 1.0 × 10–4
larger than the bulk modulus for gases (air).

Table 8.4 Stress, strain and various elastic moduli

Type of Stress Strain Change in Elastic Name of State of

stress shape volume Modulus Modulus Matter

Tensile Two equal and Elongation or Yes No Y = (F×L)/ Young’s Solid

or opposite forces compression (A×∆L) modulus
compressive perpendicular to parallel to force
(σ = F/A) opposite faces direction (∆L/L)
(longitudinal strain)

Shearing Two equal and Pure shear, θ Yes No G = F/(A×θ) Shear Solid
(σs = F/A) opposite forces modulus
parallel to oppoiste or modulus
surfaces forces of rigidity
in each case such
that total force and
total torque on the
body vanishes

Hydraulic Forces perpendicular Volume change No Yes B = –p/(∆V/V) Bulk Solid, liquid
everywhere to the (compression or modulus and gas
surface, force per elongation)
unit area (pressure) (∆V/V)
same everywhere.

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174 PHYSICS

Thus, solids are the least compressible, whereas, 8.5.5 Elastic Potential Energy
gases are the most compressible. Gases are about in a Stretched Wire
a million times more compressible than solids! When a wire is put under a tensile stress, work
Gases have large compressibilities, which vary is done against the inter-atomic forces. This
with pressure and temperature. The work is stored in the wire in the form of elastic
incompressibility of the solids is primarily due potential energy. When a wire of original length
to the tight coupling between the neighbouring L and area of cross-section A is subjected to a
atoms. The molecules in liquids are also bound deforming force F along the length of the wire,
with their neighbours but not as strong as in let the length of the wire be elongated by l. Then
solids. Molecules in gases are very poorly from Eq. (8.8), we have F = YA × (l/L). Here Y is
coupled to their neighbours. the Young’s modulus of the material of the wire.
Table 8.4 shows the various types of stress, Now for a further elongation of infinitesimal
strain, elastic moduli, and the applicable state small length dl, work done dW is F × dl or YAldl/
of matter at a glance. L. Therefore, the amount of work done (W) in
increasing the length of the wire from L to L + l,
u Example 8.5 The average depth of Indian that is from l = 0 to l = l is
Ocean is about 3000 m. Calculate the YAl YA l 2
fractional compression, ∆V/V, of water at W= ∫0
l
dl = ×
L 2 L
the bottom of the ocean, given that the bulk 2
modulus of water is 2.2 × 109 N m–2. (Take 1 l 
g = 10 m s–2) W = × Y ×   × AL
2 L 
1
= × Young’s modulus × strain2 ×
Answer The pressure exerted by a 3000 m
column of water on the bottom layer 2
p = hρ g = 3000 m × 1000 kg m–3 × 10 m s–2 volume of the wire
= 3 × 107 kg m–1 s-2 1
= 3 × 107 N m–2 = × stress × strain × volume of the
2
Fractional compression ∆V/V, is wire
∆V/V = stress/B = (3 × 107 N m-2)/(2.2 × 109 N m–2) This work is stored in the wire in the form of
= 1.36 × 10-2 or 1.36 % ⊳ elastic potential energy (U). Therefore the elastic
potential energy per unit volume of the wire (u) is

1
8.5.4 POISSON’S RATIO u= ×σ ε (8.14)
2
The strain perpendicular to the applied force is
called lateral strain. Simon Poisson pointed out 8.6 APPLICATIONS OF ELASTIC
that within the elastic limit, lateral strain is BEHAVIOUR OF MATERIALS
directly proportional to the longitudinal strain. The elastic behaviour of materials plays an
The ratio of the lateral strain to the longitudinal important role in everyday life. All engineering
strain in a stretched wire is called Poisson’s designs require precise knowledge of the elastic
ratio. If the original diameter of the wire is d behaviour of materials. For example while
and the contraction of the diameter under stress designing a building, the structural design of
is ∆d, the lateral strain is ∆d/d. If the original the columns, beams and supports require
length of the wire is L and the elongation under knowledge of strength of materials used. Have
stress is ∆L, the longitudinal strain is ∆L/L. you ever thought why the beams used in
Poisson’s ratio is then (∆d/d)/(∆L/L) or (∆d/∆L) construction of bridges, as supports etc. have
× (L/d). Poisson’s ratio is a ratio of two strains; a cross-section of the type I? Why does a heap
it is a pure number and has no dimensions or of sand or a hill have a pyramidal shape?
units. Its value depends only on the nature of Answers to these questions can be obtained
material. For steels the value is between 0.28 and from the study of structural engineering which
0.30, and for aluminium alloys it is about 0.33. is based on concepts developed here.

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MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF SOLIDS 175

Cranes used for lifting and moving heavy loads This relation can be derived using what you
from one place to another have a thick metal have already learnt and a little calculus. From
rope to which the load is attached. The rope is Eq. (8.16), we see that to reduce the bending
pulled up using pulleys and motors. Suppose we for a given load, one should use a material with
want to make a crane, which has a lifting a large Young’s modulus Y. For a given material,
capacity of 10 tonnes or metric tons (1 metric increasing the depth d rather than the breadth
ton = 1000 kg). How thick should the steel rope b is more effective in reducing the bending, since
be? We obviously want that the load does not
δ is proportional to d -3 and only to b-1(of course
deform the rope permanently. Therefore, the
the length l of the span should be as small as
extension should not exceed the elastic limit.
From Table 8.1, we find that mild steel has a possible). But on increasing the depth, unless
yield strength (σy) of about 300 × 106 N m–2. Thus, the load is exactly at the right place (difficult to
the area of cross-section (A) of the rope should arrange in a bridge with moving traffic), the
at least be deep bar may bend as shown in Fig. 8.7(b). This
A ≥ W/σy = Mg/σy (8.15) is called buckling. To avoid this, a common
= (104 kg × 9.8 m s-2)/(300 × 106 N m-2) compromise is the cross-sectional shape shown
= 3.3 × 10-4 m2 in Fig. 8.7(c). This section provides a large load-
corresponding to a radius of about 1 cm for a bearing surface and enough depth to prevent
rope of circular cross-section. Generally a bending. This shape reduces the weight of the
large margin of safety (of about a factor of ten beam without sacrificing the strength and
in the load) is provided. Thus a thicker rope of hence reduces the cost.
radius about 3 cm is recommended. A single
wire of this radius would practically be a rigid
rod. So the ropes are always made of a number
of thin wires braided together, like in pigtails,
for ease in manufacture, flexibility and strength.
A bridge has to be designed such that it can
withstand the load of the flowing traffic, the force
of winds and its own weight. Similarly, in the
design of buildings the use of beams and columns
is very common. In both the cases, the
overcoming of the problem of bending of beam
under a load is of prime importance. The beam
should not bend too much or break. Let us
consider the case of a beam loaded at the centre
and supported near its ends as shown in
Fig. 8.6. A bar of length l, breadth b, and depth
d when loaded at the centre by a load W sags by (a) (b) (c)
an amount given by Fig. 8.7 Different cross-sectional shapes of a
beam. (a) Rectangular section of a bar;
δ = W l 3/(4bd 3Y) (8.16)
(b) A thin bar and how it can buckle;
(c) Commonly used section for a load
bearing bar.
The use of pillars or columns is also very
common in buildings and bridges. A pillar with
rounded ends as shown in Fig. 8.9(a) supports
less load than that with a distributed shape at
the ends [Fig. 8.9(b)]. The precise design of a
bridge or a building has to take into account
the conditions under which it will function, the
Fig. 8.6 A beam supported at the ends and loaded cost and long period, reliability of usable
at the centre. material, etc.

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176 PHYSICS

shearing stress to the rocks under which they

can flow. The stress due to all the material on
the top should be less than the critical shearing
stress at which the rocks flow.
At the bottom of a mountain of height h, the
force per unit area due to the weight of the
mountain is hρg where ρ is the density of the
material of the mountain and g is the acceleration
due to gravity. The material at the bottom
experiences this force in the vertical direction,
and the sides of the mountain are free. Therefore,
(a) (b)
this is not a case of pressure or bulk compression.
There is a shear component, approximately hρg
Fig. 8.8 Pillars or columns: (a) a pillar with rounded itself. Now the elastic limit for a typical rock is
ends, (b) Pillar with distributed ends. 30 × 107 N m-2 . Equating this to hρg, with
The answer to the question why the maximum ρ = 3 × 103 kg m-3 gives
height of a mountain on earth is ~10 km can hρg = 30 × 107 N m-2 .
also be provided by considering the elastic h = 30 × 107 N m-2/(3 × 103 kg m-3 × 10 m s-2)
properties of rocks. A mountain base is not under = 10 km
uniform compression and this provides some which is more than the height of Mt. Everest!

SUMMARY

1. Stress is the restoring force per unit area and strain is the fractional change in dimension.
In general there are three types of stresses (a) tensile stress — longitudinal stress
(associated with stretching) or compressive stress (associated with compression),
(b) shearing stress, and (c) hydraulic stress.
2. For small deformations, stress is directly proportional to the strain for many materials.
This is known as Hooke’s law. The constant of proportionality is called modulus of
elasticity. Three elastic moduli viz., Young’s modulus, shear modulus and bulk modulus
are used to describe the elastic behaviour of objects as they respond to deforming forces
that act on them.
A class of solids called elastomers does not obey Hooke’s law.
3. When an object is under tension or compression, the Hooke’s law takes the form
F/A = Y∆L/L
where ∆L/L is the tensile or compressive strain of the object, F is the magnitude of the
applied force causing the strain, A is the cross-sectional area over which F is applied
(perpendicular to A) and Y is the Young’s modulus for the object. The stress is F/A.
4. A pair of forces when applied parallel to the upper and lower faces, the solid deforms so
that the upper face moves sideways with respect to the lower. The horizontal displacement
∆L of the upper face is perpendicular to the vertical height L. This type of deformation is
called shear and the corresponding stress is the shearing stress. This type of stress is
possible only in solids.
In this kind of deformation the Hooke’s law takes the form
F/A = G × ∆L/L
where ∆L is the displacement of one end of object in the direction of the applied force F,
and G is the shear modulus.
5. When an object undergoes hydraulic compression due to a stress exerted by a surrounding
fluid, the Hooke’s law takes the form
p = B (∆V/V),
where p is the pressure (hydraulic stress) on the object due to the fluid, ∆V/V (the
volume strain) is the absolute fractional change in the object’s volume due to that
pressure and B is the bulk modulus of the object.

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MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF SOLIDS 177

POINTS TO PONDER

1. In the case of a wire, suspended from celing and stretched under the action of a weight (F)
suspended from its other end, the force exerted by the ceiling on it is equal and opposite to
the weight. However, the tension at any cross-section A of the wire is just F and not 2F.
Hence, tensile stress which is equal to the tension per unit area is equal to F/A.
2. Hooke’s law is valid only in the linear part of stress-strain curve.
3. The Young’s modulus and shear modulus are relevant only for solids since only solids
have lengths and shapes.
4. Bulk modulus is relevant for solids, liquid and gases. It refers to the change in volume
when every part of the body is under the uniform stress so that the shape of the body
remains unchanged.
5. Metals have larger values of Young’s modulus than alloys and elastomers. A material
with large value of Young’s modulus requires a large force to produce small changes in its
length.
6. In daily life, we feel that a material which stretches more is more elastic, but it a is
misnomer. In fact material which stretches to a lesser extent for a given load is considered
to be more elastic.
7. In general, a deforming force in one direction can produce strains in other directions
also. The proportionality between stress and strain in such situations cannot be described
by just one elastic constant. For example, for a wire under longitudinal strain, the
lateral dimensions (radius of cross section) will undergo a small change, which is described
by another elastic constant of the material (called Poisson ratio).
8. Stress is not a vector quantity since, unlike a force, the stress cannot be assigned a
specific direction. Force acting on the portion of a body on a specified side of a section
has a definite direction.

EXERCISES

8.1 A steel wire of length 4.7 m and cross-sectional area 3.0 × 10-5 m2 stretches by the same
amount as a copper wire of length 3.5 m and cross-sectional area of 4.0 × 10–5 m2 under
a given load. What is the ratio of the Young’s modulus of steel to that of copper?

8.2 Figure 8.9 shows the strain-stress curve for a given material. What are (a) Young’s
modulus and (b) approximate yield strength for this material?

Fig. 8.9

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178 PHYSICS

8.3 The stress-strain graphs for materials A and B are shown in Fig. 8.10.

Fig. 8.10
The graphs are drawn to the same scale.
(a) Which of the materials has the greater Young’s modulus?
(b) Which of the two is the stronger material?

8.4 Read the following two statements below carefully and state, with reasons, if it is true
or false.
(a) The Young’s modulus of rubber is greater than that of steel;
(b) The stretching of a coil is determined by its shear modulus.

8.5 Two wires of diameter 0.25 cm, one made of steel and the other made of brass are loaded
as shown in Fig. 8.11. The unloaded length of steel wire is 1.5 m and that of brass wire
is 1.0 m. Compute the elongations of the steel and the brass wires.

Fig. 8.11
8.6 The edge of an aluminium cube is 10 cm long. One face of the cube is firmly fixed to a
vertical wall. A mass of 100 kg is then attached to the opposite face of the cube. The
shear modulus of aluminium is 25 GPa. What is the vertical deflection of this face?
8.7 Four identical hollow cylindrical columns of mild steel support a big structure of mass
50,000 kg. The inner and outer radii of each column are 30 and 60 cm respectively.
Assuming the load distribution to be uniform, calculate the compressional strain of
each column.
8.8 A piece of copper having a rectangular cross-section of 15.2 mm × 19.1 mm is pulled in
tension with 44,500 N force, producing only elastic deformation. Calculate the resulting
strain?
8.9 A steel cable with a radius of 1.5 cm supports a chairlift at a ski area. If the maximum
stress is not to exceed 108 N m–2, what is the maximum load the cable can support ?
8.10 A rigid bar of mass 15 kg is supported symmetrically by three wires each 2.0 m long.
Those at each end are of copper and the middle one is of iron. Determine the ratios of
their diameters if each is to have the same tension.
8.11 A 14.5 kg mass, fastened to the end of a steel wire of unstretched length 1.0 m, is
whirled in a vertical circle with an angular velocity of 2 rev/s at the bottom of the circle.
The cross-sectional area of the wire is 0.065 cm2. Calculate the elongation of the wire
when the mass is at the lowest point of its path.

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MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF SOLIDS 179

8.12 Compute the bulk modulus of water from the following data: Initial volume = 100.0
litre, Pressure increase = 100.0 atm (1 atm = 1.013 × 105 Pa), Final volume = 100.5 litre.
Compare the bulk modulus of water with that of air (at constant temperature). Explain
in simple terms why the ratio is so large.
8.13 What is the density of water at a depth where pressure is 80.0 atm, given that its
density at the surface is 1.03 × 103 kg m–3?
8.14 Compute the fractional change in volume of a glass slab, when subjected to a hydraulic
pressure of 10 atm.
8.15 Determine the volume contraction of a solid copper cube, 10 cm on an edge, when
subjected to a hydraulic pressure of 7.0 × 106 Pa.
8.16 How much should the pressure on a litre of water be changed to compress it by 0.10%?
carry one quarter of the load.

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 CHAPTER NINE

MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS

9.1 INTRODUCTION
In this chapter, we shall study some common physical
properties of liquids and gases. Liquids and gases can flow
9.1 Introduction and are therefore, called fluids. It is this property that
9.2 Pressure distinguishes liquids and gases from solids in a basic way.
9.3 Streamline flow Fluids are everywhere around us. Earth has an envelop of
9.4 Bernoulli’s principle air and two-thirds of its surface is covered with water. Water
9.5 Viscosity is not only necessary for our existence; every mammalian
9.6 Surface tension
body constitute mostly of water. All the processes occurring
in living beings including plants are mediated by fluids. Thus
Summary understanding the behaviour and properties of fluids is
Points to ponder important.
Exercises How are fluids different from solids? What is common in
Additional exercises liquids and gases? Unlike a solid, a fluid has no definite
Appendix shape of its own. Solids and liquids have a fixed volume,
whereas a gas fills the entire volume of its container. We
have learnt in the previous chapter that the volume of solids
can be changed by stress. The volume of solid, liquid or gas
depends on the stress or pressure acting on it. When we
talk about fixed volume of solid or liquid, we mean its volume
under atmospheric pressure. The difference between gases
and solids or liquids is that for solids or liquids the change
in volume due to change of external pressure is rather small.
In other words solids and liquids have much lower
compressibility as compared to gases.
Shear stress can change the shape of a solid keeping its
volume fixed. The key property of fluids is that they offer
very little resistance to shear stress; their shape changes by
application of very small shear stress. The shearing stress
of fluids is about million times smaller than that of solids.

9.2 PRESSURE
A sharp needle when pressed against our skin pierces it. Our
skin, however, remains intact when a blunt object with a
wider contact area (say the back of a spoon) is pressed against
it with the same force. If an elephant were to step on a man’s
chest, his ribs would crack. A circus performer across whose

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MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS 181

chest a large, light but strong wooden plank is In principle, the piston area can be made
placed first, is saved from this accident. Such arbitrarily small. The pressure is then defined
everyday experiences convince us that both the in a limiting sense as
force and its coverage area are important. Smaller lim ∆F
the area on which the force acts, greater is the P= (9.2)
impact. This impact is known as pressure.
∆A →0
∆A
Pressure is a scalar quantity. We remind the
When an object is submerged in a fluid at reader that it is the component of the force
rest, the fluid exerts a force on its surface. This normal to the area under consideration and not
force is always normal to the object’s surface. the (vector) force that appears in the numerator
This is so because if there were a component of in Eqs. (9.1) and (9.2). Its dimensions are
force parallel to the surface, the object will also [ML–1T–2]. The SI unit of pressure is N m–2. It has
exert a force on the fluid parallel to it; as a been named as pascal (Pa) in honour of the
consequence of Newton’s third law. This force French scientist Blaise Pascal (1623-1662) who
will cause the fluid to flow parallel to the surface. carried out pioneering studies on fluid pressure.
Since the fluid is at rest, this cannot happen. A common unit of pressure is the atmosphere
Hence, the force exerted by the fluid at rest has (atm), i.e. the pressure exerted by the
to be perpendicular to the surface in contact atmosphere at sea level (1 atm = 1.013 × 105 Pa).
with it. This is shown in Fig.9.1(a). Another quantity, that is indispensable in
The normal force exerted by the fluid at a point describing fluids, is the density ρ. For a fluid of
may be measured. An idealised form of one such mass m occupying volume V,
pressure-measuring device is shown in Fig. m
9.1(b). It consists of an evacuated chamber with ρ= (9.3)
V
a spring that is calibrated to measure the force –3
The dimensions of density are [ML ]. Its SI
acting on the piston. This device is placed at a unit is kg m–3. It is a positive scalar quantity. A
point inside the fluid. The inward force exerted liquid is largely incompressible and its density
by the fluid on the piston is balanced by the is therefore, nearly constant at all pressures.
outward spring force and is thereby measured. Gases, on the other hand exhibit a large
variation in densities with pressure.
The density of water at 4 o C (277 K) is
1.0 × 10 3 kg m–3. The relative density of a
substance is the ratio of its density to the
density of water at 4oC. It is a dimensionless
positive scalar quantity. For example the relative
density of aluminium is 2.7. Its density is
2.7 × 103 kg m–3. The densities of some common
fluids are displayed in Table 9.1.
Table 9.1 Densities of some common fluids
(a) (b) at STP*
Fig. 9.1 (a) The force exerted by the liquid in the
beaker on the submerged object or on the
walls is normal (perpendicular) to the
surface at all points.
(b) An idealised device for measuring
pressure.

If F is the magnitude of this normal force on the

piston of area A then the average pressure Pav
is defined as the normal force acting per unit
area.
F
Pav = (9.1)
A
* STP means standard temperature (00C) and 1 atm pressure.

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182 PHYSICS

⊳ this element of area corresponding to the normal

Example 9.1 The two thigh bones (femurs), forces Fa, Fb and Fc as shown in Fig. 9.2 on the
each of cross-sectional area10 cm2 support faces BEFC, ADFC and ADEB denoted by Aa, Ab
the upper part of a human body of mass 40 and Ac respectively. Then
kg. Estimate the average pressure Fb sinθ = Fc, Fb cosθ = Fa (by equilibrium)
sustained by the femurs. Ab sinθ = Ac, Ab cosθ = Aa (by geometry)
Thus,
Answer Total cross-sectional area of the
femurs is A = 2 × 10 cm2 = 20 × 10–4 m2. The Fb Fc F
= = a ; Pb = Pc = Pa (9.4)
force acting on them is F = 40 kg wt = 400 N Ab Ac Aa
(taking g = 10 m s–2). This force is acting Hence, pressure exerted is same in all
vertically down and hence, normally on the directions in a fluid at rest. It again reminds us
femurs. Thus, the average pressure is that like other types of stress, pressure is not a
F vector quantity. No direction can be assigned
Pav = = 2 × 105 N m −2 ⊳
A to it. The force against any area within (or
bounding) a fluid at rest and under pressure is
9.2.1 Pascal’s Law normal to the area, regardless of the orientation
of the area.
The French scientist Blaise Pascal observed that Now consider a fluid element in the form of a
the pressure in a fluid at rest is the same at all horizontal bar of uniform cross-section. The bar
points if they are at the same height. This fact is in equilibrium. The horizontal forces exerted
may be demonstrated in a simple way. at its two ends must be balanced or the
pressure at the two ends should be equal. This
proves that for a liquid in equilibrium the
pressure is same at all points in a horizontal
plane. Suppose the pressure were not equal in
different parts of the fluid, then there would be
a flow as the fluid will have some net force
acting on it. Hence in the absence of flow the
pressure in the fluid must be same everywhere
in a horizontal plane.

9.2.2 Variation of Pressure with Depth

Fig. 9.2 Proof of Pascal’s law. ABC-DEF is an Consider a fluid at rest in a container. In
element of the interior of a fluid at rest. Fig. 9.3 point 1 is at height h above a point 2.
This element is in the form of a right- The pressures at points 1 and 2 are P1 and P2
angled prism. The element is small so that
respectively. Consider a cylindrical element of
the effect of gravity can be ignored, but it
has been enlarged for the sake of clarity.
fluid having area of base A and height h. As the
fluid is at rest the resultant horizontal forces
Fig. 9.2 shows an element in the interior of a should be zero and the resultant vertical forces
fluid at rest. This element ABC-DEF is in the should balance the weight of the element. The
form of a right-angled prism. In principle, this forces acting in the vertical direction are due to
prismatic element is very small so that every the fluid pressure at the top (P 1A) acting
part of it can be considered at the same depth downward, at the bottom (P2A) acting upward.
from the liquid surface and therefore, the effect If mg is weight of the fluid in the cylinder we
of the gravity is the same at all these points. have
But for clarity we have enlarged this element. (P2 − P1) A = mg (9.5)
The forces on this element are those exerted by Now, if ρ is the mass density of the fluid, we
the rest of the fluid and they must be normal to have the mass of fluid to be m = ρV= ρhA so
the surfaces of the element as discussed above. that
Thus, the fluid exerts pressures Pa, Pb and Pc on P2 − P1= ρgh (9.6)

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MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS 183

Fig 9.4 Illustration of hydrostatic paradox. The

three vessels A, B and C contain different
amounts of liquids, all upto the same
height.

Example 9.2 What is the pressure on a

⊳
swimmer 10 m below the surface of a lake?

Fig.9.3 Fluid under gravity. The effect of gravity is Answer Here

illustrated through pressure on a vertical h = 10 m and ρ = 1000 kg m-3. Take g = 10 m s–2
cylindrical column. From Eq. (9.7)
P = Pa + ρgh
Pressure difference depends on the vertical = 1.01 × 105 Pa + 1000 kg m–3 × 10 m s–2 × 10 m
distance h between the points (1 and 2), mass = 2.01 × 105 Pa
density of the fluid ρ and acceleration due to ≈ 2 atm
This is a 100% increase in pressure from
gravity g. If the point 1 under discussion is
surface level. At a depth of 1 km, the increase
shifted to the top of the fluid (say, water), which
in pressure is 100 atm! Submarines are designed
is open to the atmosphere, P1 may be replaced
to withstand such enormous pressures. ⊳
by atmospheric pressure (Pa) and we replace P2
by P. Then Eq. (9.6) gives 9.2.3 Atmospheric Pressure and
P = Pa + ρgh (9.7) Gauge Pressure
Thus, the pressure P, at depth below the The pressure of the atmosphere at any point is
surface of a liquid open to the atmosphere is equal to the weight of a column of air of unit
greater than atmospheric pressure by an cross-sectional area extending from that point
amount ρgh. The excess of pressure, P − Pa, at to the top of the atmosphere. At sea level, it is
1.013 × 10 5 Pa (1 atm). Italian scientist
depth h is called a gauge pressure at that point.
Evangelista Torricelli (1608 –1647) devised for
The area of the cylinder is not appearing in
the first time a method for measuring
the expression of absolute pressure in Eq. (9.7).
atmospheric pressure. A long glass tube closed
Thus, the height of the fluid column is important at one end and filled with mercury is inverted
and not cross-sectional or base area or the shape into a trough of mercury as shown in Fig.9.5 (a).
of the container. The liquid pressure is the same This device is known as ‘mercury barometer’.
at all points at the same horizontal level (same The space above the mercury column in the tube
depth). The result is appreciated through the contains only mercury vapour whose pressure
example of hydrostatic paradox. Consider three P is so small that it may be neglected. Thus,
vessels A, B and C [Fig.9.4] of different shapes. the pressure at Point A=0. The pressure inside
They are connected at the bottom by a horizontal the coloumn at Point B must be the same as the
pipe. On filling with water, the level in the three pressure at Point C, which is atmospheric
vessels is the same, though they hold different pressure, Pa.
amounts of water. This is so because water at Pa = ρgh (9.8)
the bottom has the same pressure below each where ρ is the density of mercury and h is the
section of the vessel. height of the mercury column in the tube.

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184 PHYSICS

In the experiment it is found that the mercury

column in the barometer has a height of about
76 cm at sea level equivalent to one atmosphere
(1 atm). This can also be obtained using the
value of ρ in Eq. (9.8). A common way of stating
pressure is in terms of cm or mm of mercury
(Hg). A pressure equivalent of 1 mm is called a
torr (after Torricelli).
1 torr = 133 Pa.
The mm of Hg and torr are used in medicine
and physiology. In meteorology, a common unit
is the bar and millibar.
1 bar = 105 Pa
An open tube manometer is a useful (b) The open tube manometer
instrument for measuring pressure differences. Fig 9.5 Two pressure measuring devices.
It consists of a U-tube containing a suitable
Pressure is same at the same level on both
liquid i.e., a low density liquid (such as oil) for
sides of the U-tube containing a fluid. For
measuring small pressure differences and a
liquids, the density varies very little over wide
high density liquid (such as mercury) for large ranges in pressure and temperature and we can
pressure differences. One end of the tube is open treat it safely as a constant for our present
to the atmosphere and the other end is purposes. Gases on the other hand, exhibits
connected to the system whose pressure we want large variations of densities with changes in
to measure [see Fig. 9.5 (b)]. The pressure P at A pressure and temperature. Unlike gases, liquids
is equal to pressure at point B. What we are, therefore, largely treated as incompressible.
normally measure is the gauge pressure, which Example 9.3 The density of the
is P − Pa, given by Eq. (9.8) and is proportional to
⊳
atmosphere at sea level is 1.29 kg/m3.
manometer height h. Assume that it does not change with
altitude. Then how high would the
atmosphere extend?

Answer We use Eq. (9.7)

ρgh = 1.29 kg m–3 × 9.8 m s2 × h m = 1.01 × 105 Pa
∴ h = 7989 m ≈ 8 km
In reality the density of air decreases with
height. So does the value of g. The atmospheric
cover extends with decreasing pressure over
100 km. We should also note that the sea level
atmospheric pressure is not always 760 mm of
Hg. A drop in the Hg level by 10 mm or more is a
sign of an approaching storm. ⊳
⊳
Example 9.4 At a depth of 1000 m in an
ocean (a) what is the absolute pressure?
(b) What is the gauge pressure? (c) Find
the force acting on the window of area
20 cm × 20 cm of a submarine at this depth,
the interior of which is maintained at sea-
level atmospheric pressure. (The density of
sea water is 1.03 × 10 3 kg m -3 ,
g = 10 m s–2.)
Fig 9.5 (a) The mercury barometer.

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MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS 185

Answer Here h = 1000 m and ρ = 1.03 × 103 kg m-3. law. In these devices, fluids are used for
(a) From Eq. (9.6), absolute pressure transmitting pressure. In a hydraulic lift, as
P = Pa + ρgh shown in Fig. 9.6 (b), two pistons are separated
= 1.01 × 105 Pa by the space filled with a liquid. A piston of small
+ 1.03 × 103 kg m–3 × 10 m s–2 × 1000 m cross-section A1 is used to exert a force F1 directly
= 104.01 × 105 Pa F1
≈ 104 atm on the liquid. The pressure P = A is
1
(b) Gauge pressure is P − Pa = ρgh = Pg transmitted throughout the liquid to the larger
Pg = 1.03 × 103 kg m–3 × 10 ms2 × 1000 m cylinder attached with a larger piston of area A2,
= 103 × 105 Pa which results in an upward force of P × A2.
≈ 103 atm Therefore, the piston is capable of supporting a
(c) The pressure outside the submarine is large force (large weight of, say a car, or a truck,
P = Pa + ρgh and the pressure inside it is Pa.
F1 A2
Hence, the net pressure acting on the placed on the platform) F2 = PA2 =
window is gauge pressure, Pg = ρgh. Since A1 . By
the area of the window is A = 0.04 m2, the changing the force at A1, the platform can be
force acting on it is moved up or down. Thus, the applied force has
F = Pg A = 103 × 105 Pa × 0.04 m2 = 4.12 × 105 N A2
⊳ been increased by a factor of A and this factor
1

9.2.4 Hydraulic Machines is the mechanical advantage of the device. The

example below clarifies it.
Let us now consider what happens when we
change the pressure on a fluid contained in a
vessel. Consider a horizontal cylinder with a
piston and three vertical tubes at different points
[Fig. 9.6 (a)]. The pressure in the horizontal
cylinder is indicated by the height of liquid
column in the vertical tubes. It is necessarily
the same in all. If we push the piston, the fluid
level rises in all the tubes, again reaching the
same level in each one of them.

Fig 9.6 (b) Schematic diagram illustrating the principle

behind the hydraulic lift, a device used
to lift heavy loads.
Fig 9.6 (a) Whenever external pressure is applied Example 9.5 Two syringes of different
on any part of a fluid in a vessel, it is
⊳
cross-sections (without needles) filled with
equally transmitted in all directions. water are connected with a tightly fitted
rubber tube filled with water. Diameters of
This indicates that when the pressure on the the smaller piston and larger piston are
cylinder was increased, it was distributed 1.0 cm and 3.0 cm respectively. (a) Find
uniformly throughout. We can say whenever the force exerted on the larger piston when
external pressure is applied on any part of a a force of 10 N is applied to the smaller
fluid contained in a vessel, it is transmitted piston. (b) If the smaller piston is pushed
undiminished and equally in all directions. in through 6.0 cm, how much does the
This is another form of the Pascal’s law and it larger piston move out?
has many applications in daily life.
A number of devices, such as hydraulic lift Answer (a) Since pressure is transmitted
and hydraulic brakes, are based on the Pascal’s undiminished throughout the fluid,

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186 PHYSICS

( ) important advantage of the system is that the

2
A2 π 3 /2 × 10–2 m
F2 = F1 = × 10 N pressure set up by pressing pedal is transmitted
( )
2
A1 π 1/2 × 10–2 m equally to all cylinders attached to the four
= 90 N wheels so that the braking effort is equal on
(b) Water is considered to be per fectly all wheels.
incompressible. Volume covered by the
movement of smaller piston inwards is equal to 9.3 STREAMLINE FLOW
volume moved outwards due to the larger piston. So far we have studied fluids at rest. The study
L1 A1 = L2 A2 of the fluids in motion is known as fluid
dynamics. When a water tap is turned on slowly,
the water flow is smooth initially, but loses its
smoothness when the speed of the outflow is
increased. In studying the motion of fluids, we
j 0.67 × 10-2 m = 0.67 cm focus our attention on what is happening to
Note, atmospheric pressure is common to both various fluid particles at a particular point in
pistons and has been ignored. ⊳ space at a particular time. The flow of the fluid
⊳ is said to be steady if at any given point, the
Example 9.6 In a car lift compressed air velocity of each passing fluid particle remains
exerts a force F1 on a small piston having constant in time. This does not mean that the
a radius of 5.0 cm. This pressure is velocity at different points in space is same. The
transmitted to a second piston of radius velocity of a particular particle may change as it
15 cm (Fig 9.7). If the mass of the car to be moves from one point to another. That is, at some
lifted is 1350 kg, calculate F1. What is the other point the particle may have a different
pressure necessary to accomplish this velocity, but every other particle which passes
task? (g = 9.8 ms-2). the second point behaves exactly as the previous
particle that has just passed that point. Each
Answer Since pressure is transmitted particle follows a smooth path, and the paths of
undiminished throughout the fluid, the particles do not cross each other.

= 1470 N
≈ 1.5 × 103 N
The air pressure that will produce this
force is

This is almost double the atmospheric

pressure. ⊳ Fig. 9.7 The meaning of streamlines. (a) A typical
Hydraulic brakes in automobiles also work on trajectory of a fluid particle.
the same principle. When we apply a little force (b) A region of streamline flow.
on the pedal with our foot the master piston
moves inside the master cylinder, and the The path taken by a fluid particle under a
pressure caused is transmitted through the steady flow is a streamline. It is defined as a
brake oil to act on a piston of larger area. A large curve whose tangent at any point is in the
force acts on the piston and is pushed down direction of the fluid velocity at that point.
expanding the brake shoes against brake lining. Consider the path of a particle as shown in
In this way, a small force on the pedal produces Fig.9.7 (a), the curve describes how a fluid
a large retarding force on the wheel. An particle moves with time. The curve PQ is like a

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MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS 187

permanent map of fluid flow, indicating how the but their directions are parallel. Figure 9.8 (b)
fluid streams. No two streamlines can cross, for gives a sketch of turbulent flow.
if they do, an oncoming fluid particle can go
either one way or the other and the flow would
not be steady. Hence, in steady flow, the map of
flow is stationary in time. How do we draw closely
spaced streamlines ? If we intend to show
streamline of every flowing particle, we would
end up with a continuum of lines. Consider planes
perpendicular to the direction of fluid flow e.g.,
at three points P, R and Q in Fig.9.7 (b). The plane Fig. 9.8 (a) Some streamlines for fluid flow.
pieces are so chosen that their boundaries be (b) A jet of air striking a flat plate placed
determined by the same set of streamlines. This perpendicular to it. This is an example
means that number of fluid particles crossing of turbulent flow.
the surfaces as indicated at P, R and Q is the
same. If area of cross-sections at these points 9.4 BERNOULLI’S PRINCIPLE
are AP,AR and AQ and speeds of fluid particles
are vP, vR and vQ, then mass of fluid ∆mP crossing Fluid flow is a complex phenomenon. But we
at AP in a small interval of time ∆t is ρPAPvP ∆t. can obtain some useful properties for steady
Similarly mass of fluid ∆mR flowing or crossing or streamline flows using the conservation
at AR in a small interval of time ∆t is ρRARvR ∆t of energy.
and mass of fluid ∆mQ is ρQAQvQ ∆t crossing at Consider a fluid moving in a pipe of varying
AQ. The mass of liquid flowing out equals the cross-sectional area. Let the pipe be at varying
mass flowing in, holds in all cases. Therefore, heights as shown in Fig. 9.9. We now suppose
ρPAPvP∆t = ρRARvR∆t = ρQAQvQ∆t (9.9) that an incompressible fluid is flowing through
For flow of incompressible fluids the pipe in a steady flow. Its velocity must
ρP = ρR = ρQ change as a consequence of equation of
Equation (9.9) reduces to continuity. A force is required to produce this
APvP = ARvR = AQvQ (9.10) acceleration, which is caused by the fluid
which is called the equation of continuity and surrounding it, the pressure must be different
it is a statement of conservation of mass in flow in different regions. Bernoulli’s equation is a
of incompressible fluids. In general general expression that relates the pressure
Av = constant (9.11) difference between two points in a pipe to both
Av gives the volume flux or flow rate and velocity changes (kinetic energy change) and
remains constant throughout the pipe of flow. elevation (height) changes (potential energy
Thus, at narrower portions where the change). The Swiss Physicist Daniel Bernoulli
streamlines are closely spaced, velocity developed this relationship in 1738.
increases and its vice versa. From (Fig 9.7b) it Consider the flow at two regions 1 (i.e., BC)
is clear that AR > AQ or vR < vQ, the fluid is and 2 (i.e., DE). Consider the fluid initially lying
accelerated while passing from R to Q. This is between B and D. In an infinitesimal time
associated with a change in pressure in fluid interval ∆t, this fluid would have moved. Suppose
flow in horizontal pipes. v1 is the speed at B and v2 at D, then fluid initially
Steady flow is achieved at low flow speeds. at B has moved a distance v1∆t to C (v1∆t is small
Beyond a limiting value, called critical speed, enough to assume constant cross-section along
this flow loses steadiness and becomes BC). In the same interval ∆t the fluid initially at
turbulent. One sees this when a fast flowing D moves to E, a distance equal to v2∆t. Pressures
stream encounters rocks, small foamy P1 and P2 act as shown on the plane faces of
whirlpool-like regions called ‘white water areas A1 and A2 binding the two regions. The
rapids are formed. work done on the fluid at left end (BC) is W1 =
Figure 9.8 displays streamlines for some P1A1(v1∆t) = P1∆V. Since the same volume ∆V
typical flows. For example, Fig. 9.8(a) describes passes through both the regions (from the
a laminar flow where the velocities at different equation of continuity) the work done by the fluid
points in the fluid may have different magnitudes at the other end (DE) is W2 = P2A2(v2∆t) = P2∆V or,

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188 PHYSICS

the work done on the fluid is –P2∆V. So the total In words, the Bernoulli’s relation may be
work done on the fluid is stated as follows: As we move along a streamline
W1 – W2 = (P1− P2) ∆V the sum of the pressure (P), the kinetic energy
Part of this work goes into changing the kinetic
energy of the fluid, and part goes into changing  ρv 2 
per unit volume  2  and the potential energy
the gravitational potential energy. If the density  
of the fluid is ρ and ∆m = ρA1v1∆t = ρ∆V is the per unit volume (ρgh) remains a constant.
mass passing through the pipe in time ∆t, then Note that in applying the energy conservation
change in gravitational potential energy is principle, there is an assumption that no energy
∆U = ρg∆V (h2 − h1) is lost due to friction. But in fact, when fluids
The change in its kinetic energy is flow, some energy does get lost due to internal
1 friction. This arises due to the fact that in a fluid
∆K = ρ ∆V (v22 − v12) flow, the different layers of the fluid flow with
2
different velocities. These layers exert frictional
We can employ the work – energy theorem forces on each other resulting in a loss of energy.
(Chapter 6) to this volume of the fluid and This property of the fluid is called viscosity and
this yields is discussed in more detail in a later section. The
1 lost kinetic energy of the fluid gets converted into
(P1− P2) ∆V = ρ ∆V (v22 − v12) + ρg∆V (h2 − h1) heat energy. Thus, Bernoulli’s equation ideally
2
applies to fluids with zero viscosity or non-
We now divide each term by ∆V to obtain viscous fluids. Another restriction on application
of Bernoulli theorem is that the fluids must be
1 incompressible, as the elastic energy of the fluid
(P1− P2) = ρ (v22 − v12) + ρg (h2 − h1) is also not taken into consideration. In practice,
2
We can rearrange the above terms to obtain it has a large number of useful applications and
can help explain a wide variety of phenomena
1 1 for low viscosity incompressible fluids.
P1 + ρv12 + ρgh1 = P2+ ρv22 + ρgh2
2 2 Bernoulli’s equation also does not hold for non-
(9.12) steady or turbulent flows, because in that
This is Bernoulli’s equation. Since 1 and 2 situation velocity and pressure are constantly
refer to any two locations along the pipeline, we fluctuating in time.
may write the expression in general as When a fluid is at rest i.e., its velocity is zero
1 everywhere, Bernoulli’s equation becomes
P+ ρv2 + ρgh = constant (9.13) P1 + ρgh1 = P2 + ρgh2
2
(P1− P2) = ρg (h2 − h1)
which is same as Eq. (9.6).

9.4.1 Speed of Efflux: Torricelli’s Law

The word efflux means fluid outflow. Torricelli
discovered that the speed of efflux from an open
tank is given by a formula identical to that of a
freely falling body. Consider a tank containing
a liquid of density ρ with a small hole in its side
at a height y1 from the bottom (see Fig. 9.10).
The air above the liquid, whose surface is at
height y2, is at pressure P. From the equation of
continuity [Eq. (9.10)] we have
Fig. 9.9 The flow of an ideal fluid in a pipe of varying v1 A1 = v2 A2
cross section. The fluid in a section of length
v1∆t moves to the section of length v2∆t in A1
v2 = v
time ∆t. A2 1

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MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS 189

from its parabolic trajectory as it moves through

air. This deviation can be partly explained on
the basis of Bernoulli’s principle.
(i) Ball moving without spin: Fig. 9.11(a)
shows the streamlines around a
non-spinning ball moving relative to a
fluid. From the symmetry of streamlines
it is clear that the velocity of fluid (air)
above and below the ball at corresponding
points is the same resulting in zero
pressure difference. The air therefore,
exerts no upward or downward force on
the ball.
Fig. 9.10 Torricelli’s law. The speed of efflux, v1,
from the side of the container is given by
(ii) Ball moving with spin: A ball which is
the application of Bernoulli’s equation. spinning drags air along with it. If the
If the container is open at the top to the surface is rough more air will be dragged.
atmosphere then v1 = 2 g h . Fig 9.11(b) shows the streamlines of air
for a ball which is moving and spinning
at the same time. The ball is moving
If the cross-sectional area of the tank A2 is forward and relative to it the air is moving
much larger than that of the hole (A2 >>A1), then
backwards. Therefore, the velocity of air
we may take the fluid to be approximately at rest
above the ball relative to the ball is larger
at the top, i.e., v2 = 0. Now, applying the Bernoulli
equation at points 1 and 2 and noting that at and below it is smaller (see Section 9.3).
the hole P1 = Pa, the atmospheric pressure, we The stream lines, thus, get crowded above
have from Eq. (9.12) and rarified below.
This difference in the velocities of air results
1
Pa + ρ v12 + ρ g y1 = P + ρ g y2 in the pressure difference between the lower and
2
upper faces and there is a net upward force on
Taking y2 – y1 = h we have
the ball. This dynamic lift due to spining is called
2 ( P − Pa ) Magnus effect.
v1 = 2 g h + (9.14)
ρ Aerofoil or lift on aircraft wing: Figure 9.11
When P >>Pa and 2 g h may be ignored, the (c) shows an aerofoil, which is a solid piece
speed of efflux is determined by the container shaped to provide an upward dynamic lift
pressure. Such a situation occurs in rocket when it moves horizontally through air. The
propulsion. On the other hand, if the tank is cross-section of the wings of an aeroplane
open to the atmosphere, then P = Pa and looks somewhat like the aerofoil shown in Fig.
v1 = 2g h (9.15) 9.11 (c) with streamlines around it. When the
This is also the speed of a freely falling body. aerofoil moves against the wind, the
Equation (9.15) represents Torricelli’s law. orientation of the wing relative to flow direction
causes the streamlines to crowd together
9.4.2 Dynamic Lift above the wing more than those below it. The
Dynamic lift is the force that acts on a body, flow speed on top is higher than that below it.
such as airplane wing, a hydrofoil or a spinning There is an upward force resulting in a
ball, by virtue of its motion through a fluid. In dynamic lift of the wings and this balances
many games such as cricket, tennis, baseball, the weight of the plane. The following example
or golf, we notice that a spinning ball deviates illustrates this.

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190 PHYSICS

(a) (b) (c)

Fig 9.11 (a) Fluid streaming past a static sphere. (b) Streamlines for a fluid around a sphere spinning clockwise.
(c) Air flowing past an aerofoil.

vav = (v2 + v1)/2 = 960 km/h = 267 m s-1,

⊳
Example 9.7 A fully loaded Boeing aircraft
has a mass of 3.3 × 105 kg. Its total wing we have
area is 500 m2. It is in level flight with a ∆P
speed of 960 km/h. (a) Estimate the (v2 – v1 ) / v av = 2 ≈ 0.08
ρv av
pressure difference between the lower and
upper surfaces of the wings (b) Estimate The speed above the wing needs to be only 8
% higher than that below. ⊳
the fractional increase in the speed of the
air on the upper surface of the wing relative
to the lower surface. [The density of air is ρ 9.5 VISCOSITY
= 1.2 kg m-3] Most of the fluids are not ideal ones and offer some
resistance to motion. This resistance to fluid motion
is like an internal friction analogous to friction when
Answer (a) The weight of the Boeing aircraft is
a solid moves on a surface. It is called viscosity.
balanced by the upward force due to the
This force exists when there is relative motion
pressure difference
between layers of the liquid. Suppose we consider
∆P × A = 3.3 × 105 kg × 9.8 a fluid like oil enclosed between two glass plates
∆P = (3.3 × 105 kg × 9.8 m s–2) / 500 m2 as shown in Fig. 9.12 (a). The bottom plate is fixed
while the top plate is moved with a constant
= 6.5 ×103 Nm-2
velocity v relative to the fixed plate. If oil is
(b) We ignore the small height difference replaced by honey, a greater force is required to
between the top and bottom sides in Eq. (9.12). move the plate with the same velocity. Hence
The pressure difference between them is we say that honey is more viscous than oil. The
then fluid in contact with a surface has the same
ρ 2
∆P =
2
(
v 2 – v12 ) velocity as that of the surfaces. Hence, the layer
of the liquid in contact with top surface moves
where v 2 is the speed of air over the upper with a velocity v and the layer of the liquid in
surface and v1 is the speed under the bottom contact with the fixed surface is stationary. The
surface. velocities of layers increase uniformly from
bottom (zero velocity) to the top layer (velocity
2 ∆P
(v2 – v1 ) = v). For any layer of liquid, its upper layer pulls
ρ (v 2 + v1 ) it forward while lower layer pulls it backward.
Taking the average speed This results in force between the layers. This

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MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS 191

type of flow is known as laminar. The layers of change of strain’ or ‘strain rate’ i.e. ∆x/(l ∆t) or
liquid slide over one another as the pages of a v/l instead of strain itself. The coefficient of
book do when it is placed flat on a table and a viscosity (pronounced ‘eta’) for a fluid is defined
horizontal force is applied to the top cover. When as the ratio of shearing stress to the strain rate.
a fluid is flowing in a pipe or a tube, then velocity
of the liquid layer along the axis of the tube is (9.16)
maximum and decreases gradually as we move The SI unit of viscosity is poiseiulle (Pl). Its
towards the walls where it becomes zero, other units are N s m-2 or Pa s. The dimensions
Fig. 9.12 (b). The velocity on a cylindrical surface of viscosity are [ML-1T-1]. Generally, thin liquids,
in a tube is constant. like water, alcohol, etc., are less viscous than
thick liquids, like coal tar, blood, glycerine, etc.
The coefficients of viscosity for some common
fluids are listed in Table 9.2. We point out two
facts about blood and water that you may find
interesting. As Table 9.2 indicates, blood is
‘thicker’ (more viscous) than water. Further, the
relative viscosity (η/ηwater) of blood remains
constant between 0 oC and 37 oC.

(a)

Fig. 9.13 Measurement of the coefficient of viscosity

of a liquid.
(b)
Fig 9.12 (a) A layer of liquid sandwiched between The viscosity of liquids decreases with
two parallel glass plates, in which the
temperature, while it increases in the case of gases.
lower plate is fixed and the upper one is
moving to the right with velocity v
(b) velocity distribution for viscous flow in ⊳
a pipe. Example 9.8 A metal block of area 0.10 m2 is
connected to a 0.010 kg mass via a string
On account of this motion, a portion of liquid, that passes over an ideal pulley (considered
which at some instant has the shape ABCD, massless and frictionless), as in Fig. 9.13.
take the shape of AEFD after short interval of A liquid with a film thickness of 0.30 mm
time (∆t). During this time interval the liquid has is placed between the block and the table.
undergone a shear strain of ∆x/l. Since, the When released the block moves to the right
strain in a flowing fluid increases with time with a constant speed of 0.085 m s-1. Find
continuously. Unlike a solid, here the stress is the coefficient of viscosity of the liquid.
found experimentally to depend on ‘rate of

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192 PHYSICS

Answer The metal block moves to the right This is known as Stokes’ law. We shall not
because of the tension in the string. The tension derive Stokes’ law.
T is equal in magnitude to the weight of the This law is an interesting example of retarding
suspended mass m. Thus, the shear force F is force, which is proportional to velocity. We can
study its consequences on an object falling
F = T = mg = 0.010 kg × 9.8 m s–2 = 9.8 × 10-2 N
through a viscous medium. We consider a
Shear stress on the fluid = F/A = N/m2 raindrop in air. It accelerates initially due to
gravity. As the velocity increases, the retarding
Strain rate = force also increases. Finally, when viscous force
plus buoyant force becomes equal to the force
due to gravity, the net force becomes zero and so
does the acceleration. The sphere (raindrop) then
descends with a constant velocity. Thus, in
= equilibrium, this terminal velocity vt is given by
6πηavt = (4π/3) a3 (ρ-σ)g
-3
= 3.46 ×10 Pa s
where ρ and σ are mass densities of sphere and
⊳
the fluid, respectively. We obtain
Table 9.2 The viscosities of some fluids
vt = 2a2 (ρ-σ)g / (9η) (9.18)
o
Fluid T( C) Viscosity (mPl)
So the terminal velocity vt depends on the
Water 20 1.0 square of the radius of the sphere and inversely
100 0.3 on the viscosity of the medium.
Blood 37 2.7 You may like to refer back to Example 6.2 in
Machine Oil 16 113 this context.
38 34
⊳
Glycerine 20 830 Example 9.9 The terminal velocity of a
Honey – 200 copper ball of radius 2.0 mm falling through
Air 0 0.017 a tank of oil at 20oC is 6.5 cm s-1. Compute
40 0.019 the viscosity of the oil at 20oC. Density of
oil is 1.5 ×103 kg m-3, density of copper is
8.9 × 103 kg m-3.
9.5.1 Stokes’ Law
When a body falls through a fluid it drags the
layer of the fluid in contact with it. A relative Answer We have vt = 6.5 × 10-2 ms-1, a = 2 × 10-3 m,
motion between the different layers of the fluid g = 9.8 ms-2, ρ = 8.9 × 103 kg m-3,
is set and, as a result, the body experiences a σ =1.5 ×103 kg m-3. From Eq. (9.18)
retarding force. Falling of a raindrop and
swinging of a pendulum bob are some common
examples of such motion. It is seen that the
viscous force is proportional to the velocity of
= 9.9 × 10-1 kg m–1 s–1 ⊳
the object and is opposite to the direction of
motion. The other quantities on which the force
F depends are viscosity η of the fluid and radius 9.6 SURFACE TENSION
a of the sphere. Sir George G. Stokes (1819–
You must have noticed that, oil and water do
1903), an English scientist enunciated clearly
not mix; water wets you and me but not ducks;
the viscous drag force F as
mercury does not wet glass but water sticks to
F = 6 π η av (9.17) it, oil rises up a cotton wick, inspite of gravity,

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MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS 193

Sap and water rise up to the top of the leaves of Let us consider a molecule near the surface
the tree, hair of a paint brush do not cling Fig. 9.14(b). Only lower half side of it is
together when dry and even when dipped in surrounded by liquid molecules. There is some
water but form a fine tip when taken out of it. negative potential energy due to these, but
All these and many more such experiences are obviously it is less than that of a molecule in
related with the free surfaces of liquids. As bulk, i.e., the one fully inside. Approximately
liquids have no definite shape but have a it is half of the latter. Thus, molecules on a
definite volume, they acquire a free surface when liquid surface have some extra energy in
poured in a container. These surfaces possess comparison to molecules in the interior. A
some additional energy. This phenomenon is liquid, thus, tends to have the least surface
known as surface tension and it is concerned
area which external conditions permit.
with only liquid as gases do not have free
Increasing surface area requires energy. Most
surfaces. Let us now understand this
surface phenomenon can be understood in
phenomena.
terms of this fact. What is the energy required
9.6.1 Surface Energy for having a molecule at the surface? As
mentioned above, roughly it is half the energy
A liquid stays together because of attraction required to remove it entirely from the liquid
between molecules. Consider a molecule well i.e., half the heat of evaporation.
inside a liquid. The intermolecular distances are Finally, what is a surface? Since a liquid
such that it is attracted to all the surrounding consists of molecules moving about, there cannot
molecules [Fig. 9.14(a)]. This attraction results be a perfectly sharp surface. The density of the
in a negative potential energy for the molecule, liquid molecules drops rapidly to zero around
which depends on the number and distribution z = 0 as we move along the direction indicated
of molecules around the chosen one. But the Fig 9.14 (c) in a distance of the order of a few
average potential energy of all the molecules is molecular sizes.
the same. This is supported by the fact that to
take a collection of such molecules (the liquid) 9.6.2 Surface Energy and Surface Tension
and to disperse them far away from each other As we have discussed that an extra energy is
in order to evaporate or vaporise, the heat of associated with surface of liquids, the creation
evaporation required is quite large. For water it of more surface (spreading of surface) keeping
is of the order of 40 kJ/mol. other things like volume fixed requires a

Fig. 9.14 Schematic picture of molecules in a liquid, at the surface and balance of forces. (a) Molecule inside
a liquid. Forces on a molecule due to others are shown. Direction of arrows indicates attraction of
repulsion. (b) Same, for a molecule at a surface. (c) Balance of attractive (AI and repulsive (R) forces.

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194 PHYSICS

horizontal liquid film ending in bar free to slide We make the following observations from
over parallel guides Fig (9.15). above:
(i) Surface tension is a force per unit length
(or surface energy per unit area) acting in
the plane of the interface between the plane
of the liquid and any other substance; it also
is the extra energy that the molecules at the
interface have as compared to molecules in
the interior.
(ii) At any point on the interface besides the
Fig. 9.15 Stretching a film. (a) A film in equilibrium; boundary, we can draw a line and imagine
(b) The film stretched an extra distance. equal and opposite surface tension forces
Suppose that we move the bar by a small S per unit length of the line acting
distance d as shown. Since the area of the perpendicular to the line, in the plane of
surface increases, the system now has more the interface. The line is in equilibrium. To
energy, this means that some work has been be more specific, imagine a line of atoms or
done against an internal force. Let this internal molecules at the surface. The atoms to the
force be F, the work done by the applied force is left pull the line towards them; those to the
F.d = Fd. From conservation of energy, this is right pull it towards them! This line of
stored as additional energy in the film. If the atoms is in equilibrium under tension. If
surface energy of the film is S per unit area, the the line really marks the end of the
extra area is 2dl. A film has two sides and the interface, as in Figure 9.14 (a) and (b) there
liquid in between, so there are two surfaces and is only the force S per unit length
the extra energy is acting inwards.
S (2dl) = Fd (9.19) Table 9.3 gives the surface tension of various
liquids. The value of surface tension depends
Or, S=Fd/2dl = F/2l (9.20) on temperature. Like viscosity, the surface
This quantity S is the magnitude of surface tension of a liquid usually falls with
tension. It is equal to the surface energy per unit temperature.
area of the liquid interface and is also equal to
the force per unit length exerted by the fluid on Table 9.3 Surface tension of some liquids at the
temperatures indicated with the
the movable bar. heats of the vaporisation
So far we have talked about the surface of
one liquid. More generally, we need to consider Liquid Temp (oC) Surface Heat of
fluid surface in contact with other fluids or solid Tension vaporisation
surfaces. The surface energy in that case (N/m) (kJ/mol)
depends on the materials on both sides of the
surface. For example, if the molecules of the Helium –270 0.000239 0.115
materials attract each other, surface energy is Oxygen –183 0.0132 7.1
reduced while if they repel each other the
surface energy is increased. Thus, more Ethanol 20 0.0227 40.6
appropriately, the surface energy is the energy Water 20 0.0727 44.16
of the interface between two materials and
Mercury 20 0.4355 63.2
depends on both of them.

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MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS 195

A fluid will stick to a solid surface if the by θ. It is different at interfaces of different pairs
surface energy between fluid and the solid is of liquids and solids. The value of θ determines
smaller than the sum of surface energies whether a liquid will spread on the surface of a
between solid-air, and fluid-air. Now there is solid or it will form droplets on it. For example,
attraction between the solid surface and the water forms droplets on lotus leaf as shown in
liquid. It can be directly measured Fig. 9.17 (a) while spreads over a clean plastic
experimentaly as schematically shown in Fig. plate as shown in Fig. 9.17(b).
9.16. A flat vertical glass plate, below which a
vessel of some liquid is kept, forms one arm of
the balance. The plate is balanced by weights
on the other side, with its horizontal edge just
over water. The vessel is raised slightly till the
liquid just touches the glass plate and pulls it
down a little because of surface tension. Weights
are added till the plate just clears water. (a)

(b)
Fig. 9.17 Different shapes of water drops with
interfacial tensions (a) on a lotus leaf (b)
on a clean plastic plate.

Fig. 9.16 Measuring Surface Tension.

We consider the three interfacial tensions at
all the three interfaces, liquid-air, solid-air and
Suppose the additional weight required is W.
solid-liquid denoted by Sla, Ssa and Ssl , respectively
Then from Eq. 9.20 and the discussion given
as given in Fig. 9.17 (a) and (b). At the line of
there, the surface tension of the liquid-air
contact, the surface forces between the three media
interface is
must be in equilibrium. From the Fig. 9.17(b) the
Sla = (W/2l) = (mg/2l ) (9.21) following relation is easily derived.
where m is the extra mass and l is the length of Sla cos θ + Ssl = Ssa (9.22)
the plate edge. The subscript (la) emphasises
The angle of contact is an obtuse angle if
the fact that the liquid-air interface tension
Ssl > Sla as in the case of water-leaf interface
is involved.
while it is an acute angle if Ssl < Sla as in the
case of water-plastic interface. When θ is an
9.6.3 Angle of Contact
obtuse angle then molecules of liquids are
The surface of liquid near the plane of contact, attracted strongly to themselves and weakly to
with another medium is in general curved. The those of solid, it costs a lot of energy to create a
angle between tangent to the liquid surface at liquid-solid surface, and liquid then does not
the point of contact and solid surface inside the wet the solid. This is what happens with water
liquid is termed as angle of contact. It is denoted on a waxy or oily surface, and with mercury on

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196 PHYSICS

any surface. On the other hand, if the molecules so that

of the liquid are strongly attracted to those of (Pi – Po) = (2 Sla/ r) (9.25)
the solid, this will reduce Ssl and therefore,
In general, for a liquid-gas interface, the
cos θ may increase or θ may decrease. In this
convex side has a higher pressure than the
case θ is an acute angle. This is what happens
concave side. For example, an air bubble in a
for water on glass or on plastic and for kerosene
liquid, would have higher pressure inside it.
oil on virtually anything (it just spreads). Soaps,
See Fig 9.18 (b).
detergents and dying substances are wetting
agents. When they are added the angle of
contact becomes small so that these may
penetrate well and become effective. Water
proofing agents on the other hand are added to
create a large angle of contact between the water
and fibres.

9.6.4 Drops and Bubbles Fig. 9.18 Drop, cavity and bubble of radius r.

One consequence of surface tension is that free A bubble Fig 9.18 (c) differs from a drop
liquid drops and bubbles are spherical if effects and a cavity; in this it has two interfaces. Applying
of gravity can be neglected. You must have seen the above argument we have for a bubble
this especially clearly in small drops just formed
(Pi – Po) = (4 Sla/ r) (9.26)
in a high-speed spray or jet, and in soap bubbles
blown by most of us in childhood. Why are drops This is probably why you have to blow hard,
and bubbles spherical? What keeps soap but not too hard, to form a soap bubble. A little
bubbles stable? extra air pressure is needed inside!
As we have been saying repeatedly, a liquid-
air interface has energy, so for a given volume 9.6.5 Capillary Rise
the surface with minimum energy is the one with One consequence of the pressure difference
the least area. The sphere has this property. across a curved liquid-air interface is the well-
Though it is out of the scope of this book, but known effect that water rises up in a narrow
you can check that a sphere is better than at tube in spite of gravity. The word capilla means
least a cube in this respect! So, if gravity and hair in Latin; if the tube were hair thin, the rise
other forces (e.g. air resistance) were ineffective, would be very large. To see this, consider a
liquid drops would be spherical. vertical capillary tube of circular cross section
Another interesting consequence of surface (radius a) inserted into an open vessel of water
tension is that the pressure inside a spherical (Fig. 9.19). The contact angle between water and
drop Fig. 9.18(a) is more than the pressure
outside. Suppose a spherical drop of radius r is
in equilibrium. If its radius increase by ∆r. The
extra surface energy is
[4π(r + ∆r) 2- 4πr2] Sla = 8πr ∆r Sla (9.23)
If the drop is in equilibrium this energy cost is
balanced by the energy gain due to
expansion under the pressure difference (Pi – Po)
between the inside of the bubble and the outside.
The work done is Fig. 9.19 Capillary rise, (a) Schematic picture of a
W = (Pi – Po) 4πr ∆r2
(9.24) narrow tube immersed water.
(b) Enlarged picture near interface.

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MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS 197

glass is acute. Thus the surface of water in the ⊳

Example 9.10 The lower end of a capillary
capillary is concave. This means that there is
tube of diameter 2.00 mm is dipped 8.00
a pressure difference between the two sides cm below the surface of water in a beaker.
of the top surface. This is given by What is the pressure required in the tube
(Pi – Po) =(2S/r) = 2S/(a sec θ ) in order to blow a hemispherical bubble at
its end in water? The surface tension of
= (2S/a) cos θ (9.27) water at temperature of the experiments is
Thus the pressure of the water inside the 7.30 × 10-2 Nm-1. 1 atmospheric pressure =
tube, just at the meniscus (air-water interface) 1.01 × 105 Pa, density of water = 1000 kg/m3,
g = 9.80 m s-2. Also calculate the excess
is less than the atmospheric pressure. Consider
pressure.
the two points A and B in Fig. 9.19(a). They
must be at the same pressure, namely
Answer The excess pressure in a bubble of gas
P0 + h ρ g = Pi = PA (9.28) in a liquid is given by 2S/r, where S is the
where ρ is the density of water and h is called surface tension of the liquid-gas interface. You
the capillary rise [Fig. 9.19(a)]. Using should note there is only one liquid surface in
Eq. (9.27) and (9.28) we have this case. (For a bubble of liquid in a gas, there
are two liquid surfaces, so the formula for
h ρ g = (Pi – P0) = (2S cos θ )/a (9.29)
excess pressure in that case is 4S/r.) The
The discussion here, and the Eqs. (9.24) and radius of the bubble is r. Now the pressure
(9.25) make it clear that the capillary rise is due outside the bubble Po equals atmospheric
to surface tension. It is larger, for a smaller a. pressure plus the pressure due to 8.00 cm of
water column. That is
Typically it is of the order of a few cm for fine
Po = (1.01 × 105 Pa + 0.08 m × 1000 kg m–3
capillaries. For example, if a = 0.05 cm, using × 9.80 m s–2)
the value of surface tension for water (Table 9.3), 5
= 1.01784 × 10 Pa
we find that Therefore, the pressure inside the bubble is
h = 2S/(ρ g a) Pi = Po + 2S/r
= 1.01784 × 105 Pa + (2 × 7.3 × 10-2 Pa m/10-3 m)
2 ×(0.073 N m-1 ) = (1.01784 + 0.00146) × 105 Pa
=
(10 kg m-3 ) (9.8 m s-2 )(5 × 10-4 m)
3
= 1.02 × 105 Pa
= 2.98 × 10–2 m = 2.98 cm where the radius of the bubble is taken
to be equal to the radius of the capillary tube,
Notice that if the liquid meniscus is convex, since the bubble is hemispherical ! (The answer
as for mercury, i.e., if cos θ is negative then from has been rounded off to three significant figures.)
Eq. (9.28) for example, it is clear that the liquid The excess pressure in the bubble is 146 Pa.
will be lower in the capillary ! ⊳

SUMMARY

1. The basic property of a fluid is that it can flow. The fluid does not have any
resistance to change of its shape. Thus, the shape of a fluid is governed by the
shape of its container.
2. A liquid is incompressible and has a free surface of its own. A gas is compressible
and it expands to occupy all the space available to it.
3. If F is the normal force exerted by a fluid on an area A then the average pressure Pav
is defined as the ratio of the force to area
F
Pav =
A

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198 PHYSICS

4. The unit of the pressure is the pascal (Pa). It is the same as N m-2. Other common
units of pressure are
1 atm = 1.01×105 Pa
1 bar = 105 Pa
1 torr = 133 Pa = 0.133 kPa
1 mm of Hg = 1 torr = 133 Pa
5. Pascal’s law states that: Pressure in a fluid at rest is same at all points which are at
the same height. A change in pressure applied to an enclosed fluid is transmitted
undiminished to every point of the fluid and the walls of the containing vessel.
6. The pressure in a fluid varies with depth h according to the expression
P = Pa + ρgh
where ρ is the density of the fluid, assumed uniform.
7. The volume of an incompressible fluid passing any point every second in a pipe of
non uniform crossection is the same in the steady flow.
v A = constant ( v is the velocity and A is the area of crossection)
The equation is due to mass conservation in incompressible fluid flow.
8. Bernoulli’s principle states that as we move along a streamline, the sum of the
pressure (P), the kinetic energy per unit volume (ρv2/2) and the potential energy per
unit volume (ρgy) remains a constant.
P + ρv2/2 + ρgy = constant
The equation is basically the conservation of energy applied to non viscuss fluid
motion in steady state. There is no fluid which have zero viscosity, so the above
statement is true only approximately. The viscosity is like friction and converts the
kinetic energy to heat energy.
9. Though shear strain in a fluid does not require shear stress, when a shear stress is
applied to a fluid, the motion is generated which causes a shear strain growing
with time. The ratio of the shear stress to the time rate of shearing strain is known
as coefficient of viscosity, η.
where symbols have their usual meaning and are defined in the text.
10. Stokes’ law states that the viscous drag force F on a sphere of radius a moving with
velocity v through a fluid of viscosity is, F = 6πηav.
11. Surface tension is a force per unit length (or surface energy per unit area) acting in
the plane of interface between the liquid and the bounding surface. It is the extra
energy that the molecules at the interface have as compared to the interior.

POINTS TO PONDER

1. Pressure is a scalar quantity. The definition of the pressure as “force per unit area”
may give one false impression that pressure is a vector. The “force” in the numerator of
the definition is the component of the force normal to the area upon which it is
impressed. While describing fluids as a concept, shift from particle and rigid body
mechanics is required. We are concerned with properties that vary from point to point
in the fluid.
2. One should not think of pressure of a fluid as being exerted only on a solid like the
walls of a container or a piece of solid matter immersed in the fluid. Pressure exists at
all points in a fluid. An element of a fluid (such as the one shown in Fig. 9.4) is in
equilibrium because the pressures exerted on the various faces are equal.

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MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS 199

3. The expression for pressure

P = Pa + ρgh
holds true if fluid is incompressible. Practically speaking it holds for liquids, which
are largely incompressible and hence is a constant with height.
4. The gauge pressure is the difference of the actual pressure and the atmospheric pressure.
P – Pa = Pg
Many pressure-measuring devices measure the gauge pressure. These include the tyre
pressure gauge and the blood pressure gauge (sphygmomanometer).
5. A streamline is a map of fluid flow. In a steady flow two streamlines do not intersect as
it means that the fluid particle will have two possible velocities at the point.
6. Bernoulli’s principle does not hold in presence of viscous drag on the fluid. The work
done by this dissipative viscous force must be taken into account in this case, and P2
[Fig. 9.9] will be lower than the value given by Eq. (9.12).
7. As the temperature rises the atoms of the liquid become more mobile and the coefficient
of viscosity, η falls. In a gas the temperature rise increases the random motion of
atoms and η increases.
8. Surface tension arises due to excess potential energy of the molecules on the surface
in comparison to their potential energy in the interior. Such a surface energy is present
at the interface separating two substances at least one of which is a fluid. It is not the
property of a single fluid alone.

EXERCISES

9.1 Explain why

(a) The blood pressure in humans is greater at the feet than at the brain
(b) Atmospheric pressure at a height of about 6 km decreases to nearly half of
its value at the sea level, though the height of the atmosphere is more than
100 km
(c) Hydrostatic pressure is a scalar quantity even though pressure is force
divided by area.
9.2 Explain why
(a) The angle of contact of mercury with glass is obtuse, while that of water
with glass is acute.
(b) Water on a clean glass surface tends to spread out while mercury on the
same surface tends to form drops. (Put differently, water wets glass while
mercury does not.)

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200 PHYSICS

(c) Surface tension of a liquid is independent of the area of the surface

(d) Water with detergent disolved in it should have small angles of contact.
(e) A drop of liquid under no external forces is always spherical in shape
9.3 Fillin the blanks using the word(s) from the list appended with each statement:
(a) Surface tension of liquids generally . . . with temperatures (increases / decreases)
(b) Viscosity of gases . . . with temperature, whereas viscosity of liquids . . . with
temperature (increases / decreases)
(c) For solids with elastic modulus of rigidity, the shearing force is proportional
to . . . , while for fluids it is proportional to . . . (shear strain / rate of shear
strain)
(d) For a fluid in a steady flow, the increase in flow speed at a constriction follows
(conservation of mass / Bernoulli’s principle)
(e) For the model of a plane in a wind tunnel, turbulence occurs at a ... speed for
turbulence for an actual plane (greater / smaller)
9.4 Explain why
(a) To keep a piece of paper horizontal, you should blow over, not under, it
(b) When we try to close a water tap with our fingers, fast jets of water gush
through the openings between our fingers
(c) The size of the needle of a syringe controls flow rate better than the thumb
pressure exerted by a doctor while administering an injection
(d) A fluid flowing out of a small hole in a vessel results in a backward thrust on
the vessel
(e) A spinning cricket ball in air does not follow a parabolic trajectory
9.5 A 50 kg girl wearing high heel shoes balances on a single heel. The heel is circular with
a diameter 1.0 cm. What is the pressure exerted by the heel on the horizontal floor ?
9.6 Toricelli’s barometer used mercury. Pascal duplicated it using French wine of density
984 kg m–3. Determine the height of the wine column for normal atmospheric
pressure.
9.7 A vertical off-shore structure is built to withstand a maximum stress of 109 Pa. Is
the structure suitable for putting up on top of an oil well in the ocean ? Take the
depth of the ocean to be roughly 3 km, and ignore ocean currents.
9.8 A hydraulic automobile lift is designed to lift cars with a maximum mass of 3000
kg. The area of cross-section of the piston carrying the load is 425 cm2. What
maximum pressure would the smaller piston have to bear ?
9.9 A U-tube contains water and methylated spirit separated by mercury. The mercury
columns in the two arms are in level with 10.0 cm of water in one arm and 12.5 cm
of spirit in the other. What is the specific gravity of spirit ?
9.10 In the previous problem, if 15.0 cm of water and spirit each are further poured into
the respective arms of the tube, what is the difference in the levels of mercury in the
two arms ? (Specific gravity of mercury = 13.6)
9.11 Can Bernoulli’s equation be used to describe the flow of water through a rapid in a
river ? Explain.
9.12 Does it matter if one uses gauge instead of absolute pressures in applying Bernoulli’s
equation ? Explain.
9.13 Glycerine flows steadily through a horizontal tube of length 1.5 m and radius 1.0
cm. If the amount of glycerine collected per second at one end is 4.0 × 10–3 kg s–1,
what is the pressure difference between the two ends of the tube ? (Density of glycerine
= 1.3 × 103 kg m–3 and viscosity of glycerine = 0.83 Pa s). [You may also like to check
if the assumption of laminar flow in the tube is correct].
9.14 In a test experiment on a model aeroplane in a wind tunnel, the flow speeds on the
upper and lower surfaces of the wing are 70 m s–1and 63 m s-1 respectively. What is
the lift on the wing if its area is 2.5 m2 ? Take the density of air to be 1.3 kg m–3.
9.15 Figures 9.20(a) and (b) refer to the steady flow of a (non-viscous) liquid. Which of
the two figures is incorrect ? Why ?

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MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS 201

Fig. 9.20

9.16 The cylindrical tube of a spray pump has a cross-section of 8.0 cm2 one end of
which has 40 fine holes each of diameter 1.0 mm. If the liquid flow inside the tube
is 1.5 m min–1, what is the speed of ejection of the liquid through the holes ?
9.17 A U-shaped wire is dipped in a soap solution, and removed. The thin soap film
formed between the wire and the light slider supports a weight of 1.5 × 10–2 N (which
includes the small weight of the slider). The length of the slider is 30 cm. What is
the surface tension of the film ?
9.18 Figure 9.21 (a) shows a thin liquid film supporting a small weight = 4.5 × 10–2 N.
What is the weight supported by a film of the same liquid at the same temperature
in Fig. (b) and (c) ? Explain your answer physically.

Fig. 9.21

9.19 What is the pressure inside the drop of mercury of radius 3.00 mm at room temperature ?
Surface tension of mercury at that temperature (20 °C) is 4.65 × 10–1 N m–1. The
atmospheric pressure is 1.01 × 105 Pa. Also give the excess pressure inside the drop.
9.20 What is the excess pressure inside a bubble of soap solution of radius 5.00 mm,
given that the surface tension of soap solution at the temperature (20 °C) is 2.50 ×
10–2 N m–1 ? If an air bubble of the same dimension were formed at depth of 40.0 cm
inside a container containing the soap solution (of relative density 1.20), what would
be the pressure inside the bubble ? (1 atmospheric pressure is 1.01 × 105 Pa).

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 CHAPTER TEN

THERMAL PROPERTIES OF MATTER

10.1 INTRODUCTION
We all have common sense notions of heat and temperature.
Temperature is a measure of ‘hotness’ of a body. A kettle
10.1 Introduction with boiling water is hotter than a box containing ice. In
10.2 Temperature and heat physics, we need to define the notion of heat, temperature,
10.3 Measurement of etc., more carefully. In this chapter, you will learn what heat
temperature is and how it is measured, and study the various proceses by
10.4 Ideal-gas equation and which heat flows from one body to another. Along the way,
absolute temperature you will find out why blacksmiths heat the iron ring before
10.5 Thermal expansion fitting on the rim of a wooden wheel of a horse cart and why
10.6 Specific heat capacity the wind at the beach often reverses direction after the sun
10.7 Calorimetry goes down. You will also learn what happens when water boils
10.8 Change of state or freezes, and its temperature does not change during these
10.9 Heat transfer
processes even though a great deal of heat is flowing into or
out of it.
10.10 Newton’s law of cooling
Summary 10.2 TEMPERATURE AND HEAT
Points to ponder
Exercises We can begin studying thermal properties of matter with
Additional Exercises definitions of temperature and heat. Temperature is a relative
measure, or indication of hotness or coldness. A hot utensil
is said to have a high temperature, and ice cube to have a
low temperature. An object that has a higher temperature
than another object is said to be hotter. Note that hot and
cold are relative terms, like tall and short. We can perceive
temperature by touch. However, this temperature sense is
somewhat unreliable and its range is too limited to be useful
for scientific purposes.
We know from experience that a glass of ice-cold water left
on a table on a hot summer day eventually warms up whereas
a cup of hot tea on the same table cools down. It means that
when the temperature of body, ice-cold water or hot tea in
this case, and its surrounding medium are different, heat
transfer takes place between the system and the surrounding
medium, until the body and the surrounding medium are at
the same temperature. We also know that in the case of glass
tumbler of ice-cold water, heat flows from the environment to

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THERMAL PROPERTIES OF MATTER 203

the glass tumbler, whereas in the case of hot

tea, it flows from the cup of hot tea to the
environment. So, we can say that heat is the
form of energy transferred between two (or
more) systems or a system and its
surroundings by virtue of temperature
difference. The SI unit of heat energy
transferred is expressed in joule (J) while SI unit
of temperature is Kelvin (K), and degree Celsius
(oC) is a commonly used unit of temperature.
When an object is heated, many changes may
take place. Its temperature may rise, it may
expand or change state. We will study the effect
of heat on different bodies in later sections.
Fig. 10.1 A plot of Fahrenheit temperature (tF) versus
10.3 MEASUREMENT OF TEMPERATURE
Celsius temperature (tc ).
A measure of temperature is obtained using a
thermometer. Many physical properties of A relationship for converting between the two
materials change sufficiently with temperature. scales may be obtained from a graph of
Some such properties are used as the basis for Fahrenheit temperature (tF ) versus celsius
constructing thermometers. The commonly used temperature (tC) in a straight line (Fig. 10.1),
property is variation of the volume of a liquid whose equation is
with temperature. For example, in common t F – 32 t C
liquid–in–glass thermometers, mercury, alcohol = (10.1)
180 100
etc., are used whose volume varies linearly with
temperature over a wide range. 10.4 IDEAL-GAS EQUATION AND
Thermometers are calibrated so that a ABSOLUTE TEMPERATURE
numerical value may be assigned to a given
temperature in an appropriate scale. For the Liquid-in-glass thermometers show different
definition of any standard scale, two fixed readings for temperatures other than the fixed
reference points are needed. Since all points because of differing expansion properties.
substances change dimensions with A thermometer that uses a gas, however, gives
temperature, an absolute reference for the same readings regardless of which gas is
expansion is not available. However, the used. Experiments show that all gases at low
necessary fixed points may be correlated to the densities exhibit same expansion behaviour. The
physical phenomena that always occur at the variables that describe the behaviour of a given
same temperature. The ice point and the steam quantity (mass) of gas are pressure, volume, and
point of water are two convenient fixed points temperature (P, V, and T )(where T = t + 273.15;
and are known as the freezing and boiling t is the temperature in °C). When temperature
points, respectively. These two points are the is held constant, the pressure and volume of a
temperatures at which pure water freezes and quantity of gas are related as PV = constant.
boils under standard pressure. The two familiar This relationship is known as Boyle’s law, after
temperature scales are the Fahrenheit Robert Boyle (1627–1691), the English Chemist
temperature scale and the Celsius temperature who discovered it. When the pressure is held
scale. The ice and steam point have values constant, the volume of a quantity of the gas is
32 °F and 212 °F, respectively, on the Fahrenheit related to the temperature as V/T = constant.
scale and 0 °C and 100 °C on the Celsius scale. This relationship is known as Charles’ law,
On the Fahrenheit scale, there are 180 equal after French scientist Jacques Charles (1747–
intervals between two reference points, and on 1823). Low-density gases obey these
the Celsius scale, there are 100. laws, which may be combined into a single

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204 PHYSICS

Fig. 10.3 A plot of pressure versus temperature and

Fig. 10.2 Pressure versus temperature of a low extrapolation of lines for low density gases
density gas kept at constant volume. indicates the same absolute zero
temperature.

relationship. Notice that since PV = constant named after the British scientist Lord Kelvin. On
and V/T = constant for a given quantity of gas, this scale, – 273.15 °C is taken as the zero point,
then PV/T should also be a constant. This that is 0 K (Fig. 10.4).
relationship is known as ideal gas law. It can be
written in a more general form that applies not
just to a given quantity of a single gas but to any
quantity of any low-density gas and is known as
ideal-gas equation:

or PV = µRT (10.2)
where, µ is the number of moles in the sample of
gas and R is called universal gas constant:
R = 8.31 J mol–1 K–1
In Eq. 10.2, we have learnt that the pressure
and volume are directly proportional to
temperature : PV ∝ T. This relationship allows a
gas to be used to measure temperature in a
constant volume gas thermometer. Holding the
volume of a gas constant, it gives P ∝T. Thus,
with a constant-volume gas thermometer, Fig. 10.4 Comparision of the Kelvin, Celsius and
Fahrenheit temperature scales.
temperature is read in terms of pressure. A plot
The size of unit in Kelvin and Celsius
of pressure versus temperature gives a straight
temperature scales is the same. So, temperature
line in this case, as shown in Fig. 10.2.
on these scales are related by
However, measurements on real gases deviate
from the values predicted by the ideal gas law T = tC + 273.15 (10.3)
at low temperature. But the relationship is linear
over a large temperature range, and it looks as 10.5 THERMAL EXPANSION
though the pressure might reach zero with You may have observed that sometimes sealed
decreasing temperature if the gas continued to bottles with metallic lids are so tightly screwed
be a gas. The absolute minimum temperature that one has to put the lid in hot water for some
for an ideal gas, therefore, inferred by time to open it. This would allow the metallic lid
extrapolating the straight line to the axis, as in to expand, thereby loosening it to unscrew
Fig. 10.3. This temperature is found to be easily. In case of liquids, you may have observed
– 273.15 °C and is designated as absolute zero. that mercury in a thermometer rises, when the
Absolute zero is the foundation of the Kelvin thermometer is put in slightly warm water. If
temperature scale or absolute scale temperature we take out the thermometer from the warm

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THERMAL PROPERTIES OF MATTER 205

water the level of mercury falls again. Similarly, Table 10.1 Values of coefficient of linear
in case of gases, a balloon partially inflated in a expansion for some material
cool room may expand to full size when placed
in warm water. On the other hand, a fully Material α l (10–5 K–1)
inflated balloon when immersed in cold water Aluminium 2.5
would start shrinking due to contraction of the Brass 1.8
air inside. Iron 1.2
It is our common experience that most Copper 1.7
substances expand on heating and contract on Silver 1.9
cooling. A change in the temperature of a body Gold 1.4
causes change in its dimensions. The increase Glass (pyrex) 0.32
in the dimensions of a body due to the increase Lead 0.29
in its temperature is called thermal expansion.
The expansion in length is called linear
Similarly, we consider the fractional change
expansion. The expansion in area is called area
expansion. The expansion in volume is called ∆V
in volume, , of a substance for temperature
volume expansion (Fig. 10.5). V
change ∆T and define the coefficient of volume
expansion (or volume expansivity), as

(10.5)
Here α V is also a characteristic of the
substance but is not strictly a constant. It
∆A ∆V depends in general on temperature (Fig 10.6). It
∆l
= a l ∆T = 2a l ∆T = 3a l ∆T is seen that αV becomes constant only at a high
l A V
temperature.
(a) Linear expansion (b) Area expansion (c) Volume expansion

Fig. 10.5 Thermal Expansion.

If the substance is in the form of a long rod,

then for small change in temperature, ∆T, the
fractional change in length, ∆l/l, is directly
proportional to ∆T.

(10.4)

where α1 is known as the coefficient of linear

expansion (or linear expansivity) and is
characteristic of the material of the rod. In Table
Fig. 10.6 Coefficient of volume expansion of copper
10.1, typical average values of the coefficient of as a function of temperature.
linear expansion for some material in the
temperature range 0 °C to 100 °C are given. From Table 10.2 gives the values of coefficient of
this Table, compare the value of αl for glass and volume expansion of some common substances
copper. We find that copper expands about five in the temperature range 0–100 °C. You can see
times more than glass for the same rise in that thermal expansion of these substances
temperature. Normally, metals expand more and (solids and liquids) is rather small, with material,
have relatively high values of αl.

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206 PHYSICS

like pyrex glass and invar (a special iron-nickel lakes and ponds, freeze at the top first. As a lake
alloy) having particularly low values of αV. From cools toward 4 °C, water near the surface loses
this Table we find that the value of αv for energy to the atmosphere, becomes denser, and
alcohol (ethanol) is more than mercury and sinks; the warmer, less dense water near the
expands more than mercury for the same rise bottom rises. However, once the colder water on
in temperature. top reaches temperature below 4 °C, it becomes
less dense and remains at the surface, where it
Table 10.2 Values of coefficient of volume freezes. If water did not have this property, lakes
expansion for some substances and ponds would freeze from the bottom up,
which would destroy much of their animal and
Material αv ( K–1) plant life.
Aluminium 7 × 10–5 Gases, at ordinary temperature, expand more
Brass 6 × 10–5 than solids and liquids. For liquids, the
Iron 3.55 × 10–5 coefficient of volume expansion is relatively
Paraffin 58.8 × 10–5 independent of the temperature. However, for
Glass (ordinary) 2.5 × 10–5 gases it is dependent on temperature. For an
Glass (pyrex) 1 × 10–5 ideal gas, the coefficient of volume expansion at
Hard rubber 2.4 × 10–4 constant pressure can be found from the ideal
Invar 2 × 10–6 gas equation:
Mercury 18.2 × 10–5 PV = µRT
Water 20.7 × 10–5 At constant pressure
Alcohol (ethanol) 110 × 10–5 P∆V = µR ∆T
∆V ∆T
Water exhibits an anomalous behaviour; it =
V T
contracts on heating between 0 °C and 4 °C. The
volume of a given amount of water decreases as 1
i.e., αv = for ideal gas (10.6)
it is cooled from room temperature, until its T
temperature reaches 4 °C, [Fig. 10.7(a)]. Below At 0 °C, αv = 3.7 × 10–3 K–1, which is much
4 °C, the volume increases, and therefore, the larger than that for solids and liquids.
density decreases [Fig. 10.7(b)]. Equation (10.6) shows the temperature
This means that water has the maximum dependence of αv; it decreases with increasing
density at 4 °C. This property has an important temperature. For a gas at room temperature and
environmental effect: bodies of water, such as constant pressure, αv is about 3300 × 10–6 K–1, as

Temperature (°C) Temperature (°C)

(a) (b)
Fig. 10.7 Thermal expansion of water.

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THERMAL PROPERTIES OF MATTER 207

much as order(s) of magnitude larger than the Answer

coefficient of volume expansion of typical liquids. ∆A3 = (∆a) (∆b)
There is a simple relation between the ∆Al = a (∆b)
coefficient of volume expansion ( α v ) and
coefficient of linear expansion (αl). Imagine a ∆b
cube of length, l, that expands equally in all
directions, when its temperature increases by b
∆T. We have ∆a
a
∆l = αl l ∆T
so, ∆V = (l+∆l)3 – l3 ≃ 3l2 ∆l (10.7)
In Equation (10.7), terms in (∆l)2 and (∆l)3 have
been neglected since ∆l is small compared to l.
So ∆A2 = b (∆a)
Fig. 10.8
3V ∆l
∆V = = 3V αl ∆T (10.8)
l Consider a rectangular sheet of the solid
which gives material of length a and breadth b (Fig. 10.8 ).
αv = 3αl (10.9) When the temperature increases by ∆T, a
increases by ∆a = αl a∆T and b increases by ∆b
What happens by preventing the thermal = αlb ∆T. From Fig. 10.8, the increase in area
expansion of a rod by fixing its ends rigidly? ∆A = ∆A1 +∆A2 + ∆A3
Clearly, the rod acquires a compressive strain ∆A = a ∆b + b ∆a + (∆a) (∆b)
due to the external forces provided by the rigid = a αlb ∆T + b αl a ∆T + (αl)2 ab (∆T)2
support at the ends. The corresponding stress = αl ab ∆T (2 + αl ∆T) = αl A ∆T (2 + αl ∆T)
set up in the rod is called thermal stress. For
Since α l ≃ 10–5 K–1, from Table 10.1, the
example, consider a steel rail of length 5 m and
product αl ∆T for fractional temperature is small
area of cross-section 40 cm2 that is prevented
in comparision with 2 and may be neglected.
from expanding while the temperature rises by
Hence,
10 °C. The coefficient of linear expansion of steel
is αl(steel) = 1.2 × 10–5 K–1. Thus, the compressive
⊳
∆l
strain is = αl(steel) ∆T = 1.2 × 10–5 × 10=1.2 × 10–4.
l ⊳
Youngs modulus of steel is Y (steel) = 2 × 1011 N m–2. Example 10.2 A blacksmith fixes iron ring
Therefore, the thermal stress developed is on the rim of the wooden wheel of a horse
cart. The diameter of the rim and the iron
∆F  ∆l  ring are 5.243 m and 5.231 m, respectively
= Y steel   = 2.4 × 10 7 N m –2 , which
A  l  at 27 °C. To what temperature should the
corresponds to an external force of ring be heated so as to fit the rim of the
wheel?
 ∆l 
∆F = AYsteel   = 2.4 × 107 × 40 × 10–4 j 105N. If
 l  Answer
two such steel rails, fixed at their outer ends,
are in contact at their inner ends, a force of this Given, T1 = 27 °C
magnitude can easily bend the rails. LT1 = 5.231 m
⊳ LT2 = 5.243 m
Example 10.1 Show that the coefficient of So,
area expansion, (∆A/A)/∆T, of a LT2 =LT1 [1+αl (T2–T1)]
rectangular sheet of the solid is twice its
linear expansivity, αl. 5.243 m = 5.231 m [1 + 1.20×10–5 K–1 (T2–27 °C)]
or T2 = 218 °C. ⊳

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208 PHYSICS

10.6 SPECIFIC HEAT CAPACITY heat absorbed or given off to change the
Take some water in a vessel and start heating it temperature of unit mass of it by one unit. This
on a burner. Soon you will notice that bubbles quantity is referred to as the specific heat
begin to move upward. As the temperature is capacity of the substance.
raised the motion of water particles increases If ∆Q stands for the amount of heat absorbed
till it becomes turbulent as water starts boiling. or given off by a substance of mass m when it
What are the factors on which the quantity of undergoes a temperature change ∆T, then the
heat required to raise the temperature of a specific heat capacity, of that substance is given
substance depend? In order to answer this by
question in the first step, heat a given quantity S 1 ∆Q
of water to raise its temperature by, say 20 °C
s= = (10.11)
m m ∆T
and note the time taken. Again take the same The specific heat capacity is the property of
amount of water and raise its temperature by the substance which determines the change in
40 °C using the same source of heat. Note the the temperature of the substance (undergoing
time taken by using a stopwatch. You will find it no phase change) when a given quantity of heat
takes about twice the time and therefore, double is absorbed (or given off) by it. It is defined as the
the quantity of heat required raising twice the amount of heat per unit mass absorbed or given
temperature of same amount of water. off by the substance to change its temperature
In the second step, now suppose you take by one unit. It depends on the nature of the
double the amount of water and heat it, using substance and its temperature. The SI unit of
the same heating arrangement, to raise the specific heat capacity is J kg–1 K–1.
temperature by 20 °C, you will find the time taken If the amount of substance is specified in
is again twice that required in the first step. terms of moles µ, instead of mass m in kg, we
In the third step, in place of water, now heat can define heat capacity per mole of the
the same quantity of some oil, say mustard oil, substance by
and raise the temperature again by 20 °C. Now
note the time by the same stopwatch. You will (10.12)
find the time taken will be shorter and therefore,
where C is known as molar specific heat
the quantity of heat required would be less than
capacity of the substance. Like S, C also
that required by the same amount of water for
depends on the nature of the substance and its
the same rise in temperature.
temperature. The SI unit of molar specific heat
The above observations show that the quantity
capacity is J mol–1 K–1.
of heat required to warm a given substance
However, in connection with specific heat
depends on its mass, m, the change in
capacity of gases, additional conditions may be
temperature, ∆T and the nature of substance.
needed to define C. In this case, heat transfer
The change in temperature of a substance, when
can be achieved by keeping either pressure or
a given quantity of heat is absorbed or rejected
volume constant. If the gas is held under
by it, is characterised by a quantity called the
constant pressure during the heat transfer, then
heat capacity of that substance. We define heat
capacity, S of a substance as it is called the molar specific heat capacity at
constant pressure and is denoted by Cp. On
∆Q the other hand, if the volume of the gas is
S= (10.10)
∆T maintained during the heat transfer, then the
where ∆Q is the amount of heat supplied to corresponding molar specific heat capacity is
the substance to change its temperature from T called molar specific heat capacity at constant
to T + ∆T. volume and is denoted by Cv. For details see
You have observed that if equal amount of Chapter 11. Table 10.3 lists measured specific
heat is added to equal masses of different heat capacity of some substances at atmospheric
substances, the resulting temperature changes pressure and ordinary temperature while Table
will not be the same. It implies that every 10.4 lists molar specific heat capacities of some
substance has a unique value for the amount of gases. From Table 10.3 you can note that water

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THERMAL PROPERTIES OF MATTER 209

Table 10.3 Specific heat capacity of some substances at room temperature and atmospheric
pressure
Substance Specific heat capacity Substance Specific heat capacity
(J kg–1 K–1) (J kg–1 K–1)
Aluminium 900.0 Ice 2060
Carbon 506.5 Glass 840
Copper 386.4 Iron 450
Lead 127.7 Kerosene 2118
Silver 236.1 Edible oil 1965
Tungesten 134.4 Mercury 140
Water 4186.0

has the highest specific heat capacity compared equal to the heat gained by the colder body,
to other substances. For this reason water is also provided no heat is allowed to escape to the
used as a coolant in automobile radiators, as surroundings. A device in which heat
well as, a heater in hot water bags. Owing to its measurement can be done is called a
high specific heat capacity, water warms up calorimeter. It consists of a metallic vessel and
more slowly than land during summer, and stirrer of the same material, like copper or
consequently wind from the sea has a cooling aluminium. The vessel is kept inside a wooden
effect. Now, you can tell why in desert areas, jacket, which contains heat insulating material,
the earth surface warms up quickly during the like glass wool etc. The outer jacket acts as a
day and cools quickly at night.
heat shield and reduces the heat loss from the
Table 10.4 Molar specific heat capacities of inner vessel. There is an opening in the outer
some gases jacket through which a mercury thermometer
Gas Cp (J mol–1K–1) Cv(J mol–1K–1) can be inserted into the calorimeter (Fig. 10.20).
The following example provides a method by
He 20.8 12.5 which the specific heat capacity of a given solid
H2 28.8 20.4 can be determinated by using the principle, heat
gained is equal to the heat lost.
N2 29.1 20.8
Example 10.3 A sphere of 0.047 kg
⊳
O2 29.4 21.1
aluminium is placed for sufficient time in a
CO2 37.0 28.5 vessel containing boiling water, so that the
sphere is at 100 °C. It is then immediately
transfered to 0.14 kg copper calorimeter
10.7 CALORIMETRY
containing 0.25 kg water at 20 °C. The
A system is said to be isolated if no exchange or temperature of water rises and attains a
transfer of heat occurs between the system and steady state at 23 °C. Calculate the specific
its surroundings. When different parts of an heat capacity of aluminium.
isolated system are at different temperature, a
quantity of heat transfers from the part at higher Answer In solving this example, we shall use
temperature to the part at lower temperature. the fact that at a steady state, heat given by an
The heat lost by the part at higher temperature aluminium sphere will be equal to the heat
is equal to the heat gained by the part at lower absorbed by the water and calorimeter.
temperature. Mass of aluminium sphere (m1) = 0.047 kg
Calorimetry means measurement of heat. Initial temperature of aluminium sphere =100 °C
When a body at higher temperature is brought Final temperature = 23 °C
in contact with another body at lower Change in temperature (∆T)=(100 °C-23°C)= 77 °C
temperature, the heat lost by the hot body is Let specific heat capacity of aluminium be sAl.

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210 PHYSICS

The amount of heat lost by the aluminium

sphere = m1s Al ∆T = 0.047kg × s Al × 77 °C
Mass of water (m2) = 0.25 kg
Mass of calorimeter (m3) = 0.14 kg
Initial temperature of water and calorimeter=20 °C
Final temperature of the mixture = 23 °C
Change in temperature (∆T2) = 23 °C – 20 °C = 3 °C
Specific heat capacity of water (sw)
= 4.18 × 103 J kg–1 K–1
Specific heat capacity of copper calorimeter
= 0.386 × 103 J kg–1 K–1
The amount of heat gained by water and
calorimeter = m2 sw ∆T2 + m3scu∆T2
Fig. 10.9 A plot of temperature versus time showing
= (m2sw + m3scu) (∆T2) the changes in the state of ice on heating
= (0.25 kg × 4.18 × 103 J kg–1 K–1 + 0.14 kg × (not to scale).
0.386 × 103 J kg–1 K–1) (23 °C – 20 °C)
In the steady state heat lost by the aluminium The change of state from solid to liquid is called
sphere = heat gained by water + heat gained by melting or fusion and from liquid to solid is called
calorimeter. freezing. It is observed that the temperature
remains constant until the entire amount of the
So, 0.047 kg × sAl × 77 °C
solid substance melts. That is, both the solid and
= (0.25 kg × 4.18 × 103 J kg–1 K–1+ 0.14 kg × the liquid states of the substance coexist in
0.386 × 103 J kg–1 K–1)(3 °C) thermal equilibrium during the change of
sAl = 0.911 kJ kg –1 K–1 ⊳ states from solid to liquid. The temperature at
which the solid and the liquid states of the
10.8 CHANGE OF STATE substance is in thermal equilibrium with each
other is called its melting point. It is
Matter normally exists in three states: solid, characteristic of the substance. It also depends
liquid and gas. A transition from one of these on pressure. The melting point of a substance
states to another is called a change of state. Two at standard atomspheric pressure is called its
common changes of states are solid to liquid normal melting point. Let us do the following
and liquid to gas (and, vice versa). These changes activity to understand the process of melting
can occur when the exchange of heat takes place of ice.
between the substance and its surroundings. Take a slab of ice. Take a metallic wire and
To study the change of state on heating or fix two blocks, say 5 kg each, at its ends. Put
cooling, let us perform the following activity. the wire over the slab as shown in Fig. 10.10.
Take some cubes of ice in a beaker. Note the You will observe that the wire passes through
temperature of ice. Start heating it slowly on a the ice slab. This happens due to the fact that
constant heat source. Note the temperature after just below the wire, ice melts at lower
every minute. Continuously stir the mixture of temperature due to increase in pressure. When
water and ice. Draw a graph between the wire has passed, water above the wire freezes
temperature and time (Fig. 10.9). You will observe again. Thus, the wire passes through the slab
no change in the temperature as long as there and the slab does not split. This phenomenon
is ice in the beaker. In the above process, the of refreezing is called regelation. Skating is
temperature of the system does not change even possible on snow due to the formation of water
though heat is being continuously supplied. The under the skates. Water is formed due to the
heat supplied is being utilised in changing the increase of pressure and it acts as a
state from solid (ice) to liquid (water). lubricant.

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THERMAL PROPERTIES OF MATTER 211

100 °C when it again becomes steady. The heat

supplied is now being utilised to change water
from liquid state to vapour or gaseous state.
The change of state from liquid to vapour (or
gas) is called vaporisation. It is observed that
the temperature remains constant until the
entire amount of the liquid is converted into
vapour. That is, both the liquid and vapour states
of the substance coexist in thermal equilibrium,
during the change of state from liquid to vapour.
The temperature at which the liquid and the
vapour states of the substance coexist is called
Fig. 10.10 its boiling point. Let us do the following activity
After the whole of ice gets converted into water to understand the process of boiling of water.
and as we continue further heating, we shall see
that temperature begins to rise (Fig.10.9). The Take a round-bottom flask, more than half
temperature keeps on rising till it reaches nearly filled with water. Keep it over a burner and fix a

Triple Point

The temperature of a substance remains constant during its change of state (phase change).
A graph between the temperature T and the Pressure P of the substance is called a phase
diagram or P – T diagram. The following figure shows the phase diagram of water and CO2.
Such a phase diagram divides the P – T plane into a solid-region, the vapour-region and the
liquid-region. The regions are separated by the curves such as sublimation curve (BO), fusion
curve (AO) and vaporisation curve (CO). The points on sublimation curve represent states
in which solid and vapour phases coexist. The point on the sublimation curve BO represent
states in which the solid and vapour phases co-exist. Points on the fusion curve AO represent
states in which solid and liquid phase coexist. Points on the vapourisation curve CO represent
states in which the liquid and vapour phases coexist. The temperature and pressure at which
the fusion curve, the vaporisation curve and the sublimation curve meet and all the three
phases of a substance coexist is called the triple point of the substance. For example the
triple point of water is represented by the temperature 273.16 K and pressure 6.11×10–3 Pa.

(a) (b)

Figure : Pressure-temperature phase diagrams for (a) water and (b) CO2 (not to the scale).

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212 PHYSICS

thermometer and steam outlet through the cork cork. Keep the f lask turned upside down on the
of the flask (Fig. 10.11). As water gets heated in stand. Pour ice-cold water on the flask. Water
the flask, note first that the air, which was vapours in the flask condense reducing the
dissolved in the water, will come out as small pressure on the water surface inside the flask.
bubbles. Later, bubbles of steam will form at Water begins to boil again, now at a lower
the bottom but as they rise to the cooler water temperature. Thus boiling point decreases with
near the top, they condense and disappear. decrease in pressure.
Finally, as the temperature of the entire mass This explains why cooking is difficult on hills.
of the water reaches 100 °C, bubbles of steam At high altitudes, atmospheric pressure is lower,
reach the surface and boiling is said to occur. reducing the boiling point of water as compared
The steam in the flask may not be visible but as to that at sea level. On the other hand, boiling
it comes out of the flask, it condenses as tiny point is increased inside a pressure cooker by
droplets of water, giving a foggy appearance. increasing the pressure. Hence cooking is faster.
The boiling point of a substance at standard
atmospheric pressure is called its normal
boiling point.
However, all substances do not pass through
the three states: solid-liquid-gas. There are
certain substances which normally pass from
the solid to the vapour state directly and vice
versa. The change from solid state to vapour
state without passing through the liquid state
is called sublimation, and the substance is said
to sublime. Dry ice (solid CO2) sublimes, so also
iodine. During the sublimation process both the
solid and vapour states of a substance coexist
in thermal equilibrium.

10.8.1 Latent Heat

In Section 10.8, we have learnt that certain
amount of heat energy is transferred between a
substance and its surroundings when it
undergoes a change of state. The amount of heat
per unit mass transferred during change of state
of the substance is called latent heat of the
substance for the process. For example, if heat
Fig. 10.11 Boiling process. is added to a given quantity of ice at –10 °C, the
temperature of ice increases until it reaches its
If now the steam outlet is closed for a few melting point (0 °C). At this temperature, the
seconds to increase the pressure in the flask, addition of more heat does not increase the
you will notice that boiling stops. More heat temperature but causes the ice to melt, or
would be required to raise the temperature changes its state. Once the entire ice melts,
(depending on the increase in pressure) before adding more heat will cause the temperature of
boiling begins again. Thus boiling point increases the water to rise. A similar situation
with increase in pressure. occurs during liquid gas change of state at the
Let us now remove the burner. Allow water to boiling point. Adding more heat to boiling water
cool to about 80 °C. Remove the thermometer and causes vaporisation, without increase in
steam outlet. Close the flask with the airtight temperature.

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THERMAL PROPERTIES OF MATTER 213

Table 10.5 Temperatures of the change of state and latent heats for various substances at
1 atm pressure

Substance Melting Lf Boiling Lv

Point (°C) (105J kg–1) Point (°C) (105J kg–1)
Ethanol –114 1.0 78 8.5
Gold 1063 0.645 2660 15.8
Lead 328 0.25 1744 8.67
Mercury –39 0.12 357 2.7
Nitrogen –210 0.26 –196 2.0
Oxygen –219 0.14 –183 2.1
Water 0 3.33 100 22.6

The heat required during a change of state Note that when heat is added (or removed)
depends upon the heat of transformation and during a change of state, the temperature
the mass of the substance undergoing a change remains constant. Note in Fig. 10.12 that the
of state. Thus, if mass m of a substance slopes of the phase lines are not all the same,
undergoes a change from one state to the other, which indicate that specific heats of the various
then the quantity of heat required is given by states are not equal. For water, the latent heat of
Q=mL fusion and vaporisation are Lf = 3.33 × 105 J kg–1
or L = Q/m (10.13) and Lv = 22.6 × 105 J kg–1, respectively. That is,
where L is known as latent heat and is a 3.33 × 105 J of heat is needed to melt 1 kg ice at
characteristic of the substance. Its SI unit is 0 °C, and 22.6 × 105 J of heat is needed to convert
J kg–1. The value of L also depends on the 1 kg water into steam at 100 °C. So, steam at
pressure. Its value is usually quoted at standard 100 °C carries 22.6 × 105 J kg–1 more heat than
atmospheric pressure. The latent heat for a solid- water at 100 °C. This is why burns from steam
liquid state change is called the latent heat of are usually more serious than those from
fusion (Lf), and that for a liquid-gas state change boiling water.
is called the latent heat of vaporisation (Lv). ⊳
These are often referred to as the heat of fusion Example 10.4 When 0.15 kg of ice at 0 °C
and the heat of vaporisation. A plot of is mixed with 0.30 kg of water at 50 °C in a
temperature versus heat for a quantity of water container, the resulting temperature is
is shown in Fig. 10.12. The latent heats of some 6.7 °C. Calculate the heat of fusion of ice.
substances, their freezing and boiling points, are (swater = 4186 J kg–1 K–1)
given in Table 10.5.

Answer
Heat lost by water = msw (θf–θi)w
= (0.30 kg ) (4186 J kg–1 K–1) (50.0 °C – 6.7 °C)
= 54376.14 J
Heat required to melt ice = m2Lf = (0.15 kg) Lf
Heat required to raise temperature of ice
water to final temperature = mIsw (θf–θi)I
= (0.15 kg) (4186 J kg–1 K –1) (6.7 °C – 0 °C)
= 4206.93 J
Heat lost = heat gained
Fig. 10.12 Temperature versus heat for water at 54376.14 J = (0.15 kg ) Lf + 4206.93 J
1 atm pressure (not to scale). Lf = 3.34×105 J kg–1. ⊳

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214 PHYSICS

temperature difference. What are the different

Example 10.5 Calculate the heat required
⊳
ways by which this energy transfer takes
to convert 3 kg of ice at –12 °C kept in a place? There are three distinct modes of heat
calorimeter to steam at 100 °C at transfer: conduction, convection and radiation
atmospheric pressure. Given specific heat (Fig. 10.13).
capacity of ice = 2100 J kg–1 K–1, specific heat
capacity of water = 4186 J kg– 1 K–1, latent
heat of fusion of ice = 3.35 × 105 J kg –1
and latent heat of steam = 2.256 ×106 J kg–1.

Answer We have
Mass of the ice, m = 3 kg
specific heat capacity of ice, sice
= 2100 J kg–1 K–1
specific heat capacity of water, swater
= 4186 J kg–1 K–1
latent heat of fusion of ice, Lf ice
= 3.35 × 105 J kg–1
latent heat of steam, Lsteam Fig. 10.13 Heating by conduction, convection and
= 2.256 × 106 J kg–1 radiation.

Now, Q = heat required to convert 3 kg of 10.9.1 Conduction

ice at –12 °C to steam at 100 °C, Conduction is the mechanism of transfer of heat
Q1 = heat required to convert ice at between two adjacent parts of a body because
–12 °C to ice at 0 °C. of their temperature difference. Suppose, one end
= m sice ∆T1 = (3 kg) (2100 J kg–1. of a metallic rod is put in a flame, the other end
K–1) [0–(–12)]°C = 75600 J of the rod will soon be so hot that you cannot
Q2 = heat required to melt ice at hold it by your bare hands. Here, heat transfer
0 °C to water at 0 °C takes place by conduction from the hot end of
= m Lf ice = (3 kg) (3.35 × 105 J kg–1) the rod through its different parts to the other
= 1005000 J end. Gases are poor thermal conductors, while
Q3 = heat required to convert water liquids have conductivities intermediate between
at 0 °C to water at 100 °C. solids and gases.
= msw ∆T2 = (3kg) (4186J kg–1 K–1) Heat conduction may be described
(100 °C) quantitatively as the time rate of heat flow in a
= 1255800 J material for a given temperature difference.
Q4 = heat required to convert water Consider a metallic bar of length L and uniform
at 100 °C to steam at 100 °C. cross-section A with its two ends maintained at
= m Lsteam = (3 kg) (2.256 ×106 different temperatures. This can be done, for
J kg–1) example, by putting the ends in thermal contact
with large reservoirs at temperatures, say, TC and
= 6768000 J
TD, respectively (Fig. 10.14). Let us assume the
So, Q = Q1 + Q2 + Q3 + Q4
ideal condition that the sides of the bar are fully
= 75600J + 1005000 J
insulated so that no heat is exchanged between
+ 1255800 J + 6768000 J the sides and the surroundings.
= 9.1×106 J ⊳ After sometime, a steady state is reached; the
temperature of the bar decreases uniformly with
10.9 HEAT TRANSFER distance from TC to TD; (TC>TD). The reservoir at
We have seen that heat is energy transfer C supplies heat at a constant rate, which
from one system to another or from one part transfers through the bar and is given out at
of a system to another part, arising due to the same rate to the reservoir at D. It is found

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THERMAL PROPERTIES OF MATTER 215

prohibited and keeps the room cooler. In some

situations, heat transfer is critical. In a nuclear
reactor, for example, elaborate heat transfer
systems need to be installed so that the
enormous energy produced by nuclear fission
in the core transits out sufficiently fast, thus
preventing the core from overheating.

Table 10.6 Thermal conductivities of some

material
Fig. 10.14 Steady state heat flow by conduction in
a bar with its two ends maintained at Material Thermal conductivity
temperatures TC and TD; (TC > TD). (J s–1 m–1 K–1 )
Metals
experimentally that in this steady state, the rate
of flow of heat (or heat current) H is proportional Silver 406
to the temperature difference (TC – TD) and the Copper 385
area of cross-section A and is inversely Aluminium 205
proportional to the length L : Brass 109
Steel 50.2
TC – TD Lead 34.7
H = KA (10.14)
L Mercury 8.3
The constant of proportionality K is called the
thermal conductivity of the material. The Non-metals
greater the value of K for a material, the more
rapidly will it conduct heat. The SI unit of K is Insulating brick 0.15
J s –1 m –1 K –1 or W m –1 K –1 . The thermal Concrete 0.8
conductivities of various substances are listed Body fat 0.20
in Table 10.6. These values vary slightly with Felt 0.04
temperature, but can be considered to be Glass 0.8
constant over a normal temperature range. Ice 1.6
Compare the relatively large thermal Glass wool 0.04
conductivities of good thermal conductors and, Wood 0.12
metals, with the relatively small thermal Water 0.8
conductivities of some good thermal insulators,
such as wood and glass wool. You may have Gases
noticed that some cooking pots have copper
coating on the bottom. Being a good conductor Air 0.024
of heat, copper promotes the distribution of heat Argon 0.016
over the bottom of a pot for uniform cooking. Hydrogen 0.14
Plastic foams, on the other hand, are good
insulators, mainly because they contain pockets Example 10.6 What is the temperature of
⊳
of air. Recall that gases are poor conductors, the steel-copper junction in the steady
and note the low thermal conductivity of air in state of the system shown in Fig. 10.15.
the Table 10.5. Heat retention and transfer are Length of the steel rod = 15.0 cm, length
important in many other applications. Houses of the copper rod = 10.0 cm, temperature
made of concrete roofs get very hot during of the furnace = 300 °C, temperature of the
summer days because thermal conductivity of other end = 0 °C. The area of cross section
concrete (though much smaller than that of a of the steel rod is twice that of the copper
metal) is still not small enough. Therefore, people, rod. (Thermal conductivity of steel
usually, prefer to give a layer of earth or foam = 50.2 J s – 1 m –1 K – 1; and of copper
insulation on the ceiling so that heat transfer is = 385 J s–1m–1 K–1).

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216 PHYSICS

Answer
Given, L1 = L2= L = 0.1 m, A1 = A2= A= 0.02 m2
K 1 = 79 W m –1 K –1 , K 2 = 109 W m –1 K –1 ,
T1 = 373 K, and T2 = 273 K.
Under steady state condition, the heat
current (H1) through iron bar is equal to the
Fig. 10.15
heat current (H2) through brass bar.
Answer The insulating material around the rods So, H = H1 = H2
reduces heat loss from the sides of the rods.
Therefore, heat flows only along the length of K1 A1 ( T1 – T0 ) K 2 A 2 ( T 0 – T2 )
= =
the rods. Consider any cross section of the rod. L1 L2
In the steady state, heat flowing into the element For A1 = A2 = A and L1 = L2 = L, this equation
must equal the heat flowing out of it; otherwise leads to
there would be a net gain or loss of heat by the K1 (T1 – T0) = K2 (T0 – T2)
element and its temperature would not be Thus, the junction temperature T0 of the two
steady. Thus in the steady state, rate of heat bars is
flowing across a cross section of the rod is the
same at every point along the length of the ( K1T1 + K 2T2 )
T0 =
combined steel-copper rod. Let T be the ( K1 + K 2 )
temperature of the steel-copper junction in the
Using this equation, the heat current H through
steady state. Then,
either bar is
K1 A1 (300 − T ) K 2 A2 (T – 0) K1 A (T1 – T0 )
= K 2 A(T0 – T2 )
L1 L2 H= =
L L
where 1 and 2 refer to the steel and copper rod
respectively. For A 1 = 2 A2, L1 = 15.0 cm,
L2 = 10.0 cm, K1 = 50.2 J s–1 m–1 K –1, K2 = 385 J
s–1 m–1 K –1, we have

50.2 × 2 ( 300 − T )
Using these equations, the heat current H′
385 T
= through the compound bar of length L1 + L2 = 2L
15 10
and the equivalent thermal conductivity K′, of
which gives T = 44.4 °C ⊳ the compound bar are given by

Example 10.7 An iron bar (L1 = 0.1 m, A1 = K ′ A (T1 – T2 )

H′= = H
⊳
0.02 m 2 , K 1 = 79 W m –1 K – 1 ) and a 2L
brass bar (L 2 = 0.1 m, A 2 = 0.02 m 2 ,
2 K1 K 2
K2 = 109 W m–1K–1) are soldered end to end K′ =
as shown in Fig. 10.16. The free ends of K1 + K 2
the iron bar and brass bar are maintained ( K1T1 + K 2T2 )
at 373 K and 273 K respectively. Obtain (i) T0 =
expressions for and hence compute (i) the
( K1 + K 2 )
temperature of the junction of the two bars,
=
(79 W m –1
) (
K –1 (373 K ) + 109 W m –1 K –1 (273 K ) )
(ii) the equivalent thermal conductivity of 79 W m K –1 –1
+ 109 W m K –1 –1

the compound bar, and (iii) the heat

current through the compound bar. = 315 K
2K 1 K 2
(ii) K ′ = K + K
1 2

2 × (79 W m –1 K –1 ) × (109 W m –1 K –1 )
=
79 W m –1 K –1 +109 W m –1 K –1
Fig 10.16 = 91.6 W m–1 K–1

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THERMAL PROPERTIES OF MATTER 217

of water do. This occurs both because water has

K ′ A (T1 – T2 )
(iii) H ′ = H = a greater specific heat capacity and because
2L mixing currents disperse the absorbed heat
throughout the great volume of water. The air
=
(91.6 W m –1
) ( )
K –1 × 0.02 m 2 × (373 K–273 K )
in contact with the warm ground is heated by
2× (0.1 m ) conduction. It expands, becoming less dense
= 916.1 W ⊳ than the surrounding cooler air. As a result, the
warm air rises (air currents) and the other air
10.9.2 Convection moves (winds) to fill the space-creating a sea
breeze near a large body of water. Cooler air
Convection is a mode of heat transfer by actual
descends, and a thermal convection cycle is set
motion of matter. It is possible only in fluids.
up, which transfers heat away from the land.
Convection can be natural or forced. In natural
At night, the ground loses its heat more quickly,
convection, gravity plays an important part.
and the water surface is warmer than the land.
When a fluid is heated from below, the hot part
As a result, the cycle is reveresed (Fig. 10.17).
expands and, therefore, becomes less dense.
Because of buoyancy, it rises and the upper The other example of natural convection is
colder part replaces it. This again gets heated, the steady surface wind on the earth blowing
rises up and is replaced by the relatively colder in from north-east towards the equator, the
part of the fluid. The process goes on. This mode so-called trade wind. A resonable explanation
of heat transfer is evidently different from is as follows: the equatorial and polar regions of
conduction. Convection involves bulk transport the earth receive unequal solar heat. Air at the
of different parts of the fluid. earth’s surface near the equator is hot, while
In forced convection, material is forced to move the air in the upper atmosphere of the poles is
by a pump or by some other physical means. The cool. In the absence of any other factor, a
common examples of forced convection systems convection current would be set up, with the
are forced-air heating systems in home, the air at the equatorial surface rising and moving
human circulatory system, and the cooling out towards the poles, descending and
system of an automobile engine. In the human streaming in towards the equator. The rotation
body, the heart acts as the pump that circulates of the earth, however, modifies this convection
blood through different parts of the body, current. Because of this, air close to the equator
transferring heat by forced convection and has an eastward speed of 1600 km/h, while it
maintaining it at a uniform temperature. is zero close to the poles. As a result, the air
Natural convection is responsible for many descends not at the poles but at 30° N (North)
familiar phenomena. During the day, the latitude and returns to the equator. This is
ground heats up more quickly than large bodies called trade wind.

Fig. 10.17 Convection cycles.

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218 PHYSICS

10.9.3 Radiation contents of the bottle. The outer wall similarly

reflects back any incoming radiation. The space
Conduction and convection require some
between the walls is evacuted to reduce
material as a transport medium. These modes
conduction and convection losses and the flask
of heat transfer cannot operate between bodies
is supported on an insulator, like cork. The
separated by a distance in vacuum. But the
device is, therefore, useful for preventing hot
earth does receive heat from the Sun across a contents (like, milk) from getting cold, or
huge distance. Similarly, we quickly feel the alternatively, to store cold contents (like, ice).
warmth of the fire nearby even though air
conducts poorly and before convection takes 10.9.4 Blackbody Radiation
some time to set in. The third mechanism for We have so far not mentioned the wavelength
heat transfer needs no medium; it is called content of thermal radiation. The important
radiation and the energy so transferred by thing about thermal radiation at any
electromagnetic waves is called radiant energy. temperature is that it is not of one (or a few)
In an electromagnetic wave, electric and wavelength(s) but has a continuous spectrum
magnetic fields oscillate in space and time. Like from the small to the long wavelengths. The
any wave, electromagnetic waves can have energy content of radiation, however, varies for
different wavelengths and can travel in vacuum different wavelengths. Figure 10.18 gives the
with the same speed, namely the speed of light experimental curves for radiation energy per unit
i.e., 3 × 108 m s–1 . You will learn these matters in area per unit wavelength emitted by a blackbody
more detail later, but you now know why heat versus wavelength for different temperatures.
transfer by radiation does not need any medium
and why it is so fast. This is how heat is
transferred to the earth from the Sun through
empty space. All bodies emit radiant energy,
whether they are solid, liquid or gas. The
electromagnetic radiation emitted by a body by
virtue of its temperature, like radiation by a red
hot iron or light from a filament lamp is called
thermal radiation.
When this thermal radiation falls on other
bodies, it is partly reflected and partly absorbed.
The amount of heat that a body can absorb by
radiation depends on the colour of the body.
We find that black bodies absorb and emit
radiant energy better than bodies of lighter Fig. 10.18: Energy emitted versus wavelength
colours. This fact finds many applications in our for a blackbody at different
daily life. We wear white or light coloured clothes temperatures
in summer, so that they absorb the least heat Notice that the wavelength λm for which energy
from the Sun. However, during winter, we use is the maximum decreases with increasing
dark coloured clothes, which absorb heat from temperature. The relation between λm and T is
the sun and keep our body warm. The bottoms of given by what is known as Wien’s Displacement
utensils for cooking food are blackened so that Law:
they absorb maximum heat from fire and transfer λm T = constant (10.15)
it to the vegetables to be cooked.
Similarly, a Dewar flask or thermos bottle is The value of the constant (Wien’s constant)
a device to minimise heat transfer between the is 2.9 × 10–3 m K. This law explains why the
contents of the bottle and outside. It consists colour of a piece of iron heated in a hot flame
of a double-walled glass vessel with the inner first becomes dull red, then reddish yellow, and
and outer walls coated with silver. Radiation finally white hot. Wien’s law is useful for
from the inner wall is reflected back to the estimating the surface temperatures of celestial

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THERMAL PROPERTIES OF MATTER 219

bodies like, the moon, Sun and other stars. Light For a body with emissivity e, the relation
from the moon is found to have a maximum modifies to
intensity near the wavelength 14 µm. By Wien’s
H = eσ A (T 4 – Ts4) (10.18)
law, the surface of the moon is estimated to have
a temperature of 200 K. Solar radiation has a As an example, let us estimate the heat
maximum at λm = 4753 Å. This corresponds to radiated by our bodies. Suppose the surface area
T = 6060 K. Remember, this is the temperature of a person’s body is about 1.9 m2 and the room
of the surface of the sun, not its interior. temperature is 22 ° C. The internal body
The most significant feature of the temperature, as we know, is about 37°°C. The
blackbody radiation curves in Fig. 10.18 is that
skin temperature may be 28° °C (say). The
they are universal. They depend only on the
temperature and not on the size, shape or emissivity of the skin is about 0.97 for the
material of the blackbody. Attempts to explain relevant region of electromagnetic radiation. The
blackbody radiation theoretically, at the rate of heat loss is:
beginning of the twentieth century, spurred the H = 5.67 × 10–8 × 1.9 × 0.97 × {(301)4 – (295)4}
quantum revolution in physics, as you will
learn in later courses. = 66.4 W
Energy can be transferred by radiation over which is more than half the rate of energy
large distances, without a medium (i.e., in production by the body at rest (120 W). To
vacuum). The total electromagnetic energy prevent this heat loss effectively (better than
radiated by a body at absolute temperature T ordinary clothing), modern arctic clothing has
is proportional to its size, its ability to radiate an additional thin shiny metallic layer next to
(called emissivity) and most importantly to its the skin, which reflects the body’s radiation.
temperature. For a body, which is a perfect
radiator, the energy emitted per unit time (H) 10.10 NEWTON’S LAW OF COOLING
is given by We all know that hot water or milk when left on
H = AσT 4 (10.16) a table begins to cool, gradually. Ultimately it
attains the temperature of the surroundings. To
where A is the area and T is the absolute study how slow or fast a given body can cool on
temperature of the body. This relation obtained
exchanging heat with its surroundings, let us
experimentally by Stefan and later proved
perform the following activity.
theoretically by Boltzmann is known as Stefan-
T a k e s o m e w a t e r, s a y 3 0 0 m L , i n a
Boltzmann law and the constant σ is called
calorimeter with a stirrer and cover it with a
Stefan-Boltzmann constant. Its value in SI units
two-holed lid. Fix the stirrer through one hole
is 5.67 × 10–8 W m–2 K–4. Most bodies emit only a
and fix a thermometer through another hole
fraction of the rate given by Eq. 10.16. A substance
in the lid and make sure that the bulb of
like lamp black comes close to the limit. One,
thermometer is immersed in the water. Note
therefore, defines a dimensionless fraction e
the reading of the thermometer. This reading
called emissivity and writes,
T1 is the temperature of the surroundings.
H = AeσT 4 (10.17) Heat the water kept in the calorimeter till it
Here, e = 1 for a perfect radiator. For a tungsten attains a temperature, say 40 °C above room
lamp, for example, e is about 0.4. Thus, a tungsten temperature (i.e., temperature of the
lamp at a temperature of 3000 K and a surface surroundings). Then, stop heating the water
area of 0.3 cm2 radiates at the rate H = 0.3 × by removing the heat source. Start the
10–4 × 0.4 × 5.67 × 10–8 × (3000)4 = 60 W. stop-watch and note the reading of the
A body at temperature T, with surroundings thermometer after a fixed interval of time, say
at temperatures Ts, emits, as well as, receives after every one minute of stirring gently with
energy. For a perfect radiator, the net rate of the stirrer. Continue to note the temperature
loss of radiant energy is (T2) of water till it attains a temperature about
5 °C above that of the surroundings. Then, plot
H = σA (T 4 – Ts4)

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220 PHYSICS

a graph by taking each value of temperature From Eqs. (10.15) and (10.16) we have
∆T = T2 – T1 along y-axis and the coresponding dT2
value of t along x-axis (Fig. 10.19). –m s = k (T2 – T1 )
dt
dT2 k
=– dt = – K dt (10.21)
T2 – T1 ms
where K = k/m s
On integrating,
∆
log e (T2 – T1) = – K t + c (10.22)
or T2 = T1 + C′ e –Kt; where C′ = e c (10.23)
Equation (10.23) enables you to calculate the
time of cooling of a body through a particular
Fig. 10.19 Curve showing cooling of hot water range of temperature.
with time. For small temperature differences, the rate
From the graph you can infer how the cooling of cooling, due to conduction, convection, and
of hot water depends on the difference of its radiation combined, is proportional to the
temperature from that of the surroundings. You difference in temperature. It is a valid
will also notice that initially the rate of cooling approximation in the transfer of heat from a
is higher and decreases as the temperature of radiator to a room, the loss of heat through the
the body falls. wall of a room, or the cooling of a cup of tea on
The above activity shows that a hot body loses the table.
heat to its surroundings in the form of heat
radiation. The rate of loss of heat depends on
the difference in temperature between the body
and its surroundings. Newton was the first to
study, in a systematic manner, the relation
between the heat lost by a body in a given
enclosure and its temperature.
According to Newton’s law of cooling, the rate
of loss of heat, – dQ/dt of the body is directly
proportional to the difference of temperature
∆T = (T2–T1) of the body and the surroundings.
The law holds good only for small difference of
temperature. Also, the loss of heat by radiation
depends upon the nature of the surface of the
body and the area of the exposed surface. We Fig. 10.20 Verification of Newton’s Law of cooling.
can write Newton’s law of cooling can be verified with
the help of the experimental set-up shown in
– (10.19) Fig. 10.20(a). The set-up consists of a double-
where k is a positive constant depending upon walled vessel (V) containing water between
the area and nature of the surface of the body. the two walls. A copper calorimeter (C)
Suppose a body of mass m and specific heat containing hot water is placed inside the
capacity s is at temperature T2. Let T1 be the double-walled vessel. Two thermometers
temperature of the surroundings. If the through the corks are used to note the
temperature falls by a small amount dT2 in time temperatures T2 of water in calorimeter and
dt, then the amount of heat lost is T1 of hot water in between the double walls,
respectively. Temperature of hot water in the
dQ = ms dT2
calorimeter is noted after equal intervals of
∴ Rate of loss of heat is given by time. A graph is plotted between log e (T2–T1)
dQ dT [or ln(T2–T1)] and time (t ). The nature of the
= ms 2 (10.20)
dt dt

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THERMAL PROPERTIES OF MATTER 221

graph is observed to be a straight line having

8 °C
a negative slope as shown in Fig. 10.20(b). This = K ( 70 °C)
is in support of Eq. 10.22. 2 min
The average of 69 °C and 71 °C is 70 °C, which
Example 10.8 A pan filled with hot food
⊳
is 50 °C above room temperature. K is the same
cools from 94 °C to 86 °C in 2 minutes when
for this situation as for the original.
the room temperature is at 20 °C. How long
will it take to cool from 71 °C to 69 °C? 2 °C
= K (50 °C)
Time
Answer The average temperature of 94 °C and When we divide above two equations, we
86 °C is 90 °C, which is 70 °C above the room have
temperature. Under these conditions the pan
cools 8 °C in 2 minutes. 8 °C/2 min K (70 °C)
Using Eq. (10.21), we have =
2 °C/time K (50 °C)
Change in temperature Time = 0.7 min
= K ∆T
Time
= 42 s ⊳

SUMMARY
1. Heat is a form of energy that flows between a body and its surrounding medium by
virtue of temperature difference between them. The degree of hotness of the body is
quantitatively represented by temperature.
2. A temperature-measuring device (thermometer) makes use of some measurable property
(called thermometric property) that changes with temperature. Different thermometers
lead to different temperature scales. To construct a temperature scale, two fixed points
are chosen and assigned some arbitrary values of temperature. The two numbers fix
the origin of the scale and the size of its unit.
3. The Celsius temperature (tC) and the Farenheit temperare (tF)are related by
tF = (9/5) tC + 32
4. The ideal gas equation connecting pressure (P), volume (V) and absolute temperature (T)
is :
PV = µRT
where µ is the number of moles and R is the universal gas constant.
5. In the absolute temperature scale, the zero of the scale corresponds to the temperature
where every substance in nature has the least possible molecular activity. The Kelvin
absolute temperature scale (T ) has the same unit size as the Celsius scale (Tc ), but
differs in the origin :
TC = T – 273.15

6. The coefficient of linear expansion (αl ) and volume expansion (αv ) are defined by the
relations :

∆l
= α l ∆T
l

∆V
= α V ∆T
V

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222 PHYSICS

where ∆l and ∆V denote the change in length l and volume V for a change of temperature
∆T. The relation between them is :
αv = 3 αl
7. The specific heat capacity of a substance is defined by

1 ∆Q
s=
m ∆T
where m is the mass of the substance and ∆Q is the heat required to change its
temperature by ∆T. The molar specific heat capacity of a substance is defined by

1 ∆Q
C=
µ ∆T
where µ is the number of moles of the substance.
8. The latent heat of fusion (Lf) is the heat per unit mass required to change a substance
from solid into liquid at the same temperature and pressure. The latent heat of
vaporisation (Lv) is the heat per unit mass required to change a substance from liquid
to the vapour state without change in the temperature and pressure.
9. The three modes of heat transfer are conduction, convection and radiation.
10. In conduction, heat is transferred between neighbouring parts of a body through
molecular collisions, without any flow of matter. For a bar of length L and uniform
cross section A with its ends maintained at temperatures TC and TD, the rate of flow of
heat H is :

T −T
C D
H=K A
L
where K is the thermal conductivity of the material of the bar.

11. Newton’s Law of Cooling says that the rate of cooling of a body is proportional to the
excess temperature of the body over the surroundings :

dQ
= – k (T2 – T1 )
dt
Where T1 is the temperature of the surrounding medium and T2 is the temperature of
the body.

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THERMAL PROPERTIES OF MATTER 223

POINTS TO PONDER
1. The relation connecting Kelvin temperature (T ) and the Celsius temperature tc
T = tc + 273.15
and the assignment T = 273.16 K for the triple point of water are exact relations (by
choice). With this choice, the Celsius temperature of the melting point of water and
boiling point of water (both at 1 atm pressure) are very close to, but not exactly equal
to 0 °C and 100 °C respectively. In the original Celsius scale, these latter fixed points
were exactly at 0 °C and 100 °C (by choice), but now the triple point of water is the
preferred choice for the fixed point, because it has a unique temperature.
2. A liquid in equilibrium with vapour has the same pressure and temperature throughout
the system; the two phases in equilibrium differ in their molar volume (i.e. density).
This is true for a system with any number of phases in equilibrium.
3. Heat transfer always involves temperature difference between two systems or two parts
of the same system. Any energy transfer that does not involve temperature difference
in some way is not heat.
4. Convection involves flow of matter within a fluid due to unequal temperatures of its
parts. A hot bar placed under a running tap loses heat by conduction between the
surface of the bar and water and not by convection within water.

EXERCISES

10.1 The triple points of neon and carbon dioxide are 24.57 K and 216.55 K respectively.
Express these temperatures on the Celsius and Fahrenheit scales.
10.2 Two absolute scales A and B have triple points of water defined to be 200 A and 350
B. What is the relation between TA and TB ?
10.3 The electrical resistance in ohms of a certain thermometer varies with temperature
according to the approximate law :
R = Ro [1 + α (T – To )]
The resistance is 101.6 Ω at the triple-point of water 273.16 K, and 165.5 Ω at the
normal melting point of lead (600.5 K). What is the temperature when the resistance
is 123.4 Ω ?
10.4 Answer the following :
(a) The triple-point of water is a standard fixed point in modern thermometry.
Why ? What is wrong in taking the melting point of ice and the boiling point
of water as standard fixed points (as was originally done in the Celsius scale) ?
(b) There were two fixed points in the original Celsius scale as mentioned above
which were assigned the number 0 °C and 100 °C respectively. On the absolute
scale, one of the fixed points is the triple-point of water, which on the Kelvin
absolute scale is assigned the number 273.16 K. What is the other fixed point
on this (Kelvin) scale ?
(c) The absolute temperature (Kelvin scale) T is related to the temperature tc on
the Celsius scale by
tc = T – 273.15
Why do we have 273.15 in this relation, and not 273.16 ?
(d) What is the temperature of the triple-point of water on an absolute scale
whose unit interval size is equal to that of the Fahrenheit scale ?
10.5 Two ideal gas thermometers A and B use oxygen and hydrogen respectively. The
following observations are made :

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224 PHYSICS

Temperature Pressure Pressure

thermometer A thermometer B

Triple-point of water 1.250 × 105 Pa 0.200 × 105 Pa

Normal melting point 1.797 × 105 Pa 0.287 × 105 Pa
of sulphur
(a) What is the absolute temperature of normal melting point of sulphur as read
by thermometers A and B ?
(b) What do you think is the reason behind the slight difference in answers of
thermometers A and B ? (The thermometers are not faulty). What further
procedure is needed in the experiment to reduce the discrepancy between the
two readings ?
10.6 A steel tape 1m long is correctly calibrated for a temperature of 27.0 °C. The length
of a steel rod measured by this tape is found to be 63.0 cm on a hot day when the
temperature is 45.0 °C. What is the actual length of the steel rod on that day ?
What is the length of the same steel rod on a day when the temperature is 27.0 °C
? Coefficient of linear expansion of steel = 1.20 × 10–5 K–1 .
10.7 A large steel wheel is to be fitted on to a shaft of the same material. At 27 °C, the
outer diameter of the shaft is 8.70 cm and the diameter of the central hole in the
wheel is 8.69 cm. The shaft is cooled using ‘dry ice’. At what temperature of the
shaft does the wheel slip on the shaft? Assume coefficient of linear expansion of
the steel to be constant over the required temperature range :
αsteel = 1.20 × 10–5 K–1.
10.8 A hole is drilled in a copper sheet. The diameter of the hole is 4.24 cm at 27.0 °C.
What is the change in the diameter of the hole when the sheet is heated to 227 °C?
Coefficient of linear expansion of copper = 1.70 × 10–5 K–1.
10.9 A brass wire 1.8 m long at 27 °C is held taut with little tension between two rigid
supports. If the wire is cooled to a temperature of –39 °C, what is the tension
developed in the wire, if its diameter is 2.0 mm ? Co-efficient of linear expansion
of brass = 2.0 × 10–5 K–1; Young’s modulus of brass = 0.91 × 1011 Pa.
10.10 A brass rod of length 50 cm and diameter 3.0 mm is joined to a steel rod of the same
length and diameter. What is the change in length of the combined rod at 250 °C, if
the original lengths are at 40.0 °C? Is there a ‘thermal stress’ developed at the
junction ? The ends of the rod are free to expand (Co-efficient of linear expansion of
brass = 2.0 × 10–5 K–1, steel = 1.2 × 10–5 K–1 ).
10.11 The coefficient of volume expansion of glycerine is 49 × 10–5 K–1. What is the fractional
change in its density for a 30 °C rise in temperature ?
10.12 A 10 kW drilling machine is used to drill a bore in a small aluminium block of mass
8.0 kg. How much is the rise in temperature of the block in 2.5 minutes, assuming
50% of power is used up in heating the machine itself or lost to the surroundings.
Specific heat of aluminium = 0.91 J g–1 K–1.
10.13 A copper block of mass 2.5 kg is heated in a furnace to a temperature of 500 °C and
then placed on a large ice block. What is the maximum amount of ice that can
melt? (Specific heat of copper = 0.39 J g –1 K –1; heat of fusion of water
= 335 J g–1 ).
10.14 In an experiment on the specific heat of a metal, a 0.20 kg block of the metal at
150 °C is dropped in a copper calorimeter (of water equivalent 0.025 kg) containing
150 cm3 of water at 27 °C. The final temperature is 40 °C. Compute the specific heat
of the metal. If heat losses to the surroundings are not negligible, is your answer
greater or smaller than the actual value for specific heat of the metal ?
10.15 Given below are observations on molar specific heats at room temperature of some
common gases.

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THERMAL PROPERTIES OF MATTER 225

Gas Molar specific heat (Cv )

(cal mo1–1 K–1)
Hydrogen 4.87
Nitrogen 4.97
Oxygen 5.02
Nitric oxide 4.99
Carbon monoxide 5.01
Chlorine 6.17
The measured molar specific heats of these gases are markedly different from
those for monatomic gases. Typically, molar specific heat of a monatomic gas is
2.92 cal/mol K. Explain this difference. What can you infer from the somewhat
larger (than the rest) value for chlorine ?
10.16 A child running a temperature of 101°F is given an antipyrin (i.e. a medicine that
lowers fever) which causes an increase in the rate of evaporation of sweat from his
body. If the fever is brought down to 98 °F in 20 minutes, what is the average rate
of extra evaporation caused, by the drug. Assume the evaporation mechanism to
be the only way by which heat is lost. The mass of the child is 30 kg. The specific
heat of human body is approximately the same as that of water, and latent heat of
evaporation of water at that temperature is about 580 cal g–1.
10.17 A ‘thermacole’ icebox is a cheap and an efficient method for storing small quantities
of cooked food in summer in particular. A cubical icebox of side 30 cm has a
thickness of 5.0 cm. If 4.0 kg of ice is put in the box, estimate the amount of ice
remaining after 6 h. The outside temperature is 45 °C, and co-efficient of thermal
conductivity of thermacole is 0.01 J s–1 m–1 K–1. [Heat of fusion of water = 335 × 103
J kg–1]
10.18 A brass boiler has a base area of 0.15 m2 and thickness 1.0 cm. It boils water at the
rate of 6.0 kg/min when placed on a gas stove. Estimate the temperature of the part
of the flame in contact with the boiler. Thermal conductivity of brass = 109 J s–1 m–1
K–1 ; Heat of vaporisation of water = 2256 × 103 J kg–1.
10.19 Explain why :
(a) a body with large reflectivity is a poor emitter
(b) a brass tumbler feels much colder than a wooden tray on a chilly day
(c) an optical pyrometer (for measuring high temperatures) calibrated for an ideal
black body radiation gives too low a value for the temperature of a red hot
iron piece in the open, but gives a correct value for the temperature when the
same piece is in the furnace
(d) the earth without its atmosphere would be inhospitably cold
(e) heating systems based on circulation of steam are more efficient in warming
a building than those based on circulation of hot water
10.20 A body cools from 80 °C to 50 °C in 5 minutes. Calculate the time it takes to cool
from 60 °C to 30 °C. The temperature of the surroundings is 20 °C.

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 CHAPTER ELEVEN

THERMODYNAMICS

11.1 INTRODUCTION
In previous chapter we have studied thermal properties of
matter. In this chapter we shall study laws that govern
thermal energy. We shall study the processes where work is
11.1 Introduction
converted into heat and vice versa. In winter, when we rub
11.2 Thermal equilibrium our palms together, we feel warmer; here work done in rubbing
11.3 Zeroth law of produces the ‘heat’. Conversely, in a steam engine, the ‘heat’
Thermodynamics of the steam is used to do useful work in moving the pistons,
11.4 Heat, internal energy and which in turn rotate the wheels of the train.
work In physics, we need to define the notions of heat,
11.5 First law of temperature, work, etc. more carefully. Historically, it took a
thermodynamics long time to arrive at the proper concept of ‘heat’. Before the
11.6 Specific heat capacity modern picture, heat was regarded as a fine invisible fluid
11.7 Thermodynamic state filling in the pores of a substance. On contact between a hot
variables and equation of body and a cold body, the fluid (called caloric) flowed from
state the colder to the hotter body ! This is similar to what happens
11.8 Thermodynamic processes when a horizontal pipe connects two tanks containing water
11.9 Second law of up to different heights. The flow continues until the levels of
thermodynamics water in the two tanks are the same. Likewise, in the ‘caloric’
11.10 Reversible and irreversible picture of heat, heat flows until the ‘caloric levels’ (i.e., the
processes temperatures) equalise.
11.11 Carnot engine In time, the picture of heat as a fluid was discarded in
favour of the modern concept of heat as a form of energy. An
Summary
important experiment in this connection was due to Benjamin
Points to ponder
Thomson (also known as Count Rumford) in 1798. He
Exercises
observed that boring of a brass cannon generated a lot of
heat, indeed enough to boil water. More significantly, the
amount of heat produced depended on the work done (by the
horses employed for turning the drill) but not on the
sharpness of the drill. In the caloric picture, a sharper drill
would scoop out more heat fluid from the pores; but this
was not observed. A most natural explanation of the
observations was that heat was a form of energy and the
experiment demonstrated conversion of energy from one form
to another–from work to heat.

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THERMODYNAMICS 227

Thermodynamics is the branch of physics that in a different context : we say the state of a system
deals with the concepts of heat and temperature is an equilibrium state if the macroscopic
and the inter-conversion of heat and other forms variables that characterise the system do not
of energy. Thermodynamics is a macroscopic change in time. For example, a gas inside a closed
science. It deals with bulk systems and does not rigid container, completely insulated from its
go into the molecular constitution of matter. In surroundings, with fixed values of pressure,
fact, its concepts and laws were formulated in the volume, temperature, mass and composition that
nineteenth century before the molecular picture do not change with time, is in a state of
of matter was firmly established. Thermodynamic thermodynamic equilibrium.
description involves relatively few macroscopic
variables of the system, which are suggested by
common sense and can be usually measured
directly. A microscopic description of a gas, for
example, would involve specifying the co-ordinates
and velocities of the huge number of molecules
constituting the gas. The description in kinetic
theory of gases is not so detailed but it does involve
molecular distribution of velocities.
Thermodynamic description of a gas, on the other (a)
hand, avoids the molecular description altogether.
Instead, the state of a gas in thermodynamics is
specified by macroscopic variables such as
pressure, volume, temperature, mass and
composition that are felt by our sense perceptions
and are measurable*.
The distinction between mechanics and
thermodynamics is worth bearing in mind. In
mechanics, our interest is in the motion of particles (b)
or bodies under the action of forces and torques. Fig. 11.1 (a) Systems A and B (two gases) separated
Thermodynamics is not concerned with the by an adiabatic wall – an insulating wall
motion of the system as a whole. It is concerned that does not allow flow of heat. (b) The
with the internal macroscopic state of the body. same systems A and B separated by a
When a bullet is fired from a gun, what changes diathermic wall – a conducting wall that
is the mechanical state of the bullet (its kinetic allows heat to flow from one to another. In
this case, thermal equilibrium is attained
energy, in particular), not its temperature. When
in due course.
the bullet pierces a wood and stops, the kinetic
energy of the bullet gets converted into heat, In general, whether or not a system is in a state
changing the temperature of the bullet and the of equilibrium depends on the surroundings and
surrounding layers of wood. Temperature is the nature of the wall that separates the system
related to the energy of the internal (disordered) from the surroundings. Consider two gases A and
motion of the bullet, not to the motion of the bullet B occupying two different containers. We know
as a whole. experimentally that pressure and volume of a
given mass of gas can be chosen to be its two
11.2 THERMAL EQUILIBRIUM
independent variables. Let the pressure and
Equilibrium in mechanics means that the net volume of the gases be (PA, VA) and (PB, VB)
external force and torque on a system are zero. respectively. Suppose first that the two systems
The term ‘equilibrium’ in thermodynamics appears are put in proximity but are separated by an

* Thermodynamics may also involve other variables that are not so obvious to our senses e.g. entropy, enthalpy,
etc., and they are all macroscopic variables. However, a thermodynamic state is specified by five state
variables viz., pressure, volume, temperature, internal energy and entropy. Entropy is a measure of disorderness
in the system. Enthalpy is a measure of total heat content of the system.

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228 PHYSICS

adiabatic wall – an insulating wall (can be law in 1931 long after the first and second Laws
movable) that does not allow flow of energy (heat) of thermodynamics were stated and so numbered.
from one to another. The systems are insulated The Zeroth Law clearly suggests that when two
from the rest of the surroundings also by similar systems A and B, are in thermal equilibrium,
adiabatic walls. The situation is shown there must be a physical quantity that has the
schematically in Fig. 11.1 (a). In this case, it is same value for both. This thermodynamic
found that any possible pair of values (PA, VA) will variable whose value is equal for two systems in
be in equilibrium with any possible pair of values thermal equilibrium is called temperature (T ).
(PB, VB ). Next, suppose that the adiabatic wall is Thus, if A and B are separately in equilibrium
replaced by a diathermic wall – a conducting wall with C, TA = TC and TB = TC. This implies that
that allows energy flow (heat) from one to another. TA = TB i.e. the systems A and B are also in
It is then found that the macroscopic variables of thermal equilibrium.
the systems A and B change spontaneously until We have arrived at the concept of temperature
both the systems attain equilibrium states. After formally via the Zeroth Law. The next question
that there is no change in their states. The is : how to assign numerical values to
situation is shown in Fig. 11.1(b). The pressure temperatures of different bodies ? In other words,
and volume variables of the two gases change to how do we construct a scale of temperature ?
(PB ′, VB ′) and (PA ′, VA ′) such that the new states Thermometry deals with this basic question to
of A and B are in equilibrium with each other*. which we turn in the next section.
There is no more energy flow from one to another.
We then say that the system A is in thermal
equilibrium with the system B.
What characterises the situation of thermal
equilibrium between two systems ? You can guess
the answer from your experience. In thermal
equilibrium, the temperatures of the two systems
are equal. We shall see how does one arrive at the
concept of temperature in thermodynamics? The
Zeroth law of thermodynamics provides the clue.
11.3 ZEROTH LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS (a)
Imagine two systems A and B, separated by an
adiabatic wall, while each is in contact with a third
system C, via a conducting wall [Fig. 11.2(a)]. The
states of the systems (i.e., their macroscopic
variables) will change until both A and B come to
thermal equilibrium with C. After this is achieved,
suppose that the adiabatic wall between A and B
is replaced by a conducting wall and C is insulated
from A and B by an adiabatic wall [Fig.11.2(b)]. It
is found that the states of A and B change no (b)
further i.e. they are found to be in thermal
Fig. 11.2 (a) Systems A and B are separated by an
equilibrium with each other. This observation adiabatic wall, while each is in contact
forms the basis of the Zeroth Law of with a third system C via a conducting
Thermodynamics, which states that ‘two wall. (b) The adiabatic wall between A
systems in thermal equilibrium with a third and B is replaced by a conducting wall,
system separately are in thermal equilibrium while C is insulated from A and B by an
with each other’. R.H. Fowler formulated this adiabatic wall.

* Both the variables need not change. It depends on the constraints. For instance, if the gases are in containers
of fixed volume, only the pressures of the gases would change to achieve thermal equilibrium.

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THERMODYNAMICS 229

11.4 HEAT, INTERNAL ENERGY AND WORK associated with various random motions of its
The Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics led us to molecules. We will see in the next chapter that
the concept of temperature that agrees with our in a gas this motion is not only translational
commonsense notion. Temperature is a marker (i.e. motion from one point to another in the
of the ‘hotness’ of a body. It determines the volume of the container); it also includes
direction of flow of heat when two bodies are rotational and vibrational motion of the
placed in thermal contact. Heat flows from the molecules (Fig. 11.3).
body at a higher temperature to the one at lower
temperature. The flow stops when the
temperatures equalise; the two bodies are then
in thermal equilibrium. We saw in some detail
how to construct temperature scales to assign
temperatures to different bodies. We now
describe the concepts of heat and other relevant
quantities like internal energy and work. Fig. 11.3 (a) Internal energy U of a gas is the sum
of the kinetic and potential energies of its
The concept of internal energy of a system is
molecules when the box is at rest. Kinetic
not difficult to understand. We know that every energy due to various types of motion
bulk system consists of a large number of (translational, rotational, vibrational) is to
molecules. Internal energy is simply the sum of be included in U. (b) If the same box is
the kinetic energies and potential energies of moving as a whole with some velocity,
these molecules. We remarked earlier that in the kinetic energy of the box is not to be
thermodynamics, the kinetic energy of the included in U.
system, as a whole, is not relevant. Internal
energy is thus, the sum of molecular kinetic and
potential energies in the frame of reference
relative to which the centre of mass of the system
is at rest. Thus, it includes only the (disordered)
energy associated with the random motion of
molecules of the system. We denote the internal
energy of a system by U.
Though we have invoked the molecular
picture to understand the meaning of internal
energy, as far as thermodynamics is concerned,
U is simply a macroscopic variable of the system.
The important thing about internal energy is
that it depends only on the state of the system,
not on how that state was achieved. Internal
energy U of a system is an example of a
thermodynamic ‘state variable’ – its value
depends only on the given state of the system,
not on history i.e. not on the ‘path’ taken to arrive
at that state. Thus, the internal energy of a given
mass of gas depends on its state described by Fig. 11.4 Heat and work are two distinct modes of
specific values of pressure, volume and energy transfer to a system that results in
temperature. It does not depend on how this change in its internal energy. (a) Heat is
state of the gas came about. Pressure, volume, energy transfer due to temperature
difference between the system and the
temperature, and internal energy are
surroundings. (b) Work is energy transfer
thermodynamic state variables of the system brought about by means (e.g. moving the
(gas) (see section 11.7). If we neglect the small piston by raising or lowering some weight
intermolecular forces in a gas, the internal connected to it) that do not involve such a
energy of a gas is just the sum of kinetic energies temperature difference.

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230 PHYSICS

What are the ways of changing internal 11.5 FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS
energy of a system ? Consider again, for We have seen that the internal energy U of a
simplicity, the system to be a certain mass of system can change through two modes of energy
gas contained in a cylinder with a movable transfer : heat and work. Let
piston as shown in Fig. 11.4. Experience shows
there are two ways of changing the state of the ∆Q = Heat supplied to the system by the
gas (and hence its internal energy). One way is surroundings
to put the cylinder in contact with a body at a ∆W = Work done by the system on the
higher temperature than that of the gas. The surroundings
temperature difference will cause a flow of ∆U = Change in internal energy of the system
energy (heat) from the hotter body to the gas, The general principle of conservation of
thus increasing the internal energy of the gas. energy then implies that
The other way is to push the piston down i.e. to ∆Q = ∆U + ∆W (11.1)
do work on the system, which again results in
increasing the internal energy of the gas. Of i.e. the energy (∆Q) supplied to the system goes
course, both these things could happen in the in partly to increase the internal energy of the
reverse direction. With surroundings at a lower system (∆U) and the rest in work on the
temperature, heat would flow from the gas to environment (∆W). Equation (11.1) is known as
the surroundings. Likewise, the gas could push the First Law of Thermodynamics. It is simply
the general law of conservation of energy applied
the piston up and do work on the surroundings.
to any system in which the energy transfer from
In short, heat and work are two different modes
or to the surroundings is taken into account.
of altering the state of a thermodynamic system
Let us put Eq. (11.1) in the alternative form
and changing its internal energy.
The notion of heat should be carefully ∆Q – ∆W = ∆U (11.2)
distinguished from the notion of internal energy.
Heat is certainly energy, but it is the energy in Now, the system may go from an initial state
transit. This is not just a play of words. The to the final state in a number of ways. For
distinction is of basic significance. The state of example, to change the state of a gas from
a thermodynamic system is characterised by its (P1, V1) to (P2, V2), we can first change the
internal energy, not heat. A statement like ‘a volume of the gas from V1 to V2, keeping its
gas in a given state has a certain amount of pressure constant i.e. we can first go the state
heat’ is as meaningless as the statement that (P1, V2) and then change the pressure of the
gas from P1 to P2, keeping volume constant, to
‘a gas in a given state has a certain amount
take the gas to (P2, V2). Alternatively, we can
of work’. In contrast, ‘a gas in a given state
first keep the volume constant and then keep
has a certain amount of internal energy’ is a
the pressure constant. Since U is a state
perfectly meaningful statement. Similarly, the variable, ∆U depends only on the initial and
statements ‘a certain amount of heat is final states and not on the path taken by the
supplied to the system’ or ‘a certain amount gas to go from one to the other. However, ∆Q
of work was done by the system’ are perfectly and ∆W will, in general, depend on the path
meaningful. taken to go from the initial to final states. From
To summarise, heat and work in the First Law of Thermodynamics, Eq. (11.2),
thermodynamics are not state variables. They it is clear that the combination ∆Q – ∆W, is
are modes of energy transfer to a system however, path independent. This shows that
resulting in change in its internal energy, if a system is taken through a process in which
which, as already mentioned, is a state variable. ∆U = 0 (for example, isothermal expansion of
an ideal gas, see section 11.8),
In ordinary language, we often confuse heat
with internal energy. The distinction between ∆Q = ∆W
them is sometimes ignored in elementary
physics books. For proper understanding of i.e., heat supplied to the system is used up
thermodynamics, however, the distinction is entirely by the system in doing work on the
crucial. environment.

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THERMODYNAMICS 231

If the system is a gas in a cylinder with a If the amount of substance is specified in

movable piston, the gas in moving the piston does terms of moles µ (instead of mass m in kg ), we
work. Since force is pressure times area, and can define heat capacity per mole of the
area times displacement is volume, work done substance by
by the system against a constant pressure P is
S 1 ∆Q
C= = (11.6)
∆W = P ∆V µ µ ∆T
C is known as molar specific heat capacity of
where ∆V is the change in volume of the gas.
the substance. Like s, C is independent of the
Thus, for this case, Eq. (11.1) gives
amount of substance. C depends on the nature
∆Q = ∆U + P ∆V (11.3) of the substance, its temperature and the
conditions under which heat is supplied. The
As an application of Eq. (11.3), consider the unit of C is J mo1–1 K–1. As we shall see later (in
change in internal energy for 1 g of water when connection with specific heat capacity of gases),
we go from its liquid to vapour phase. The additional conditions may be needed to define
measured latent heat of water is 2256 J/g. i.e., C or s. The idea in defining C is that simple
for 1 g of water ∆Q = 2256 J. At atmospheric predictions can be made in regard to molar
pressure, 1 g of water has a volume 1 cm3 in specific heat capacities.
liquid phase and 1671 cm3 in vapour phase. Table 11.1 lists measured specific and molar
heat capacities of solids at atmospheric pressure
Therefore, and ordinary room temperature.
∆W =P (Vg –Vl ) = 1.013 ×105 × (1671 × 10–6) =169.2 J We will see in Chapter 12 that predictions of
specific heats of gases generally agree with
Equation (11.3) then gives experiment. We can use the same law of
∆U = 2256 – 169.2 = 2086.8 J equipartition of energy that we use there to
predict molar specific heat capacities of solids
We see that most of the heat goes to increase (See Section 12.5 and 12.6). Consider a solid of
the internal energy of water in transition from N atoms, each vibrating about its mean
the liquid to the vapour phase. position. An oscillator in one dimension has
11.6 SPECIFIC HEAT CAPACITY average energy of 2 × ½ kBT = kBT. In three
dimensions, the average energy is 3 k BT.
Suppose an amount of heat ∆Q supplied to a
For a mole of a solid, the total energy is
substance changes its temperature from T to
T + ∆T. We define heat capacity of a substance U = 3 kBT × NA = 3 RT (∵ kBT × NA = R )
(see Chapter 10) to be Now, at constant pressure, ∆Q = ∆U + P ∆V ≅
∆Q ∆U, since for a solid ∆V is negligible. Therefore,
S= (11.4)
∆T ∆Q ∆U
We expect ∆Q and, therefore, heat capacity S C= = = 3R (11.7)
∆T ∆T
to be proportional to the mass of the substance.
Table 11.1 Specific and molar heat capacities
Further, it could also depend on the of some solids at room
temperature, i.e., a different amount of heat may temperature and atmospheric
be needed for a unit rise in temperature at pressure
different temperatures. To define a constant
Speci"c–v heat Molar speci"c
characteristic of the substance and Substance
(J kg–1 K–1) heat (J mol–1 K–1)
independent of its amount, we divide S by the
mass of the substance m in kg :
S  1  ∆Q
s = =   (11.5)
m  m  ∆T
s is known as the specific heat capacity of the
substance. It depends on the nature of the
As Table 11.1 shows, the experimentally
substance and its temperature. The unit of
specific heat capacity is J kg–1 K–1. measured values which generally agrees with

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232 PHYSICS

predicted value 3R at ordinary temperatures. ideal gas, we have a simple relation.

(Carbon is an exception.) The agreement is
known to break down at low temperatures. Cp – Cv = R (11.8)

Specific heat capacity of water where C p and C v are molar specific heat
capacities of an ideal gas at constant pressure
The old unit of heat was calorie. One calorie
and volume respectively and R is the universal
was earlier defined to be the amount of heat
gas constant. To prove the relation, we begin
required to raise the temperature of 1g of water
with Eq. (11.3) for 1 mole of the gas :
by 1°C. With more precise measurements, it was
found that the specific heat of water varies ∆Q = ∆U + P ∆V
slightly with temperature. Figure 11.5 shows
this variation in the temperature range 0 to If ∆Q is absorbed at constant volume, ∆V = 0
100 °C.
 ∆Q   ∆U   ∆U 
Cv =  = =
 ∆T  v  ∆T  v  ∆T  (11.9)

where the subscript v is dropped in the last

step, since U of an ideal gas depends only on
temperature. (The subscript denotes the
quantity kept fixed.) If, on the other hand, ∆Q
is absorbed at constant pressure,

 ∆Q   ∆U   ∆V 
Cp =   =   +P
 ∆T  p  ∆T  p  ∆T  p (11.10)

The subscript p can be dropped from the

Fig. 11.5 Variation of specific heat capacity of
first term since U of an ideal gas depends only
water with temperature.
on T. Now, for a mole of an ideal gas
For a precise definition of calorie, it was,
therefore, necessary to specify the unit PV = RT
temperature interval. One calorie is defined which gives
to be the amount of heat required to raise the
temperature of 1g of water from 14.5 °C to  ∆V 
P  = R
15.5 °C. Since heat is just a form of energy,  ∆T  p (11.11)
it is preferable to use the unit joule, J.
In SI units, the specific heat capacity of water Equations (11.9) to (11.11) give the desired
is 4186 J kg–1 K–1 i.e. 4.186 J g–1 K–1. The so relation, Eq. (11.8).
called mechanical equivalent of heat defined
11.7THERMODYNAMIC STATE VARIABLES
as the amount of work needed to produce
AND EQUATION OF STATE
1 cal of heat is in fact just a conversion factor
between two different units of energy : calorie Every equilibrium state of a thermodynamic
to joule. Since in SI units, we use the unit joule system is completely described by specific
for heat, work or any other form of energy, the values of some macroscopic variables, also
term mechanical equivalent is now called state variables. For example, an
superfluous and need not be used. equilibrium state of a gas is completely
As already remarked, the specific heat specified by the values of pressure, volume,
capacity depends on the process or the temperature, and mass (and composition if
conditions under which heat capacity transfer there is a mixture of gases). A thermodynamic
takes place. For gases, for example, we can system is not always in equilibrium. For example,
define two specific heats : specific heat a gas allowed to expand freely against vacuum
capacity at constant volume and specific is not an equilibrium state [Fig. 11.6(a)]. During
heat capacity at constant pressure. For an the rapid expansion, pressure of the gas may

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THERMODYNAMICS 233

not be uniform throughout. Similarly, a mixture temperature do not. To decide which variable is
of gases undergoing an explosive chemical extensive and which intensive, think of a
reaction (e.g. a mixture of petrol vapour and relevant system in equilibrium, and imagine that
air when ignited by a spark) is not an it is divided into two equal parts. The variables
equilibrium state; again its temperature and that remain unchanged for each part are
pressure are not uniform [Fig. 11.6(b)]. intensive. The variables whose values get halved
Eventually, the gas attains a uniform in each part are extensive. It is easily seen, for
example, that internal energy U, volume V, total
temperature and pressure and comes to
mass M are extensive variables. Pressure P,
thermal and mechanical equilibrium with its
temperature T, and density ρ are intensive
surroundings.
variables. It is a good practice to check the
consistency of thermodynamic equations using
this classification of variables. For example, in
the equation
∆Q = ∆U + P ∆V
quantities on both sides are extensive*. (The
product of an intensive variable like P and an
extensive quantity ∆V is extensive.)

11.8 THERMODYNAMIC PROCESSES

11.8.1 Quasi-static process
Consider a gas in thermal and mechanical
equilibrium with its surroundings. The pressure
of the gas in that case equals the external
Fig. 11.6 (a) The partition in the box is suddenly pressure and its temperature is the same as
removed leading to free expansion of the that of its surroundings. Suppose that the
gas. (b) A mixture of gases undergoing an external pressure is suddenly reduced (say by
explosive chemical reaction. In both lifting the weight on the movable piston in the
situations, the gas is not in equilibrium and
container). The piston will accelerate outward.
cannot be described by state variables.
During the process, the gas passes through
In short, thermodynamic state variables states that are not equilibrium states. The non-
describe equilibrium states of systems. The equilibrium states do not have well-defined
various state variables are not necessarily pressure and temperature. In the same way, if
independent. The connection between the state a finite temperature difference exists between
variables is called the equation of state. For the gas and its surroundings, there will be a
example, for an ideal gas, the equation of state rapid exchange of heat during which the gas
is the ideal gas relation will pass through non-equilibrium states. In
due course, the gas will settle to an equilibrium
PV=µRT state with well-defined temperature and
For a fixed amount of the gas i.e. given µ, there pressure equal to those of the surroundings. The
are thus, only two independent variables, say P free expansion of a gas in vacuum and a mixture
and V or T and V. The pressure-volume curve of gases undergoing an explosive chemical
for a fixed temperature is called an isotherm. reaction, mentioned in section 11.7 are also
Real gases may have more complicated examples where the system goes through non-
equations of state. equilibrium states.
The thermodynamic state variables are of two Non-equilibrium states of a system are difficult
kinds: extensive and intensive. Extensive to deal with. It is, therefore, convenient to
variables indicate the ‘size’ of the system. imagine an idealised process in which at every
Intensive variables such as pressure and stage the system is an equilibrium state. Such a

* As emphasised earlier, Q is not a state variable. However, ∆Q is clearly proportional to the total mass of
system and hence is extensive.

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234 PHYSICS

process is, in principle, infinitely slow, hence the A process in which the temperature of the
name quasi-static (meaning nearly static). The system is kept fixed throughout is called an
system changes its variables (P, T, V ) so slowly isothermal process. The expansion of a gas in
that it remains in thermal and mechanical a metallic cylinder placed in a large reservoir of
equilibrium with its surroundings throughout. fixed temperature is an example of an isothermal
In a quasi-static process, at every stage, the process. (Heat transferred from the reservoir to
difference in the pressure of the system and the the system does not materially affect the
external pressure is infinitesimally small. The temperature of the reservoir, because of its very
same is true of the temperature difference large heat capacity.) In isobaric processes the
between the system and its surroundings pressure is constant while in isochoric
(Fig.11.7). To take a gas from the state (P, T ) to processes the volume is constant. Finally, if the
another state (P ′, T ′ ) via a quasi-static process, system is insulated from the surroundings and
we change the external pressure by a very small no heat flows between the system and the
surroundings, the process is adiabatic. The
amount, allow the system to equalise its pressure
definitions of these special processes are
with that of the surroundings and continue the
summarised in Table. 11.2
process infinitely slowly until the system
achieves the pressure P ′. Similarly, to change Table 11.2 Some special thermodynamic
the temperature, we introduce an infinitesimal processes
temperature difference between the system and
the surrounding reservoirs and by choosing
reservoirs of progressively different temperatures
T to T ′, the system achieves the temperature T ′.

We now consider these processes in some detail :

11.8.2 Isothermal process
For an isothermal process (T fixed), the ideal gas
equation gives
PV = constant
i.e., pressure of a given mass of gas varies inversely
as its volume. This is nothing but Boyle’s Law.
Suppose an ideal gas goes isothermally (at
temperature T ) from its initial state (P1, V1) to
Fig. 11.7 In a quasi-static process, the temperature the final state (P2, V 2). At any intermediate stage
of the surrounding reservoir and the with pressure P and volume change from V to
external pressure differ only infinitesimally V + ∆V (∆V small)
from the temperature and pressure of the
system. ∆W = P ∆ V
A quasi-static process is obviously a Taking (∆V → 0) and summing the quantity
hypothetical construct. In practice, processes ∆W over the entire process,
that are sufficiently slow and do not involve V2
accelerated motion of the piston, large W = ∫ P dV
temperature gradient, etc., are reasonably V1
approximation to an ideal quasi-static process.
V2
We shall from now on deal with quasi-static dV V
= µ RT ∫ = µ RT In 2 (11.12)
processes only, except when stated otherwise. V1
V V1

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THERMODYNAMICS 235

where in the second step we have made use of We can calculate, as before, the work done in
the ideal gas equation PV = µ RT and taken the an adiabatic change of an ideal gas from the
constants out of the integral. For an ideal gas, state (P1, V1, T1) to the state (P2, V2, T2).
internal energy depends only on temperature.
V2
Thus, there is no change in the internal energy
W = ∫ P dV
of an ideal gas in an isothermal process. The
V1
First Law of Thermodynamics then implies that
heat supplied to the gas equals the work done
by the gas : Q = W. Note from Eq. (11.12) that
for V2 > V1, W > 0; and for V2 < V1, W < 0. That
is, in an isothermal expansion, the gas absorbs
heat and does work while in an isothermal
(11.15)
compression, work is done on the gas by the
environment and heat is released.
From Eq. (11.14), the constant is P1V1γ or P2V2γ
11.8.3 Adiabatic process
In an adiabatic process, the system is insulated 1  P2V2γ P1V1γ 
W =  − γ −1 
from the surroundings and heat absorbed or 1 − γ  V2γ −1 V1 
released is zero. From Eq. (11.1), we see that
µR(T1 − T2 )
[P2V2 − P1V1 ] =
work done by the gas results in decrease in its 1
= (11.16)
internal energy (and hence its temperature for 1−γ γ −1
an ideal gas). We quote without proof (the result
that you will learn in higher courses) that for As expected, if work is done by the gas in an
an adiabatic process of an ideal gas. adiabatic process (W > 0), from Eq. (11.16),
P V γ = const (11.13) T2 < T1. On the other hand, if work is done on
the gas (W < 0), we get T 2 > T 1 i.e., the
where γ is the ratio of specific heats (ordinary
temperature of the gas rises.
or molar) at constant pressure and at constant
volume. 11.8.4 Isochoric process
Cp
In an isochoric process, V is constant. No work
γ =
Cv is done on or by the gas. From Eq. (11.1), the
heat absorbed by the gas goes entirely to change
Thus if an ideal gas undergoes a change in
its internal energy and its temperature. The
its state adiabatically from (P1, V1) to (P2, V2) :
change in temperature for a given amount of
γ γ
P1 V1 = P2 V2 (11.14) heat is determined by the specific heat of the
Figure11.8 shows the P-V curves of an ideal gas at constant volume.
gas for two adiabatic processes connecting two 11.8.5 Isobaric process
isotherms.
In an isobaric process, P is fixed. Work done by
the gas is
W = P (V2 – V1) = µ R (T2 – T1) (11.17)
Since temperature changes, so does internal
energy. The heat absorbed goes partly to
increase internal energy and partly to do work.
The change in temperature for a given amount
of heat is determined by the specific heat of the
gas at constant pressure.
11.8.6 Cyclic process
In a cyclic process, the system returns to its
Fig. 11.8 P-V curves for isothermal and adiabatic
initial state. Since internal energy is a state
processes of an ideal gas. variable, ∆U = 0 for a cyclic process. From

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236 PHYSICS

Eq. (11.1), the total heat absorbed equals the 11.10 REVERSIBLE AND IRREVERSIBLE
work done by the system. PROCESSES
11.9 SECOND LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS Imagine some process in which a thermodynamic
system goes from an initial state i to a final state
The First Law of Thermodynamics is the
f. During the process the system absorbs heat Q
principle of conservation of energy. Common
from the surroundings and performs work W on
experience shows that there are many
it. Can we reverse this process and bring both
conceivable processes that are perfectly
the system and surroundings to their initial
allowed by the First Law and yet are never
states with no other effect anywhere ? Experience
observed. For example, nobody has ever seen
suggests that for most processes in nature this
a book lying on a table jumping to a height by
itself. But such a thing would be possible if is not possible. The spontaneous processes of
the principle of conservation of energy were nature are irreversible. Several examples can be
the only restriction. The table could cool cited. The base of a vessel on an oven is hotter
spontaneously, converting some of its internal than its other parts. When the vessel is removed,
energy into an equal amount of mechanical heat is transferred from the base to the other
energy of the book, which would then hop to a parts, bringing the vessel to a uniform
height with potential energy equal to the temperature (which in due course cools to the
mechanical energy it acquired. But this never temperature of the surroundings). The process
happens. Clearly, some additional basic cannot be reversed; a part of the vessel will not
principle of nature forbids the above, even get cooler spontaneously and warm up the base.
though it satisfies the energy conservation It will violate the Second Law of Thermodynamics,
principle. This principle, which disallows if it did. The free expansion of a gas is irreversible.
many phenomena consistent with the First The combustion reaction of a mixture of petrol
Law of Thermodynamics is known as the and air ignited by a spark cannot be reversed.
Second Law of Thermodynamics. Cooking gas leaking from a gas cylinder in the
The Second Law of Thermodynamics gives kitchen diffuses to the entire room. The diffusion
a fundamental limitation to the efficiency of a process will not spontaneously reverse and bring
heat engine and the co-efficient of the gas back to the cylinder. The stirring of a
performance of a refrigerator. In simple terms, liquid in thermal contact with a reservoir will
it says that efficiency of a heat engine can convert the work done into heat, increasing the
never be unity. For a refrigerator, the Second internal energy of the reservoir. The process
Law says that the co-efficient of performance cannot be reversed exactly; otherwise it would
can never be infinite. The following two amount to conversion of heat entirely into work,
statements, one due to Kelvin and Planck violating the Second Law of Thermodynamics.
denying the possibility of a perfect heat engine,
Irreversibility is a rule rather an exception
and another due to Clausius denying the
in nature.
possibility of a perfect refrigerator or heat
Irreversibility arises mainly from two causes:
pump, are a concise summary of these
one, many processes (like a free expansion, or
observations.
an explosive chemical reaction) take the system
Kelvin-Planck statement to non-equilibrium states; two, most processes
No process is possible whose sole result is the involve friction, viscosity and other dissipative
absorption of heat from a reservoir and the effects (e.g., a moving body coming to a stop and
complete conversion of the heat into work. losing its mechanical energy as heat to the floor
and the body; a rotating blade in a liquid coming
Clausius statement
to a stop due to viscosity and losing its
No process is possible whose sole result is the mechanical energy with corresponding gain in
transfer of heat from a colder object to a the internal energy of the liquid). Since
hotter object. dissipative effects are present everywhere and
It can be proved that the two statements can be minimised but not fully eliminated, most
above are completely equivalent. processes that we deal with are irreversible.

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THERMODYNAMICS 237

A thermodynamic process (state i → state f ) in a reversible heat engine operating between

is reversible if the process can be turned back two temperatures, heat should be absorbed
such that both the system and the surroundings (from the hot reservoir) isothermally and
return to their original states, with no other released (to the cold reservoir) isothermally. We
change anywhere else in the universe. From the thus have identified two steps of the reversible
preceding discussion, a reversible process is an heat engine : isothermal process at temperature
idealised notion. A process is reversible only if T1 absorbing heat Q1 from the hot reservoir, and
it is quasi-static (system in equilibrium with the another isothermal process at temperature T2
surroundings at every stage) and there are no releasing heat Q 2 to the cold reservoir. To
dissipative effects. For example, a quasi-static complete a cycle, we need to take the system
isothermal expansion of an ideal gas in a from temperature T1 to T2 and then back from
cylinder fitted with a frictionless movable piston temperature T2 to T1. Which processes should
is a reversible process. we employ for this purpose that are reversible?
A little reflection shows that we can only adopt
Why is reversibility such a basic concept in reversible adiabatic processes for these
thermodynamics ? As we have seen, one of the purposes, which involve no heat flow from any
concerns of thermodynamics is the efficiency reservoir. If we employ any other process that is
with which heat can be converted into work. not adiabatic, say an isochoric process, to take
The Second Law of Thermodynamics rules out the system from one temperature to another, we
the possibility of a perfect heat engine with 100% shall need a series of reservoirs in the
efficiency. But what is the highest efficiency temperature range T2 to T1 to ensure that at each
possible for a heat engine working between two stage the process is quasi-static. (Remember
reservoirs at temperatures T1 and T2 ? It turns again that for a process to be quasi-static and
out that a heat engine based on idealised reversible, there should be no finite temperature
reversible processes achieves the highest difference between the system and the reservoir.)
efficiency possible. All other engines involving But we are considering a reversible engine that
irreversibility in any way (as would be the case operates between only two temperatures. Thus
for practical engines) have lower than this adiabatic processes must bring about the
limiting efficiency. temperature change in the system from T1 to T2
and T2 to T1 in this engine.
11.11 CARNOT ENGINE
Suppose we have a hot reservoir at temperature
T1 and a cold reservoir at temperature T2. What
is the maximum efficiency possible for a heat
engine operating between the two reservoirs and
what cycle of processes should be adopted to
achieve the maximum efficiency ? Sadi Carnot,
a French engineer, first considered this question
in 1824. Interestingly, Carnot arrived at the
correct answer, even though the basic concepts
of heat and thermodynamics had yet to be firmly
established.
We expect the ideal engine operating between
two temperatures to be a reversible engine.
Irreversibility is associated with dissipative Fig. 11.9 Carnot cycle for a heat engine with an
effects, as remarked in the preceding section, ideal gas as the working substance.
and lowers efficiency. A process is reversible if
it is quasi-static and non-dissipative. We have A reversible heat engine operating between
seen that a process is not quasi-static if it two temperatures is called a Carnot engine. We
involves finite temperature difference between have just argued that such an engine must have
the system and the reservoir. This implies that the following sequence of steps constituting one

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238 PHYSICS

cycle, called the Carnot cycle, shown in

Fig. 11.9. We have taken the working substance In  V3 
 
of the Carnot engine to be an ideal gas.  T   V4 
=1−  2 
 T1   V2  (11.23)
(a) Step 1 → 2 Isothermal expansion of the gas
In  V 
taking its state from (P1, V1, T1) to 1

(P2, V2, T1).

Now since step 2 → 3 is an adiabatic process,
The heat absorbed by the gas (Q1) from the
γ −1 γ −1
reservoir at temperature T 1 is given by T1 V2 = T2 V3
Eq. (11.12). This is also the work done (W1 → 2)
by the gas on the environment.
1 /( γ −1)
V2 T 
 V2  i.e. =  2 (11.24)
W1 → 2 = Q1 = µ R T1 ln   (11.18) V3  T1 
V 
1

(b) Step 2 → 3 Adiabatic expansion of the gas Similarly, since step 4 → 1 is an adiabatic
from (P2, V2, T1) to (P3, V3, T2) process
Work done by the gas, using
γ −1 γ −1
Eq. (11.16), is T2 V4 = T1 V1

µR (T1 − T2 ) 1 / γ −1
W2 → 3 = (11.19) V1  T2 
γ −1 =
 T1 
i.e. (11.25)
V4
(c) Step 3 → 4 Isothermal compression of the
gas from (P3, V3, T2) to (P4, V4, T2). From Eqs. (11.24) and (11.25),

Heat released (Q2) by the gas to the reservoir V3 V2

= (11.26)
at temperature T2 is given by Eq. (11.12). This V4 V1
is also the work done (W3 → 4) on the gas by the
environment. Using Eq. (11.26) in Eq. (11.23), we get
V 
W3 → 4 = Q2 = µRT2 ln  3  T2
 V4 
(11.20) η =1 − (Carnot engine) (11.27)
T1
(d) Step 4 → 1 Adiabatic compression of the
gas from (P4, V4, T2) to (P1,V1, T1). We have already seen that a Carnot engine
is a reversible engine. Indeed it is the only
Work done on the gas, [using Eq.(11.16), is reversible engine possible that works between
two reservoirs at different temperatures. Each
 T − T2 
W4 → 1 = µ R  1 step of the Carnot cycle given in Fig. 11.9 can
 γ -1 
(11.21)
be reversed. This will amount to taking heat Q2
From Eqs. (11.18) to (11.21) total work done from the cold reservoir at T2, doing work W on
by the gas in one complete cycle is the system, and transferring heat Q1 to the hot
reservoir. This will be a reversible refrigerator.
W = W1 → 2 + W2 → 3 – W3 →4 – W4 → 1 We next establish the important result
 V2   V3  (sometimes called Carnot’s theorem) that
= µ RT1 ln   – µ RT2 ln   (11.22) (a) working between two given temperatures T1
 V1   V4 
and T2 of the hot and cold reservoirs respectively,
The efficiency η of the Carnot engine is no engine can have efficiency more than that of
the Carnot engine and (b) the efficiency of the
W Q2
η = =1 − Carnot engine is independent of the nature of
Q1 Q1
the working substance.

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THERMODYNAMICS 239

To prove the result (a), imagine a reversible reservoir and delivers the same amount of work
(Carnot) engine R and an irreversible engine I in one cycle, without any change in the source
working between the same source (hot reservoir) or anywhere else. This is clearly against the
and sink (cold reservoir). Let us couple the Kelvin-Planck statement of the Second Law of
engines, I and R, in such a way so that I acts Thermodynamics. Hence the assertion ηI > ηR
like a heat engine and R acts as a refrigerator. is wrong. No engine can have efficiency greater
Let I absorb heat Q1 from the source, deliver than that of the Carnot engine. A similar
work W ′ and release the heat Q1- W′ to the sink. argument can be constructed to show that a
We arrange so that R returns the same heat Q1 reversible engine with one particular substance
to the source, taking heat Q2 from the sink and cannot be more efficient than the one using
requiring work W = Q1 – Q2 to be done on it. another substance. The maximum efficiency of
Now suppose ηR < ηI i.e. if R were to act a Carnot engine given by Eq. (11.27) is
as an engine it would give less work output independent of the nature of the system
performing the Carnot cycle of operations. Thus
we are justified in using an ideal gas as a system
in the calculation of efficiency η of a Carnot
engine. The ideal gas has a simple equation of
I
state, which allows us to readily calculate η, but
the final result for η, [Eq. (11.27)], is true for
any Carnot engine.
R This final remark shows that in a Carnot
cycle,
Q1 T1
W = (11.28)
Q 2 T2

Fig. 11.10 An irreversible engine (I) coupled to a is a universal relation independent of the nature
reversible refrigerator (R). If W ′ > W, this of the system. Here Q1 and Q2 are respectively,
would amount to extraction of heat the heat absorbed and released isothermally
W ′ – W from the sink and its full (from the hot and to the cold reservoirs) in a
conversion to work, in contradiction with Carnot engine. Equation (11.28), can, therefore,
the Second Law of Thermodynamics. be used as a relation to define a truly universal
thermodynamic temperature scale that is
than that of I i.e. W < W ′ for a given Q1. With R independent of any particular properties of the
acting like a refrigerator, this would mean system used in the Carnot cycle. Of course, for
Q2 = Q1 – W > Q1 – W ′. Thus, on the whole, an ideal gas as a working substance, this
the coupled I-R system extracts heat universal temperature is the same as the ideal
(Q1 – W) – (Q1 – W ′) = (W ′ – W ) from the cold gas temperature introduced in section 11.9.

SUMMARY

1. The zeroth law of thermodynamics states that ‘two systems in thermal equilibrium with a
third system separately are in thermal equilibrium with each other’. The Zeroth Law leads
to the concept of temperature.
2. Internal energy of a system is the sum of kinetic energies and potential energies of the
molecular constituents of the system. It does not include the over-all kinetic energy of
the system. Heat and work are two modes of energy transfer to the system. Heat is the
energy transfer arising due to temperature difference between the system and the
surroundings. Work is energy transfer brought about by other means, such as moving
the piston of a cylinder containing the gas, by raising or lowering some weight connected
to it.

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240 PHYSICS

3. The first law of thermodynamics is the general law of conservation of energy applied to
any system in which energy transfer from or to the surroundings (through heat and
work) is taken into account. It states that
∆Q = ∆U + ∆W
where ∆Q is the heat supplied to the system, ∆W is the work done by the system and ∆U
is the change in internal energy of the system.
4. The specific heat capacity of a substance is defined by

1 ∆Q
s=
m ∆T
where m is the mass of the substance and ∆Q is the heat required to change its
temperature by ∆T. The molar specific heat capacity of a substance is defined by

1 ∆Q
C=
µ ∆T
where µ is the number of moles of the substance. For a solid, the law of equipartition
of energy gives
C = 3R
which generally agrees with experiment at ordinary temperatures.
Calorie is the old unit of heat. 1 calorie is the amount of heat required to raise the
temperature of 1 g of water from 14.5 °C to 15.5 °C. 1 cal = 4.186 J.
5. For an ideal gas, the molar specific heat capacities at constant pressure and volume
satisfy the relation
Cp – Cv = R
where R is the universal gas constant.
6. Equilibrium states of a thermodynamic system are described by state variables. The
value of a state variable depends only on the particular state, not on the path used to
arrive at that state. Examples of state variables are pressure (P ), volume (V ), temperature
(T ), and mass (m ). Heat and work are not state variables. An Equation of State (like
the ideal gas equation PV = µ RT ) is a relation connecting different state variables.
7. A quasi-static process is an infinitely slow process such that the system remains in
thermal and mechanical equilibrium with the surroundings throughout. In a
quasi-static process, the pressure and temperature of the environment can differ from
those of the system only infinitesimally.
8. In an isothermal expansion of an ideal gas from volume V1 to V2 at temperature T the
heat absorbed (Q) equals the work done (W ) by the gas, each given by

 V2 
Q = W = µRT ln  V 
 1
9. In an adiabatic process of an ideal gas
γ
PV = constant

Cp
where γ =
Cv

Work done by an ideal gas in an adiabatic change of state from (P1, V1, T1) to (P2, V2, T2)
is

µ R ( T1 − T2 )
W =
γ –1

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THERMODYNAMICS 241

10. The second law of thermodynamics disallows some processes consistent with the First
Law of Thermodynamics. It states
Kelvin-Planck statement

No process is possible whose sole result is the absorption of heat from a reservoir and
complete conversion of the heat into work.
Clausius statement
No process is possible whose sole result is the transfer of heat from a colder object to a
hotter object.
Put simply, the Second Law implies that no heat engine can have efficiency η equal to
1 or no refrigerator can have co-efficient of performance α equal to infinity.
11. A process is reversible if it can be reversed such that both the system and the surroundings
return to their original states, with no other change anywhere else in the universe.
Spontaneous processes of nature are irreversible. The idealised reversible process is a
quasi-static process with no dissipative factors such as friction, viscosity, etc.
12. Carnot engine is a reversible engine operating between two temperatures T1 (source) and
T2 (sink). The Carnot cycle consists of two isothermal processes connected by two
adiabatic processes. The efficiency of a Carnot engine is given by

T2
η =1 − (Carnot engine)
T1
No engine operating between two temperatures can have efficiency greater than that of
the Carnot engine.
13. If Q > 0, heat is added to the system
If Q < 0, heat is removed to the system
If W > 0, Work is done by the system
If W < 0, Work is done on the system

Quantity Symbol Dimensions Unit Remark

Co-efficienty of volume αv [K–1] K–1 αv = 3 α1

expansion

Heat supplied to a system ∆Q [ML2 T–2] J Q is not a state

variable

Specific heat capacity s [L2 T–2 K–1] J kg–1 K–1

dt
Thermal Conductivity K [MLT–3 K–1] J s–1 K–1 H = – KA
dx

POINTS TO PONDER
1. Temperature of a body is related to its average internal energy, not to the kinetic energy
of motion of its centre of mass. A bullet fired from a gun is not at a higher temperature
because of its high speed.
2. Equilibrium in thermodynamics refers to the situation when macroscopic variables
describing the thermodynamic state of a system do not depend on time. Equilibrium of
a system in mechanics means the net external force and torque on the system are zero.

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242 PHYSICS

3. In a state of thermodynamic equilibrium, the microscopic constituents of a system are

not in equilibrium (in the sense of mechanics).
4. Heat capacity, in general, depends on the process the system goes through when heat is
supplied.
5. In isothermal quasi-static processes, heat is absorbed or given out by the system even
though at every stage the gas has the same temperature as that of the surrounding
reservoir. This is possible because of the infinitesimal difference in temperature between
the system and the reservoir.

EXERCISES

11.1 A geyser heats water flowing at the rate of 3.0 litres per minute from 27 °C to 77 °C.
If the geyser operates on a gas burner, what is the rate of consumption of the fuel if
its heat of combustion is 4.0 × 104 J/g ?

11.2 What amount of heat must be supplied to 2.0 × 10–2 kg of nitrogen (at room
temperature) to raise its temperature by 45 °C at constant pressure ? (Molecular
mass of N2 = 28; R = 8.3 J mol–1 K–1.)
11.3 Explain why
(a) Two bodies at different temperatures T1 and T2 if brought in thermal contact do
not necessarily settle to the mean temperature (T1 + T2 )/2.
(b) The coolant in a chemical or a nuclear plant (i.e., the liquid used to prevent
the different parts of a plant from getting too hot) should have high
specific heat.
(c) Air pressure in a car tyre increases during driving.
(d) The climate of a harbour town is more temperate than that of a town in a desert
at the same latitude.
11.4 A cylinder with a movable piston contains 3 moles of hydrogen at standard temperature
and pressure. The walls of the cylinder are made of a heat insulator, and the piston
is insulated by having a pile of sand on it. By what factor does the pressure of the
gas increase if the gas is compressed to half its original volume ?
11.5 In changing the state of a gas adiabatically from an equilibrium state A to another
equilibrium state B, an amount of work equal to 22.3 J is done on the system. If the
gas is taken from state A to B via a process in which the net heat absorbed by the
system is 9.35 cal, how much is the net work done by the system in the latter case ?
(Take 1 cal = 4.19 J)
11.6 Two cylinders A and B of equal capacity are connected to each other via a stopcock.
A contains a gas at standard temperature and pressure. B is completely evacuated.
The entire system is thermally insulated. The stopcock is suddenly opened. Answer
the following :
(a) What is the final pressure of the gas in A and B ?
(b) What is the change in internal energy of the gas ?
(c) What is the change in the temperature of the gas ?
(d) Do the intermediate states of the system (before settling to the final equilibrium
state) lie on its P-V-T surface ?
11.7 An electric heater supplies heat to a system at a rate of 100W. If system performs
work at a rate of 75 joules per second. At what rate is the internal
energy increasing?

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THERMODYNAMICS 243

11.8 A thermodynamic system is taken from an original state to an intermediate state by

the linear process shown in Fig. (11.13)

Fig. 11.11

Its volume is then reduced to the original value from E to F by an isobaric process.
Calculate the total work done by the gas from D to E to F

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 CHAPTER TWELVE

KINETIC THEORY

12.1 INTRODUCTION
Boyle discovered the law named after him in 1661. Boyle,
Newton and several others tried to explain the behaviour of
12.1 Introduction gases by considering that gases are made up of tiny atomic
12.2 Molecular nature of matter particles. The actual atomic theory got established more than
12.3 Behaviour of gases 150 years later. Kinetic theory explains the behaviour of gases
12.4 Kinetic theory of an ideal gas based on the idea that the gas consists of rapidly moving
12.5 Law of equipartition of energy atoms or molecules. This is possible as the inter-atomic forces,
12.6 Specific heat capacity which are short range forces that are important for solids
12.7 Mean free path and liquids, can be neglected for gases. The kinetic theory
was developed in the nineteenth century by Maxwell,
Summary Boltzmann and others. It has been remarkably successful. It
Points to ponder gives a molecular interpretation of pressure and temperature
Exercises of a gas, and is consistent with gas laws and Avogadro’s
hypothesis. It correctly explains specific heat capacities of
many gases. It also relates measurable properties of gases
such as viscosity, conduction and diffusion with molecular
parameters, yielding estimates of molecular sizes and masses.
This chapter gives an introduction to kinetic theory.

12.2 MOLECULAR NATURE OF MATTER

Richard Feynman, one of the great physicists of 20th century
considers the discovery that “Matter is made up of atoms” to
be a very significant one. Humanity may suffer annihilation
(due to nuclear catastrophe) or extinction (due to
environmental disasters) if we do not act wisely. If that
happens, and all of scientific knowledge were to be destroyed
then Feynman would like the ‘Atomic Hypothesis’ to be
communicated to the next generation of creatures in the
universe. Atomic Hypothesis: All things are made of atoms -
little particles that move around in perpetual motion,
attracting each other when they are a little distance apart,
but repelling upon being squeezed into one another.
Speculation that matter may not be continuous, existed in
many places and cultures. Kanada in India and Democritus

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KINETIC THEORY 245

Atomic Hypothesis in Ancient India and Greece

Though John Dalton is credited with the introduction of atomic viewpoint in modern science, scholars in
ancient India and Greece conjectured long before the existence of atoms and molecules. In the Vaiseshika
school of thought in India founded by Kanada (Sixth century B.C.) the atomic picture was developed in
considerable detail. Atoms were thought to be eternal, indivisible, infinitesimal and ultimate parts of matter.
It was argued that if matter could be subdivided without an end, there would be no difference between a
mustard seed and the Meru mountain. The four kinds of atoms (Paramanu — Sanskrit word for the
smallest particle) postulated were Bhoomi (Earth), Ap (water), Tejas (fire) and Vayu (air) that have characteristic
mass and other attributes, were propounded. Akasa (space) was thought to have no atomic structure and
was continuous and inert. Atoms combine to form different molecules (e.g. two atoms combine to form a
diatomic molecule dvyanuka, three atoms form a tryanuka or a triatomic molecule), their properties depending
upon the nature and ratio of the constituent atoms. The size of the atoms was also estimated, by conjecture
or by methods that are not known to us. The estimates vary. In Lalitavistara, a famous biography of the
Buddha written mainly in the second century B.C., the estimate is close to the modern estimate of atomic
size, of the order of 10 –10 m.
In ancient Greece, Democritus (Fourth century B.C.) is best known for his atomic hypothesis. The
word ‘atom’ means ‘indivisible’ in Greek. According to him, atoms differ from each other physically, in
shape, size and other properties and this resulted in the different properties of the substances formed
by their combination. The atoms of water were smooth and round and unable to ‘hook’ on to each
other, which is why liquid /water flows easily. The atoms of earth were rough and jagged, so they held
together to form hard substances. The atoms of fire were thorny which is why it caused painful burns.
These fascinating ideas, despite their ingenuity, could not evolve much further, perhaps because they
were intuitive conjectures and speculations not tested and modified by quantitative experiments - the
hallmark of modern science.

in Greece had suggested that matter may consist of matter. The theory is now well accepted by
of indivisible constituents. The scientific ‘Atomic scientists. However even at the end of the
Theory’ is usually credited to John Dalton. He nineteenth century there were famous scientists
proposed the atomic theory to explain the laws who did not believe in atomic theory !
of definite and multiple proportions obeyed by From many observations, in recent times we
elements when they combine into compounds. now know that molecules (made up of one or
The first law says that any given compound has, more atoms) constitute matter. Electron
a fixed proportion by mass of its constituents. microscopes and scanning tunnelling
The second law says that when two elements microscopes enable us to even see them. The
form more than one compound, for a fixed mass size of an atom is about an angstrom (10 -10 m).
of one element, the masses of the other elements In solids, which are tightly packed, atoms are
are in ratio of small integers. spaced about a few angstroms (2 Å) apart. In
To explain the laws Dalton suggested, about liquids the separation between atoms is also
200 years ago, that the smallest constituents about the same. In liquids the atoms are not
of an element are atoms. Atoms of one element as rigidly fixed as in solids, and can move
are identical but differ from those of other around. This enables a liquid to flow. In gases
elements. A small number of atoms of each the interatomic distances are in tens of
element combine to form a molecule of the angstroms. The average distance a molecule
compound. Gay Lussac’s law, also given in early can travel without colliding is called the mean
19th century, states: When gases combine free path. The mean free path, in gases, is of
chemically to yield another gas, their volumes the order of thousands of angstroms. The atoms
are in the ratios of small integers. Avogadro’s are much freer in gases and can travel long
law (or hypothesis) says: Equal volumes of all distances without colliding. If they are not
gases at equal temperature and pressure have enclosed, gases disperse away. In solids and
the same number of molecules. Avogadro’s law, liquids the closeness makes the interatomic force
when combined with Dalton’s theory explains important. The force has a long range attraction
Gay Lussac’s law. Since the elements are often and a short range repulsion. The atoms attract
in the form of molecules, Dalton’s atomic theory when they are at a few angstroms but repel when
can also be referred to as the molecular theory they come closer. The static appearance of a gas

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246 PHYSICS

is misleading. The gas is full of activity and the is 6.02 × 1023. This is known as Avogadro number
equilibrium is a dynamic one. In dynamic and is denoted by NA. The mass of 22.4 litres of
equilibrium, molecules collide and change their any gas is equal to its molecular weight in grams
speeds during the collision. Only the average at S.T.P (standard temperature 273 K and
properties are constant. pressure 1 atm). This amount of substance is
Atomic theory is not the end of our quest, but called a mole (see Chapter 1 for a more precise
the beginning. We now know that atoms are not definition). Avogadro had guessed the equality of
indivisible or elementary. They consist of a numbers in equal volumes of gas at a fixed
nucleus and electrons. The nucleus itself is made temperature and pressure from chemical
up of protons and neutrons. The protons and reactions. Kinetic theory justifies this hypothesis.
neutrons are again made up of quarks. Even The perfect gas equation can be written as
quarks may not be the end of the story. There
may be string like elementary entities. Nature PV = µ RT (12.3)
always has surprises for us, but the search for where µ is the number of moles and R = NA
truth is often enjoyable and the discoveries kB is a universal constant. The temperature T is
beautiful. In this chapter, we shall limit ourselves absolute temperature. Choosing kelvin scale for
to understanding the behaviour of gases (and a absolute temperature, R = 8.314 J mol–1K–1.
little bit of solids), as a collection of moving Here
molecules in incessant motion. M N
µ = = (12.4)
M0 NA
12.3 BEHAVIOUR OF GASES
where M is the mass of the gas containing N
Properties of gases are easier to understand than molecules, M0 is the molar mass and NA the
those of solids and liquids. This is mainly Avogadro’s number. Using Eqs. (12.4) and (12.3)
because in a gas, molecules are far from each can also be written as
other and their mutual interactions are PV = kB NT or P = kB nT
negligible except when two molecules collide.
Gases at low pressures and high temperatures
much above that at which they liquefy (or
solidify) approximately satisfy a simple relation
( J mol –1K –1)

between their pressure, temperature and volume

given by (see Chapter 10)
PV = KT (12.1)
for a given sample of the gas. Here T is the
temperature in kelvin or (absolute) scale. K is a
pV
µT

constant for the given sample but varies with

the volume of the gas. If we now bring in the
idea of atoms or molecules, then K is proportional
to the number of molecules, (say) N in the
sample. We can write K = N k . Observation tells P (atm)
us that this k is same for all gases. It is called Fig.12.1 Real gases approach ideal gas behaviour at
Boltzmann constant and is denoted by k . low pressures and high temperatures.
B
P1V1 PV where n is the number density, i.e. number of
As = 2 2 = constant = kB (12.2)
N1T1 N 2 T2 molecules per unit volume. kB is the Boltzmann
if P, V and T are same, then N is also same for all constant introduced above. Its value in SI units
gases. This is Avogadro’s hypothesis, that the is 1.38 × 10–23 J K–1.
Another useful form of Eq. (12.3) is
number of molecules per unit volume is
the same for all gases at a fixed temperature and ρRT
P = (12.5)
pressure. The number in 22.4 litres of any gas M0

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KINETIC THEORY 247

where ρ is the mass density of the gas. etc. in a vessel of volume V at temperature T and
A gas that satisfies Eq. (12.3) exactly at all pressure P. It is then found that the equation of
pressures and temperatures is defined to be an state of the mixture is :
ideal gas. An ideal gas is a simple theoretical PV = ( µ1 + µ2 +… ) RT (12.7)
model of a gas. No real gas is truly ideal.
Fig. 12.1 shows departures from ideal gas RT RT
behaviour for a real gas at three different i.e. P = µ1 + µ2 + ... (12.8)
V V
temperatures. Notice that all curves approach
= P1 + P2 + … (12.9)
the ideal gas behaviour for low pressures and
high temperatures. Clearly P1 = µ1 R T/V is the pressure that
At low pressures or high temperatures the gas 1 would exert at the same conditions of
molecules are far apart and molecular volume and temperature if no other gases were
interactions are negligible. Without interactions present. This is called the partial pressure of the
the gas behaves like an ideal one. gas. Thus, the total pressure of a mixture of ideal
If we fix µ and T in Eq. (12.3), we get gases is the sum of partial pressures. This is
PV = constant (12.6) Dalton’s law of partial pressures.
i.e., keeping temperature constant, pressure of
a given mass of gas varies inversely with volume.
This is the famous Boyle’s law. Fig. 12.2 shows
comparison between experimental P-V curves
and the theoretical curves predicted by Boyle’s
law. Once again you see that the agreement is
good at high temperatures and low pressures.
Next, if you fix P, Eq. (12.1) shows that V ∝ T i.e.,
for a fixed pressure, the volume of a gas is
proportional to its absolute temperature T
(Charles’ law). See Fig. 12.3.

Fig. 12.3 Experimental T-V curves (solid lines) for CO2

at three pressures compared with Charles’
law (dotted lines). T is in units of 300 K and
V in units of 0.13 litres.

We next consider some examples which give

us information about the volume occupied by
the molecules and the volume of a single
molecule.

Example 12.1 The density of water is 1000

⊳
kg m–3. The density of water vapour at 100 °C
and 1 atm pressure is 0.6 kg m–3. The
volume of a molecule multiplied by the total
Fig.12.2 Experimental P-V curves (solid lines) for number gives ,what is called, molecular
steam at three temperatures compared with
volume. Estimate the ratio (or fraction) of
Boyle’s law (dotted lines). P is in units of 22
atm and V in units of 0.09 litres.
the molecular volume to the total volume
occupied by the water vapour under the
Finally, consider a mixture of non-interacting above conditions of temperature and
ideal gases: µ moles of gas 1, µ moles of gas 2, pressure.
1 2

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248 PHYSICS

Answer For a given mass of water molecules, number of molecules and (ii) mass density
the density is less if volume is large. So the of neon and oxygen in the vessel. Atomic
volume of the vapour is 1000/0.6 = 1/(6 × 10 -4 ) mass of Ne = 20.2 u, molecular mass of O2
times larger. If densities of bulk water and water = 32.0 u.
molecules are same, then the fraction of
molecular volume to the total volume in liquid Answer Partial pressure of a gas in a mixture is
state is 1. As volume in vapour state has the pressure it would have for the same volume
increased, the fractional volume is less by the and temperature if it alone occupied the vessel.
same amount, i.e. 6×10-4. ⊳ (The total pressure of a mixture of non-reactive
gases is the sum of partial pressures due to its
Example 12.2 Estimate the volume of a
⊳
constituent gases.) Each gas (assumed ideal)
water molecule using the data in Example obeys the gas law. Since V and T are common to
12.1. the two gases, we have P1V = µ 1 RT and P2V =
Answer In the liquid (or solid) phase, the µ2 RT, i.e. (P1/P2) = (µ1 / µ2). Here 1 and 2 refer
molecules of water are quite closely packed. The to neon and oxygen respectively. Since (P1/P2) =
density of water molecule may therefore, be (3/2) (given), (µ1/ µ2) = 3/2.
regarded as roughly equal to the density of bulk (i) By definition µ1 = (N1/NA ) and µ2 = (N2/NA)
water = 1000 kg m–3. To estimate the volume of where N1 and N2 are the number of molecules
a water molecule, we need to know the mass of of 1 and 2, and NA is the Avogadro’s number.
a single water molecule. We know that 1 mole Therefore, (N1/N2) = (µ1 / µ2) = 3/2.
of water has a mass approximately equal to (ii) We can also write µ1 = (m1/M1) and µ2 =
(2 + 16)g = 18 g = 0.018 kg. (m2/M2) where m1 and m2 are the masses of
Since 1 mole contains about 6 × 1023 1 and 2; and M1 and M2 are their molecular
molecules (Avogadro’s number), the mass of masses. (Both m1 and M1; as well as m2 and
a molecule of water is (0.018)/(6 × 1023) kg = M2 should be expressed in the same units).
3 × 10–26 kg. Therefore, a rough estimate of the If ρ1 and ρ2 are the mass densities of 1 and
volume of a water molecule is as follows : 2 respectively, we have
Volume of a water molecule ρ1 m /V m µ M 
= (3 × 10–26 kg)/ (1000 kg m–3) = 1 = 1 = 1 × 1
ρ2 m2 /V m 2 µ2  M 2 
= 3 × 10–29 m3
= (4/3) π (Radius)3 3 20.2
Hence, Radius ≈ 2 ×10-10 m = 2 Å ⊳ = × = 0.947
2 32.0
⊳
Example 12.3 What is the average ⊳
distance between atoms (interatomic
distance) in water? Use the data given in 12.4 KINETIC THEORY OF AN IDEAL GAS
Examples 12.1 and 12.2. Kinetic theory of gases is based on the molecular
picture of matter. A given amount of gas is a
Answer : A given mass of water in vapour state collection of a large number of molecules
has 1.67×103 times the volume of the same mass (typically of the order of Avogadro’s number) that
of water in liquid state (Ex. 12.1). This is also are in incessant random motion. At ordinary
the increase in the amount of volume available pressure and temperature, the average distance
for each molecule of water. When volume between molecules is a factor of 10 or more than
increases by 103 times the radius increases by the typical size of a molecule (2 Å). Thus,
V1/3 or 10 times, i.e., 10 × 2 Å = 20 Å. So the interaction between molecules is negligible and
average distance is 2 × 20 = 40 Å. ⊳ we can assume that they move freely in straight
lines according to Newton’s first law. However,
Example 12.4 A vessel contains two non- occasionally, they come close to each other,
⊳

reactive gases : neon (monatomic) and experience intermolecular forces and their
oxygen (diatomic). The ratio of their partial velocities change. These interactions are called
pressures is 3:2. Estimate the ratio of (i) collisions. The molecules collide incessantly
against each other or with the walls and change

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KINETIC THEORY 249

their velocities. The collisions are considered to the wall. Thus, the number of molecules with
be elastic. We can derive an expression for the velocity (vx, vy, vz ) hitting the wall in time ∆t is
pressure of a gas based on the kinetic theory. ½A vx ∆t n, where n is the number of molecules
We begin with the idea that molecules of a per unit volume. The total momentum
gas are in incessant random motion, colliding transferred to the wall by these molecules in
against one another and with the walls of the time ∆t is :
container. All collisions between molecules Q = (2mvx) (½ n A vx ∆t ) (12.10)
among themselves or between molecules and the The force on the wall is the rate of momentum
walls are elastic. This implies that total kinetic transfer Q/∆t and pressure is force per unit
energy is conserved. The total momentum is area :
conserved as usual. P = Q /(A ∆t) = n m vx2 (12.11)
Actually, all molecules in a gas do not have
12.4.1 Pressure of an Ideal Gas the same velocity; there is a distribution in
Consider a gas enclosed in a cube of side l. Take velocities. The above equation, therefore, stands
the axes to be parallel to the sides of the cube, for pressure due to the group of molecules with
as shown in Fig. 12.4. A molecule with velocity speed vx in the x-direction and n stands for the
(vx, vy, vz ) hits the planar wall parallel to yz- number density of that group of molecules. The
plane of area A (= l 2). Since the collision is elastic, total pressure is obtained by summing over the
the molecule rebounds with the same velocity; contribution due to all groups:
its y and z components of velocity do not change P = n m v x2 (12.12)
in the collision but the x-component reverses where v 2x is the average of vx2 . Now the gas
sign. That is, the velocity after collision is is isotropic, i.e. there is no preferred direction
(-vx, vy, vz ) . The change in momentum of the of velocity of the molecules in the vessel.
molecule is: –mvx – (mvx) = – 2mvx . By the Therefore, by symmetry,
principle of conservation of momentum, the
v 2x = vy = v z2
2
momentum imparted to the wall in the collision
= 2mvx .
= (1/3) [ v 2x + v y2 + v z2 ] = (1/3) v 2 (12.13)
where v is the speed and v 2 denotes the mean
of the squared speed. Thus
P = (1/3) n m v 2 (12.14)
Some remarks on this derivation. First,
though we choose the container to be a cube,
the shape of the vessel really is immaterial. For
a vessel of arbitrary shape, we can always choose
a small infinitesimal (planar) area and carry
through the steps above. Notice that both A and
∆t do not appear in the final result. By Pascal’s
law, given in Ch. 9, pressure in one portion of
Fig. 12.4 Elastic collision of a gas molecule with the
the gas in equilibrium is the same as anywhere
wall of the container.
else. Second, we have ignored any collisions in
To calculate the force (and pressure) on the the derivation. Though this assumption is
wall, we need to calculate momentum imparted difficult to justify rigorously, we can qualitatively
to the wall per unit time. In a small time interval see that it will not lead to erroneous results. The
∆t, a molecule with x-component of velocity vx number of molecules hitting the wall in time ∆t
will hit the wall if it is within the distance vx ∆t was found to be ½ n Avx ∆t. Now the collisions
from the wall. That is, all molecules within the are random and the gas is in a steady state.
volume Avx ∆t only can hit the wall in time ∆t. Thus, if a molecule with velocity (vx, vy, vz )
But, on the average, half of these are moving acquires a different velocity due to collision with
towards the wall and the other half away from some molecule, there will always be some other

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250 PHYSICS

molecule with a different initial velocity which P = (1/3) [n1m1 v12 + n2 m2 v 22 +… ] (12.20)
after a collision acquires the velocity (vx, vy, vz ). In equilibrium, the average kinetic energy of
If this were not so, the distribution of velocities the molecules of different gases will be equal.
would not remain steady. In any case we are That is,
finding v x2 . Thus, on the whole, molecular
½ m1 v12 = ½ m2 v 22 = (3/2) kB T
collisions (if they are not too frequent and the
time spent in a collision is negligible compared so that
to time between collisions) will not affect the P = (n1 + n2 +… ) kB T (12.21)
calculation above. which is Dalton’s law of partial pressures.
12.4.2 Kinetic Interpretation of Temperature From Eq. (12.19), we can get an idea of the
typical speed of molecules in a gas. At a
Equation (13.14) can be written as temperature T = 300 K, the mean square speed
PV = (1/3) nV m v 2 (12.15a) of a molecule in nitrogen gas is :
PV = (2/3) N x ½ m v 2
(12.15b) M N2 28
where N (= nV ) is the number of molecules in m = = = 4.65 × 10 –26 kg.
NA 6.02 × 1026
the sample.
The quantity in the bracket is the average v 2 = 3 kB T / m = (516)2 m2s-2
translational kinetic energy of the molecules in The square root of v 2 is known as root mean
the gas. Since the internal energy E of an ideal
square (rms) speed and is denoted by vrms,
gas is purely kinetic*,
( We can also write v 2 as < v2 >.)
E = N × (1/2) m v 2 (12.16)
vrms = 516 m s-1
Equation (12.15) then gives : The speed is of the order of the speed of sound
PV = (2/3) E (12.17) in air. It follows from Eq. (12.19) that at the same
We are now ready for a kinetic interpretation temperature, lighter molecules have greater rms
of temperature. Combining Eq. (12.17) with the speed.
ideal gas Eq. (12.3), we get
Example 12.5 A flask contains argon and
⊳
E = (3/2) kB NT (12.18)
chlorine in the ratio of 2:1 by mass. The
or E/ N = ½ m v 2
= (3/2) kBT (12.19) temperature of the mixture is 27 °C. Obtain
i.e., the average kinetic energy of a molecule is the ratio of (i) average kinetic energy per
proportional to the absolute temperature of the molecule, and (ii) root mean square speed
gas; it is independent of pressure, volume or v rms of the molecules of the two gases.
the nature of the ideal gas. This is a fundamental Atomic mass of argon = 39.9 u; Molecular
result relating temperature, a macroscopic mass of chlorine = 70.9 u.
measurable parameter of a gas
(a thermodynamic variable as it is called) to a
Answer The important point to remember is that
molecular quantity, namely the average kinetic
energy of a molecule. The two domains are the average kinetic energy (per molecule) of any
connected by the Boltzmann constant. We note (ideal) gas (be it monatomic like argon, diatomic
in passing that Eq. (12.18) tells us that internal like chlorine or polyatomic) is always equal to
energy of an ideal gas depends only on (3/2) kBT. It depends only on temperature, and
temperature, not on pressure or volume. With is independent of the nature of the gas.
this interpretation of temperature, kinetic theory (i) Since argon and chlorine both have the same
of an ideal gas is completely consistent with the
temperature in the flask, the ratio of average
ideal gas equation and the various gas laws
based on it. kinetic energy (per molecule) of the two gases
For a mixture of non-reactive ideal gases, the is 1:1.
total pressure gets contribution from each gas (ii) Now ½ m vrms2 = average kinetic energy per
in the mixture. Equation (12.14) becomes molecule = (3/2) ) kBT where m is the mass

* E denotes the translational part of the internal energy U that may include energies due to other degrees of
freedom also. See section 12.5.

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KINETIC THEORY 251

of a molecule of the gas. Therefore,

(v )
2
rms Ar
=
(m )Cl
=
(M )Cl 70.9
(v )
2
rms Cl (m )Ar ( M ) Ar =
39.9
=1.77

where M denotes the molecular mass of the gas.

(For argon, a molecule is just an atom of argon.)
Taking square root of both sides,

(v )
rms Ar

(v )
rms Cl
= 1.33

You should note that the composition of the

mixture by mass is quite irrelevant to the above
calculation. Any other proportion by mass of
argon and chlorine would give the same answers
to (i) and (ii), provided the temperature remains Fig. 12.5 Molecules going through a porous wall.
unaltered. ⊳
Example 12.7 (a) When a molecule (or an
⊳
⊳
Example 12.6 Uranium has two isotopes elastic ball) hits a ( massive) wall, it
of masses 235 and 238 units. If both are rebounds with the same speed. When a ball
present in Uranium hexafluoride gas which hits a massive bat held firmly, the same
would have the larger average speed ? If thing happens. However, when the bat is
atomic mass of fluorine is 19 units, moving towards the ball, the ball rebounds
estimate the percentage difference in with a different speed. Does the ball move
speeds at any temperature. faster or slower? (Ch.5 will refresh your
Answer At a fixed temperature the average memory on elastic collisions.)
energy = ½ m <v2 > is constant. So smaller the (b) When gas in a cylinder is compressed
mass of the molecule, faster will be the speed. by pushing in a piston, its temperature
The ratio of speeds is inversely proportional to rises. Guess at an explanation of this in
the square root of the ratio of the masses. The terms of kinetic theory using (a) above.
masses are 349 and 352 units. So (c) What happens when a compressed gas
v349 / v352 = ( 352/ 349)1/2 = 1.0044 . pushes a piston out and expands. What
∆V would you observe ?
Hence difference = 0.44 %. (d) Sachin Tendulkar used a heavy cricket
V
[235U is the isotope needed for nuclear fission. bat while playing. Did it help him in
To separate it from the more abundant isotope anyway ?
238
U, the mixture is surrounded by a porous
cylinder. The porous cylinder must be thick and Answer (a) Let the speed of the ball be u relative
narrow, so that the molecule wanders through to the wicket behind the bat. If the bat is moving
individually, colliding with the walls of the long towards the ball with a speed V relative to the
pore. The faster molecule will leak out more than wicket, then the relative speed of the ball to bat
the slower one and so there is more of the lighter is V + u towards the bat. When the ball rebounds
molecule (enrichment) outside the porous (after hitting the massive bat) its speed, relative
cylinder (Fig. 12.5). The method is not very to bat, is V + u moving away from the bat. So
efficient and has to be repeated several times relative to the wicket the speed of the rebounding
for sufficient enrichment.]. ⊳ ball is V + (V + u) = 2V + u, moving away from the
When gases diffuse, their rate of diffusion is wicket. So the ball speeds up after the collision
inversely proportional to square root of the with the bat. The rebound speed will be less than
masses (see Exercise 12.12 ). Can you guess the u if the bat is not massive. For a molecule this
explanation from the above answer? would imply an increase in temperature.

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252 PHYSICS

You should be able to answer (b) (c) and (d) to the axis joining the two oxygen atoms about
based on the answer to (a). which the molecule can rotate*. The molecule
(Hint: Note the correspondence, pistonà bat, thus has two rotational degrees of freedom, each
cylinder à wicket, molecule à ball.) ⊳ of which contributes a term to the total energy
consisting of translational energy εt and
rotational energy ε r.
12.5 LAW OF EQUIPARTITION OF ENERGY
1 1 1 1 1
The kinetic energy of a single molecule is εt + εr = mvx2 + mvy2 + mv z2 + I1ω12 + I 2 ω 22 (12.25)
2 2 2 2 2
1 1 1
εt = mv x2 + mvy2 + mv z2 (12.22)
2 2 2
For a gas in thermal equilibrium at
temperature T the average value of energy
denoted by < ε t > is
1 1 1 3
εt = mv x2 + mvy2 + mv z2 = k B T (12.23)
2 2 2 2
Since there is no preferred direction, Eq. (12.23)
implies
1 1 1 1
mv x2 = kBT , mvy2 = kB T ,
2 2 2 2 Fig. 12.6 The two independent axes of rotation of
a diatomic molecule
1 1
mv z2 = kB T (12.24)
2 2 where ω1 and ω2 are the angular speeds about
A molecule free to move in space needs three the axes 1 and 2 and I1, I2 are the corresponding
coordinates to specify its location. If it is moments of inertia. Note that each rotational
constrained to move in a plane it needs two; and degree of freedom contributes a term to the
if constrained to move along a line, it needs just energy that contains square of a rotational
one coordinate to locate it. This can also be variable of motion.
expressed in another way. We say that it has We have assumed above that the O2 molecule
one degree of freedom for motion in a line, two is a ‘rigid rotator’, i.e., the molecule does not
for motion in a plane and three for motion in vibrate. This assumption, though found to be
space. Motion of a body as a whole from one true (at moderate temperatures) for O2, is not
point to another is called translation. Thus, a always valid. Molecules, like CO, even at
molecule free to move in space has three
moderate temperatures have a mode of
translational degrees of freedom. Each
vibration, i.e., its atoms oscillate along the
translational degree of freedom contributes a
interatomic axis like a one-dimensional
term that contains square of some variable of
oscillator, and contribute a vibrational energy
motion, e.g., ½ mvx2 and similar terms in
term εv to the total energy:
vy and vz. In, Eq. (12.24) we see that in thermal
equilibrium, the average of each such term is 1  dy 
2
1 2
εv = m  + ky
½ kBT . 2  dt 2
Molecules of a monatomic gas like argon have
only translational degrees of freedom. But what ε = εt + εr + εv (12.26)
about a diatomic gas such as O2 or N 2? A where k is the force constant of the oscillator
molecule of O2 has three translational degrees and y the vibrational co-ordinate.
of freedom. But in addition it can also rotate Once again the vibrational energy terms in
about its centre of mass. Figure 12.6 shows the Eq. (12.26) contain squared terms of vibrational
two independent axes of rotation 1 and 2, normal variables of motion y and dy/dt .
* Rotation along the line joining the atoms has very small moment of inertia and does not come into play for
quantum mechanical reasons. See end of section 12.6.

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KINETIC THEORY 253

At this point, notice an important feature in where Cp is the molar specific heat at constant
Eq.(12.26). While each translational and pressure. Thus,
rotational degree of freedom has contributed only 5
one ‘squared term’ in Eq.(12.26), one vibrational Cp = R (12.30)
mode contributes two ‘squared terms’ : kinetic 2
and potential energies. Cp 5
The ratio of specific heats γ = = (12.31)
Each quadratic term occurring in the Cv 3
expression for energy is a mode of absorption of
energy by the molecule. We have seen that in 12.6.2 Diatomic Gases
thermal equilibrium at absolute temperature T,
As explained earlier, a diatomic molecule treated
for each translational mode of motion, the as a rigid rotator, like a dumbbell, has 5 degrees
average energy is ½ kBT. The most elegant of freedom: 3 translational and 2 rotational.
principle of classical statistical mechanics (first Using the law of equipartition of energy, the total
proved by Maxwell) states that this is so for each internal energy of a mole of such a gas is
mode of energy: translational, rotational and
5 5
vibrational. That is, in equilibrium, the total U = kBT × N A = RT (12.32)
2 2
energy is equally distributed in all possible
The molar specific heats are then given by
energy modes, with each mode having an average
energy equal to ½ kBT. This is known as the law 5 7
Cv (rigid diatomic) = R, Cp = R (12.33)
of equipartition of energy. Accordingly, each 2 2
translational and rotational degree of freedom
7
of a molecule contributes ½ kBT to the energy, γ (rigid diatomic) = (12.34)
while each vibrational frequency contributes 5
If the diatomic molecule is not rigid but has
2 × ½ kBT = kBT , since a vibrational mode has in addition a vibrational mode
both kinetic and potential energy modes.
5  7
The proof of the law of equipartition of energy U =  k BT + k B T  N A = RT

is beyond the scope of this book. Here, we shall 2  2
apply the law to predict the specific heats of gases 7 9 9
theoretically. Later, we shall also discuss briefly, Cv = R , C p = R, γ = R (12.35)
2 2 7
the application to specific heat of solids.
12.6.3 Polyatomic Gases
12.6 SPECIFIC HEAT CAPACITY
In general a polyatomic molecule has 3
12.6.1 Monatomic Gases translational, 3 rotational degrees of freedom
and a certain number ( f ) of vibrational modes.
The molecule of a monatomic gas has only three
translational degrees of freedom. Thus, the According to the law of equipartition of energy,
average energy of a molecule at temperature it is easily seen that one mole of such a gas has
T is (3/2)kBT . The total internal energy of a mole 
U =  kBT +
3 3
kBT + f kBT NA
of such a gas is 2

2
3 3
U = k B T × N A = RT (12.27) i.e.,Cv = (3 + f ) R, Cp = (4 + f ) R,
2 2
(4 + f )
γ = (12.36)
The molar specific heat at constant volume, (3 + f )
Cv, is
Note that Cp – Cv = R is true for any ideal
dU 3 gas, whether mono, di or polyatomic.
Cv (monatomic gas) = = RT (12.28)
dT 2 Table 12.1 summarises the theoretical
For an ideal gas, predictions for specific heats of gases ignoring
Cp – Cv = R (12.29) any vibrational modes of motion. The values are

2024-25
254 PHYSICS

in good agreement with experimental values of Answer Using the gas law PV = µRT, you can
specific heats of several gases given in Table 12.2. easily show that 1 mol of any (ideal) gas at
Of course, there are discrepancies between standard temperature (273 K) and pressure
predicted and actual values of specific heats of (1 atm = 1.01 × 105 Pa) occupies a volume of 22.4
several other gases (not shown in the table), such litres. This universal volume is called molar
as Cl2, C2H6 and many other polyatomic gases. volume. Thus the cylinder in this example
Usually, the experimental values for specific contains 2 mol of helium. Further, since helium
is monatomic, its predicted (and observed) molar
heats of these gases are greater than the
specific heat at constant volume, Cv = (3/2) R,
predicted values as given in Table12.1 suggesting and molar specific heat at constant pressure,
that the agreement can be improved by including Cp = (3/2) R + R = (5/2) R . Since the volume of
vibrational modes of motion in the calculation. the cylinder is fixed, the heat required is
The law of equipartition of energy is, thus, well determined by Cv. Therefore,
verified experimentally at ordinary temperatures. Heat required = no. of moles × molar specific heat
× rise in temperature
Table 12.1 Predicted values of specific heat
capacities of gases (ignoring
= 2 × 1.5 R × 15.0 = 45 R
vibrational modes) = 45 × 8.31 = 374 J. ⊳
Nature of Cv Cp Cp - Cv g 12.6.4 Specific Heat Capacity of Solids
Gas
(J mol -1 -1
K ) (J mol -1 -1
K ) (J mol -1 -1
K ) We can use the law of equipartition of energy to
determine specific heats of solids. Consider a
Monatomic 12.5 20.8 8.31 1.67
solid of N atoms, each vibrating about its mean
Diatomic 20.8 29.1 8.31 1.40 position. An oscillation in one dimension has
average energy of 2 × ½ kBT = kBT . In three
Triatomic 24.93 33.24 8.31 1.33
dimensions, the average energy is 3 kBT. For a
mole of solid, N = N A , and the total
energy is
Table12.2 Measured values of specific heat
U = 3 kBT × NA = 3 RT
capacities of some gases
Now at constant pressure ∆Q = ∆U + P∆V
= ∆U, since for a solid ∆V is negligible. Hence,
∆Q ∆U
C = = = 3R (12.37)
∆T ∆T
Table 12.3 Specific Heat Capacity of some
solids at room temperature and
atmospheric pressure

As Table 12.3 shows the prediction generally

⊳ Example 12.8 A cylinder of fixed capacity agrees with experimental values at ordinary
44.8 litres contains helium gas at standard temperature (Carbon is an exception).
temperature and pressure. What is the
amount of heat needed to raise the 12.7 MEAN FREE PATH
temperature of the gas in the cylinder by Molecules in a gas have rather large speeds of
15.0 °C ? (R = 8.31 J mo1–1 K–1). the order of the speed of sound. Yet a gas leaking

2024-25
KINETIC THEORY 255

from a cylinder in a kitchen takes considerable are moving and the collision rate is determined
time to diffuse to the other corners of the room. by the average relative velocity of the molecules.
The top of a cloud of smoke holds together for Thus we need to replace <v> by <v > in Eq.
r
hours. This happens because molecules in a gas (12.38). A more exact treatment gives
have a finite though small size, so they are bound
to undergo collisions. As a result, they cannot l = 1/ ( 2 nπ d 2 ) (12.40)
move straight unhindered; their paths keep Let us estimate l and τ for air molecules with
getting incessantly deflected. average speeds <v> = ( 485m/s). At STP
(0.02 × 10 ) 23

n=
(22.4 × 10 ) –3

= 2.7 × 10 25 m -3.
Taking, d = 2 × 10–10 m,
τ = 6.1 × 10–10 s
t and l = 2.9 × 10–7 m ≈ 1500 d (12.41)
v As expected, the mean free path given by
d Eq. (12.40) depends inversely on the number
density and the size of the molecules. In a highly
evacuated tube n is rather small and the mean
d free path can be as large as the length of the
tube.
⊳
Example 12.9 Estimate the mean free path
for a water molecule in water vapour at 373 K.
Use information from Exercises 12.1 and Eq.
Fig. 12.7 The volume swept by a molecule in time ∆t
(12.41) above.
in which any molecule will collide with it.

Suppose the molecules of a gas are spheres of Answer The d for water vapour is same as that
diameter d. Focus on a single molecule with the of air. The number density is inversely
average speed <v>. It will suffer collision with proportional to absolute temperature.
any molecule that comes within a distance d 273
So n = 2.7 × 10 × = 2 × 1025 m –3
25
between the centres. In time ∆t, it sweeps a 373
volume πd2 <v> ∆t wherein any other molecule
Hence, mean free path l = 4 × 10 –7 m ⊳
will collide with it (see Fig. 12.7). If n is the
number of molecules per unit volume, the Note that the mean free path is 100 times the
molecule suffers nπd2 <v> ∆t collisions in time interatomic distance ~ 40 Å = 4 × 10-9 m calculated
∆t. Thus the rate of collisions is nπd2 <v> or the earlier. It is this large value of mean free path that
time between two successive collisions is on the leads to the typical gaseous behaviour. Gases can
average, not be confined without a container.
τ = 1/(nπ <v> d2 ) (12.38) Using, the kinetic theory of gases, the bulk
The average distance between two successive measurable properties like viscosity, heat
collisions, called the mean free path l, is : conductivity and diffusion can be related to the
l = <v> τ = 1/(nπd2) (12.39) microscopic parameters like molecular size. It is
In this derivation, we imagined the other through such relations that the molecular sizes
molecules to be at rest. But actually all molecules were first estimated.

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256 PHYSICS

SUMMARY

1. The ideal gas equation connecting pressure (P ), volume (V ) and absolute temperature
(T ) is
PV = µ RT = kB NT
where µ is the number of moles and N is the number of molecules. R and kB are universal
constants.
R
R = 8.314 J mol–1 K–1, kB = = 1.38 × 10–23 J K–1
NA
Real gases satisfy the ideal gas equation only approximately, more so at low pressures
and high temperatures.
2. Kinetic theory of an ideal gas gives the relation
1
P= n m v2
3
where n is number density of molecules, m the mass of the molecule and v 2 is the
mean of squared speed. Combined with the ideal gas equation it yields a kinetic
interpretation of temperature.

1 3
( ) 3k B T
1/ 2
m v 2 = k B T , vrms = v 2 =
2 2 m
This tells us that the temperature of a gas is a measure of the average kinetic energy of
a molecule, independent of the nature of the gas or molecule. In a mixture of gases at a
fixed temperature the heavier molecule has the lower average speed.
3. The translational kinetic energy

E= 3 kB NT.
2
This leads to a relation

2
PV = E
3
4. The law of equipartition of energy states that if a system is in equilibrium at absolute
temperature T, the total energy is distributed equally in different energy modes of
absorption, the energy in each mode being equal to ½ kB T. Each translational and
rotational degree of freedom corresponds to one energy mode of absorption and has
energy ½ kB T. Each vibrational frequency has two modes of energy (kinetic and potential)
with corresponding energy equal to
2 × ½ kB T = kB T.

5. Using the law of equipartition of energy, the molar specific heats of gases can be
determined and the values are in agreement with the experimental values of specific
heats of several gases. The agreement can be improved by including vibrational modes
of motion.
6. The mean free path l is the average distance covered by a molecule between two successive
collisions :
1
l=
2 n π d2
where n is the number density and d the diameter of the molecule.

2024-25
KINETIC THEORY 257

POINTS TO PONDER
1. Pressure of a fluid is not only exerted on the wall. Pressure exists everywhere in a fluid.
Any layer of gas inside the volume of a container is in equilibrium because the pressure
is the same on both sides of the layer.

2. We should not have an exaggerated idea of the intermolecular distance in a gas. At

ordinary pressures and temperatures, this is only 10 times or so the interatomic distance
in solids and liquids. What is different is the mean free path which in a gas is 100 times
the interatomic distance and 1000 times the size of the molecule.

3. The law of equipartition of energy is stated thus: the energy for each degree of freedom
in thermal equilibrium is ½ k T. Each quadratic term in the total energy expression of
B
a molecule is to be counted as a degree of freedom. Thus, each vibrational mode gives 2
(not 1) degrees of freedom (kinetic and potential energy modes), corresponding to the
energy 2 × ½ k T = k T.
B B

4. Molecules of air in a room do not all fall and settle on the ground (due to gravity)
because of their high speeds and incessant collisions. In equilibrium, there is a very
slight increase in density at lower heights (like in the atmosphere). The effect is small
since the potential energy (mgh) for ordinary heights is much less than the average
kinetic energy ½ mv2 of the molecules.
5. < v2 > is not always equal to ( < v >)2. The average of a squared quantity is not necessarily
the square of the average. Can you find examples for this statement.

EXERCISES

12.1 Estimate the fraction of molecular volume to the actual volume occupied by oxygen
gas at STP. Take the diameter of an oxygen molecule to be 3 Å.

12.2 Molar volume is the volume occupied by 1 mol of any (ideal) gas at standard
temperature and pressure (STP : 1 atmospheric pressure, 0 °C). Show that it is 22.4
litres.

12.3 Figure 12.8 shows plot of PV/T versus P for 1.00× 10–3 kg of oxygen gas at two
different temperatures.

T1
PV (J K–1) T2
T

P x

Fig. 12.8
(a) What does the dotted plot signify?
(b) Which is true: T1 > T2 or T1 < T2?
(c) What is the value of PV/T where the curves meet on the y-axis?

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258 PHYSICS

(d) If we obtained similar plots for 1.00×

×10–3 kg of hydrogen, would we get the same
value of PV/T at the point where the curves meet on the y-axis? If not, what mass
of hydrogen yields the same value of PV/T (for low pressure high temperature
region of the plot) ? (Molecular mass of H 2 = 2.02 u, of O 2 = 32.0 u,
R = 8.31 J mo1–1 K–1.)

12.4 An oxygen cylinder of volume 30 litre has an initial gauge pressure of 15 atm and a
temperature of 27 °C. After some oxygen is withdrawn from the cylinder, the gauge
pressure drops to 11 atm and its temperature drops to 17 °C. Estimate the mass of
oxygen taken out of the cylinder (R = 8.31 J mol–1 K–1, molecular mass of O2 = 32 u).

12.5 An air bubble of volume 1.0 cm3 rises from the bottom of a lake 40 m deep at a
temperature of 12 °C. To what volume does it grow when it reaches the surface,
which is at a temperature of 35 °C ?

12.6 Estimate the total number of air molecules (inclusive of oxygen, nitrogen, water
vapour and other constituents) in a room of capacity 25.0 m3 at a temperature of
27 °C and 1 atm pressure.

12.7 Estimate the average thermal energy of a helium atom at (i) room temperature
(27 °C), (ii) the temperature on the surface of the Sun (6000 K), (iii) the temperature
of 10 million kelvin (the typical core temperature in the case of a star).

12.8 Three vessels of equal capacity have gases at the same temperature and pressure. The
first vessel contains neon (monatomic), the second contains chlorine (diatomic),
and the third contains uranium hexafluoride (polyatomic). Do the vessels contain
equal number of respective molecules ? Is the root mean square speed of molecules
the same in the three cases? If not, in which case is vrms the largest ?

12.9 At what temperature is the root mean square speed of an atom in an argon gas
cylinder equal to the rms speed of a helium gas atom at – 20 °C ? (atomic mass of Ar
= 39.9 u, of He = 4.0 u).

1 2 . 1 0 Estimate the mean free path and collision frequency of a nitrogen molecule in a
cylinder containing nitrogen at 2.0 atm and temperature 17 0C. Take the radius of a
nitrogen molecule to be roughly 1.0 Å. Compare the collision time with the time the
molecule moves freely between two successive collisions (Molecular mass of
N2 = 28.0 u).

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 CHAPTER THIRTEEN

OSCILLATIONS

13.1 INTRODUCTION
In our daily life we come across various kinds of motions.
You have already learnt about some of them, e.g., rectilinear
13.1 Introduction motion and motion of a projectile. Both these motions are
13.2 Periodic and oscillatory non-repetitive. We have also learnt about uniform circular
motions motion and orbital motion of planets in the solar system. In
13.3 Simple harmonic motion these cases, the motion is repeated after a certain interval of
13.4 Simple harmonic motion time, that is, it is periodic. In your childhood, you must have
and uniform circular enjoyed rocking in a cradle or swinging on a swing. Both
motion these motions are repetitive in nature but different from the
13.5 Velocity and acceleration periodic motion of a planet. Here, the object moves to and fro
in simple harmonic motion about a mean position. The pendulum of a wall clock executes
13.6 Force law for simple a similar motion. Examples of such periodic to and fro
harmonic motion
motion abound: a boat tossing up and down in a river, the
13.7 Energy in simple harmonic
piston in a steam engine going back and forth, etc. Such a
motion
motion is termed as oscillatory motion. In this chapter we
13.8 The simple pendulum
study this motion.
Summary
The study of oscillatory motion is basic to physics; its
Points to ponder
Exercises concepts are required for the understanding of many physical
phenomena. In musical instruments, like the sitar, the guitar
or the violin, we come across vibrating strings that produce
pleasing sounds. The membranes in drums and diaphragms
in telephone and speaker systems vibrate to and fro about
their mean positions. The vibrations of air molecules make
the propagation of sound possible. In a solid, the atoms vibrate
about their equilibrium positions, the average energy of
vibrations being proportional to temperature. AC power
supply give voltage that oscillates alternately going positive
and negative about the mean value (zero).
The description of a periodic motion, in general, and
oscillatory motion, in particular, requires some fundamental
concepts, like period, frequency, displacement, amplitude
and phase. These concepts are developed in the next section.

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13.2 PERIODIC AND OSCILLATORY MOTIONS Very often, the body undergoing periodic
Fig. 13.1 shows some periodic motions. Suppose motion has an equilibrium position somewhere
an insect climbs up a ramp and falls down, it inside its path. When the body is at this position
comes back to the initial point and repeats the no net external force acts on it. Therefore, if it is
left there at rest, it remains there forever. If the
process identically. If you draw a graph of its
body is given a small displacement from the
height above the ground versus time, it would
position, a force comes into play which tries to
look something like Fig. 13.1 (a). If a child climbs
bring the body back to the equilibrium point,
up a step, comes down, and repeats the process
giving rise to oscillations or vibrations. For
identically, its height above the ground would
example, a ball placed in a bowl will be in
look like that in Fig. 13.1 (b). When you play the
equilibrium at the bottom. If displaced a little
game of bouncing a ball off the ground, between
from the point, it will perform oscillations in the
your palm and the ground, its height versus time
bowl. Every oscillatory motion is periodic, but
graph would look like the one in Fig. 13.1 (c).
every periodic motion need not be oscillatory.
Note that both the curved parts in Fig. 13.1 (c)
Circular motion is a periodic motion, but it is
are sections of a parabola given by the Newton’s not oscillatory.
equation of motion (see section 2.6), There is no significant difference between
1 2 oscillations and vibrations. It seems that when
h = ut + gt for downward motion, and
the frequency is small, we call it oscillation (like,
2
the oscillation of a branch of a tree), while when
1 2 the frequency is high, we call it vibration (like,
h = ut – gt for upward motion,
2 the vibration of a string of a musical instrument).
with different values of u in each case. These Simple harmonic motion is the simplest form
are examples of periodic motion. Thus, a motion of oscillatory motion. This motion arises when
that repeats itself at regular intervals of time is the force on the oscillating body is directly
called periodic motion. proportional to its displacement from the mean
position, which is also the equilibrium position.
Further, at any point in its oscillation, this force
is directed towards the mean position.
In practice, oscillating bodies eventually
(a) come to rest at their equilibrium positions
because of the damping due to friction and other
dissipative causes. However, they can be forced
to remain oscillating by means of some external
periodic agency. We discuss the phenomena of
damped and forced oscillations later in the
chapter.
Any material medium can be pictured as a
(b) collection of a large number of coupled
oscillators. The collective oscillations of the
constituents of a medium manifest themselves
as waves. Examples of waves include water
waves, seismic waves, electromagnetic waves.
We shall study the wave phenomenon in the next
chapter.
(c) 13.2.1 Period and frequency
We have seen that any motion that repeats itself
at regular intervals of time is called periodic
motion. The smallest interval of time after
which the motion is repeated is called its
Fig. 13.1 Examples of periodic motion. The period T period. Let us denote the period by the symbol
is shown in each case. T. Its SI unit is second. For periodic motions,

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OSCILLATIONS 261

which are either too fast or too slow on the scale as a displacement variable [see Fig.13.2(b)]. The
of seconds, other convenient units of time are term displacement is not always to be referred
used. The period of vibrations of a quartz crystal
is expressed in units of microseconds (10–6 s)
abbreviated as µs. On the other hand, the orbital
period of the planet Mercury is 88 earth days.
The Halley’s comet appears after every 76 years.
The reciprocal of T gives the number of
repetitions that occur per unit time. This
quantity is called the frequency of the periodic
motion. It is represented by the symbol ν. The
relation between ν and T is
Fig. 13.2(a) A block attached to a spring, the other
ν = 1/T (13.1) end of which is fixed to a rigid wall. The
block moves on a frictionless surface. The
The unit of ν is thus s–1. After the discoverer of
motion of the block can be described in
radio waves, Heinrich Rudolph Hertz (1857–1894), terms of its distance or displacement x
a special name has been given to the unit of from the equilibrium position.
frequency. It is called hertz (abbreviated as Hz).
Thus,
1 hertz = 1 Hz =1 oscillation per second =1 s–1
(13.2)
Note, that the frequency, ν, is not necessarily
an integer.

u Example 13.1 On an average, a human

heart is found to beat 75 times in a minute.
Calculate its frequency and period.
Fig.13.2(b) An oscillating simple pendulum; its
Answer The beat frequency of heart = 75/(1 min) motion can be described in terms of
= 75/(60 s) angular displacement θ from the vertical.
= 1.25 s–1
= 1.25 Hz in the context of position only. There can be
The time period T = 1/(1.25 s–1) many other kinds of displacement variables. The
= 0.8 s ⊳ voltage across a capacitor, changing with time
13.2.2 Displacement in an A C circuit, is also a displacement variable.
In section 3.2, we defined displacement of a In the same way, pressure variations in time in
particle as the change in its position vector. In the propagation of sound wave, the changing
this chapter, we use the term displacement electric and magnetic fields in a light wave are
in a more general sense. It refers to change examples of displacement in different contexts.
with time of any physical property under The displacement variable may take both
consideration. For example, in case of rectilinear positive and negative values. In experiments on
motion of a steel ball on a surface, the distance oscillations, the displacement is measured for
from the starting point as a function of time is different times.
The displacement can be represented by a
its position displacement. The choice of origin
mathematical function of time. In case of periodic
is a matter of convenience. Consider a block
motion, this function is periodic in time. One of
attached to a spring, the other end of the spring
the simplest periodic functions is given by
is fixed to a rigid wall [see Fig.13.2(a)]. Generally,
it is convenient to measure displacement of the f (t) = A cos ωt (13.3a)
body from its equilibrium position. For an If the argument of this function, ωt, is
oscillating simple pendulum, the angle from the increased by an integral multiple of 2π radians,
vertical as a function of time may be regarded the value of the function remains the same. The

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function f (t ) is then periodic and its period, T, (ii) This is an example of a periodic motion. It
is given by can be noted that each term represents a
2π periodic function with a different angular
T= (13.3b) frequency. Since period is the least interval
ω of time after which a function repeats its
Thus, the function f (t) is periodic with period T, value, sin ωt has a period T0= 2π/ω ; cos 2 ωt
f (t) = f (t+T ) has a period π/ω =T0/2; and sin 4 ωt has a
The same result is obviously correct if we period 2π/4ω = T0/4. The period of the first
consider a sine function, f (t ) = A sin ωt. Further, term is a multiple of the periods of the last
a linear combination of sine and cosine functions two terms. Therefore, the smallest interval
like, of time after which the sum of the three
terms repeats is T0, and thus, the sum is a
f (t) = A sin ωt + B cos ωt (13.3c) periodic function with a period 2π/ω.
is also a periodic function with the same period
T. Taking, (iii) The function e – ω t is not periodic, it
decreases monotonically with increasing
A = D cos φ and B = D sin φ time and tends to zero as t → ∞ and thus,
Eq. (13.3c) can be written as, never repeats its value.

f (t) = D sin (ωt + φ ) , (13.3d) (iv) The function log ( ω t) increases

monotonically with time t. It, therefore,
Here D and φ are constant given by never repeats its value and is a non-
periodic function. It may be noted that as
 B t → ∞, log(ωt) diverges to ∞. It, therefore,
D = A 2 + B 2 and φ = tan –1  A 
cannot represent any kind of physical
displacement. ⊳
The great importance of periodic sine and
cosine functions is due to a remarkable result 13.3 SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION
proved by the French mathematician, Jean
Consider a particle oscillating back and forth
Baptiste Joseph Fourier (1768–1830): Any
about the origin of an x-axis between the limits
periodic function can be expressed as a
+A and –A as shown in Fig. 13.3. This oscillatory
superposition of sine and cosine functions
motion is said to be simple harmonic if the
of different time periods with suitable
displacement x of the particle from the origin
coefficients.
varies with time as :
x (t) = A cos (ω t + φ ) (13.4)
u Example 13.2 Which of the following
functions of time represent (a) periodic and
(b) non-periodic motion? Give the period for
each case of periodic motion [ω is any
positive constant].
(i) sin ωt + cos ωt Fig. 13.3 A particle vibrating back and forth about
the origin of x-axis, between the limits +A
(ii) sin ωt + cos 2 ωt + sin 4 ωt
and –A.
(iii) e – ωt
(iv) log (ωt) where A, ω and φ are constants.
Thus, simple harmonic motion (SHM) is not
Answer any periodic motion but one in which
(i) sin ωt + cos ωt is a periodic function, it can displacement is a sinusoidal function of time.
Fig. 13.4 shows the positions of a particle
also be written as 2 sin (ωt + π/4).
executing SHM at discrete value of time, each
Now 2 sin (ωt + π/4)= 2 sin (ωt + π/4+2π) interval of time being T/4, where T is the period
of motion. Fig. 13.5 plots the graph of x versus t,
= 2 sin [ω (t + 2π/ω) + π/4]
which gives the values of displacement as a
The periodic time of the function is 2π/ω. continuous function of time. The quantities A,

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OSCILLATIONS 263

any loss of generality]. As the cosine function

of time varies from +1 to –1, the displacement
varies between the extremes A and – A. Two
simple harmonic motions may have same ω
and φ but different amplitudes A and B, as
shown in Fig. 13.7 (a).
While the amplitude A is fixed for a given
SHM, the state of motion (position and velocity)
of the particle at any time t is determined by the

Fig. 13.4 The location of the particle in SHM at the

discrete values t = 0, T/4, T/2, 3T/4, T,
5T/4. The time after which motion repeats
itself is T. T will remain fixed, no matter
what location you choose as the initial (t =
Fig. 13.7 (a) A plot of displacement as a function of
0) location. The speed is maximum for zero
time as obtained from Eq. (14.4) with
displacement (at x = 0) and zero at the
φ = 0. The curves 1 and 2 are for two
extremes of motion.
different amplitudes A and B.
ω and φ which characterize a given SHM have
standard names, as summarised in Fig. 13.6. argument (ωt + φ) in the cosine function. This
Let us understand these quantities. time-dependent quantity, (ωt + φ) is called the
The amplitutde A of SHM is the magnitude phase of the motion. The value of plase at t = 0
of maximum displacement of the particle. is φ and is called the phase constant (or phase
[Note, A can be taken to be positive without angle). If the amplitude is known, φ can be
determined from the displacement at t = 0. Two
simple harmonic motions may have the same A
and ω but different phase angle φ, as shown in
Fig. 13.7 (b).
Finally, the quantity ω can be seen to be
related to the period of motion T. Taking, for
simplicity, φ = 0 in Eq. (13.4), we have

Fig. 13.5 Displacement as a continuous function of

time for simple harmonic motion.

x (t) : displacement x as a function of time t

A : amplitude
ω : angular frequency
ωt + φ : phase (time-dependent)
φ : phase constant Fig. 13.7 (b) A plot obtained from Eq. (13.4). The
curves 3 and 4 are for φ = 0 and -π/4
Fig. 13.6 The meaning of standard symbols respectively. The amplitude A is same for
in Eq. (13.4) both the plots.

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264 PHYSICS

x(t ) = A cos ωt (13.5) This function represents a simple harmonic

motion having a period T = 2π/ω and a
Since the motion has a period T, x (t) is equal to phase angle (–π/4) or (7π/4)
x (t + T ). That is, (b) sin2 ωt
= ½ – ½ cos 2 ωt
A cos ωt = A cos ω (t + T ) (13.6)
The function is periodic having a period
Now the cosine function is periodic with period T = π/ω. It also represents a harmonic
2π, i.e., it first repeats itself when the argument motion with the point of equilibrium
changes by 2π. Therefore, occurring at ½ instead of zero. ⊳

ω(t + T ) = ωt + 2π 13.4 SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION AND

UNIFORM CIRCULAR MOTION
that is ω = 2π/ T (13.7) In this section, we show that the projection of
uniform circular motion on a diameter of the
ω is called the angular frequency of SHM. Its circle follows simple harmonic motion. A
S.I. unit is radians per second. Since the simple experiment (Fig. 13.9) helps us visualise
frequency of oscillations is simply 1/T, ω is 2π this connection. Tie a ball to the end of a string
times the frequency of oscillation. Two simple and make it move in a horizontal plane about
harmonic motions may have the same A and φ, a fixed point with a constant angular speed.
but different ω, as seen in Fig. 13.8. In this plot The ball would then perform a uniform circular
the curve (b) has half the period and twice the motion in the horizontal plane. Observe the
frequency of the curve (a). ball sideways or from the front, fixing your
attention in the plane of motion. The ball will
appear to execute to and fro motion along a
horizontal line with the point of rotation as
the midpoint. You could alternatively observe
the shadow of the ball on a wall which is
perpendicular to the plane of the circle. In this
process what we are observing is the motion
of the ball on a diameter of the circle normal
to the direction of viewing.

Fig. 13.8 Plots of Eq. (13.4) for φ = 0 for two different

periods.

u Example 13.3 Which of the following

functions of time represent (a) simple
Fig. 13.9 Circular motion of a ball in a plane viewed
harmonic motion and (b) periodic but not edge-on is SHM.
simple harmonic? Give the period for each
case.
Fig. 13.10 describes the same situation
(1) sin ωt – cos ωt
(2) sin2 ωt mathematically. Suppose a particle P is moving
uniformly on a circle of radius A with angular
Answer speed ω. The sense of rotation is anticlockwise.
(a) sin ωt – cos ωt The initial position vector of the particle, i.e.,
= sin ωt – sin (π/2 – ωt) the vector OP at t = 0 makes an angle of φ with
= 2 cos (π/4) sin (ωt – π/4) the positive direction of x-axis. In time t, it will
= √2 sin (ωt – π/4) cover a further angle ωt and its position vector

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OSCILLATIONS 265

u Example 13.4 The figure given below

depicts two circular motions. The radius
of the circle, the period of revolution, the
initial position and the sense of revolution
are indicated in the figures. Obtain the
simple harmonic motions of the
x-projection of the radius vector of the
rotating particle P in each case.

Fig. 13.10
will make an angle of ω t + φ with the +ve
x-axis. Next, consider the projection of the
position vector OP on the x-axis. This will be Answer
OP′. The position of P′ on the x-axis, as the (a) At t = 0, OP makes an angle of 45o = π/4 rad
particle P moves on the circle, is given by with the (positive direction of ) x-axis. After
x(t ) = A cos ( ωt + φ )
which is the defining equation of SHM. This time t, it covers an angle 2πt in the
T
shows that if P moves uniformly on a circle, anticlockwise sense, and makes an angle
its projection P′ on a diameter of the circle
executes SHM. The particle P and the circle of 2πt + π with the x-axis.
on which it moves are sometimes referred to T 4
as the reference particle and the reference circle, The projection of OP on the x-axis at time t
respectively. is given by,
We can take projection of the motion of P on
any diameter, say the y-axis. In that case, the
x (t) = A cos 
2π π
displacement y(t) of P′ on the y-axis is given by t+ 
 T 4
y = A sin (ωt + φ ) For T = 4 s,
which is also an SHM of the same amplitude
x(t) = A cos 
as that of the projection on x-axis, but differing 2π π
by a phase of π/2. t+ 
 4 4
In spite of this connection between circular
motion and SHM, the force acting on a particle which is a SHM of amplitude A, period 4 s,
in linear simple harmonic motion is very
different from the centripetal force needed to and an initial phase* = π .
keep a particle in uniform circular motion. 4

* The natural unit of angle is radian, defined through the ratio of arc to radius. Angle is a dimensionless
quantity. Therefore it is not always necessary to mention the unit ‘radian’ when we use π , its multiples
or submultiples. The conversion between radian and degree is not similar to that between metre and
centimetre or mile. If the argument of a trigonometric function is stated without units, it is understood
that the unit is radian. On the other hand, if degree is to be used as the unit of angle, then it must be
shown explicitly. For example, sin(150) means sine of 15 degree, but sin(15) means sine of 15 radians.
Hereafter, we will often drop ‘rad’ as the unit, and it should be understood that whenever angle is
mentioned as a numerical value, without units, it is to be taken as radians.

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266 PHYSICS

(b) In this case at t = 0, OP makes an angle of where the negative sign shows that v (t) has a
90o = π with the x-axis. After a time t, it
direction opposite to the positive direction of
2 x-axis. Eq. (13.9) gives the instantaneous
covers an angle of 2π t in the clockwise velocity of a particle executing SHM, where
T displacement is given by Eq. (13.4). We can, of
course, obtain this equation without using
sense and makes an angle of  −
π 2π 
 2 T 
t geometrical argument, directly by differentiating
(Eq. 13.4) with respect of t:
with the x-axis. The projection of OP on the
x-axis at time t is given by d
v(t) = x (t ) (13.10)
dt
x(t) = B cos  −
π 2π 
 2 T 
t The method of reference circle can be similarly
used for obtaining instantaneous acceleration
= B sin  t 
2π of a particle undergoing SHM. We know that the
 T  centripetal acceleration of a particle P in uniform
For T = 30 s, circular motion has a magnitude v2/A or ω2A,
and it is directed towards the centre i.e., the
x(t) = B sin  t  direction is along PO. The instantaneous
π
 15  acceleration of the projection particle P′ is then
(See Fig. 13.12)
Writing this as x (t) = B cos  t −  , and
π π
 15 a (t) = –ω2A cos (ωt + φ)
2
comparing with Eq. (13.4). We find that this = –ω2x (t) (13.11)
represents a SHM of amplitude B, period 30 s,
π
and an initial phase of − . ⊳
2

13.5 VELOCITY AND ACCELERATION IN

SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION
The speed of a particle v in uniform circular
motion is its angular speed ω times the radius
of the circle A.
v = ωA (13.8)
The direction of velocity v at a time t is along
the tangent to the circle at the point where the
particle is located at that instant. From the
geometry of Fig. 13.11, it is clear that the velocity Fig. 13.12 The acceleration, a(t), of the particle P′ is
the projection of the acceleration a of the
of the projection particle P′ at time t is
reference particle P.
v(t ) = –ωA sin (ωt + φ ) (13.9)
Eq. (13.11) gives the acceleration of a particle
in SHM. The same equation can again be
obtained directly by differentiating velocity v(t)
given by Eq. (13.9) with respect to time:

d (13.12)
a (t ) = v (t )
dt
We note from Eq. (13.11) the important
Fig. 13.11 The velocity, v (t), of the particle P′ is property that acceleration of a particle in SHM
the projection of the velocity v of the is proportional to displacement. For x(t) > 0,
reference particle, P. a(t) < 0 and for x(t) < 0, a(t) > 0. Thus, whatever

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OSCILLATIONS 267

the value of x between –A and A, the acceleration (b) Using Eq. (13.9), the speed of the body
a(t) is always directed towards the centre. = – (5.0 m)(2π s –1) sin [(2 π s –1 ) ×1.5 s
For simplicity, let us put φ = 0 and write the + π/4]
expression for x (t), v (t) and a(t) = – (5.0 m)(2π s–1) sin [(3π + π/4)]
x(t) = A cos ωt, v(t) = – ω Asin ωt, a(t)=–ω2 A cos ωt = 10 π × 0.707 m s–1
The corresponding plots are shown in Fig. 13.13. = 22 m s–1
All quantities vary sinusoidally with time; only (c) Using Eq.(13.10), the acceleration of the
their maxima differ and the different plots differ body
in phase. x varies between –A to A; v(t) varies = –(2π s–1)2 × displacement
from –ωA to ωA and a(t) from –ω2A to ω2A. With = – (2π s–1)2 × (–3.535 m)
respect to displacement plot, velocity plot has a = 140 m s–2 ⊳
phase difference of π/2 and acceleration plot has
a phase difference of π. 13.6 FORCE LAW FOR SIMPLE HARMONIC
MOTION
Using Newton’s second law of motion, and the
expression for acceleration of a particle
undergoing SHM (Eq. 13.11), the force acting
on a particle of mass m in SHM is
F (t ) = ma
= –mω2 x (t )
i.e., F (t ) = –k x (t ) (13.13)
where k = mω2 (13.14a)

k
or ω = (13.14b)
m
Like acceleration, force is always directed
towards the mean position—hence it is sometimes
called the restoring force in SHM. To summarise
the discussion so far, simple harmonic motion can
be defined in two equivalent ways, either by Eq.
(13.4) for displacement or by Eq. (13.13) that gives
Fig. 13.13 Displacement, velocity and acceleration of its force law. Going from Eq. (13.4) to Eq. (13.13)
a particle in simple harmonic motion have required us to differentiate two times. Likewise,
the same period T, but they differ in phase by integrating the force law Eq. (13.13) two times,
we can get back Eq. (13.4).
u Example 13.5 A body oscillates with SHM Note that the force in Eq. (13.13) is linearly
according to the equation (in SI units), proportional to x(t). A particle oscillating under
x = 5 cos [2π t + π/4]. such a force is, therefore, calling a linear
harmonic oscillator. In the real world, the force
At t = 1.5 s, calculate the (a) displacement,
may contain small additional terms proportional
(b) speed and (c) acceleration of the body.
to x2, x3, etc. These then are called non-linear
oscillators.
Answer The angular frequency ω of the body
= 2π s–1 and its time period T = 1 s. u Example 13.6 Two identical springs of
At t = 1.5 s spring constant k are attached to a block
(a) displacement = (5.0 m) cos [(2 π s –1)× of mass m and to fixed supports as shown
1.5 s + π/4] in Fig. 13.14. Show that when the mass is
= (5.0 m) cos [(3π + π/4)] displaced from its equilibrium position on
= –5.0 × 0.707 m either side, it executes a simple harmonic
= –3.535 m motion. Find the period of oscillations.

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13.7 ENERGY IN SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION

Both kinetic and potential energies of a particle

in SHM vary between zero and their maximum
values.
In section 13.5 we have seen that the velocity
of a particle executing SHM, is a periodic
Fig. 13.14 function of time. It is zero at the extreme positions
of displacement. Therefore, the kinetic energy (K)
Answer Let the mass be displaced by a small of such a particle, which is defined as
distance x to the right side of the equilibrium
position, as shown in Fig. 13.15. Under this 1
situation the spring on the left side gets K= mv 2
2

1
= m ω 2 A 2 sin 2 (ωt + φ )
2

1
= k A 2 sin2 (ωt + φ ) (13.15)
2
is also a periodic function of time, being zero
when the displacement is maximum and
maximum when the particle is at the mean
Fig. 13.15 position. Note, since the sign of v is immaterial
in K, the period of K is T/2.
elongated by a length equal to x and that on What is the potential energy (U) of a particle
the right side gets compressed by the same executing simple harmonic motion? In
length. The forces acting on the mass are Chapter 6, we have seen that the concept of
then, potential energy is possible only for conservative
forces. The spring force F = –kx is a conservative
F1 = –k x (force exerted by the spring on
force, with associated potential energy
the left side, trying to pull the
mass towards the mean 1
position) U= k x2 (13.16)
2
F2 = –k x (force exerted by the spring on
Hence the potential energy of a particle
the right side, trying to push the
executing simple harmonic motion is,
mass towards the mean
position)
The net force, F, acting on the mass is then 1
U(x) = k x2
given by, 2
F = –2kx
1
Hence the force acting on the mass is = k A 2 cos2 (ωt + φ ) (13.17)
proportional to the displacement and is directed 2
towards the mean position; therefore, the motion Thus, the potential energy of a particle
executed by the mass is simple harmonic. The executing simple harmonic motion is also
time period of oscillations is, periodic, with period T/2, being zero at the mean
m position and maximum at the extreme
T = 2π displacements.
2k ⊳

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OSCILLATIONS 269

It follows from Eqs. (13.15) and (13.17) that Observe that both kinetic energy and
the total energy, E, of the system is, potential energy in SHM are seen to be always
E =U+K positive in Fig. 13.16. Kinetic energy can, of
course, be never negative, since it is
proportional to the square of speed. Potential
1 1 energy is positive by choice of the undermined
= k A 2 cos2 (ωt + φ ) + k A 2 sin2 (ωt + φ )
2 2 constant in potential energy. Both kinetic
energy and potential energy peak twice during
each period of SHM. For x = 0, the energy is
1
= k A 2 cos2 (ωt + φ ) + sin 2 (ωt + φ ) kinetic; at the extremes x = ±A, it is all
2
potential energy. In the course of motion
Using the familiar trigonometric identity, the between these limits, kinetic energy increases
value of the expression in the brackets is unity. at the expense of potential energy or
Thus, vice-versa.

1
E= k A2 (13.18) u Example 13.7 A block whose mass is 1 kg
2 is fastened to a spring. The spring has a
The total mechanical energy of a harmonic spring constant of 50 N m–1. The block is
oscillator is thus independent of time as pulled to a distance x = 10 cm from its
expected for motion under any conservative equilibrium position at x = 0 on a frictionless
surface from rest at t = 0. Calculate the
force. The time and displacement dependence
kinetic, potential and total energies of the
of the potential and kinetic energies of a
block when it is 5 cm away from the mean
linear simple harmonic oscillator are shown position.
in Fig. 13.16.

Answer The block executes SHM, its angular

frequency, as given by Eq. (13.14b), is

k
ω =
m

–1
50 N m
=
1kg

= 7.07 rad s–1

Its displacement at any time t is then given by,

x(t) = 0.1 cos (7.07t)

Fig. 13.16 Kinetic energy, potential energy and total
energy as a function of time [shown in (a)] Therefore, when the particle is 5 cm away from
and displacement [shown in (b)] of a particle
in SHM. The kinetic energy and potential the mean position, we have
energy both repeat after a period T/2. The
total energy remains constant at all t or x. 0.05 = 0.1 cos (7.07t)

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270 PHYSICS

Or cos (7.07t) = 0.5 and hence let it go. The stone executes a to and fro motion,
it is periodic with a period of about two seconds.
3 We shall show that this periodic motion is
sin (7.07t) = = 0.866
2 simple harmonic for small displacements from
Then, the velocity of the block at x = 5 cm is

= 0.1 × 7.07 × 0.866 m s–1

= 0.61 m s–1

Hence the K.E. of the block,

1
= m v2
2
= ½[1kg × (0.6123 m s–1 )2 ]

= 0.19 J
(a)
The P.E. of the block,
1
= k x2
2
= ½(50 N m–1 × 0.05 m × 0.05 m)
= 0.0625 J
The total energy of the block at x = 5 cm,

= K.E. + P.E.

= 0.25 J

we also know that at maximum displacement,

K.E. is zero and hence the total energy of the (b)
system is equal to the P.E. Therefore, the total Fig. 13.17 (a) A bob oscillating about its mean
position. (b) The radial force T-mg cosθ
energy of the system, provides centripetal force but no torque
about the support. The tangential force
= ½(50 N m–1 × 0.1 m × 0.1 m )
mg sinθ provides the restoring torque.
= 0.25 J
which is same as the sum of the two energies at the mean position. Consider simple pendulum
a displacement of 5 cm. This is in conformity — a small bob of mass m tied to an inextensible
with the principle of conservation of energy. ⊳ massless string of length L. The other end of
13.8 The Simple Pendulum the string is fixed to a rigid support. The bob
It is said that Galileo measured the periods of a oscillates in a plane about the vertical line
swinging chandelier in a church by his pulse through the support. Fig. 13.17(a) shows this
beats. He observed that the motion of the system. Fig. 13.17(b) is a kind of ‘free-body’
chandelier was periodic. The system is a kind diagram of the simple pendulum showing the
of pendulum. You can also make your own forces acting on the bob.
pendulum by tying a piece of stone to a long Let θ be the angle made by the string with
unstretchable thread, approximately 100 cm the vertical. When the bob is at the mean
long. Suspend your pendulum from a suitable position, θ = 0
support so that it is free to oscillate. Displace There are only two forces acting on the bob;
the stone to one side by a small distance and the tension T along the string and the vertical

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OSCILLATIONS 271

force due to gravity (=mg). The force mg can be Table 13.1 sin θ as ma function of angle θ
resolved into the component mg cosθ along the
string and mg sinθ perpendicular to it. Since (degrees) (radians) sin
the motion of the bob is along a circle of length
L and centre at the support point, the bob has
a radial acceleration (ω2L) and also a tangental
acceleration; the latter arises since motion along
the arc of the circle is not uniform. The radial
acceleration is provided by the net radial force
T –mg cosθ, while the tangential acceleration is
provided by mg sinθ. It is more convenient to
work with torque about the support since the Equation (13.24) is mathematically, identical to
radial force gives zero torque. Torque τ about Eq. (13.11) except that the variable is angular
the support is entirely provided by the tangental displacement. Hence we have proved that for
component of force small q, the motion of the bob is simple harmonic.
From Eqs. (13.24) and (13.11),
τ = –L (mg sinθ ) (13.19)
This is the restoring torque that tends to reduce mgL
angular displacement — hence the negative ω =
sign. By Newton’s law of rotational motion, I
τ = Iα (13.20) and
where I is the moment of inertia of the system
about the support and α is the angular I
T = 2π (13.25)
acceleration. Thus, mgL
I α = –m g sin θ L (13.21)
Now since the string of the simple pendulum
is massless, the moment of inertia I is simply
mL2. Eq. (13.25) then gives the well-known
Or,
formula for time period of a simple pendulum.
m gL
α = − sin θ (13.22) L
I T = 2π (13.26)
We can simplify Eq. (13.22) if we assume that g
the displacement θ is small. We know that sin θ u Example 13.8 What is the length of a
can be expressed as, simple pendulum, which ticks seconds ?

θ3 θ5 Answer From Eq. (13.26), the time period of a

sin θ = θ − + ± ... (13.23)
3! 5! simple pendulum is given by,
L
where θ is in radians. T = 2π
Now if θ is small, sin θ can be approximated g
by θ and Eq. (13.22) can then be written as, From this relation one gets,
gT 2
α = −
mgL
θ L =
(13.24) 4π 2
I
The time period of a simple pendulum, which
In Table 13.1, we have listed the angle θ in ticks seconds, is 2 s. Therefore, for g = 9.8 m s–2
degrees, its equivalent in radians, and the
value of the function sin θ . From this table it and T = 2 s, L is
can be seen that for θ as large as 20 degrees, 9.8(m s –2 ) × 4(s2 )
=
sin θ is nearly the same as θ expressed 4π 2
in radians. =1m ⊳

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272 PHYSICS

SUMMARY

1. The motion that repeats itself is called periodlic motion.

2. The period T is the time reequired for one complete oscillation, or cycle. It is related to
the frequency v by,
1
T =
v
The frequency ν of periodic or oscillatory motion is the number of oscillations per
unit time. In the SI, it is measured in hertz :
1 hertz = 1 Hz = 1 oscillation per second = 1s–1

3. In simple harmonic motion (SHM), the displacement x (t) of a particle from its
equilibrium position is given by,

x (t) = A cos (ωt + φ ) (displacement),

in which A is the amplitude of the displacement, the quantity (ωt + φ ) is the phase of
the motion, and φ is the phase constant. The angular frequency ω is related to the
period and frequency of the motion by,

2π
ω= = 2πν (angular frequency).
T
4. Simple harmonic motion can also be viewed as the projection of uniform circular
motion on the diameter of the circle in which the latter motion occurs.
5. The particle velocity and acceleration during SHM as functions of time are given by,

v (t) = –ωA sin (ωt + φ ) (velocity),

a (t) = –ω2A cos (ωt + φ )

= –ω2x (t) (acceleration),

Thus we see that both velocity and acceleration of a body executing simple harmonic
motion are periodic functions, having the velocity amplitude vm=ω A and acceleration
amplitude am =ω 2A, respectively.
6. The force acting in a simple harmonic motion is proportional to the displacement and
is always directed towards the centre of motion.
7. A particle executing simple harmonic motion has, at any time, kinetic energy
K = ½ mv2 and potential energy U = ½ kx2. If no friction is present the mechanical
energy of the system, E = K + U always remains constant even though K and U change
with time.
8. A particle of mass m oscillating under the influence of Hooke’s law restoring force
given by F = – k x exhibits simple harmonic motion with

k
ω = (angular frequency)
m

m
T = 2π (period)
k
Such a system is also called a linear oscillator.
9. The motion of a simple pendulum swinging through small angles is approximately
simple harmonic. The period of oscillation is given by,

L
T = 2π
g

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OSCILLATIONS 273

POINTS TO PONDER

1. The period T is the least time after which motion repeats itself. Thus, motion repeats
itself after nT where n is an integer.
2. Every periodic motion is not simple harmonic motion. Only that periodic motion
governed by the force law F = – k x is simple harmonic.
3. Circular motion can arise due to an inverse-square law force (as in planetary motion)
as well as due to simple harmonic force in two dimensions equal to: –mω2r. In the
latter case, the phases of motion, in two perpendicular directions (x and y) must differ
by π/2. Thus, for example, a particle subject to a force –mω2r with initial position (0,
A) and velocity (ωA, 0) will move uniformly in a circle of radius A.
4. For linear simple harmonic motion with a given ω, two initial conditions are necessary
and sufficient to determine the motion completely. The initial conditions may be (i)
initial position and initial velocity or (ii) amplitude and phase or (iii) energy
and phase.
5. From point 4 above, given amplitude or energy, phase of motion is determined by the
initial position or initial velocity.

6. A combination of two simple harmonic motions with arbitrary amplitudes and phases
is not necessarily periodic. It is periodic only if frequency of one motion is an integral
multiple of the other’s frequency. However, a periodic motion can always be expressed
as a sum of infinite number of harmonic motions with appropriate amplitudes.

7. The period of SHM does not depend on amplitude or energy or the phase constant.
Contrast this with the periods of planetary orbits under gravitation (Kepler’s third law).

8. The motion of a simple pendulum is simple harmonic for small angular displacement.

9. For motion of a particle to be simple harmonic, its displacement x must be expressible

in either of the following forms :

x = A cos ωt + B sin ωt

x = A cos (ωt + α ), x = B sin (ωt + β )

The three forms are completely equivalent (any one can be expressed in terms of any
other two forms).

Thus, damped simple harmonic motion is not strictly simple harmonic. It is

approximately so only for time intervals much less than 2m/b where b is the damping
constant.

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274 PHYSICS

Exercises

13.1 Which of the following examples represent periodic motion?

(a) A swimmer completing one (return) trip from one bank of a river to the other
and back.
(b) A freely suspended bar magnet displaced from its N-S direction and released.
(c) A hydrogen molecule rotating about its centre of mass.
(d) An arrow released from a bow.
13.2 Which of the following examples represent (nearly) simple harmonic motion and
which represent periodic but not simple harmonic motion?
(a) the rotation of earth about its axis.
(b) motion of an oscillating mercury column in a U-tube.
(c) motion of a ball bearing inside a smooth curved bowl, when released from a
point slightly above the lower most point.
(d) general vibrations of a polyatomic molecule about its equilibrium position.
13.3 Fig. 13.18 depicts four x-t plots for linear motion of a particle. Which of the plots
represent periodic motion? What is the period of motion (in case of periodic motion) ?

Fig. 18.18

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OSCILLATIONS 275

13.4 Which of the following functions of time represent (a) simple harmonic, (b) periodic
but not simple harmonic, and (c) non-periodic motion? Give period for each case of
periodic motion (ω is any positive constant):
(a) sin ωt – cos ωt
(b) sin3 ωt
(c) 3 cos (π/4 – 2ωt)
(d) cos ωt + cos 3ωt + cos 5ωt
(e) exp (–ω2t2)
(f) 1 + ωt + ω2t2
13.5 A particle is in linear simple harmonic motion between two points, A and B, 10 cm
apart. Take the direction from A to B as the positive direction and give the signs of
velocity, acceleration and force on the particle when it is
(a) at the end A,
(b) at the end B,
(c) at the mid-point of AB going towards A,
(d) at 2 cm away from B going towards A,
(e) at 3 cm away from A going towards B, and
(f) at 4 cm away from B going towards A.
13.6 Which of the following relationships between the acceleration a and the displacement
x of a particle involve simple harmonic motion?
(a) a = 0.7x
(b) a = –200x2
(c) a = –10x
(d) a = 100x3
13.7 The motion of a particle executing simple harmonic motion is described by the
displacement function,
x(t) = A cos (ωt + φ ).
If the initial (t = 0) position of the particle is 1 cm and its initial velocity is ω cm/s,
what are its amplitude and initial phase angle ? The angular frequency of the particle
is π s–1. If instead of the cosine function, we choose the sine function to describe the
SHM : x = B sin (ωt + α), what are the amplitude and initial phase of the particle
with the above initial conditions.
13.8 A spring balance has a scale that reads from 0 to 50 kg. The length of the scale is 20
cm. A body suspended from this balance, when displaced and released, oscillates
with a period of 0.6 s. What is the weight of the body ?
13.9 A spring having with a spring constant 1200 N m–1 is mounted on a horizontal table
as shown in Fig. 13.19. A mass of 3 kg is attached to the free end of the spring. The
mass is then pulled sideways to a distance of 2.0 cm and released.

Fig. 13.19
Determine (i) the frequency of oscillations, (ii) maximum acceleration of the mass,
and (iii) the maximum speed of the mass.

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276 PHYSICS

13.10 In Exercise 13.9, let us take the position of mass when the spring is unstreched as
x = 0, and the direction from left to right as the positive direction of
x-axis. Give x as a function of time t for the oscillating mass if at the moment we
start the stopwatch (t = 0), the mass is
(a) at the mean position,
(b) at the maximum stretched position, and
(c) at the maximum compressed position.
In what way do these functions for SHM differ from each other, in frequency, in
amplitude or the initial phase?
13.11 Figures 13.20 correspond to two circular motions. The radius of the circle, the
period of revolution, the initial position, and the sense of revolution (i.e. clockwise
or anti-clockwise) are indicated on each figure.

Fig. 13.20
Obtain the corresponding simple harmonic motions of the x-projection of the radius
vector of the revolving particle P, in each case.
13.12 Plot the corresponding reference circle for each of the following simple harmonic
motions. Indicate the initial (t =0) position of the particle, the radius of the circle,
and the angular speed of the rotating particle. For simplicity, the sense of rotation
may be fixed to be anticlockwise in every case: (x is in cm and t is in s).
(a) x = –2 sin (3t + π/3)
(b) x = cos (π/6 – t)
(c) x = 3 sin (2πt + π/4)
(d) x = 2 cos πt
13.13 Figure 13.21(a) shows a spring of force constant k clamped rigidly at one end and a
mass m attached to its free end. A force F applied at the free end stretches the
spring. Figure 13.21 (b) shows the same spring with both ends free and attached to
a mass m at either end. Each end of the spring in Fig. 13.21(b) is stretched by the
same force F.

Fig. 13.21
(a) What is the maximum extension of the spring in the two cases ?
(b) If the mass in Fig. (a) and the two masses in Fig. (b) are released, what is the
period of oscillation in each case ?

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OSCILLATIONS 277

13.14 The piston in the cylinder head of a locomotive has a stroke (twice the amplitude)
of 1.0 m. If the piston moves with simple harmonic motion with an angular frequency
of 200 rad/min, what is its maximum speed ?
13.15 The acceleration due to gravity on the surface of moon is 1.7 m s–2. What is the time
period of a simple pendulum on the surface of moon if its time period on the surface
of earth is 3.5 s ? (g on the surface of earth is 9.8 m s–2)
13.16 A simple pendulum of length l and having a bob of mass M is suspended in a car.
The car is moving on a circular track of radius R with a uniform speed v. If the
pendulum makes small oscillations in a radial direction about its equilibrium
position, what will be its time period ?
13.17 A cylindrical piece of cork of density of base area A and height h floats in a liquid of
density ρl. The cork is depressed slightly and then released. Show that the cork
oscillates up and down simple harmonically with a period

hρ
T = 2π
ρ1g
where ρ is the density of cork. (Ignore damping due to viscosity of the liquid).
13.18 One end of a U-tube containing mercury is connected to a suction pump and the
other end to atmosphere. A small pressure difference is maintained between the
two columns. Show that, when the suction pump is removed, the column of mercury
in the U-tube executes simple harmonic motion.

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 CHAPTER FOURTEEN

WAVES

14.1 INTRODUCTION
In the previous Chapter, we studied the motion of objects
oscillating in isolation. What happens in a system, which is
a collection of such objects? A material medium provides
14.1 Introduction
such an example. Here, elastic forces bind the constituents
14.2 Transverse and to each other and, therefore, the motion of one affects that of
longitudinal waves
the other. If you drop a little pebble in a pond of still water,
14.3 Displacement relation in a
the water surface gets disturbed. The disturbance does not
progressive wave
remain confined to one place, but propagates outward along
14.4 The speed of a travelling
a circle. If you continue dropping pebbles in the pond, you
wave
see circles rapidly moving outward from the point where the
14.5 The principle of
water surface is disturbed. It gives a feeling as if the water is
superposition of waves
moving outward from the point of disturbance. If you put
14.6 Reflection of waves
some cork pieces on the disturbed surface, it is seen that
14.7 Beats
the cork pieces move up and down but do not move away
Summary
from the centre of disturbance. This shows that the water
Points to ponder
mass does not flow outward with the circles, but rather a
Exercises
moving disturbance is created. Similarly, when we speak,
the sound moves outward from us, without any flow of air
from one part of the medium to another. The disturbances
produced in air are much less obvious and only our ears or
a microphone can detect them. These patterns, which move
without the actual physical transfer or flow of matter as a
whole, are called waves. In this Chapter, we will study such
waves.
Waves transport energy and the pattern of disturbance has
information that propagate from one point to another. All our
communications essentially depend on transmission of sig-
nals through waves. Speech means production of sound
waves in air and hearing amounts to their detection. Often,
communication involves different kinds of waves. For exam-
ple, sound waves may be first converted into an electric cur-
rent signal which in turn may generate an electromagnetic
wave that may be transmitted by an optical cable or via a

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WAVES 279

satellite. Detection of the original signal will usu- We shall illustrate this connection through
ally involve these steps in reverse order. simple examples.
Not all waves require a medium for their Consider a collection of springs connected to
propagation. We know that light waves can one another as shown in Fig. 14.1. If the spring
travel through vacuum. The light emitted by at one end is pulled suddenly and released, the
stars, which are hundreds of light years away, disturbance travels to the other end. What has
reaches us through inter-stellar space, which
is practically a vacuum.
The most familiar type of waves such as waves
on a string, water waves, sound waves, seismic
waves, etc. is the so-called mechanical waves. Fig. 14.1 A collection of springs connected to each
These waves require a medium for propagation, other. The end A is pulled suddenly
they cannot propagate through vacuum. They generating a disturbance, which then
involve oscillations of constituent particles and propagates to the other end.
depend on the elastic properties of the medium.
The electromagnetic waves that you will learn happened? The first spring is disturbed from its
in Class XII are a different type of wave. equilibrium length. Since the second spring is
Electromagnetic waves do not necessarily require connected to the first, it is also stretched or
a medium - they can travel through vacuum. compressed, and so on. The disturbance moves
Light, radiowaves, X-rays, are all electromagnetic from one end to the other; but each spring only
waves. In vacuum, all electromagnetic waves executes small oscillations about its equilibrium
have the same speed c, whose value is : position. As a practical example of this situation,
consider a stationary train at a railway station.
c = 299, 792, 458 ms–1. (14.1)
Different bogies of the train are coupled to each
A third kind of wave is the so-called Matter other through a spring coupling. When an
waves. They are associated with constituents of engine is attached at one end, it gives a push to
matter : electrons, protons, neutrons, atoms and the bogie next to it; this push is transmitted from
molecules. They arise in quantum mechanical one bogie to another without the entire train
description of nature that you will learn in your being bodily displaced.
later studies. Though conceptually more abstract Now let us consider the propagation of sound
than mechanical or electro-magnetic waves, they waves in air. As the wave passes through air, it
have already found applications in several compresses or expands a small region of air. This
devices basic to modern technology; matter causes a change in the density of that region,
waves associated with electrons are employed say δρ, this change induces a change in pressure,
in electron microscopes. δp, in that region. Pressure is force per unit area,
In this chapter we will study mechanical so there is a restoring force proportional to
waves, which require a material medium for the disturbance, just like in a spring. In this
their propagation. case, the quantity similar to extension or
The aesthetic influence of waves on art and compression of the spring is the change in
literature is seen from very early times; yet the density. If a region is compressed, the molecules
first scientific analysis of wave motion dates back in that region are packed together, and they tend
to the seventeenth century. Some of the famous to move out to the adjoining region, thereby
scientists associated with the physics of wave increasing the density or creating compression
motion are Christiaan Huygens (1629-1695), in the adjoining region. Consequently, the air
Robert Hooke and Isaac Newton. The in the first region undergoes rarefaction. If a
understanding of physics of waves followed the region is comparatively rarefied the surrounding
physics of oscillations of masses tied to springs air will rush in making the rarefaction move to
and physics of the simple pendulum. Waves in the adjoining region. Thus, the compression or
elastic media are intimately connected with rarefaction moves from one region to another,
harmonic oscillations. (Stretched strings, coiled making the propagation of a disturbance
springs, air, etc., are examples of elastic media). possible in air.

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280 PHYSICS

In solids, similar arguments can be made. In

a crystalline solid, atoms or group of atoms are
arranged in a periodic lattice. In these, each
atom or group of atoms is in equilibrium, due to
forces from the surrounding atoms. Displacing
one atom, keeping the others fixed, leads to
restoring forces, exactly as in a spring. So we
can think of atoms in a lattice as end points,
with springs between pairs of them.
In the subsequent sections of this chapter
we are going to discuss various characteristic Fig. 14.3 A harmonic (sinusoidal) wave travelling
properties of waves. along a stretched string is an example of a
transverse wave. An element of the string
14.2 TRANSVERSE AND LONGITUDINAL in the region of the wave oscillates about
WAVES its equilibrium position perpendicular to the
direction of wave propagation.
We have seen that motion of mechanical waves
involves oscillations of constituents of the position as the pulse or wave passes through
medium. If the constituents of the medium them. The oscillations are normal to the
oscillate perpendicular to the direction of wave direction of wave motion along the string, so this
propagation, we call the wave a transverse wave. is an example of transverse wave.
If they oscillate along the direction of wave We can look at a wave in two ways. We can fix
propagation, we call the wave a longitudinal an instant of time and picture the wave in space.
wave. This will give us the shape of the wave as a
Fig.14.2 shows the propagation of a single whole in space at a given instant. Another way
pulse along a string, resulting from a single up is to fix a location i.e. fix our attention on a
and down jerk. If the string is very long compared particular element of string and see its
oscillatory motion in time.
Fig. 14.4 describes the situation for
longitudinal waves in the most familiar example
of the propagation of sound waves. A long pipe
filled with air has a piston at one end. A single
sudden push forward and pull back of the piston
will generate a pulse of condensations (higher
density) and rarefactions (lower density) in the
medium (air). If the push-pull of the piston is
continuous and periodic (sinusoidal), a

Fig. 14.2 When a pulse travels along the length of a

stretched string (x-direction), the elements
of the string oscillate up and down (y-
direction)

to the size of the pulse, the pulse will damp out

before it reaches the other end and reflection
from that end may be ignored. Fig. 14.3 shows a
similar situation, but this time the external
agent gives a continuous periodic sinusoidal up
Fig. 14.4 Longitudinal waves (sound) generated in a
and down jerk to one end of the string. The pipe filled with air by moving the piston up
resulting disturbance on the string is then a and down. A volume element of air oscillates
sinusoidal wave. In either case the elements of in the direction parallel to the direction of
the string oscillate about their equilibrium mean wave propagation.

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WAVES 281

sinusoidal wave will be generated propagating

u Example 14.1 Given below are some
in air along the length of the pipe. This is clearly
examples of wave motion. State in each case
an example of longitudinal waves.
if the wave motion is transverse, longitudinal
The waves considered above, transverse or or a combination of both:
longitudinal, are travelling or progressive waves (a) Motion of a kink in a longitudinal spring
since they travel from one part of the medium produced by displacing one end of the
to another. The material medium as a whole spring sideways.
does not move, as already noted. A stream, for (b) Waves produced in a cylinder
example, constitutes motion of water as a whole. containing a liquid by moving its piston
In a water wave, it is the disturbance that moves, back and forth.
(c) Waves produced by a motorboat sailing
not water as a whole. Likewise a wind (motion
in water.
of air as a whole) should not be confused with a
(d) Ultrasonic waves in air produced by a
sound wave which is a propagation of vibrating quartz crystal.
disturbance (in pressure density) in air, without
the motion of air medium as a whole.
Answer
In transverse waves, the particle motion is (a) Transverse and longitudinal
normal to the direction of propagation of the (b) Longitudinal
wave. Therefore, as the wave propagates, each (c) Transverse and longitudinal
element of the medium undergoes a shearing (d) Longitudinal ⊳
strain. Transverse waves can, therefore, be
propagated only in those media, which can 14.3 DISPLACEMENT RELATION IN
A PROGRESSIVE WAVE
sustain shearing stress, such as solids and not
in fluids. Fluids, as well as, solids can sustain For mathematical description of a travelling
compressive strain; therefore, longitudinal wave, we need a function of both position x and
waves can be propagated in all elastic media. time t. Such a function at every instant should
For example, in medium like steel, both give the shape of the wave at that instant. Also,
transverse and longitudinal waves can at every given location, it should describe the
propagate, while air can sustain only motion of the constituent of the medium at that
location. If we wish to describe a sinusoidal
longitudinal waves. The waves on the surface
travelling wave (such as the one shown in Fig.
of water are of two kinds: capillary waves and
14.3) the corresponding function must also be
gravity waves. The former are ripples of fairly
sinusoidal. For convenience, we shall take the
short wavelength—not more than a few
wave to be transverse so that if the position of
centimetre—and the restoring force that the constituents of the medium is denoted by x,
produces them is the surface tension of water. the displacement from the equilibrium position
Gravity waves have wavelengths typically may be denoted by y. A sinusoidal travelling
ranging from several metres to several hundred wave is then described by:
meters. The restoring force that produces these
waves is the pull of gravity, which tends to keep
y( x, t ) = a sin( kx − ωt + φ) (14.2)
the water surface at its lowest level. The The term φ in the argument of sine function
oscillations of the particles in these waves are means equivalently that we are considering a
not confined to the surface only, but extend with linear combination of sine and cosine functions:
diminishing amplitude to the very bottom. The y ( x ,t ) = A sin(kx − ωt ) + B cos(kx − ωt ) (14.3)
particle motion in water waves involves a From Equations (14.2) and (14.3),
complicated motion—they not only move up and
−1  B 
down but also back and forth. The waves in an
a = A2 + B2 and φ = tan  A 
ocean are the combination of both longitudinal
and transverse waves. To understand why Equation (14.2)
It is found that, generally, transverse and represents a sinusoidal travelling wave, take a
longitudinal waves travel with different speed fixed instant, say t = t0. Then, the argument of
in the same medium. the sine function in Equation (14.2) is simply

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282 PHYSICS

kx + constant. Thus, the shape of the wave (at

any fixed instant) as a function of x is a sine
wave. Similarly, take a fixed location, say x = x0.
Then, the argument of the sine function in
Equation (14.2) is constant -ωt. The
displacement y, at a fixed location, thus, varies
sinusoidally with time. That is, the constituents
of the medium at different positions execute
simple harmonic motion. Finally, as t increases,
x must increase in the positive direction to keep
kx – ωt + φ constant. Thus, Eq. (14.2) represents
a sinusiodal (harmonic) wave travelling along
the positive direction of the x-axis. On the other
hand, a function
y ( x, t ) = a sin( kx + ω t + φ ) (14.4)
represents a wave travelling in the negative
direction of x-axis. Fig. (14.5) gives the names of
the various physical quantities appearing in Eq.
(14.2) that we now interpret.

y(x,t) : displacement as a function of

position x and time t
a : amplitude of a wave
ω : angular frequency of the wave Fig. 14.6 A harmonic wave progressing along the
k : angular wave number positive direction of x-axis at different times.
kx–ωt+φ : initial phase angle (a+x = 0, t = 0)
Using the plots of Fig. 14.6, we now define
Fig. 14.5 The meaning of standard symbols in the various quantities of Eq. (14.2).
Eq. (14.2)
14.3.1 Amplitude and Phase
Fig. 14.6 shows the plots of Eq. (14.2) for In Eq. (14.2), since the sine function varies
different values of time differing by equal between 1 and –1, the displacement y (x,t) varies
intervals of time. In a wave, the crest is the between a and –a. We can take a to be a positive
point of maximum positive displacement, the constant, without any loss of generality. Then,
trough is the point of maximum negative a represents the maximum displacement of the
displacement. To see how a wave travels, we constituents of the medium from their
can fix attention on a crest and see how it
equilibrium position. Note that the displacement
progresses with time. In the figure, this is
y may be positive or negative, but a is positive.
shown by a cross (×) on the crest. In the same
It is called the amplitude of the wave.
manner, we can see the motion of a particular
The quantity (kx – ωt + φ) appearing as the
constituent of the medium at a fixed location,
say at the origin of the x-axis. This is shown argument of the sine function in Eq. (14.2) is
by a solid dot (•). The plots of Fig. 14.6 show called the phase of the wave. Given the
that with time, the solid dot (•) at the origin amplitude a, the phase determines the
moves periodically, i.e., the particle at the displacement of the wave at any position and
origin oscillates about its mean position as at any instant. Clearly φ is the phase at x = 0
the wave progresses. This is true for any other and t = 0. Hence, φ is called the initial phase
location also. We also see that during the time angle. By suitable choice of origin on the x-axis
the solid dot (•) has completed one full and the intial time, it is possible to have φ = 0.
oscillation, the crest has moved further by a Thus there is no loss of generality in dropping
certain distance. φ, i.e., in taking Eq. (14.2) with φ = 0.

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WAVES 283

14.3.2 Wavelength and Angular Wave

Number
The minimum distance between two points
having the same phase is called the wavelength
of the wave, usually denoted by λ. For simplicity,
we can choose points of the same phase to be
crests or troughs. The wavelength is then the
distance between two consecutive crests or
troughs in a wave. Taking φ = 0 in Eq. (14.2),
Fig. 14.7 An element of a string at a fixed location
the displacement at t = 0 is given by oscillates in time with amplitude a and
period T, as the wave passes over it.
y ( x, 0) = a sin kx (14.5)
Since the sine function repeats its value after Now, the period of oscillation of the wave is the
every 2π change in angle, time it takes for an element to complete one full
oscillation. That is
−a sin ωt = −a sin ω (t + T )
= −a sin(ωt + ω T )
That is the displacements at points x and at Since sine function repeats after every 2π ,
2n π
x+ 2π
k ω T = 2π or ω = (14.7)
T
are the same, where n=1,2,3,... The 1east
distance between points with the same ω is called the angular frequency of the wave.
displacement (at any given instant of time) is Its SI unit is rad s –1. The frequency ν is the
obtained by taking n = 1. λ is then given by number of oscillations per second. Therefore,

2π 2π 1 ω
λ= ν= =
or k =
(14.8)
k λ
(14.6) T 2π
ν is usually measured in hertz.
k is the angular wave number or propagation
In the discussion above, reference has always
constant; its SI unit is radian per metre or
been made to a wave travelling along a string or
rad m−1 * a transverse wave. In a longitudinal wave, the
displacement of an element of the medium is
14.3.3 Period, Angular Frequency and parallel to the direction of propagation of the
Frequency wave. In Eq. (14.2), the displacement function
Fig. 14.7 shows again a sinusoidal plot. It for a longitudinal wave is written as,
describes not the shape of the wave at a certain
s(x, t) = a sin (kx – ω t + φ ) (14.9)
instant but the displacement of an element (at
any fixed location) of the medium as a function where s(x, t) is the displacement of an element
of time. We may for, simplicity, take Eq. (14.2) of the medium in the direction of propagation
with φ = 0 and monitor the motion of the element of the wave at position x and time t. In Eq. (14.9),
say at x = 0 . We then get a is the displacement amplitude; other
quantities have the same meaning as in case
y(0,t ) = a sin( −ωt ) of a transverse wave except that the
displacement function y (x, t ) is to be replaced
= −a sin ωt by the function s (x, t).

* Here again, ‘radian’ could be dropped and the units could be written merely as m–1. Thus, k represents 2π
times the number of waves (or the total phase difference) that can be accommodated per unit length, with SI
units m–1.

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284 PHYSICS

the shape of the wave at two instants of time,

u Example 14.2 A wave travelling along a which differ by a small time internal ∆t. The
string is described by, entire wave pattern is seen to shift to the right
y(x, t) = 0.005 sin (80.0 x – 3.0 t), (positive direction of x-axis) by a distance ∆x. In
particular, the crest shown by a dot ( • ) moves a
in which the numerical constants are in
SI units (0.005 m, 80.0 rad m –1, and
3.0 rad s–1). Calculate (a) the amplitude,
(b) the wavelength, and (c) the period and
frequency of the wave. Also, calculate the
displacement y of the wave at a distance
x = 30.0 cm and time t = 20 s ?

Answer On comparing this displacement

equation with Eq. (14.2), Fig. 14.8 Progression of a harmonic wave from time
y (x, t ) = a sin (kx – ω t ), t to t + ∆t. where ∆t is a small interval.
The wave pattern as a whole shifts to the
we find right. The crest of the wave (or a point with
(a) the amplitude of the wave is 0.005 m = 5 mm. any fixed phase) moves right by the distance
(b) the angular wave number k and angular ∆x in time ∆t.
frequency ω are
distance ∆x in time ∆t. The speed of the wave is
k = 80.0 m–1 and ω = 3.0 s–1 then ∆x/∆t. We can put the dot ( • ) on a point
We, then, relate the wavelength λ to k through with any other phase. It will move with the same
Eq. (14.6), speed v (otherwise the wave pattern will not
λ = 2π/k remain fixed). The motion of a fixed phase point
on the wave is given by
2π
=
80.0 m −1 kx – ω t = constant (14.10)

= 7.85 cm Thus, as time t changes, the position x of the

fixed phase point must change so that the phase
(c) Now, we relate T to ω by the relation remains constant. Thus,
T = 2π/ω
kx – ω t = k(x+∆x) – ω(t+∆t)
2π or k ∆x – ω ∆t =0
= −1
3.0 s Taking ∆x, ∆t vanishingly small, this gives
= 2.09 s
dx ω (14.11)
and frequency, v = 1/T = 0.48 Hz = =v
dt k
The displacement y at x = 30.0 cm and Relating ω to T and k to λ, we get
time t = 20 s is given by
2πν λ
y = (0.005 m) sin (80.0 × 0.3 – 3.0 × 20) v= = λν = (14.12)
2π /λ T
= (0.005 m) sin (–36 + 12π)
= (0.005 m) sin (1.699) Eq. (14.12), a general relation for all progressive
= (0.005 m) sin (970) j 5 mm ⊳ waves, shows that in the time required for one full
oscillation by any constituent of the medium, the
14.4 THE SPEED OF A TRAVELLING WAVE wave pattern travels a distance equal to the
To determine the speed of propagation of a wavelength of the wave. It should be noted that
travelling wave, we can fix our attention on any the speed of a mechanical wave is determined by
particular point on the wave (characterised by the inertial (linear mass density for strings, mass
some value of the phase) and see how that point density in general) and elastic properties (Young’s
moves in time. It is convenient to look at the modulus for linear media/ shear modulus, bulk
motion of the crest of the wave. Fig. 14.8 gives modulus) of the medium. The medium determines

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WAVES 285

the speed; Eq. (14.12) then relates wavelength to arising due to an external force). It does not
frequency for the given speed. Of course, as depend on wavelength or frequency of the wave
remarked earlier, the medium can support both itself. In higher studies, you will come across
transverse and longitudinal waves, which will have waves whose speed is not independent of
different speeds in the same medium. Later in this frequency of the wave. Of the two parameters λ
chapter, we shall obtain specific expressions for and ν the source of disturbance determines the
the speed of mechanical waves in some media. frequency of the wave generated. Given the
speed of the wave in the medium and the
14.4.1 Speed of a Transverse Wave on
frequency Eq. (14.12) then fixes the wavelength
Stretched String
v
The speed of a mechanical wave is determined λ = (14.15)
by the restoring force setup in the medium when ν
it is disturbed and the inertial properties (mass
density) of the medium. The speed is expected to u Example 14.3 A steel wire 0.72 m long
be directly related to the former and inversely to has a mass of 5.0 ×10–3 kg. If the wire is
the latter. For waves on a string, the restoring under a tension of 60 N, what is the speed
force is provided by the tension T in the string. of transverse waves on the wire ?
The inertial property will in this case be linear
mass density µ, which is mass m of the string Answer Mass per unit length of the wire,
divided by its length L. Using Newton’s Laws of
5.0 × 10−3 kg
Motion, an exact formula for the wave speed on µ=
0.72 m
a string can be derived, but this derivation is
outside the scope of this book. We shall,
= 6.9 ×10–3 kg m–1
therefore, use dimensional analysis. We already
know that dimensional analysis alone can never Tension, T = 60 N
yield the exact formula. The overall The speed of wave on the wire is given by
dimensionless constant is always left
T 60 N
undetermined by dimensional analysis. v= = = 93 m s −1 ⊳
µ 6.9 × 10−3 kg m −1
The dimension of µ is [ML–1] and that of T is
like force, namely [MLT–2]. We need to combine
these dimensions to get the dimension of speed 14.4.2 Speed of a Longitudinal Wave
v [LT –1]. Simple inspection shows that the (Speed of Sound)
quantity T/µ has the relevant dimension In a longitudinal wave, the constituents of the
medium oscillate forward and backward in the
 MLT −2 
=  L2 T −2  direction of propagation of the wave. We have
[ ML ] already seen that the sound waves travel in the
Thus if T and µ are assumed to be the only form of compressions and rarefactions of small
relevant physical quantities, volume elements of air. The elastic property that
determines the stress under compressional
T strain is the bulk modulus of the medium defined
v =C (14.13) by (see Chapter 8)
µ
where C is the undetermined constant of ∆P
B=− (14.16)
dimensional analysis. In the exact formula, it ∆V/V
turms out, C=1. The speed of transverse waves Here, the change in pressure ∆P produces a
on a stretched string is given by ∆V
volumetric strain . B has the same dimension
T
V
v = (14.14) as pressure and given in SI units in terms of
µ pascal (Pa). The inertial property relevant for the
Note the important point that the speed v propagation of wave is the mass density ρ, with
depends only on the properties of the medium T dimensions [ML–3]. Simple inspection reveals
and µ (T is a property of the stretched string that quantity B/ρ has the relevant dimension:

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286 PHYSICS

 ML −2 T −2  Liquids and solids generally have higher speed

=  L2 T −2  (14.17) of sound than gases. [Note for solids, the speed
 ML −3  being referred to is the speed of longitudinal
Thus, if B and ρ are considered to be the only waves in the solid]. This happens because they
relevant physical quantities, are much more difficult to compress than gases
and so have much higher values of bulk modulus.
B Now, see Eq. (14.19). Solids and liquids have
v =C (14.18)
ρ higher mass densities ( ρ ) than gases. But the
where, as before, C is the undetermined constant corresponding increase in both the modulus (B)
from dimensional analysis. The exact derivation of solids and liquids is much higher. This is the
shows that C=1. Thus, the general formula for reason why the sound waves travel faster in
longitudinal waves in a medium is: solids and liquids.
We can estimate the speed of sound in a gas
B in the ideal gas approximation. For an ideal gas,
v = (14.19)
ρ the pressure P, volume V and temperature T are
For a linear medium, like a solid bar, the related by (see Chapter 10).
lateral expansion of the bar is negligible and we PV = NkBT (14.21)
may consider it to be only under longitudinal
strain. In that case, the relevant modulus of where N is the number of molecules in volume
elasticity is Young’s modulus, which has the V, kB is the Boltzmann constant and T the
same dimension as the Bulk modulus. temperature of the gas (in Kelvin). Therefore, for
an isothermal change it follows from Eq.(14.21)
Dimensional analysis for this case is the same
that
as before and yields a relation like Eq. (14.18),
V∆P + P∆V = 0
with an undetermined C, which the exact
derivation shows to be unity. Thus, the speed of ∆P
or − =P
longitudinal waves in a solid bar is given by ∆V/V
Hence, substituting in Eq. (14.16), we have
v = Y (14.20) B=P
ρ
Therefore, from Eq. (14.19) the speed of a
where Y is the Young’s modulus of the material longitudinal wave in an ideal gas is given by,
of the bar. Table 14.1 gives the speed of sound
in some media. v = P (14.22)
Table 14.1 Speed of Sound in some Media ρ
This relation was first given by Newton and
is known as Newton’s formula.

u Example 14.4 Estimate the speed of

sound in air at standard temperature and
pressure. The mass of 1 mole of air is
29.0 ×10–3 kg.

Answer We know that 1 mole of any gas occupies

22.4 litres at STP. Therefore, density of air at
STP is:
ρo = (mass of one mole of air)/ (volume of one
mole of air at STP)

29.0 × 10 −3 kg
=
22.4 × 10 −3 m 3
= 1.29 kg m–3

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WAVES 287

According to Newton’s formula for the speed

of sound in a medium, we get for the speed of
sound in air at STP,

= 280 m s–1 (14.23)

⊳
The result shown in Eq.(14.23) is about 15%
smaller as compared to the experimental value
of 331 m s–1 as given in Table 14.1. Where
did we go wrong ? If we examine the basic
assumption made by Newton that the pressure
variations in a medium during propagation of
sound are isothermal, we find that this is not
correct. It was pointed out by Laplace that the
pressure variations in the propagation of sound
waves are so fast that there is little time for the
heat flow to maintain constant temperature.
These variations, therefore, are adiabatic and
not isothermal. For adiabatic processes the ideal
Fig. 14.9 Two pulses having equal and opposite
gas satisfies the relation (see Section 11.8),
displacements moving in opposite
PV γ = constant
directions. The overlapping pulses add up
i.e. ∆(PV γ ) = 0 to zero displacement in curve (c).
or P γ V γ –1 ∆V + V γ ∆P = 0
pulses. Figure 14.9 shows the situation when
where γ is the ratio of two specific heats,
two pulses of equal and opposite shapes move
Cp/Cv.
towards each other. When the pulses overlap,
Thus, for an ideal gas the adiabatic bulk
modulus is given by, the resultant displacement is the algebraic sum
of the displacement due to each pulse. This is
Bad = − ∆P known as the principle of superposition of waves.
∆V/V According to this principle, each pulse moves
= γP as if others are not present. The constituents of
The speed of sound is, therefore, from Eq. the medium, therefore, suffer displacments due
(14.19), given by, to both and since the displacements can be
positive and negative, the net displacement is
v= γP (14.24) an algebraic sum of the two. Fig. 14.9 gives
ρ graphs of the wave shape at different times. Note
the dramatic effect in the graph (c); the
This modification of Newton’s formula is referred
displacements due to the two pulses have exactly
to as the Laplace correction. For air
cancelled each other and there is zero
γ = 7/5. Now using Eq. (14.24) to estimate the speed
displacement throughout.
of sound in air at STP, we get a value 331.3 m s–1, To put the principle of superposition
which agrees with the measured speed. mathematically, let y1 (x,t) and y2 (x,t) be the
displacements due to two wave disturbances in
14.5 THE PRINCIPLE OF SUPERPOSITION the medium. If the waves arrive in a region
OF WAVES simultaneously, and therefore, overlap, the net
displacement y (x,t) is given by
What happens when two wave pulses travelling
in opposite directions cross each other y (x, t) = y1(x, t) + y2(x, t) (14.25)
(Fig. 14.9)? It turns out that wave pulses If we have two or more waves moving in the
continue to retain their identities after they have medium the resultant waveform is the sum of
crossed. However, during the time they overlap, wave functions of individual waves. That is, if
the wave pattern is different from either of the the wave functions of the moving waves are

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288 PHYSICS

y1 = f1(x–vt),

y2 = f2(x–vt),
..........
..........
yn = fn (x–vt)

then the wave function describing the

disturbance in the medium is

y = f1(x – vt)+ f2(x – vt)+ ...+ fn(x – vt)

n
= ∑ f ( x − vt ) (14.26)
i
i =1

The principle of superposition is basic to the

phenomenon of interference.
For simplicity, consider two harmonic
travelling waves on a stretched string, both with
the same ω (angular frequency) and k (wave
number), and, therefore, the same wavelength Fig. 14.10 The resultant of two harmonic waves of
λ. Their wave speed will be identical. Let us equal amplitude and wavelength
further assume that their amplitudes are equal according to the principle of superposition.
and they are both travelling in the positive The amplitude of the resultant wave
direction of x-axis. The waves only differ in their depends on the phase difference φ, which
initial phase. According to Eq. (14.2), the two is zero for (a) and π for (b)
waves are described by the functions:
φ between the constituent two waves:
y1(x, t) = a sin (kx – ω t) (14.27) A(φ) = 2a cos ½φ (14.32)
For φ = 0, when the waves are in phase,
and y2(x, t) = a sin (kx – ω t + φ ) (14.28)
y ( x, t ) = 2a sin ( kx − ωt ) (14.33)
The net displacement is then, by the principle
of superposition, given by i.e., the resultant wave has amplitude 2a, the
largest possible value for A. For φ = π , the
y (x, t ) = a sin (kx – ω t) + a sin (kx – ω t + φ )
(14.29) waves are completely, out of phase and the
resultant wave has zero displacement
  ( kx − ωt ) + ( kx − ωt + φ )  φ everywhere at all times
= a  2sin   cos  y (x, t ) = 0 (14.34)
  2  2  Eq. (14.33) refers to the so-called constructive
(14.30) interference of the two waves where the
where we have used the familiar trignometric amplitudes add up in the resultant wave. Eq.
identity for sin A + sin B . We then have (14.34) is the case of destructive intereference
where the amplitudes subtract out in the
φ  φ
y ( x, t ) = 2a cos sin  kx − ωt +  (14.31) resultant wave. Fig. 14.10 shows these two cases
2  2 of interference of waves arising from the
Eq. (14.31) is also a harmonic travelling wave in principle of superposition.
the positive direction of x-axis, with the same 14.6 REFLECTION OF WAVES
frequency and wavelength. However, its initial
So far we considered waves propagating in an
φ unbounded medium. What happens if a pulse
phase angle is . The significant thing is that
2 or a wave meets a boundary? If the boundary is
its amplitude is a function of the phase difference rigid, the pulse or wave gets reflected. The

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WAVES 289

phenomenon of echo is an example of reflection If on the other hand, the boundary point is
by a rigid boundary. If the boundary is not not rigid but completely free to move (such as in
completely rigid or is an interface between two the case of a string tied to a freely moving ring
different elastic media, the situation is some on a rod), the reflected pulse has the same phase
what complicated. A part of the incident wave is and amplitude (assuming no energy dissipation)
reflected and a part is transmitted into the as the incident pulse. The net maximum
second medium. If a wave is incident obliquely displacement at the boundary is then twice the
on the boundary between two different media amplitude of each pulse. An example of non- rigid
the transmitted wave is called the refracted boundary is the open end of an organ pipe.
wave. The incident and refracted waves obey To summarise, a travelling wave or pulse
Snell’s law of refraction, and the incident and suffers a phase change of π on reflection at a
reflected waves obey the usual laws of rigid boundary and no phase change on
reflection. reflection at an open boundary. To put this
Fig. 14.11 shows a pulse travelling along a mathematically, let the incident travelling
stretched string and being reflected by the wave be
boundary. Assuming there is no absorption of
energy by the boundary, the reflected wave has y2 ( x, t ) = a sin ( kx − ωt )
the same shape as the incident pulse but it At a rigid boundary, the reflected wave is given
suffers a phase change of π or 1800 on reflection. by
This is because the boundary is rigid and the yr(x, t) = a sin (kx – ω t + π ).
disturbance must have zero displacement at all = – a sin (kx – ω t) (14.35)
times at the boundary. By the principle of At an open boundary, the reflected wave is given
superposition, this is possible only if the reflected by
and incident waves differ by a phase of π, so that yr(x, t) = a sin (kx – ω t + 0).
the resultant displacement is zero. This = a sin (kx – ω t) (14.36)
reasoning is based on boundary condition on a
rigid wall. We can arrive at the same conclusion
Clearly, at the rigid boundary, y = y2 + yr = 0
dynamically also. As the pulse arrives at the wall, at all times.
it exerts a force on the wall. By Newton’s Third 14.6.1 Standing Waves and Normal Modes
Law, the wall exerts an equal and opposite force We considered above reflection at one boundary.
on the string generating a reflected pulse that But there are familiar situations (a string fixed
differs by a phase of π. at either end or an air column in a pipe with
either end closed) in which reflection takes place
at two or more boundaries. In a string, for
example, a wave travelling in one direction will
get reflected at one end, which in turn will travel
and get reflected from the other end. This will
go on until there is a steady wave pattern set
up on the string. Such wave patterns are called
standing waves or stationary waves. To see this
mathematically, consider a wave travelling
along the positive direction of x-axis and a
reflected wave of the same amplitude and
wavelength in the negative direction of x-axis.
From Eqs. (14.2) and (14.4), with φ = 0, we get:
y1(x, t) = a sin (kx – ω t)
y2(x, t) = a sin (kx + ω t)
The resultant wave on the string is, according
to the principle of superposition:
Fig. 14.11 Reflection of a pulse meeting a rigid
boundary. y (x, t) = y1(x, t) + y2(x, t)

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290 PHYSICS

= a [sin (kx – ω t) + sin (k x + ω t)] nodes; the points at which the amplitude is the
Using the familiar trignometric identity largest are called antinodes. Fig. 14.12 shows
Sin (A+B) + Sin (A–B) = 2 sin A cosB we get, a stationary wave pattern resulting from
superposition of two travelling waves in
y (x, t) = 2a sin kx cos ω t (14.37) opposite directions.
Note the important difference in the wave The most significant feature of stationary
pattern described by Eq. (14.37) from that waves is that the boundary conditions constrain
described by Eq. (14.2) or Eq. (14.4). The terms the possible wavelengths or frequencies of
kx and ω t appear separately, not in the vibration of the system. The system cannot
combination kx - ωt. The amplitude of this wave oscillate with any arbitrary frequency (contrast
is 2a sin kx. Thus, in this wave pattern, the this with a harmonic travelling wave), but is
amplitude varies from point-to-point, but each characterised by a set of natural frequencies or
element of the string oscillates with the same normal modes of oscillation. Let us determine
angular frequency ω or time period. There is no these normal modes for a stretched string fixed
phase difference between oscillations of different at both ends.
elements of the wave. The string as a whole First, from Eq. (14.37), the positions of nodes
vibrates in phase with differing amplitudes at (where the amplitude is zero) are given by
different points. The wave pattern is neither sin kx = 0 .
moving to the right nor to the left. Hence, they which implies
are called standing or stationary waves. The kx = n π; n = 0, 1, 2, 3, ...
amplitude is fixed at a given location but, as
Since, k = 2π/λ , we get
remarked earlier, it is different at different
locations. The points at which the amplitude is nλ
zero (i.e., where there is no motion at all) are x= ; n = 0, 1, 2, 3, ... (14.38)
2

Fig. 14.12 Stationary waves arising from superposition of two harmonic waves travelling in opposite directions.
Note that the positions of zero displacement (nodes) remain fixed at all times.

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WAVES 291

Clearly, the distance between any two speed of wave determined by the properties of
λ the medium. The n = 2 frequency is called the
successive nodes is In the same way, the second harmonic; n = 3 is the third harmonic
2.
positions of antinodes (where the amplitude is and so on. We can label the various harmonics by
the largest) are given by the largest value of sin the symbol νn ( n = 1, 2, ...).
kx : Fig. 14.13 shows the first six harmonics of a
sin k x = 1 stretched string fixed at either end. A string
which implies need not vibrate in one of these modes only.
Generally, the vibration of a string will be a
kx = (n + ½) π ; n = 0, 1, 2, 3, ... superposition of different modes; some modes
With k = 2π/λ, we get may be more strongly excited and some less.
Musical instruments like sitar or violin are
λ based on this principle. Where the string is
x = (n + ½) ; n = 0, 1, 2, 3, ... (14.39)
2 plucked or bowed, determines which modes are
Again the distance between any two consecutive more prominent than others.
Let us next consider normal modes of
λ oscillation of an air column with one end closed
antinodes is . Eq. (14.38) can be applied to
2
the case of a stretched string of
length L fixed at both ends. Taking
one end to be at x = 0, the boundary
conditions are that x = 0 and x = L
are positions of nodes. The x = 0
condition is already satisfied. The
x = L node condition requires that
the length L is related to λ by
λ
L=n ; n = 1, 2, 3, ... (14.40)
2
Thus, the possible wavelengths of
stationary waves are constrained
by the relation

2L
λ = ; n = 1, 2, 3, … (14.41)
n
with corresponding frequencies

v=
nv , for n = 1, 2, 3, (14.42)
2L
We have thus obtained the natural
frequencies - the normal modes of
oscillation of the system. The lowest
possible natural frequency of a
system is called its fundamental
mode or the first harmonic. For the
stretched string fixed at either end
v
it is given by v = , corresponding
2L
Fig. 14.13 The first six harmonics of vibrations of a stretched
to n = 1 of Eq. (14.42). Here v is the string fixed at both ends.

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292 PHYSICS

and the other open. A glass tube partially filled modes of this system is more complex. This
with water illustrates this system. The end in problem involves wave propagation in two
contact with water is a node, while the open end dimensions. However, the underlying physics is
is an antinode. At the node the pressure the same.
changes are the largest, while the displacement
is minimum (zero). At the open end - the u Example 14.5 A pipe, 30.0 cm long, is open
antinode, it is just the other way - least pressure at both ends. Which harmonic mode of the
change and maximum amplitude of pipe resonates a 1.1 kHz source? Will
displacement. Taking the end in contact with resonance with the same source be
water to be x = 0, the node condition (Eq. 14.38) observed if one end of the pipe is closed ?
is already satisfied. If the other end x = L is an Take the speed of sound in air as
antinode, Eq. (14.39) gives 330 m s–1.
 1 λ
L=  n +  , for n = 0, 1, 2, 3, … Answer The first harmonic frequency is given
2 2 by
The possible wavelengths are then restricted by v v
the relation : ν1 = = (open pipe)
λ1 2L
where L is the length of the pipe. The frequency
2L of its nth harmonic is:
λ = , for n = 0, 1, 2, 3,... (14.43)
(n + 1 / 2)
nv
νn = , for n = 1, 2, 3, ... (open pipe)
2L
The normal modes – the natural frequencies –
of the system are First few modes of an open pipe are shown in
Fig. 14.15.
 1 v For L = 30.0 cm, v = 330 m s–1,
ν =  n +  ; n = 0, 1, 2, 3, ... (14.44)
2 2L
n 3 30 (m s − 1 )
νn = = 550 n s–1
The fundamental frequency corresponds to n = 0, 0.6 (m )
v Clearly, a source of frequency 1.1 kHz will
and is given by . The higher frequencies resonate at v2, i.e. the second harmonic.
4L
are odd harmonics, i.e., odd multiples of the
v v
fundamental frequency : 3 , 5
, etc.
4L 4L
Fig. 14.14 shows the first six odd harmonics of
air column with one end closed and the other
open. For a pipe open at both ends, each end is
an antinode. It is then easily seen that an open
air column at both ends generates all harmonics
(See Fig. 14.15).
The systems above, strings and air columns,
can also undergo forced oscillations (Chapter
13). If the external frequency is close to one of
the natural frequencies, the system shows
resonance.
Normal modes of a circular membrane rigidly
clamped to the circumference as in a tabla are
determined by the boundary condition that no Fundamental
point on the circumference of the membrane or third fifth
vibrates. Estimation of the frequencies of normal first harmonic harmonic harmonic

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WAVES 293

Fig. 14.15 Standing waves in an open pipe, first four

harmonics are depicted.
while tuning their instruments with each other.
They go on tuning until their sensitive ears do
seventh ninth eleventh not detect any beats.
harmonic harmonic harmonic
To see this mathematically, let us consider
two harmonic sound waves of nearly equal
Fig. 14.14 Normal modes of an air column open at angular frequency ω1 and ω2 and fix the location
one end and closed at the other end. Only to be x = 0 for convenience. Eq. (14.2) with a
the odd harmonics are seen to be possible.
suitable choice of phase (φ = π/2 for each) and,
Now if one end of the pipe is closed (Fig. 14.15), assuming equal amplitudes, gives
it follows from Eq. (14.15) that the fundamental s1 = a cos ω1t and s2 = a cos ω2t (14.45)
frequency is Here we have replaced the symbol y by s,
v v since we are referring to longitudinal not
ν1 = λ = 4L (pipe closed at one end) transverse displacement. Let ω1 be the (slightly)
1
greater of the two frequencies. The resultant
and only the odd numbered harmonics are displacement is, by the principle of
present : superposition,
s = s1 + s2 = a (cos ω1 t + cos ω2 t)
3v 5v
ν3 = , ν5 = , and so on. Using the familiar trignometric identity for
4L 4L cos A + cosB, we get
For L = 30 cm and v = 330 m s –1 , the
fundamental frequency of the pipe closed at one = 2 a cos
(ω1 - ω2 )t cos
( ω1 + ω2 ) t
(14.46)
end is 275 Hz and the source frequency 2 2
corresponds to its fourth harmonic. Since this which may be written as :
harmonic is not a possible mode, no resonance s = [ 2 a cos ωb t ] cos ωat (14.47)
will be observed with the source, the moment If |ω1 – ω2| <<ω1, ω2, ωa >> ωb, th
one end is closed. ⊳ where

ωb = ( ω1 − ω2 ) and ωa = ( 1
14.7 BEATS ω + ω2 )
‘Beats’ is an interesting phenomenon arising 2 2
from interference of waves. When two harmonic Now if we assume |ω1 – ω2| <<ω1, which means
sound waves of close (but not equal) frequencies ωa >> ωb, we can interpret Eq. (14.47) as follows.
are heard at the same time, we hear a sound of The resultant wave is oscillating with the average
similar frequency (the average of two close angular frequency ωa; however its amplitude is
frequencies), but we hear something else also. not constant in time, unlike a pure harmonic
We hear audibly distinct waxing and waning of wave. The amplitude is the largest when the
the intensity of the sound, with a frequency term cos ωb t takes its limit +1 or –1. In other
equal to the difference in the two close words, the intensity of the resultant wave waxes
frequencies. Artists use this phenomenon often and wanes with a frequency which is 2ωb = ω1 –

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294 PHYSICS

ω2. Since ω = 2πν, the beat frequency νbeat, is

given by
νbeat = ν1 – ν2 (14.48)
Fig. 14.16 illustrates the phenomenon of
beats for two harmonic waves of frequencies 11
Hz and 9 Hz. The amplitude of the resultant wave
shows beats at a frequency of 2 Hz.

Musical Pillars
Temples often have some pillars portraying
human figures playing musical instru-
ments, but seldom do these pillars
themselves produce music. At the
Nellaiappar temple in Tamil Nadu, gentle
taps on a cluster of pillars carved out of a
single piece of rock produce the basic notes
of Indian classical music, viz. Sa, Re, Ga,
Ma, Pa, Dha, Ni, Sa. Vibrations of these
pillars depend on elasticity of the stone used, Fig. 14.16 Superposition of two harmonic waves, one
its density and shape. of frequency 11 Hz (a), and the other of
Musical pillars are categorised into three frequency 9Hz (b), giving rise to beats of
frequency 2 Hz, as shown in (c).
types: The first is called the Shruti Pillar,
as it can produce the basic notes — the
“swaras”. The second type is the Gana
u Example 14.6 Two sitar strings A and B
Thoongal, which generates the basic tunes
playing the note ‘Dha’ are slightly out of
that make up the “ragas”. The third variety
tune and produce beats of frequency 5 Hz.
is the Laya Thoongal pillars that produce
The tension of the string B is slightly
“taal” (beats) when tapped. The pillars at the
increased and the beat frequency is found
Nellaiappar temple are a combination of the
to decrease to 3 Hz. What is the original
Shruti and Laya types.
frequency of B if the frequency of A is
Archaeologists date the Nelliappar
427 Hz ?
temple to the 7th century and claim it was
built by successive rulers of the Pandyan Answer Increase in the tension of a string
dynasty. increases its frequency. If the original frequency
The musical pillars of Nelliappar and of B (νB) were greater than that of A (νA ), further
several other temples in southern India like increase in ν B should have resulted in an
those at Hampi (picture), Kanyakumari, and increase in the beat frequency. But the beat
Thiruvananthapuram are unique to the frequency is found to decrease. This shows that
country and have no parallel in any other νB < νA. Since νA – νB = 5 Hz, and νA = 427 Hz, we
part of the world. get νB = 422 Hz. ⊳

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WAVES 295

SUMMARY
1. Mechanical waves can exist in material media and are governed by Newton’s Laws.
2. Transverse waves are waves in which the particles of the medium oscillate perpendicular
to the direction of wave propagation.
3. Longitudinal waves are waves in which the particles of the medium oscillate along the
direction of wave propagation.
4. Progressive wave is a wave that moves from one point of medium to another.

5. The displacement in a sinusoidal wave propagating in the positive x direction is given

by
y (x, t) = a sin (kx – ω t + φ )
where a is the amplitude of the wave, k is the angular wave number, ω is the angular
frequency, (kx – ω t + φ ) is the phase, and φ is the phase constant or phase angle.
6. Wavelength λ of a progressive wave is the distance between two consecutive points of
the same phase at a given time. In a stationary wave, it is twice the distance between
two consecutive nodes or antinodes.
7. Period T of oscillation of a wave is defined as the time any element of the medium
takes to move through one complete oscillation. It is related to the angular frequency ω
through the relation

2π
T =
ω
8. Frequency v of a wave is defined as 1/T and is related to angular frequency by

ω
ν=
2π

9. Speed of a progressive wave is given by v = ω = λ = λν

k T
10. The speed of a transverse wave on a stretched string is set by the properties of the
string. The speed on a string with tension T and linear mass density µ is
T
v=
µ
11. Sound waves are longitudinal mechanical waves that can travel through solids, liquids,
or gases. The speed v of sound wave in a fluid having bulk modulus B and density ρ is

B
v=
ρ
The speed of longitudinal waves in a metallic bar is
Y
v=
ρ
For gases, since B = γP, the speed of sound is
γP
v=
ρ

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296 PHYSICS

12. When two or more waves traverse simultaneously in the same medium, the
displacement of any element of the medium is the algebraic sum of the displacements
due to each wave. This is known as the principle of superposition of waves
n
y = ∑ f i ( x − vt )
i =1

13. Two sinusoidal waves on the same string exhibit interference, adding or cancelling
according to the principle of superposition. If the two are travelling in the same
direction and have the same amplitude a and frequency but differ in phase by a phase
constant φ, the result is a single wave with the same frequency ω :

y (x, t) = 2a cos φ  sin  kx − ω t + φ 

1 1
 2   2 
If φ = 0 or an integral multiple of 2π, the waves are exactly in phase and the interference
is constructive; if φ = π, they are exactly out of phase and the interference is destructive.
14. A travelling wave, at a rigid boundary or a closed end, is reflected with a phase
reversal but the reflection at an open boundary takes place without any phase change.
For an incident wave
yi (x, t) = a sin (kx – ωt )
the reflected wave at a rigid boundary is
yr (x, t) = – a sin (kx + ωt )
For reflection at an open boundary
yr (x,t ) = a sin (kx + ωt)
15. The interference of two identical waves moving in opposite directions produces standing
waves. For a string with fixed ends, the standing wave is given by
y (x, t) = [2a sin kx ] cos ωt
Standing waves are characterised by fixed locations of zero displacement called nodes
and fixed locations of maximum displacements called antinodes. The separation
between two consecutive nodes or antinodes is λ/2.
A stretched string of length L fixed at both the ends vibrates with frequencies given by
nv
v = , n = 1, 2, 3, ...
2L
The set of frequencies given by the above relation are called the normal modes of
oscillation of the system. The oscillation mode with lowest frequency is called the
fundamental mode or the first harmonic. The second harmonic is the oscillation mode
with n = 2 and so on.
A pipe of length L with one end closed and other end open (such as air columns)
vibrates with frequencies given by
v
v = ( n + ½) , n = 0, 1, 2, 3, ...
2L
The set of frequencies represented by the above relation are the normal modes of
oscillation of such a system. The lowest frequency given by v/4L is the fundamental
mode or the first harmonic.
16. A string of length L fixed at both ends or an air column closed at one end and open
at the other end or open at both the ends, vibrates with certain frequencies called
their normal modes. Each of these frequencies is a resonant frequency of the system.
17. Beats arise when two waves having slightly different frequencies, ν1 and ν2 and
comparable amplitudes, are superposed. The beat frequency is
νbeat = ν1 ~ ν2

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POINTS TO PONDER

1. A wave is not motion of matter as a whole in a medium. A wind is different from the
sound wave in air. The former involves motion of air from one place to the other. The
latter involves compressions and rarefactions of layers of air.
2. In a wave, energy and not the matter is transferred from one point to the other.
3. In a mechanical wave, energy transfer takes place because of the coupling through
elastic forces between neighbouring oscillating parts of the medium.
4. Transverse waves can propagate only in medium with shear modulus of elasticity,
Longitudinal waves need bulk modulus of elasticity and are therefore, possible in all
media, solids, liquids and gases.
5. In a harmonic progressive wave of a given frequency, all particles have the same
amplitude but different phases at a given instant of time. In a stationary wave, all
particles between two nodes have the same phase at a given instant but have different
amplitudes.
6. Relative to an observer at rest in a medium the speed of a mechanical wave in that
medium (v) depends only on elastic and other properties (such as mass density) of
the medium. It does not depend on the velocity of the source.

EXERCISES

14.1 A string of mass 2.50 kg is under a tension of 200 N. The length of the stretched
string is 20.0 m. If the transverse jerk is struck at one end of the string, how long
does the disturbance take to reach the other end?
14.2 A stone dropped from the top of a tower of height 300 m splashes into the water of
a pond near the base of the tower. When is the splash heard at the top given that
the speed of sound in air is 340 m s–1 ? (g = 9.8 m s–2)
14.3 A steel wire has a length of 12.0 m and a mass of 2.10 kg. What should be the
tension in the wire so that speed of a transverse wave on the wire equals the speed
of sound in dry air at 20 °C = 343 m s–1.

γP
14.4 Use the formula v = to explain why the speed of sound in air
ρ
(a) is independent of pressure,
(b) increases with temperature,
(c) increases with humidity.

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298 PHYSICS

14.5 You have learnt that a travelling wave in one dimension is represented by a function
y = f (x, t) where x and t must appear in the combination x – v t or x + v t, i.e.
y = f (x ± v t). Is the converse true? Examine if the following functions for y can
possibly represent a travelling wave :
(a) (x – vt )2
(b) log [(x + vt)/x0]
(c) 1/(x + vt)
14.6 A bat emits ultrasonic sound of frequency 1000 kHz in air. If the sound meets a
water surface, what is the wavelength of (a) the reflected sound, (b) the transmitted
sound? Speed of sound in air is 340 m s –1 and in water 1486 m s–1.
14.7 A hospital uses an ultrasonic scanner to locate tumours in a tissue. What is the
wavelength of sound in the tissue in which the speed of sound is 1.7 km s–1 ? The
operating frequency of the scanner is 4.2 MHz.
14.8 A transverse harmonic wave on a string is described by
y(x, t) = 3.0 sin (36 t + 0.018 x + π/4)
where x and y are in cm and t in s. The positive direction of x is from left to right.
(a) Is this a travelling wave or a stationary wave ?
If it is travelling, what are the speed and direction of its propagation ?
(b) What are its amplitude and frequency ?
(c) What is the initial phase at the origin ?
(d) What is the least distance between two successive crests in the wave ?
14.9 For the wave described in Exercise 14.8, plot the displacement (y) versus (t) graphs
for x = 0, 2 and 4 cm. What are the shapes of these graphs? In which aspects does
the oscillatory motion in travelling wave differ from one point to another: amplitude,
frequency or phase ?
14.10 For the travelling harmonic wave
y(x, t) = 2.0 cos 2π (10t – 0.0080 x + 0.35)

where x and y are in cm and t in s. Calculate the phase difference between oscillatory
motion of two points separated by a distance of

(a) 4 m,
(b) 0.5 m,
(c) λ/2,
(d) 3λ/4
14.11 The transverse displacement of a string (clamped at its both ends) is given by

 2π 
y(x, t) = 0.06 sin  x  cos (120 πt)
3

where x and y are in m and t in s. The length of the string is 1.5 m and its mass is
3.0 ×10–2 kg.
Answer the following :
(a) Does the function represent a travelling wave or a stationary wave?
(b) Interpret the wave as a superposition of two waves travelling in opposite
directions. What is the wavelength, frequency, and speed of each wave ?

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WAVES 299

(c) Determine the tension in the string.

14.12 (i) For the wave on a string described in Exercise 15.11, do all the points on the
string oscillate with the same (a) frequency, (b) phase, (c) amplitude? Explain
your answers. (ii) What is the amplitude of a point 0.375 m away from one end?
14.13 Given below are some functions of x and t to represent the displacement (transverse
or longitudinal) of an elastic wave. State which of these represent (i) a travelling
wave, (ii) a stationary wave or (iii) none at all:

(a) y = 2 cos (3x) sin (10t)

(b) y = 2 x − vt
(c) y = 3 sin (5x – 0.5t) + 4 cos (5x – 0.5t)
(d) y = cos x sin t + cos 2x sin 2t
14.14 A wire stretched between two rigid supports vibrates in its fundamental mode with
a frequency of 45 Hz. The mass of the wire is 3.5 × 10–2 kg and its linear mass density
is 4.0 × 10–2 kg m–1. What is (a) the speed of a transverse wave on the string, and
(b) the tension in the string?
14.15 A metre-long tube open at one end, with a movable piston at the other end, shows
resonance with a fixed frequency source (a tuning fork of frequency 340 Hz) when
the tube length is 25.5 cm or 79.3 cm. Estimate the speed of sound in air at the
temperature of the experiment. The edge effects may be neglected.
14.16 A steel rod 100 cm long is clamped at its middle. The fundamental frequency of
longitudinal vibrations of the rod are given to be 2.53 kHz. What is the speed of
sound in steel?
14.17 A pipe 20 cm long is closed at one end. Which harmonic mode of the pipe is
resonantly excited by a 430 Hz source ? Will the same source be in resonance with
the pipe if both ends are open? (speed of sound in air is 340 m s–1).
14.18 Two sitar strings A and B playing the note ‘Ga’ are slightly out of tune and produce
beats of frequency 6 Hz. The tension in the string A is slightly reduced and the
beat frequency is found to reduce to 3 Hz. If the original frequency of A is 324 Hz,
what is the frequency of B?
14.19 Explain why (or how):
(a) in a sound wave, a displacement node is a pressure antinode and vice versa,
(b) bats can ascertain distances, directions, nature, and sizes of the obstacles
without any “eyes”,
(c) a violin note and sitar note may have the same frequency, yet we can
distinguish between the two notes,
(d) solids can support both longitudinal and transverse waves, but only
longitudinal waves can propagate in gases, and
(e) the shape of a pulse gets distorted during propagation in a dispersive medium.

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