UNIT-2

Stress-strain Diagram
In designing various parts of a machine, it is necessary to know how the material will function in
service. For this, certain characteristics or properties of the material should be known. The
mechanical properties mostly used in mechanical engineering practice are commonly determined
from a standard tensile test. This test consists of gradually loading a standard specimen of a
material and noting the corresponding values of load and elongation until the specimen fractures.
The load is applied and measured by a testing machine. The stress is determined by dividing the
load values by the original cross-sectional area of the specimen. The elongation is measured by
determining the amounts that two reference points on the specimen are moved apart by the action
of the machine. The original distance between the two reference points is known as gauge length.
The strain is determined by dividing the elongation values by the gauge length.
The values of the stress and corresponding strain are used to draw the
stress-strain diagram of the material tested. A stress-strain diagram for a mild steel under tensile
test is shown in Fig. The various properties of the material are discussed below:

Fig 1. Stress-strain diagram for a mild steel.

1. Proportional limit. We see from the diagram that from point O to A is a straight line, which
represents that the stress is proportional to strain. Beyond point A, the curve slightly deviates from
the straight line. It is thus obvious, that Hooke's law holds good up to point A and it is known as
proportional limit. It is defined as that stress at which the stress-strain curve begins to deviate from
the straight line.

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2. Elastic limit. It may be noted that even if the load is increased beyond point A upto the point B,
the material will regain its shape and size when the load is removed. This means that the material
has elastic properties up to the point B. This point is known as elastic limit. It is defined as the
stress developed in the material without any permanent set.
Note: Since the above two limits are very close to each other, therefore, for all practical purposes
these are taken to be equal.

3. Yield point. If the material is stressed beyond point B, the plastic stage will reach i.e. on the
removal of the load, the material will not be able to recover its original size and shape. A little
consideration will show that beyond point B, the strain increases at a faster rate with any increase
in the stress until the point C is reached. At this point, the material yields before the load and there
is an appreciable strain without any increase in stress. In case of mild steel, it will be seen that a
small load drops to D, immediately after yielding commences. Hence there are two yield points C
and D. The points C and D are called the upper and lower yield points respectively. The stress
corresponding to yield point is known as yield point stress.

4. Ultimate stress. At D, the specimen regains some strength and higher values of stresses are
required for higher strains, than those between A and D. The stress (or load) goes on increasing till
the point E is reached. The gradual increase in the strain (or length) of the specimen is followed
with the uniform reduction of its cross-sectional area. The work done, during stretching the
specimen, is transformed largely into heat and the specimen becomes hot. At E, the stress, which
attains its maximum value is known as ultimate stress. It is defined as the largest stress obtained
by dividing the largest value of the load reached in a test to the original cross-sectional area of the
test piece.

5. Breaking stress. After the specimen has reached the ultimate stress, a neck is formed, which
decreases the cross-sectional area of the specimen, as shown in Fig. 4.12 (b). A little consideration
will show that the stress (or load) necessary to break away the specimen, is less than the maximum
stress. The stress is, therefore, reduced until the specimen breaks away at point F. The stress
corresponding to point F is known as breaking stress.
Note: The breaking stress (i.e. stress at F which is less than at E) appears to be somewhat
misleading. As the formation of a neck takes place at E which reduces the cross-sectional area, it
causes the specimen suddenly to fail at F. If for each value of the strain between E and F, the
tensile load is divided by the reduced cross sectional area at the narrowest part of the neck, then
the true stress-strain curve will follow the dotted line EG. However, it is an established practice,
to calculate strains on the basis of original cross-sectional area of the specimen.

6. Percentage reduction in area. It is the difference between the original cross-sectional area and
cross-sectional area at the neck (i.e. where the fracture takes place). This difference is expressed
as percentage of the original cross-sectional area.

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Let A = Original cross-sectional area, and
a = Cross-sectional area at the neck.
Then reduction in area = A – a
and percentage reduction in area = (A-a)/A *100

7. Percentage elongation. It is the percentage increase in the standard gauge length (i.e. original
length) obtained by measuring the fractured specimen after bringing the broken parts together.
Let l = Gauge length or original length, and
L = Length of specimen after fracture or final length.
∴ Elongation = L – l
and percentage elongation = (L-l)/l *100
Note : The percentage elongation gives a measure of ductility of the metal under test. The amount
of local extensions depends upon the material and also on the transverse dimensions of the test
piece. Since the specimens are to be made from bars, strips, sheets, wires, forgings, castings, etc.,
therefore it is not possible to make all specimens of one standard size. Since the dimensions of the
specimen influence the result, therefore some standard means of comparison of results are
necessary.

Working Stress
When designing machine parts, it is desirable to keep the stress lower than the maximum or
ultimate stress at which failure of the material takes place. This stress is known as the working
stress or design stress. It is also known as safe or allowable stress.

Note: By failure it is not meant actual breaking of the material. Some machine parts are said to
fail when they have plastic deformation set in them, and they no more perform their function
satisfactory

Factor of Safety
It is defined, in general, as the ratio of the maximum stress to the working stress.
Mathematically,
Factor of safety = Maximum stress/ Working or design stress

In case of ductile materials e.g. mild steel, where the yield point is clearly defined, the factor of
safety is based upon the yield point stress. In such cases,
Factor of safety =Yield point stress/Working or design stress

In case of brittle materials e.g. cast iron, the yield point is not well defined as for ductile materials.
Therefore, the factor of safety for brittle materials is based on ultimate stress.
Factor of safety =Ultimate stress/Working or design stress

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This relation may also be used for ductile materials.
Note: The above relations for factor of safety are for static loading.

Selection of Factor of Safety

The selection of a proper factor of safety to be used in designing any machine component depends
upon a number of considerations, such as the material, mode of manufacture, type of stress, general
service conditions and shape of the parts. Before selecting a proper factor of safety, a design
engineer should consider the following points:
1. The reliability of the properties of the material and change of these properties during service;
2. The reliability of test results and accuracy of application of these results to actual machine parts;
3. The reliability of applied load;
4. The certainty as to exact mode of failure;
5. The extent of simplifying assumptions;
6. The extent of localised stresses;
7. The extent of initial stresses set up during manufacture;
8. The extent of loss of life if failure occurs; and
9. The extent of loss of property if failure occurs.

Stresses in Composite Bars

A composite bar may be defined as a bar made up of two or more different materials, joined
together, in such a manner that the system extends or contracts as one unit, equally, when subjected
to tension or compression. In case of composite bars, the following points should be kept in view:
1. The extension or contraction of the bar being equal, the strain i.e. deformation per unit length is
also equal.
2. The total external load on the bar is equal to the sum of the loads carried by different materials.
Consider a composite bar made up of two different materials as shown in Fig .

Let P1 = Load carried by bar 1,

A1 = Cross-sectional area of bar 1,
σ1 = Stress produced in bar 1,
E1 = Young's modulus of bar 1,

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P2, A2, σ2, E2 = Corresponding values of bar 2,
P = Total load on the composite bar,
l = Length of the composite bar, and
δl = Elongation of the composite bar.
We know that P = P1 + P2 (i)
Stress in bar
σ1 = P1/A1 and

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Stresses due to Change in Temperature—Thermal Stresses
Whenever there is some increase or decrease in the temperature of a body, it causes the body to
expand or contract. A little consideration will show that if the body is allowed to expand or contract
freely, with the rise or fall of the temperature, no stresses are induced in the body. But, if the
deformation of the body is prevented, some stresses are induced in the body. Such stresses are
known as thermal stresses.
Let l = Original length of the body,
t = Rise or fall of temperature, and
α = Coefficient of thermal expansion,
∴ Increase or decrease in length,
δl = l. α.t
If the ends of the body are fixed to rigid supports, so that its expansion is prevented, then
compressive strain induced in the body,

Linear and Lateral Strain

Consider a circular bar of diameter d and length l, subjected to a tensile force P as shown in Fig.

Fig. Linear and lateral strain.

A little consideration will show that due to tensile force, the length of the bar increases by an
amount δl and the diameter decreases by an amount δd, as shown in Fig. 4.19 (b). Similarly, if the
bar is subjected to a compressive force, the length of bar will decrease which will be followed by
increase in diameter.
It is thus obvious, that every direct stress is accompanied by a strain in its own direction which is
known as linear strain and an opposite kind of strain in every direction, at right angles to it, is
known as lateral strain.

Poisson's Ratio

It has been found experimentally that when a body is stressed within elastic limit, the lateral strain
bears a constant ratio to the linear strain, mathematically
Lateral strain/Linear strain= Constant
This constant is known as Poisson's ratio and is denoted by 1/m or μ.

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Volumetric Strain
When a body is subjected to a system of forces, it undergoes some changes in its dimensions. In
other words, the volume of the body is changed. The ratio of the change in volume to the original
volume is known as volumetric strain. Mathematically, volumetric strain,
εv = δV / V where
δV = Change in volume, and V = Original volume.

Notes: 1.Volumetric strain of a rectangular body subjected to an axial force is given as

Where, ε = Linear strain.

Notes: 2. Volumetric strain of a rectangular body subjected to three mutually perpendicular forces
is given by
εv = εx + εy + εz
Where, εx, εy and εz are the strains in the directions x-axis, y-axis and z-axis respectively.

Bulk Modulus
When a body is subjected to three mutually perpendicular stresses, of equal intensity, then the ratio
of the direct stress to the corresponding volumetric strain is known as bulk modulus. It is usually
denoted by K. Mathematically, bulk modulus,
K =Direct stress/Volumetric strain = σ / (δV/V)

Relation between Bulk Modulus and Young’s Modulus

The bulk modulus (K) and Young's modulus (E) are related by the following relation,

Relation between Young’s Modulus and Modulus of Rigidity

The Young's modulus (E) and modulus of rigidity (G) are related by the following relation,

Impact Stress

Sometimes, machine members are subjected to the load with impact. The stress produced in the
member due to the falling load is known as impact stress.

Consider a bar carrying a load W at a height h and falling on the collar provided at the lower end,
as shown in Fig.

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 Fig. Impact stress.
Let A = Cross-sectional area of the bar,
E = Young's modulus of the material of the bar,
l = Length of the bar,
δl = Deformation of the bar,
P = Force at which the deflection (δl) is produced,
σi = Stress induced in the bar due to the application of impact load, and
h = Height through which the load falls

We know that energy gained by the system in the form of strain energy

and potential energy lost by the weight = W (h + δl)

Since the energy gained by the system is equal to the potential energy lost by the weight, therefore

Note: When h = 0, then σi = 2W/A. This means that the stress in the bar when the load in applied
suddenly is double of the stress induced due to gradually applied load.

Resilience
When a body is loaded within elastic limit, it changes its dimensions and on the removal of the
load, it regains its original dimensions. So long as it remains loaded, it has stored energy in itself.
On removing the load, the energy stored is given off as in the case of a spring. This energy, which

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is absorbed in a body when strained within elastic limit, is known as strain energy. The strain
energy is always capable of doing some work.
The strain energy stored in a body due to external loading, within elastic limit, is known as
resilience and the maximum energy which can be stored in a body up to the elastic limit is called
proof resilience. The proof resilience per unit volume of a material is known as modulus of
resilience.
It is an important property of a material and gives capacity of the material to bear impact or shocks.
Mathematically, strain energy stored in a body due to tensile or compressive load or resilience,

And
Modulus of resilience = σ2/2E
Where, σ = Tensile or compressive stress,
V = Volume of the body, and
E = Young's modulus of the material of the body.
Notes: 1.When a body is subjected to a shear load, then modulus of resilience (shear)

Where, τ = Shear stress, and

C = Modulus of rigidity.
Note: 2.When the body is subjected to torsion, then modulus of resilience

Principal Stresses and Principal Planes

In the previous chapter, we have discussed about the direct tensile and compressive stress as well
as simple shear. Also we have always referred the stress in a plane which is at right angles to the
line of action of the force.
But it has been observed that at any point in a strained material, there are three planes, mutually
perpendicular to each other which carry direct stresses only and no shear stress. It may be noted
that out of these three direct stresses, one will be maximum and the other will be minimum. These
perpendicular planes which have no shear stress are known as principal planes and the direct
stresses along these planes are known as principal stresses. The planes on which the maximum
shear stress act are known as planes of maximum shear.

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Theories of Failure under Static Load

It has already been discussed in the previous chapter that strength of machine members is based
upon the mechanical properties of the materials used. Since these properties are usually determined
from simple tension or compression tests, therefore, predicting failure in members subjected to
uniaxial stress is both simple and straight-forward. But the problem of predicting the failure
stresses for members subjected to bi-axial or tri-axial stresses is much more complicated. In fact,
the problem is so complicated that a large number of different theories have been formulated. The
principal theories of failure for a member subjected to bi-axial stress are as follows:
1. Maximum principal (or normal) stress theory (also known as Rankine’s theory).
2. Maximum shear stress theory (also known as Guest’s or Tresca’s theory).
3. Maximum principal (or normal) strain theory (also known as Saint Venant theory).
4. Maximum strain energy theory (also known as Haigh’s theory).
5. Maximum distortion energy theory (also known as Hencky and Von Mises theory).

Since ductile materials usually fail by yielding i.e. when permanent deformations occur in the
material and brittle materials fail by fracture, therefore the limiting strength for these two classes
of materials is normally measured by different mechanical properties. For ductile materials, the
limiting strength is the stress at yield point as determined from simple tension test and it is,
assumed to be equal in tension or compression. For brittle materials, the limiting strength is the
ultimate stress in tension or compression.

1. Maximum Principal or Normal Stress Theory (Rankine’s Theory)

According to this theory, the failure or yielding occurs at a point in a member when the maximum
principal or normal stress in a bi-axial stress system reaches the limiting strength of the material
in a simple tension test. Since the limiting strength for ductile materials is yield point stress and
for brittle materials (which do not have well defined yield point) the limiting strength is ultimate
stress, therefore according to the above theory, taking factor of safety (F.S.) into consideration, the
maximum principal or normal stress (σt1) in a bi-axial stress system is given by

Where, σyt = Yield point stress in tension as determined from simple tension test, and
σu = Ultimate stress.
Since the maximum principal or normal stress theory is based on failure in tension or compression
and ignores the possibility of failure due to shearing stress, therefore it is not used for ductile
materials. However, for brittle materials which are relatively strong in shear but weak in tension
or compression, this theory is generally used.

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 2. Maximum Shear Stress Theory (Guest’s or Tresca’s Theory)
According to this theory, the failure or yielding occurs at a point in a member when the maximum
shear stress in a bi-axial stress system reaches a value equal to the shear stress at yield point in a
simple tension test. Mathematically,
τmax = τyt /F.S. ...(i)
where τmax = Maximum shear stress in a bi-axial stress system,
τyt = Shear stress at yield point as determined from simple tension test,
and F.S. = Factor of safety.
Since the shear stress at yield point in a simple tension test is equal to one-half the yield stress in
tension, therefore the equation (i) may be written as

This theory is mostly used for designing members of ductile materials.

3. Maximum Distortion Energy Theory (Hencky and Von Mises Theory)

According to this theory, the failure or yielding occurs at a point in a member when the distortion
strain energy (also called shear strain energy) per unit volume in a bi-axial stress system reaches
the limiting distortion energy (i.e. distortion energy at yield point) per unit volume as determined
from a simple tension test. Mathematically, the maximum distortion energy theory for yielding is
expressed as

This theory is mostly used for ductile materials in place of maximum strain energy theory.

Stress Concentration

Whenever a machine component changes the shape of its cross-section, the simple stress
distribution no longer holds good and the neighborhood of the discontinuity is different. This
irregularity in the stress distribution caused by abrupt changes of form is called stress
concentration. It occurs for all kinds of stresses in the presence of fillets, notches, holes, keyways,
splines, surface roughness or scratches etc. In order to understand fully the idea of stress
concentration, consider a member with different cross-section under a tensile load as shown in Fig.
6.5. A little consideration will show that the nominal stress in the right and left hand sides will be
uniform but in the region where the cross section is changing, a re-distribution of the force within
the member must take place. The material near the edges is stressed considerably higher than the
average value. The maximum stress occurs at some point on the fillet and is directed parallel to
the boundary at that point.

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Notch Sensitivity
In cyclic loading, the effect of the notch or the fillet is usually less than predicted by the use of the
theoretical factors as discussed before. The difference depends upon the stress gradient in the
region of the stress concentration and on the hardness of the material. The term notch sensitivity
is applied to this behaviour. It may be defined as the degree to which the theoretical effect of stress
concentration is actually reached. The stress gradient depends mainly on the radius of the notch,
hole or fillet and on the grain size of the material.

Cotter Joints

A cotter is a flat wedge shaped piece of rectangular cross-section and its width is tapered (either
on one side or both sides) from one end to another for an easy adjustment. The taper varies from
1 in 48 to 1 in 24 and it may be increased up to 1 in 8, if a locking device is provided. The locking
device may be a taper pin or a set screw used on the lower end of the cotter. The cotter is usually
made of mild steel or wrought iron. A cotter joint is a temporary fastening and is used to connect
rigidly two co-axial rods or bars which are subjected to axial tensile or compressive forces. It is
usually used in connecting a piston rod to the crosshead of a reciprocating steam engine, a piston
rod and its extension as a tail or pump rod, strap end of connecting rod etc.

Types of Cotter Joints

Following are the three commonly used cotter joints to connect two rods by a cotter:
1. Socket and spigot cotter joint, 2. Sleeve and cotter joint, and 3. Gib and cotter joint.

Socket and Spigot Cotter Joint

In a socket and spigot cotter joint, one end of the rods (say A) is provided with a socket type of
end as shown in Fig. 12.1 and the other end of the other rod (say B) is inserted into a socket. The
end of the rod which goes into a socket is also called spigot. A rectangular hole is made in the
socket and spigot. A cotter is then driven tightly through a hole in order to make the temporary
connection between the two rods. The load is usually acting axially, but it changes its direction
and hence the cotter joint must be designed to carry both the tensile and compressive loads. The
compressive load is taken up by the collar on the spigot. Fig.

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 Fig. Socket and spigot cotter joint.

Design of Socket and Spigot Cotter Joint

The socket and spigot cotter joint is shown in Fig. 12.1.
Let P = Load carried by the rods,
d = Diameter of the rods,
d1 = Outside diameter of socket,
d2 = Diameter of spigot or inside diameter of socket,
d3 = Outside diameter of spigot collar,
t1 = Thickness of spigot collar,
d4 = Diameter of socket collar,
c = Thickness of socket collar,
b = Mean width of cotter,
t = Thickness of cotter,
l = Length of cotter,
a = Distance from the end of the slot to the end of rod,
σt = Permissible tensile stress for the rods material,
τ = Permissible shear stress for the cotter material, and
σc = Permissible crushing stress for the cotter material.
The dimensions for a socket and spigot cotter joint may be obtained by considering the various
modes of failure as discussed below:

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11. The length of cotter (l) in taken as 4 d.
12. The taper in cotter should not exceed 1 in 24. In case the greater taper is required, then a
locking device must be provided.

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Notes: 1. When all the parts of the joint are made of steel, the following proportions in terms of
diameter of the rod (d) are generally adopted :
d1 = 1.75 d , d2 = 1.21 d , d3 = 1.5 d , d4 = 2.4 d , a = c = 0.75 d , b = 1.3 d, l = 4 d , t = 0.31 d ,
t1 = 0.45 d , e = 1.2 d.
Taper of cotter = 1 in 25, and draw of cotter = 2 to 3 mm.

2. If the rod and cotter are made of steel or wrought iron, then τ = 0.8 σt and σc = 2 σt may be taken.

Q-1)Design and draw a cotter joint to support a load varying from 30 kN in compression to 30 kN
in tension. The material used is carbon steel for which the following allowable stresses may be
used. The load is applied statically. Tensile stress = compressive stress = 50 MPa; shear stress =
35 MPa and crushing stress = 90 MPa.
Solution. Given : P = 30 kN = 30 × 103 N ; σt = 50 MPa = 50 N / mm2 ; τ = 35 MPa = 35 N /
mm2 ;
σc = 90 MPa = 90 N/mm2

2. Diameter of spigot and thickness of cotter

Let d2 = Diameter of spigot or inside diameter of socket, and
t = Thickness of cotter. It may be taken as d2 / 4.
Considering the failure of spigot in tension across the weakest section. We know that load (P),

and thickness of cotter, t = d2/4

= 8.5 mm
Let us now check the induced crushing stress. We know that load (P),
30 × 103 = d2 × t × σc = 34 × 8.5 × σc = 289 σc
∴ σc = 30 × 103 / 289 = 103.8 N/mm2
Since this value of σc is more than the given value of σc = 90 N/mm2, therefore the dimensions
d2 = 34 mm and t = 8.5 mm are not safe. Now let us find the values of d2 and t by substituting the
value of σc = 90 N/mm2 in the above expression, i.e.

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 6. Thickness of socket collar
Let c = Thickness of socket collar.
Considering the failure of the socket end in shearing. Since the socket end is in double shear,
therefore load (P),
30 × 103 = 2(d4 – d2) c × τ = 2 (75 – 40 ) c × 35 = 2450 c
∴ c = 30 × 103 / 2450 = 12 mm Ans.
7. Distance from the end of the slot to the end of the rod
Let a = Distance from the end of slot to the end of the rod.
Considering the failure of the rod end in shear. Since the rod end is in double shear, therefore
load (P),

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30 × 103 = 2 a × d2 × τ = 2a × 40 × 35 = 2800 a
∴ a = 30 × 103 / 2800 = 10.7 say 11 mm Ans.
8. Diameter of spigot collar
Let d3 = Diameter of spigot collar.
Considering the failure of spigot collar in crushing. We know that load (P),

9. Thickness of spigot collar

Let t1 = Thickness of spigot collar.
Considering the failure of spigot collar in shearing. We know that load (P),
30 × 103 = π d2 × t1 × τ = π × 40 × t1 × 35 = 4400 t1
∴ t1 = 30 × 103 / 4400 = 6.8 say 8 mm Ans.

10. The length of cotter ( l ) is taken as 4 d.

∴ l = 4 d = 4 × 28 = 112 mm Ans.

11. The dimension e is taken as 1.2 d.

∴ e = 1.2 × 28 = 33.6 say 34 mm Ans.

Solved problems:
Q (1). A mild steel rod of 12 mm diameter was tested for tensile strength with the gauge length
of 60 mm. Following observations were recorded: Final length = 80 mm; Final diameter = 7 mm;
Yield load = 3.4 kN and Ultimate load = 6.1 kN.
Calculate: 1. yield stress, 2. ultimate tensile stress, 3. percentage reduction in area, and 4.
percentage elongation.

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4. Percentage elongation
We know that percentage elongation
= (L-l)/l
= (80-60) / 60 = 0.33 or 33 %
Q (2). A bar 3 m long is made of two bars, one of copper having E = 105 GN/m2 and the other of
steel having E = 210 GN/m2. Each bar is 25 mm broad and 12.5 mm thick. This compound bar is
stretched by a load of 50 kN. Find the increase in length of the compound bar and the stress
produced in the steel and copper. The length of copper as well as of steel bar is 3 m each.

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Q(3). A wrought iron bar 50 mm in diameter and 2.5 m long transmits a shock energy of 100 N-
m. Find the maximum instantaneous stress and the elongation. Take E = 200 GN/m2.

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